training activities for visual-perceptual skills

Transcripción

TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR
VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO
DE HABILIDADES VISO-PERCEPTIVAS
Figure-Ground (Basic Level)
Figura-Fondo (Nivel Básico)
Authors
Rodán-González, Antonio
Vidal-López, Joaquín
Javaloyes-Moreno, Beatriz
Muiños-Durán, Mónica
Rifá-Giribet, Montserrat
García-Montero, María
Gimeno-Galindo, Patricia
Codina-Fossas, Marta
TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR
VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO
DE HABILIDADES VISO-PERCEPTIVAS
Figure-Ground (Basic Level)
Figura-Fondo (Nivel Básico)
Authors
Rodán-González, Antonio
Vidal-López, Joaquín
Javaloyes-Moreno, Beatriz
Muiños-Durán, Mónica
Rifá-Giribet, Montserrat
García-Montero, María
Gimeno-Galindo, Patricia
Codina-Fossas, Marta
TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR VISUAL-PERCEPTUAL SKILLS
Figure-Gound (Basic Level)
ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO DE HABILIDADES VISOPERCEPTIVAS Figura-Fondo (Nivel Básico)
Authors:
Rodán-González,
Antonio;
Vidal-López, Joaquín; Javaloyes-Moreno,
Beatriz; Muiños-Durán, Mónica; RifáGiribet, Montserrat; García-Montero,
María; Gimeno-Galindo, Patricia; CodinaFossas, Marta
Editors: Rodán-González, Antonio; VidalLópez, Joaquín
Copyright © 2009. Saera. Solutions for
Learning and Research, S.L.
(www.saera.es)
ISBN-13: 978-84-692-4351-0
TRAINING ACTIVITIES FOR FIGURE-GROUND SEGREGATION
The term visual perception makes reference to the capacity that brain has to
understand and to interpret that eyes see (Gardner, 1986; Scheiman, 1997). Along
with the basic visual functions and motor skills, visual perceptual skills allow us to carry
out many activities of daily life (Chaikin and Downing-Baum, 1997; Erhardt and
Duckman, 2005; Van Waelvelde, De Weerdt, De Cock and Smits-Engelsman, 2004),
and guide our actions (Goodale and Milner, 2009; Jeannerod, 2006).
In our daily lives we do not perceive a world composed of isolated visual stimuli.
Usually we work in an environment with multiple stimuli, and sometimes, these are
presented in dynamic conditions.
Figure-ground segregation is a visual perceptual ability that enables us to detect,
differentiate and select visual stimuli (figure) within an environment (ground) to be able
to discriminate or distinguish these as separate or isolated. These stimuli can be faces,
figures and objects, landscapes, letters, numbers, etc.
The segregation of the figure with respect to the ground takes place from the
visual discrimination of certain features such as color, brightness, depth, orientation,
texture, movement or time information (Fahle, 1993).
Figure-ground segregation is an important part of visual information processing,
and participates in many academic and daily life activities. In fact, some authors
(Bernspang, Asplung, Ericsson and Fugl-Meyer, 1987) have reported the importance of
some skills in high-level visual processing, such as discrimination or segregation of
figure-ground to enable us to organize our knowledge about the environment.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that the segregation of figure-ground is
important for object recognition, so that this ability occurs before recognition of the
object itself (Peterson and Gibson, 1994). Other authors have postulated that factors
such as memory (Petersen and Wikoff, 1983, Peterson and Gibson, 1994), fixation or
visual attention (Driver, Baylis and Rafal, 1992; Lagreze, Meigen and Bach, 1994;
Peterson and Gibson, 1994; Rock and Mitchener, 1992) have an important role in the
perception of figure-ground.
Some studies have reported the great importance of the primary visual cortex in
the segregation of figure-ground. Supèr and Lamme (2007) reported that after the
removal of extraestriate areas of visual cortex in primates, there is a decrease in the
perception of figure-ground.
Furthermore, it has been reported that during the process of visual perceptual
segregation of figure-ground, there are involved different cortical regions responsible of
visual perceptual processes, such as object recognition or visual spatial orientation, as
well as the extraction and detection of the object from its background (Peterson and
Gibson, 1994; Vecera and O'Reilly, 1998). It has also been seen that the visual spatial
attention acts as an operator in the process of visual perceptual skills, so the lack of
visual spatial attention could negatively affect the discrimination or segregation of
figure-ground (Vecera, Flevaris and Filapek, 2004).
