Resource - rta15530

Transcripción

Resource - rta15530

Helping Children Learn
Intervention Handouts
for Use in School and at Home
Second Edition
by
Jack A. Naglieri, Ph.D.
George Mason University
Fairfax, Virginia
Devereux Center for Resilient Children
Villanova, Pennsylvania
and
Eric B. Pickering, Ph.D.
Grandview Heights City Schools
Grandview, Ohio
Crossroads Counseling
Columbus, Ohio
with Spanish handouts by
Tulio M. Otero, Ph.D.
The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
and
Mary A. Moreno, Ph.D.
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus
Baltimore • London • Sydney
Copyright © 2010 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.
All rights reserved.
About This CD-ROM
This CD-ROM contains all of the handouts that are included in Helping Children Learn:
Intervention Handouts for Use in School and at Home, Second Edition. Education professionals can give the handouts to educators and parents to help children learn, and some
of the handouts are intended to be given directly to the students. The methods can be applied on the basis of the academic area of need (e.g., difficulties with reading, spelling, or
math calculation), or they can be used in conjunction with information provided by the
school psychologist or a similar professional about the child’s intellectual strengths and
weaknesses.
The interventions presented in Helping Children Learn: Intervention Handouts for
Use in School and at Home, Second Edition, were identified from a variety of sources and
are included if there was some empirical support for the method. In addition, these interventions were selected because they are consistent with our understanding of the ways in which
children think and learn. Understanding how a child thinks, or processes information, can
help determine which particular handouts to use to improve learning, especially if the child
has a specific academic difficulty.
Some handouts are information sheets, some discuss skill building, and others describe
specific ways of teaching that involve specific cognitive processes. The handouts can be applied in at least two ways, which are illustrated in Figure 1.1 in the accompanying book.
The instructional handouts presented in this book provide practical methods that can
be used by teachers, parents, and the students themselves to maximize the chance of academic success. Many of the handouts are translated into Spanish so that they may be used
with Spanish-speaking students and families. The Index of Handouts found in the beginning
of the accompanying book and on this CD-ROM outlines the different topics of the handouts
and designates whether a Spanish version is available. Intervention handouts may be photocopied and enlarged from the accompanying book or printed directly from this CD-ROM. Refer
to the photocopying information on page iv of the book and the End User License Agreement
for details.
This CD-ROM also includes a printable copy of the PASS Rating Scale (PRS), which is
described in Chapter 2 of the book. In addition, as addressed on certain related handouts,
the CD-ROM contains a PASS poster illustrating the four PASS elements. The poster is available in two formats (both found in the PASS poster folder on this CD-ROM): 1) one complete
22⬙ ⫻ 17⬙ poster and 2) four separate files that users can print on 81Ⲑ2⬙ ⫻ 11⬙ paper and
assemble. Refer to the End User License Agreement for details.
Contents of the CD-ROM
About This CD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Index of Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4–6
Handouts
PASS Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7–30
General Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–62
Reading Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63–93
Spelling Handouts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94–103
Writing Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104–119
Math Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120–139
Test-Taking Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140–143
Memory Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144–148
Spanish Handouts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149–210
PASS Rating Scale (PRS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
End User License Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213–214
Note: See the PASS poster folder on this CD-ROM for the P ASS poster files. See “About This CD-ROM”
for more information about the poster files.