Another factor that could be decisive not only in the figure-ground discrimination,
but in other visual perceptual skills, such as visual memory or visual closure is the
visual tracking (Warren, 1990). This author reported that the presence of deficits in
1
visual tracking could significantly interfere with the performance of these visual
perception skills.
Visual perceptual skills of children are not at the same level as for the adult, but
their perception of the world is also good (Arterberry, 2008). It has been estimated that
the segregation or discrimination of figure-ground develops rapidly between 3 and 5
years of age, and stabilizes between 8 and 10 years (Atkinson and Braddick, 1989;
Williams, 1983).
However, any factor that interferes with the child's exploration of the environment
can impede the learning of visual perceptive process (Tsai, Wilson and Wu, 2008),
adversely affecting the ability to perform activities of daily live, such as games or
recreational activities, school work or other developmental tasks related to their age,
especially in school-age children (AOTA, 1991; Dankert, Davies and Gavin, 2003;
Kovacs, 2000; Loikith, 2005). It has also been seen that performance in reading, writing
and maths can be affected negatively (Cornoldi, Venneri, Marconato, Molin and
Montinari, 2003; Schneck and Lemer, 1993; Solan and Ciner, 1989; Weil and
Amundson, 1994).
In the academic context, child usually works with shapes, numbers, letters, and
especially with words. Subjects who have deficiencies in the visual perceptual ability of
segregation of figure-ground may have problems to locate, identify and select relevant
information or certain details of a visual scene or a context, with the omission,
repetition or replacement of some visual information (numbers, syllables, words,
figures, and even lines or paragraphs) when copy or read a text.
Therefore, deficits in this ability could lead to problems in maintaining attention,
organization and selection of visual information in tasks that contain a specified number
of visual stimuli, not only in academic activities but also of everyday life.
Poor performance in tasks of discrimination of figure-ground has been clinically
assessed in persons with brain vascular lesions (Baylis and Baylis, 1997), especially in
the right hemisphere (Shah, Holmes and Leisman, 2007; Su et al., 2000), in cortical
degeneration (Kartsounis and Warrington, 1991), in children with low birth weight
(Davis, Burns, Wilkerson and Steichen, 2005) in epileptic children with learning
disabilities (Morgan, Groh and Wurst, 1980) in patients with deficits in the development
of the coordination (Hulme, Biggerstaff, Moran and McKinlay, 1982; Hulme, Smart and
Moran, 1982; Lord and Hulme, 1987, 1988; Schoemaker et al. 2001; Tsai et al., 2008)
or in schizophrenic patients (Eimon, Eimon and Cermak, 1983; Loas, 2004; Malaspina
et al., 2004). Schizophrenia has also been associated with other deficits in visual
perception, as the low speed in the visual discrimination (Chen et al., 1999), the
difficulty in segmentation of moving objects and shapes on a background (Allman,
Meizin and McGuiness, 1985; Born, Groh, Zhao and Lukasewycz, 2000; Kim, Doop,
Blake and Park, 2005; Nakayama and Loomis, 1974; Schwartz, Maron, Evans and
Winstead, 1999) and in alteration in the perception of 3D shapes (Buracas and
Albright, 1996; Xiao, Raiguel, Marcar, Koenderink and Orban, 1995).
It has also been seen that patients with visual agnosia or cortical blindness
associated with carbon monoxide poisoning and defects in embryonic development of
the corpus callosum, have difficulty in the discrimination of figure-ground, object
recognition, discrimination of faces and construction tasks (Mendez, 1988).
One study (Koeda, Watanabe, Kimura, Nishi and Takeshita, 1990) conducted with
patients with cerebral palsy (spastic dysplasia) reported that after the assessment of
different visual perceptual abilities using the Developmental Test of Visual Perception
2
(Frostig, Maslow, Lefever and Whittlesey, 1963), the ability of the figure-ground in such
subjects showed the worst results.
Delays in visual maturation, particularly in the development of extraestriate
cortical structures, can also produce problems in the work of segregation of figureground and other visual tasks that are processed by the attentional pathways, as seen
Harris and colleagues (Harris, Kriss, Shawkat, Taylor and Russell-Eggitt, 1996) in
infants between 2 and 4 months old.
Moreover, Tseng and Chow (2000) have observed that children with low
achievement in the writing speed had lowest scores on tasks of segregation of figureground.