Index of Handouts
PASS
Planning
Planning Explained (pp. 7–8)
•
Teaching Students About Planning (pp. 9–10)
•
How to Be Smart: Planning (pp. 23–24)
•
Attention
Successive
•
Teaching Students About Attention (pp. 13–14)
•
How to Be Smart: Attention (pp. 25–26)
•
• (pp. 151–152)
Simultaneous Processing Explained (pp. 15–16)
•
Teaching Students About Simultaneous Processing
(pp. 17–18)
•
How to Be Smart: Simultaneous (pp. 27–28)
•
• (pp. 153–154)
Successive Processing Explained (pp. 19–20)
•
Teaching Students About Successive Processing (pp. 21–22)
•
How to Be Smart: Successive (pp. 29–30)
•
•
Plans for Remembering (pp. 33–34)
Self-Monitoring for Planning and
Attention Problems (pp. 35–36)
•
•
•
•
Stop and Think! Teaching Self-Control (pp. 39–40)
•
Teaching Self-Awareness (pp. 41–42)
•
Promoting Good Listening (pp. 43–44)
• (pp. 159–160)
•
•
Improving Attention (pp. 49–50)
• (pp. 161–162)
•
Strategies for Improving Organization (pp. 47–48)
•
Making a Plan for Organizing (pp. 51–52)
•
Nurturing Strengths: Planning (pp. 53–54)
•
Nurturing Strengths: Attention (pp. 55–56)
•
• (pp. 163–164)
• (pp. 165–166)
•
Nurturing Strengths: Simultaneous Processing (pp. 57–58)
•
Nurturing Strengths: Successive Processing (pp. 59–60)
Using Plans to Overcome Anxiety (pp. 61–62)
• (pp. 155–156)
• (pp. 157–158)
Graphic Organizers for Connecting and Remembering
Information (pp. 37–38)
Teaching Good Thinking Skills (pp. 45–46)
In Spanish
• (pp. 149–150)
Attention Explained (pp. 11–12)
Overcoming Problems with Inattention (pp. 31–32)
General
Simultaneous
•
•
Index of Handouts (continued )
Planning
Attention
Summarization Strategy for Reading Comprehension
(pp. 63–64)
Plans for Reading Comprehension (pp. 67–68)
Simultaneous
•
• (pp. 171–172)
•
Using Context for Reading Comprehension (pp. 92–93)
•
• (pp. 169–170)
•
Reading
Word Families for Reading/Decoding (pp. 70–71)
•
Reading/Decoding Rules (pp. 74–75)
•
• (pp. 175–176)
Segmenting Words for Reading/Decoding and Spelling
(p. 76)
•
• (pp. 177–178)
Letter–Sound Awareness (pp. 77–78)
•
Plans for Word Syllables (pp. 79–80)
•
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Planning
(pp. 81–83)
• (pp. 179–180)
•
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Attention
(pp. 84–85)
•
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing
Simultaneous Processing (pp. 86–88)
•
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing
Successive Processing (pp. 89–91)
•
Word Sorts for Improving Spelling (pp. 94–95)
Spelling
• (pp. 173–174)
•
Chunking for Reading/Decoding (p. 69)
•
Chunking for Spelling (p. 96)
•
• (p. 181)
Letter Ordering for Spelling (pp. 97–98)
•
• (pp. 182–183)
Mnemonics for Spelling (pp. 99–100)
•
Strategies for Spelling (pp. 101–103)
•
Story Plans for Written Composition (pp. 104–105)
•
• (pp. 184–185)
Plans for Writing (pp. 106–107)
•
• (pp. 186–187)
•
Story Grammar for Writing (p. 108)
Writing
In Spanish
• (pp. 167–168)
•
Story Grammar for Reading Comprehension (pp. 72–73)
Plans for Understanding Text (pp. 65–66)
Successive
•
• (p. 188)
Planning by Writing Sentence Openers (pp. 110–111)
•
• (pp. 190–191)
Planning to Write (p. 112)
•
• (p. 192)
Goal Setting for Good Writing (pp. 113–114)
•
Self-Monitoring for Writing (pp. 115–116)
•
STOP and LIST for Written Expression (pp. 117–119)
•
Teaching Vocabulary Using Visual Cues (p. 109)
•
• (p. 189)
Index of Handouts (continued )
Math
Planning
Planning Facilitation for Math Calculation (pp. 120–121)
•
Part–Whole Strategy for Math Calculation (pp. 130–131)
•
Attention
Simultaneous
•
TouchMath for Calculation (pp. 128–129)
•
Number Squares for Math Concepts (pp. 122–123)
•
Plans for Basic Math Facts (pp. 124–125)
• (pp. 196–197)
•
•
Chunking Strategy for Multiplication (pp. 134–135)
• (pp. 198–199)
•
Crossed Lines Multiplication Strategy (pp. 136–137)
Test Taking
In Spanish
• (pp. 193–195)
Cuisenaire Rods and Math (pp. 126–127)
•
• (pp. 203–204)
• (pp. 205–206)
Seven-Step Strategy for Math Word Problems
(pp. 132–133)
•
•
•
•
More Strategies for Math Word Problems (pp. 138–139)
•
•
•
•
General Strategies for Test Taking (pp. 140–141)
•
• (pp. 207–208)
Strategies for Multiple Choice, Matching, and True–False
Tests (p. 142)
•
• (p. 209)
Strategies for Written Tests (p. 143)
•
• (p. 210)
Using Mental Imagery to Improve Spelling (p. 144)
Memory
Successive
•
Facilitating Long-Term Memory (pp. 145–146)
•
Focusing Strategies to Improve Memory (pp. 147–148)
•
• (pp. 200–202)
Planning Explained
Planning is a mental process by which the individual determines, selects, applies, and evaluates
solutions to problems. This includes 1) selecting relevant information in the task, 2) selecting relevant prior knowledge, 3) using a strategy to approach a task, 4) monitoring progress, and 5) developing new strategies when necessary.