Age appears to be another factor in the ability of discrimination of the segregation
of figure-ground, so that older people have worse performance than younger adults in
tasks related with this perceptual ability (Bieliauskas, Newberry and Gerstenberger,
1988; Roper, Fiengo, Holker and Bieliauskas, 2001).
Some authors have shown that some children with amblyopia have difficulty in
performance of discrimination tasks with shapes and texture-defined motion (Wang, Ho
and Giaschi, 2007), attributing these visual perceptual deficits to defects in the
processes of segregation of figure-ground.
Often, occupational therapists and other health professionals assess and treat the
problems of visual perception that occur in school-age children (Kalb and Warshowsky,
1991; Todd, 1993; Wright, Bowen and Zecker, 2000) or in people of other ages, in
order to assess the presence and impact of the visual perceptual dysfunction in these
patients (Brown, 2008).
Ruf-Bächtiger (1989) has suggested the enormous importance of the assessment
of some domains of visual perception such as visual discrimination and figure-ground
discrimination, to better understand children with visual perception and to develop most
effective treatment methods. Davis et al. (2005) also found that the visual perceptual
assessment should be a vital part of the routine evaluation in preschool children born
prematurely, because early identification of visual perceptual deficits could facilitate
treatment, achieving an improvement in skills or visual perceptual domains in these
children at high risk. Furthermore, it has been reported that tests of visual perceptual
discrimination of figure-ground are good indicators of neuronal dysfunction, which can
be used to examine cognitive changes associated with aging in elderly, in patients with
brain vascular lesions and in subjects with neurodegenerative disorders (Roper,
Bieliauskas, Basso and Colman, 1995; Bieliauskas, Roper, Trobe and Lacy, 1998).
In another study, Tsai et al. (2008) have considered that assessment of visual
perceptual skills is very important in children with deficits in development of motor
coordination and it has great significance for the processing and implementation of
strategies for better performance on tasks of daily life.
However, it is convenient that, before assessing some of the visual perceptual
skills, such as visual memory, visual closure and figure-background discrimination,
another basic visual functions such as ocular motility, were assessed, as these
functions are important to conduct tests of this type (Warren, 1990). In a similar way,
Cate and Richards (2000), have also argued that there is a high correlation between
the performance of some basic visual functions (such as visual acuity, visual field,
ocular motility, tracking and visual attention) and some high-level visual perceptual
3
processing abilities (such as figure-ground and visual closure) in patients with brain
injury.
The ability of discrimination of figure-ground can be assessed by some visual
perceptual tests, such as the Closure Flexibility Test (Thurstone and Jeffrey, 1982) or
by other tests that assess different abilities, including the figure-ground, among them:
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Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)
Embedded figures test –EFT– (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin and Karp, 1971)
Hidden Figures Test –HFT– (Ekstrom, French, Harman and Dermen, 1976)
The Hooper Visual Organization Test, Manual –HVOT– (Hooper, 1983)
Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment –LOTCA–
(Itzkovich, Arerback and Belazar, 1990)
Birmingham Object Recognition Battery – BORB– (Riddoch and Humphreys,
1993)
Developmental Test of Visual Perception, Second Edition –DTVP-2–
(Hammill, Pearson, Voress and Frostig, 1993)
Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Third Edition –MVPT-3– (Colarusso and
Hammill, 2003)
Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (non-motor), Third Edition –TVPS-3– (Martin,
2006)
Once one or more of these tests was applied it is possible to determine if this
visual perceptual ability is within the level expected for the chronological age of the
subject. In cases where the results were below the expected values for age, it is
possible to train this skill by means of exercises, like the presented in this activity book.
Tsai et al. (2008) have reported that learning of visual perceptual skills can be
improved through practical experience in the same way a child learns to extract
relevant information from their environment in certain activities.
Although few works have studied the ability to improve the figure-ground
discrimination, Sivak et al. (Sivak, Hill and Olson, 1984) investigated the improvement
of some perceptual abilities in subjects with brain damage using a computer training
program. The skills trained were: right-left discrimination, visual scanning, lines
orientation, discrimination forms, visual memory, visual motor coordination and ocular
pursuits. This training produced improvements in some patients trained.
On the other hand, Yi, Olson and Chun (2006) have suggested that training visual
perceptual segmentation of shapes can increase the activity of sensory neurons
responsible for this ability and the performance of the trained task, but learning does
not was completely transferred to locations or shapes without training. The authors
suggest that improving the segmentation of the figure-ground requires perceptual skills
beyond shape recognition only.
Su et al. (2000) have also reported the importance of this training in patients with
brain vascular accidents, and the importance of visual perception and planning
strategies in order to facilitate the success of certain activities in their daily lives. In a
study realised by Mazer et al. (2003) the performance of driving in patients with brain
vascular lesions of the right hemisphere was improved by using speed training in visual
perceptual processing programs.
This book of exercises is recommended for occupational therapists, optometrists,
educators, learning specialists and other health professionals. It allows to train figure-
4
ground segregation skills in those who need to improve this ability (mainly patients with
learning difficulties or neurological damage, both congenital and acquired), and people
who want to enhance their performance in carrying out these activities, for example,
athletes or students who are preparing an opposition.
This book consists of 200 plates containing different figures. In each of the plates
appears at the upper half page a picture that will serve as a reference stimulus, and
that patient must observe in order to identify what single stimulus is exactly the same
between the possible answers given in the bottom of the page. Both the reference
stimuli (figure) and the contents of each of the possible responses (bottom) increase in
the level of difficulty, so the demand to segregate figure from the bottom increases in
each plate of the book.
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6
ACTIVIDADES DE ENTRENAMIENTO DE LA SEGREGACIÓN FIGURA- FONDO
El término de percepción visual se refiere a la capacidad que tiene el cerebro
para comprender e interpretar lo que los ojos ven (Gardner, 1986; Scheiman, 1997).
Junto con las funciones visuales básicas y y las funciones motoras, las habilidades
viso-perceptivas nos permiten llevar a cabo numerosas actividades de nuestra vida
diaria (Chaikin y Downing-Baum, 1997; Erhardt y Duckman, 2005; Van Waelvelde, De
Weerdt, De Cock y Smits-Engelsman, 2004), así como guiar nuestras acciones
(Goodale y Milner, 2009; Jeannerod, 2006).
En nuestra vida cotidiana no percibimos un mundo formado por estímulos
visuales aislados. Normalmente, nos rodeamos y nos desenvolvemos en un entorno
que presenta múltiples estímulos, y en ocasiones, estos se presentan en condiciones
dinámicas.
La segregación figura-fondo es una habilidad viso-perceptiva que nos permite
detectar, diferenciar y seleccionar estímulos visuales (figura) dentro de un entorno
(fondo) determinado, para así poder discriminar o diferenciar estos de forma
independiente o aislada. Estos estímulos pueden ser rostros, figuras y objetos,
paisajes, letras, números, etc.
La segregación de la figura respecto al fondo se lleva a cabo a partir de la
discriminación visual de determinadas características, tales como el color, la
luminosidad, la profundidad, la orientación, la textura, el movimiento o la información
temporal (Fahle, 1993).
La segregación figura-fondo es una parte importante del procesamiento de la
información visual, y participa en un gran número de actividades académicas y de la
vida cotidiana de las personas. De hecho, algunos autores (Bernspang, Asplung,
Ericsson y Fugl-Meyer, 1987) han informado de la importancia que tienen algunas
habilidades de procesamiento visual de alto nivel, como la discriminación o
segregación de la figura-fondo, para poder organizarnos en el entorno que nos rodea.
Además, se ha sugerido que la segregación de la figura-fondo es importante para
el reconocimiento de objetos, de manera que esta habilidad se produce antes que el
propio reconocimiento del objeto (Peterson y Gibson, 1994). Otros autores, han
postulado que algunos factores como la memoria (Petersen y Wikoff, 1983; Peterson y
Gibson, 1994), la fijación o localización y la atención visual (Driver, Baylis y Rafal,
1992; Lagreze, Meigen y Bach, 1994; Peterson y Gibson, 1994; Rock y Mitchener,
1992) tienen un importante papel en la percepción de la figura-fondo.
Algunos estudios han informado de la gran importancia que tiene la corteza
visual primaria en los procesos de segregación de la figura-fondo. En una
investigación llevada a cabo por Supèr y Lamme (2007) se ha visto que, tras la
extirpación de las áreas extraestriadas del córtex visual en primates, se produce una
disminución en la percepción de la figura-fondo en el hemicampo del cerebro
lesionado.