Example of Planning in the Classroom
Figure 1 shows a classroom activity that involves Planning. A common task for children is learning
to spell words correctly. Teachers often give students spelling tests on specific lists of words.
There are many ways for a child to memorize a spelling list. In this example, the child is encouraged to use a plan or method to learn to spell a list of words. Writing the list in alphabetical order,
making flash cards, writing the words in sentences, writing the list every day, and simply reading
over the list are a few ways children may learn words. Some of these plans are better for some
children than other plans. Selecting one of these methods, applying it, seeing if it works, and
changing it if it does not is good planning. A child who
plans how to do a task and monitors how well the strategy works is likely to be more successful than a child
who does a task without a plan.
Planning describes several kinds of things:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Figure 1. An example of a classroom activity that requires
Planning processing.
Making decisions about how to do things
Evaluating the environment to determine how a problem or task could be solved
Developing, selecting, evaluating, and using plans or
strategies to solve problems
Modifying plans or strategies to be more efficient
Determining when the task has been completed
appropriately
Controlling behavior, impulses, and mental activity
Defining a problem (the need for a plan) and selecting
and applying a plan to solve a problem (completing a
task)
There are several classroom problems related to Planning.
•
•
•
•
Disorganized completion of assignments
Failure to switch strategies according to the demands of schoolwork
Failure to correct misinterpretation of what is read
Inconsistent application of spelling or math rules when solving problems
page 1 of 2
Helping Children Learn: Intervention Handouts for Use in School and at Home, Second Edition, by Jack A. Naglieri & Eric B. Pickering
Copyright © 2010 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved.
Planning Explained (continued)
• Failure to devise or use aids when completing work
• Lack of preparedness with materials needed to do schoolwork
• Uncertainty about how or where to start schoolwork
How to Teach Students Better Planning Skills
1. Teach children about plans and strategy use.
2. Discuss the importance of Planning in class and how it helps students organize themselves so that they can be more successful and finish on time.
3. Encourage children to develop, use, and evaluate their own strategies.
4. Encourage verbalization of ideas and strategies.
5. Explain why some methods work better than others.
6. Ask questions related to Planning, such as
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
“How did you do the task?”
“Did you make a plan before you started the task?”
“What did you do last time? Did it work?”
“Why did you do it that way?”
“These are hard. Is there a way to make them easier?”
“Is there a better way or another way to do this?”
“What strategy worked for you?”
“Do you think you will do anything differently next time?”
“How can you check your work to see if it is right?”
How Is Planning Measured?
Planning can be measured using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). The CAS gives an
overall score and separate PASS scores for the four cognitive scales, including Planning. The
average score is 100. Scores below 90 are considered below average.
Resources
Kirby, J.R., & Williams, N.H. (1991). Learning problems: A cognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Essentials of CAS assessment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Naglieri, J.A., & Das, J.P. (1997). Cognitive Assessment System. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
page 2 of 2
Teaching Students About Planning
How Learning Depends on Planning Ability
The purpose of education is certainly to provide students with knowledge and skills, but researchers have found that children also need to learn how to learn. To achieve that goal, we must
teach students to evaluate, apply solutions, self-monitor, and self-correct—in short, to plan their
work and use plans to solve all types of problems. When we teach our students to become
strategic, self-reliant, reflective, and flexible learners, we are teaching use of a method called Cognitive Strategy Instruction (Scheid, 1993), and this is an effective method.