Además, se ha visto que durante el proceso viso-perceptivo de la segregación de
la figura-fondo, intervienen regiones corticales encargadas en diferentes procesos
viso-perceptivos, como en el reconocimiento del objeto o en la orientación visoespacial, así como en la extracción y detección del objeto de su fondo (Peterson y
Gibson, 1994; Vecera y O´Reilly, 1998). También se ha visto que la atención viso-
7
espacial actúa como un operador en los procesos de esta habilidad viso-perceptiva, de
manera que la falta de atención viso-espacial podría afectar negativamente a la
discriminación o segregación de la figura-fondo (Vecera, Flevaris y Filapek, 2004).
Otro factor que podría ser determinante no solo en la discriminación de la figurafondo, sino en otras habilidades viso-perceptivas, como la memoria visual o el cierre
visual, es el rastreo visual (Warren, 1990). Este autor informó que la presencia de
déficits en el ratreo visual podría interferir significativamente en el rendimiento de estas
habilidades viso-perceptivas.
Las habilidades viso-perceptivas del niño no están en el mismo nivel que las del
adulto, pero su percepción del mundo sigue siendo buena (Arterberry, 2008). Se ha
estimado que la segregación o discriminación de la figura-fondo se desarrolla
rápidamente entre los 3 y 5 años de edad, y se estabiliza entre los 8 y 10 años
(Atkinson y Braddick, 1989; Williams, 1983).
Sin embargo, cualquier factor que interfiera en la exploración del entorno del niño
puede impedir el proceso de aprendizaje viso-perceptivo (Tsai, Wilson y Wu, 2008),
afectando negativamente a la capacidad para llevar a cabo actividades de la vida
diaria, como juegos o actividades recreativas, trabajos escolares u otras tareas de
desarrollo relacionadas con su edad, especialmente en niños en edad escolar (AOTA,
1991; Dankert, Davies y Gavin, 2003; Kovacs, 2000; Loikith, 2005). Además, se ha
visto que en el ámbito escolar el rendimiento de la lectura, la escritura y las
matemáticas puede verse afectado negativamente (Cornoldi, Venneri, Marconato,
Molin y Montinari, 2003; Schneck y Lemer, 1993; Solan y Ciner, 1989; Weil y
Amundson, 1994).
En el contexto académico, habitualmente se trabaja con figuras, números, letras,
y sobretodo con palabras. Los sujetos que tienen deficiencias en la habilidad visoperceptiva de la segregación de la figura-fondo pueden tener problemas asociados
para ubicar, localizar y seleccionar la información revelante o determinados detalles de
una escena visual o de un contexto, produciéndose la omisión, repetición o sustitución
de cierta información visual (números, sílabas, palabras, figuras, e incluso renglones o
párrafos) al copiar o leer un texto escrito.
Por tanto, los déficits en esta habilidad podrían dar lugar a problemas para
mantener la atención, la organización y la selección de información visual en tareas
específicas que contienen un número determinado de estímulos visuales, no solo en
actividades académicas, sino también de la vida cotidiana.
El bajo rendimiento en las tareas de discriminación de la figura-fondo ha sido
valorado clínicamente en personas con lesiones cerebro-vasculares (Baylis y Baylis,
1997), especialmente en el hemisferio derecho (Shah, Holmes y Leisman, 2007; Su y
cols., 2000), en degeneraciones corticales (Kartsounis y Warrington, 1991), en niños
con bajo peso al nacer (Davis, Burns, Wilkerson y Steichen, 2005), en niños
epilépticos con dificultades de aprendizaje (Morgan, Groh y Wurst, 1980), en pacientes
con déficits en el desarrollo de la coordinación –DCD– (Hulme, Biggerstaff, Moran y
McKinlay, 1982; Hulme, Smart y Moran, 1982; Lord y Hulme, 1987,1988; Schoemaker
y cols., 2001; Tsai y cols., 2008) o en pacientes esquizofrénicos (Eimon, Eimon y
Cermak, 1983; Loas, 2004; Malaspina y cols., 2004). La esquizofrenia también ha sido
asociada a otros déficits en la percepción visual, como la baja velocidad en la
discriminación visual (Chen y cols., 1999), la dificultad en la segmentación de objetos y
formas en movimiento sobre un fondo (Allman, Meizin y McGuiness, 1985; Born, Groh,
Zhao y Lukasewycz, 2000; Kim, Doop, Blake y Park, 2005; Nakayama y Loomis, 1974;
8
Schwartz, Maron, Evans y Winstead, 1999) y la alteración en la percepción de formas
en 3D (Buracas y Albright, 1996; Xiao, Raiguel, Marcar, Koenderink y Orban, 1995).