When reading, and especially when obtaining meaning from text, the student must plan an approach to examining the information that is provided. This involves applying strategies to separate
the important from the less important part of the text, concentrate on the details, self-monitor, and
self-correct as needed. Students who are good at writing organize their goals before beginning
and reflect and revise during and following production of the text. When doing math, students
who are successful evaluate the problem, choose which method to use to solve it, evaluate the
success of that method, change methods if necessary, and check the final answer carefully. This
is also sometimes referred to as metacognition, problem solving, strategic behavior, or a selfreliant learning style. When we use cognitive strategy instruction, we are teaching students to
think about what they are doing so that they can be more successful.
Importantly, these descriptions of how to learn, and the cognitive strategy instruction approach in
general, are descriptions of the behaviors associated with the cognitive processing ability called
Planning in this book (see the Planning Explained handout, p. 55). In order to help students be
more successful, we must teach them to be more planful.
How to Teach Planning
Figure 1.
A drawing that helps students remember to use a plan.
The first step in teaching children to become strategic, self-reliant, reflective, and
flexible learners is to tell them what a
plan is and give them an easy way to remember to use a plan. In Figure 1 (which
also appears in the PASS poster on
the CD), we provide a fast and simple
message: “Think smart and use a plan!”
We should provide cognitive strategies
in specific academic areas, such as decoding, reading comprehension, vocabulary, spelling, writing, math problem solving, science, and so forth, so that we
page 1 of 2
Teaching Students About Planning (continued)
teach children to approach all of their work with a plan (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995). The parent
or teacher should facilitate the use of strategies so that the student learns self-regulated strategy
development and use.
Parents and teachers should only provide as much help to the child as needed and avoid teaching the child to rely on the adult for the solution. Because our goal is self-reliance, we have to
carefully guide and encourage the child so that he or she can figure out how to solve problems
without always depending on the teacher for the answers. Throughout the day, the teacher
should
1. Teach children that a plan is a way to do something.
2. Encourage children by asking, “What is your plan?” or “Did you use a plan?”
3. Remind students to think of a strategy. If needed, provide one and explain when and
where to use it.
4. Teach a limited number of strategies and encourage students to develop their own.
5. Teach strategy use in all areas of the curriculum.
6. Teach children that using a plan is also important in social situations, especially in
sports, on the playground, and when playing many kinds of games.
7. Remind students that using a plan requires thoughtful examination of the problem, not
rapid task completion.
8. Teach students to examine each problem carefully and always use a plan.
Resources
Pressley, M.P., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance (2nd ed.). Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
Scheid, K. (1993). Helping students become strategic learners. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
page 2 of 2
Attention Explained
Attention is a mental process by which the person focuses his or her thinking on a particular stimulus and ignores others. Attention allows a child to selectively focus on things heard or seen and
resist being distracted by irrelevant sights and sounds. Focused attention is direct concentration
on something. Selective attention involves the resistance to distraction, and sustained attention is
continued focus over time. These dimensions work together to allow a child to attend.
Example of Attention in the Classroom
Children often take multiple choice tests, which include problems with a list of possible answers.
In the worksheet shown in Figure 1, a child must focus on the specific question or problem and
examine the options carefully. The child must
focus on the correct answer while at the same
Math Worksheet for Tens and Ones
time ignoring the other answers that are wrong
but may be quite close to the correct answer.
Name: Date:
One math problem asks, “What is the number for
Circle the correct answers.
5 tens and 2 ones?” and lists 50, 25, 52, 502,
and 55 as possible answers. This problem con1. What is the number for 5 tens and 2 ones?
tains several distracting options. The 5 can be in
50 25
52
502
55
any location, but is that location the tens place?
2. Which number has a 2 in the tens place and a 7 in the ones
This creates a situation with targets (the tens
place?
place) and distracters (the ones or hundreds
27
270
72
22
702
place). The situation demands selective attention
and resistance to distraction because the child
place?
has to decide to respond or not based upon ex504
54
55
45
50
amination of the stimuli. Similarly, Attention is
needed in the classroom when a student must
place?
selectively focus on the teacher in the front of the
66
690
96
69
996
room while ignoring the noises in the hall, the students playing outside, and the student next to
Figure 1. An example of an activity that requires Attention processing.
him or her.
Attention describes a number of activities.
•
•
•
•
•
Focusing on one stimulus at a time
Resisting distractions
Sustaining effort over time
Paying selective attention to one thing to the exclusion of others
Maintaining focus over time
page 1 of 2
Attention Explained (continued)
Here are some classroom problems related to Attention:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Limited ability to work for more than a few minutes on one thing
Failure to focus on relevant aspects of assignments
Difficulty in resisting distractions in the classroom
Incomplete work because the child did not sustain the effort
Tendency to answer questions based on incomplete information
Tendency to answer the wrong question
Failure to start a task because the instructions were missed
Strategies for Developing Attention
• Model and teach strategies that improve Attention and concentration.
• Teach the use of verbal self-commands (e.g., “Okay, calm down and think about the
question.”).
• Teach focusing strategies (e.g., checking for critical features and careful listening).
• Teach the child to use only required materials.
• Teach strategies that increase inhibition and organization.
• Encourage the use of date books and special notebooks for organizing papers.
• Teach the child to stop and think before responding.
• Teach the child to count to 10 before answering.
• Teach strategies to increase alertness.
• Teach the child to be aware of his or her level of alertness.
• Teach the child to use calming self-statements.
• Encourage planned breaks so that the child does not have to sustain his or her effort
for too long.
How Is Attention Measured?
Attention can be measured using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). The CAS gives an
overall score and separate PASS scores for the four cognitive scales, including Attention. The
average score is 100. Scores below 90 are considered below average.
Resources
Kirby, J.R. & Williams, N.H. (1991). Learning problems: A cognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance (2nd ed.). Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
page 2 of 2
Teaching Students About Attention
How Learning Depends on the Ability to Attend
No one can acquire knowledge and skills without the ability to attend. What that means is that we
have to be able to focus our thoughts on one particular thing and resist all the other things that are
distracting us. This ability is called Attention, and it is related to a particular kind of cognitive processing. Students must be taught to recognize that their ability to attend has two important parts:
focus and resisting distractions. Attention can be disrupted by hearing loud noises or seeing something that draws our attention from what we are trying to think about. Teaching students to recognize when their ability to attend is good or bad is especially important for maximizing performance
in and out of the classroom. When we teach children to be aware of their ability to attend, we are
using a cognitive approach to instruction (Scheid, 1993), and this is an effective way to teach.
Everything we do requires the ability to focus on some things and ignore others. We simply cannot
attend to all of the information that our brain is receiving. In order to be conscious and functional beings, we must limit the number of things we attend to. To do so, we must resist attending to some
things and stay focused on what needs our attention. In school there is much to attend to and many
things that distract us from attending. Students hear others talking, a noise in the hallway, or the
beep of a computer; they see a flash of light from the window; and so forth. Academic work involves
much focus of attention. Students must attend to the instructions teachers give to the class while
looking at the materials on their desks and at the same time avoiding distractions in the class.
Sometimes the materials themselves are distracting. Multiple choice tests require considerable
ability to attend. For example, a typical math test might have a word problem with an answer of
12.5 with multiple choice options of a) 125, b) 15.2, c) 1.25, d) 2.5 and e) 12.5. The student who
does not carefully attend to each of the options may be likely to choose option a) 125 because it
contains all the correct numbers in the correct order; however, the decimal is missing! Careful attention is needed to solve this problem correctly. Teachers should keep in mind that multiple
choice tests can require both knowledge of the academic content and the ability to focus attention and resist distractions.
It is important to recognize that when a child is having problems with Planning ability, the control
of Attention will sometimes be poor. This is the case with children who have attention-deficit/
hyperactivity disorder. Those students have a failure of control (see Goldstein & Naglieri, 2007;
Naglieri, Goldstein, & Conway, 2009) often related to poor Planning ability. Their problems with Attention are related to the inability to control thoughts and behavior except in some situations that
are highly structured and engaging (e.g., some video games). Children with a true problem with
the ability to attend are different from those with a failure in Planning; they have considerable
trouble paying attention and resisting distractions in their environment; however, they have good
control of their behavior.
page 1 of 2
Teaching Students About Attention (continued)
When we teach students to recognize that Attention is needed to solve a problem, we are teaching students to use an important ability. This way of learning and the behaviors associated with
the cognitive process of Attention presented in this book (see the handout Attention Explained,
p. 57) will help students be more successful. We must teach children to be aware of this important ability and to use it effectively.