También se ha visto que pacientes con agnosia visual o ceguera cortical
asociada a la intoxicación de monóxido de carbono y defectos en el desarrollo
embrionario del cuerpo calloso, presentan dificultad en la discriminación de la figurafondo, el reconocimiento de objetos, la discriminación de caras y las tareas de
construcción (Mendez, 1988).
En un estudio (Koeda, Watanabe, Kimura, Nishi y Takeshita, 1990) llevado a
cabo con pacientes con parálisis cerebral (displejia espástica), se vio que tras la
evaluación de diferentes habilidades viso-perceptivas con el Developmental Test of
Visual Perception –DTVP– (Frostig, Maslow, Lefever y Whittlesey, 1963), la habilidad
de la figura-fondo en este tipo de sujetos era la que mostraba peores resultados.
El retraso en la maduración visual, concretamente en el desarrollo de estructuras
corticales extraestriadas, también puede suponer problemas en las tareas de
segregación de la figura-fondo y en otras tareas visuales que son procesadas por las
vías atencionales, tal y como han visto Harris y colaboradores (Harris, Kriss, Shawkat,
Taylor y Russell-Eggitt, 1996) en bebés de 2 a 4 meses de edad.
Por otro lado, Tseng y Chow (2000) han observado que los niños con bajo
rendimiento en la velocidad de escritura tienen resultados más bajos en tareas de
segregación de la figura-fondo.
La edad parece ser otro factor determinante en la habilidad de discriminación de
la segregación de la figura-fondo, de manera que las personas mayores presentan
peores resultados que los jóvenes adultos en tareas de ésta habilidad viso-perceptiva
(Bieliauskas, Newberry y Gerstenberger, 1988; Roper, Fiengo, Holker y Bieliauskas,
2001).
Algunos autores han revelado que algunos niños con ambliopía tienen
dificultades en el rendimiento de tareas de discriminación de formas con textura y
movimiento definido (Wang, Ho y Giaschi, 2007), atribuyendo estos déficits visoperceptivos a defectos en los procesos de segregación de la figura-fondo.
Con frecuencia, los terapeutas ocupacionales y otros profesionales de la salud
evalúan y tratan los problemas de percepción visual que se producen en niños en
edad escolar (Kalb y Warshowsky, 1991; Todd, 1993; Wright, Bowen y Zecker, 2000) o
en personas de otras edades, con el fin de valorar la presencia y el impacto de las
disfunciones viso-perceptivas en este tipo de pacientes (Brown, 2008).
Ruf-Bächtiger (1989) ha sugerido la enorme importancia que tiene la evaluación
de algunos dominios de la percepción visual, como la discriminación visual y la
discriminación de figura-fondo, para entender mejor a los niños con trastornos de
percepción visual y poder desarrollar de manera más eficaz los métodos de
tratamiento. Davis y cols. (2005), también han considerado que el examen visoperceptivo debe ser una parte imprescindible de la evaluación rutinaria en niños de
edad preescolar nacidos prematuramente, ya que la identificación temprana de los
déficits viso-perceptivos podrían facilitar su tratamiento, logrando una mejora en las
habilidades o dominios viso-perceptivos en estos niños con alto riesgo. Además, se ha
informado de que las pruebas viso-perceptivas de la discriminación de la figura-fondo
son buenos indicadores de algunas disfunciones neuronales, por lo que pueden ser
usados para examinar cambios cognitivos relacionados con la edad en personas
mayores, en pacientes con lesiones cerebro-vasculares y en sujetos con desórdenes
9
neuro-degenerativos (Roper, Bieliauskas, Basso y Colman, 1995; Bieliauskas, Roper,
Trobe y Lacy, 1998).
En otro estudio, Tsai y cols. (2008) han considerado que la valoración del
rendimiento viso-perceptivo en niños con déficits en el desarrollo de la coordinación
motora –DCD–, tiene una gran importancia de cara al tratamiento y a la aplicación de
estrategias para un mejor rendimiento en las tareas de su vida diaria.
No obstante, es conveniente que antes de evaluar algunas de las habilidades
viso-perceptivas, como la memoria visual, el cierre visual y la discriminación de la
figura-fondo, sean valoradas algunas de las funciones visuales básicas, como la
oculomotricidad, ya que estas funciones son importantes para llevar a cabo las
pruebas de este tipo de habilidades perceptivas, tal y como ha sugerido Warren
(1990). De forma similar, Cate y Richards (2000), también han afirmado que existe una
correlación elevada entre el rendimiento de algunas funciones visuales básicas (como
la agudeza visual, el campo visual, la oculomotricidad, el rastreo y la atención visual) y
en algunas habilidades de procesamiento viso-perceptivo de alto nivel (como la figurafondo y el cierre visual en personas con lesión cerebro-vascular), además,
recomiendan la evaluación previa de las funciones visuales básicas.