How to Teach Students to Attend
Figure 1. A graphic that reminds students to focus on information
being discussed.
The first step in teaching children about their own
abilities is to explain that they have many different
types of abilities and that Attention is one of them.
They also need to be aware of when their attention is
focused and they are resisting distractions, as well as
when it is divided among too many things, which
leaves them unfocused and overloaded. In Figure 1
(which also appears in the PASS poster on the CD),
we provide a fast and simple message: “Think smart
and look at the details!” During appropriate times
during the day, remind students to closely attend to
information being discussed. We need to teach children to approach all their work with an understanding
of how well they are focused on the details and resisting distractions in their environment. Throughout
the day, the teacher should
1. Teach children to be aware of their level of attention and resistance to distraction.
2. Encourage children by asking: “Are you able to focus?” or “Are you getting distracted?”
3. Remind the students that Attention is necessary for reading, writing, and arithmetic, as
well as in sports, playing a musical instrument, driving a car, and so forth.
4. Teach children that they may have to modify their environment so that they can attend
better.
5. Remind students that learning requires attention to detail and resisting distractions.
Resources
Goldstein, S., & Naglieri, J.A. (2007, October 22–27). Planning and attention problems in ADHD: What parents and
teachers can do. Attention.
Naglieri, J.A., Goldstein, S., & Conway, C. (2009). Using the Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, Successive (PASS)
theory within a neuropsychological context. In C. Reynolds & E. Fletcher-Janzen (Eds.), Handbook of clinical child
neuropsychology (3rd ed.). (pp. 783–800). New York: Springer.
page 2 of 2
Simultaneous Processing Explained
Simultaneous processing is a mental process used to relate separate pieces of information as a
group or see how parts are related to a whole. Usually Simultaneous processing is seen in tasks
that involve spatial skills, such as using blocks to build a design, doing geometry, seeing patterns
in numbers, seeing a group of letters as a word, understanding words as a whole, understanding
a sentence as part of a paragraph, and reading comprehension. The spatial aspect of Simultaneous processing includes the perception of an object as a whole and seeing patterns. Simultaneous processing is involved in reading comprehension in that it requires the integration and understanding of word relationships, prepositions, and inflections so that a person can derive meaning
based on the whole idea. Children good at Simultaneous processing easily recognize themes and
how facts fit together to form a complete whole.
Example of Simultaneous Processing in the Classroom
Simultaneous processing is involved in the comprehension of spoken and written language. For
example, the sentence “The black cat ran” requires a student to relate the element “cat” with the
element “blackness” and relate it to the action “run.” Grouping the words flowers, birds, rocks,
and clouds into a group of “things you can find outside” uses Simultaneous processing because it
requires the student to see how each of those
things relates to the others and to the statement.
Figure Test
Draw each figure from the front, top, and side views.
Simultaneous processing is required for things to
be seen as a whole. To recognize a shape in a collection of lines that form a cube requires Simultaneous processing, as does drawing a map (see Figure
1). Drawing or making a map requires grasping the
relationship of one place to another in a meaningful
way, rather than seeing a map as a bunch of
shapes and lines.
A simple but common task for children in school is
to draw pictures, often pictures about a story they
have written or read. Simply drawing the picture
and seeing how each part, color, and design fits to
make the artwork meaningful requires Simultaneous
Figure 1. An example of an activity that requires Simultaneous proprocessing. A drawing that includes all of the neccessing.
essary parts in a well-organized group involves Simultaneous processing. Relating the picture to what was read or written requires the student to
understand the story and how its parts are interrelated.
page 1 of 2
Simultaneous Processing Explained (continued)
Simultaneous processing describes several activities.