La habilidad de discriminación de la figura-fondo se puede evaluar mediante
algunas pruebas viso-perceptivas específicas, como el Closure Flexibility Test,
Concealed Figures (Thurstone y Jeffrey, 1982), o mediante otras pruebas que valoran
distintas habilidades, entre ellas la figura-fondo, entre ellas destacan:
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•
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Southern California Sensory Integration Tests (Ayers, 1966)
Embedded figures test –EFT– (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin y Karp, 1971)
Hidden Figures Test –HFT– (Ekstrom, French, Harman y Dermen, 1976)
The Hooper Visual Organization Test, Manual –HVOT– (Hooper, 1983)
Lowenstein Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment –LOTCA–
(Itzkovich, Arerback y Belazar, 1990)
Birmingham Object Recognition Battery – BORB– (Riddoch y Humphreys,
1993)
Developmental Test of Visual Perception, Second Edition –DTVP-2–
(Hammill, Pearson, Voress y Frostig, 1993)
Motor-Free Visual Perception Test, Third Edition –MVPT-3– (Colarusso y
Hammill, 2003)
Test of Visual-Perceptual Skills (non-motor), Third Edition –TVPS-3– (Martin,
2006)
Una vez que se haya administrado una o varias de estas pruebas, se puede
determinar si esta habilidad viso-perceptiva se corresponde o no con el nivel de
rendimiento esperado para la edad cronológica del sujeto. En aquellos casos en los
que los resultados obtenidos estuvieran por debajo de los valores esperados para su
edad, es posible entrenar esta habilidad viso-perceptiva mediante ejercicios como los
que aparecen en el presente cuaderno de actividades.
Tsai y cols. (2008) han informado de que el aprendizaje de las habilidades visoperceptivas pueden mejorarse mediante la experiencia práctica, de la misma manera
que un niño aprende a extraer la información relevante de su entorno en determinadas
actividades cotidianas.
Aunque no son muchos los estudios que han evaluado la mejora de la habilidad
de discriminación de la figura-fondo, Sivak y colaboradores (Sivak, Hill y Olson, 1984)
10
investigaron la mejora de algunas habilidades perceptivas en sujetos con daño
cerebral, a partir de un programa de entrenamiento computerizado. Las habilidades
entrenadas fueron la discriminación derecha-izquierda, el rastreo visual, la orientación
de líneas, la discriminación de formas, la memoria visual, la coordinación viso-motora y
los seguimientos oculares, viéndose ciertas mejoras en algunos de los pacientes
entrenados.
Por otro lado, Yi, Olson y Chun (2006) han sugerido que el entrenamiento visoperceptivo de la segmentación de formas puede incrementar la actividad de neuronas
sensoriales responsables en esta habilidad, así como el rendimiento de la tarea
entrenada, aunque el aprendizaje no fue transferido completamente para
localizaciones o formas sin entrenar. Los autores sugieren que la mejora de la
segmentación de la figura-fondo requiere otras habilidades perceptivas más allá del
único reconocimiento de formas.
Su y cols. (2000), también han informado sobre la importancia que tiene en
pacientes con accidentes cerebro-vasculares, el entrenamiento temprano de este
déficit viso-perceptivo y la planificación de estrategias específicas que faciliten el éxito
de determinadas actividades de su vida cotidiana. En un estudio llevado a cabo por
Mazer y cols. (2003), se ha visto la mejora del rendimiento de la conducción en
pacientes con lesiones cerebro-vasculares del hemisferio derecho, utilizando
programas de entrenamiento de velocidad de procesamiento viso-perceptivo, así como
de atención visual dividida y selectiva.
El libro de ejercicios que presentamos a continuación está recomendado para ser
utilizado por terapeutas ocupacionales, optometristas, educadores, especialistas del
aprendizaje y otros profesionales de la salud. Permite entrenar la habilidad de la
segregación figura-fondo en aquellas personas que necesiten mejorar esta habilidad
(principalmente pacientes con dificultades de aprendizaje o con daños neurológicos,
tanto congénitos, como adquiridos), y en personas que quieran aumentar su
rendimiento al realizar estas actividades, por ejemplo, deportistas o estudiantes que se
estén preparando una oposición.
Este cuaderno está compuesto por 200 láminas que contienen distintas figuras.
En cada una de las láminas aparece una figura en la parte superior que servirá de
estímulo de referencia, y que la persona debe observar para poder identificar un único
estímulo exactamente igual dentro de las posibles respuestas dadas en la parte
inferior de la lámina. Tanto los estímulos de referencia (figura), como los contenidos de
cada una de las posibles respuestas (fondo) aumentan en el nivel de dificultad, de
manera que la demanda para segregar la figura del fondo se incrementa conforme se
supera cada lámina del cuaderno.
11
12
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18
ADMINISTRATION
NORMAS DE APLICACIÓN
In the following pages, in the upper half of each plate a figure is presented. You
must to find the IDENTICAL figure (in shape, size and orientation) among the
responses that are displayed on the bottom half. Please, do the same in other
plates. There is only one correct answer in each plate.
A continuación, aparece en la parte superior de la lámina una figura. Trate de buscar
otra TOTALMENTE IDÉNTICA (en forma, tamaño y orientación) entre las diferentes
respuestas que se muestran en la parte inferior. Haga lo mismo en el resto de láminas.
Solamente existe una única respuesta correcta para cada lámina.
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1
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3
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1
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1
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FF - 58
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FF - 59
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FF - 60
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C C C C C C
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FF - 93
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2
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3
FF - 112
a
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3
FF - 113
1
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FF - 114
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1
2
3
FF - 116
1
2
3
FF - 117
1
2
3
FF - 118
1
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FF - 119
1
2
3
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1
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3
4
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FF - 122
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1
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2
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3
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4
FF - 123
1
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1
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1
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FF - 129
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FF - 130
1
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FF - 131
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FF - 135
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FF - 139
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FF - 140
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FF - 141
1
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FF - 142
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1
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FF - 143
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FF - 144
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1
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FF - 145
1
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FF - 146
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1
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1
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FF - 149
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1
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1
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3
FF - 175
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FF - 180
1
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1
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1
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1
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FF - 185
1
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FF - 186
1
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FF - 187
1
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FF - 188
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FF - 189
1
2
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1
2
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1
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1
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1
2
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FF - 194
1
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FF - 195
1
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1
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1
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FF - 200
1
2
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4
TABLE OF ANSWERS – PLANTILLA DE RESPUESTAS
The correct answers are shown below. If the correct answer is the first figure of the plate, the number 1 is shown; if the
correct answer is the second figure, a number 2 will be shown, and so on.
A continuación se muestra la plantilla de corrección, que contiene el número de cada una de las láminas y la respuesta correcta
para cada una de ellas. Si la respuesta correcta es la primera figura de la lámina el número mostrado es un 1; si la respuesta
correcta corresponde con la segunda figura aparece un 2, y así sucesivamente.
ITEM
#
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
CORRECT
ANSWER
3
2
3
1
3
3
3
3
1
2
2
4
2
4
2
1
1
3
2
4
3
2
3
3
1
ITEM
#
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
CORRECT
ANSWER
4
1
1
4
2
1
2
3
2
2
1
2
3
3
2
3
1
3
3
4
4
2
3
3
2
ITEM
#
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
CORRECT
ANSWER
1
3
3
3
1
1
3
1
3
3
1
2
3
3
3
4
2
3
2
1
3
1
3
3
2
ITEM
#
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
CORRECT
ANSWER
2
3
3
2
4
4
2
3
4
2
2
4
4
2
2
1
2
2
3
1
3
2
3
3
4
TABLE OF ANSWERS – PLANTILLA DE RESPUESTAS
(CONTINUATION – CONTINUACIÓN)
ITEM
#
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
CORRECT
ANSWER
2
4
3
4
3
4
2
2
4
3
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
1
4
4
3
ITEM
#
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
CORRECT
ANSWER
2
4
3
3
1
1
4
2
3
3
2
1
3
3
3
3
2
2
3
4
3
4
2
4
2
ITEM
#
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
CORRECT
ANSWER
3
2
4
1
3
3
4
4
1
1
2
2
4
3
4
4
3
4
4
3
1
2
2
3
3
ITEM
#
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
CORRECT
ANSWER
1
3
1
3
3
4
1
1
3
3
3
2
2
1
1
4
1
4
2
2
3
4
2
3
4

training activities for visual-perceptual skills

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