•
•
•
•
Relating parts into a comprehensive whole to see how things fit together
Understanding relationships among words, pictures, or ideas
Working with spatial relationships
Seeing several things or integrating words into a larger idea
Here are some classroom problems related to Simultaneous processing:
•
•
•
•
•
Failure to recognize sight words quickly
Failure to interpret word, sentence, or passage meaning
Difficulty with seeing the shapes of words or working with spatial tasks
Failure to see patterns in text or math problems
Failure to comprehend math word problems
Strategies for Developing Simultaneous Processing
• Do matching and categorization games (e.g., pictures, words), including opposites,
with the child
• Show the child reproductions of figures in rotation and from different perspectives
• Have the child practice on jigsaw puzzles, hidden picture worksheets, and building
three-dimensional objects
• Ask the child to supply missing details in stories
• Encourage rhyming
• Have the child use and create maps, both geographical and contextual
• Teach the child how to summarize stories or articles
How Is Simultaneous Processing Measured?
Simultaneous processing can be measured using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
The CAS gives an overall score and separate PASS scores for the four cognitive scales, including
Simultaneous processing. The average score is 100. Scores below 90 are considered below
average.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Teaching Students About Simultaneous Processing
What Is Simultaneous Processing Ability?
The purpose of education is certainly to provide students knowledge and skills, but researchers
have found that children also need to learn how to learn. To achieve that goal, we must teach students to see that little facts often go together to make something big. In other words, parts make
a whole and seeing how the parts fit the BIG picture makes us better understand how information
is organized. When we teach our students to see the way things are interrelated, we are teaching
use of a method called Cognitive Strategy Instruction (Scheid, 1993), and this is an effective
teaching method.
When reading, and especially when obtaining meaning from text, students must understand how
the information that is provided fits into a coherent whole. This means that the words in each sentence need to be understood in relation to all the others. Similarly, the sentences in each paragraph must also be considered in relation to all the others. Comprehension of a paragraph demands seeing how the parts fit into the whole. Getting meaning out of a story requires
understanding how all of the facts fit together. The same is true for writing. Students who are
good at writing organize the information into a whole picture and then present the text according
to the big picture. Seeing patterns is another way to see the whole. Students who see patterns
when doing math will be better able to understand how mathematics works and how math concepts are applied, and they will even learn the basic facts more easily.
When we teach students to be aware of an ability such as Simultaneous processing, we are
teaching them an important way they can be more successful. This way of learning and the behaviors associated with Simultaneous processing ability presented in this book (see the handout
entitled Simultaneous Processing Explained, p. 59) will help students be more successful, but we
must teach them to be aware of this important ability.
How to Teach Simultaneous Processing Ability
Figure 1.
A graphic that helps students understand Simultaneous processing.
The first step in teaching children about their own
abilities is to explain what Simultaneous processing ability is. In Figure 1 (which is included in the
PASS poster on the CD), we provide a fast and
simple message: “Think smart and put the
pieces together!” We should begin by helping
children realize that they have many different
types of abilities and seeing the whole is an ability we call Simultaneous processing. During appropriate times during the day, remind children
to see how the different parts fit the whole—the
page 1 of 2
Teaching Students About Simultaneous Processing (continued)
big picture—when reading, learning vocabulary words that are related in some way, seeing similarities in letter combinations when spelling, writing paragraphs that are tied together in a larger
story, seeing patterns in math, and so forth. We need to teach children to approach all of their
work with an understanding of how the information is organized into a whole. Throughout the day,
the teacher should
1. Teach children that most information is related to other information, so try to see the
pattern.
2. Encourage children by asking, “Can you see the big picture here?” or “Did you see
how all of this is related?”
3. Remind students to think of how information is related across topics and content.
4. Teach children that information in all areas of the curriculum is interconnected.
5. Remind students that seeing the whole requires thoughtful examination of the parts,
and even though that may take a little time, it will help them understand more completely.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Successive Processing Explained
Successive processing is a mental process involved in using or putting information in a specific
order. In this process, incoming information is organized in order so that the only connections are
the links of one part to the next, which allows a child to see how parts are sequenced. This process is important when it is necessary to keep information in its correct order. For example, children who are good successive processors are usually able to follow verbal instructions well. Successive processing involves remembering information in order, including the order of sounds and
movements. For this reason, Successive processing is used when blending sounds to form words
and putting words in the correct syntactical order.
Example of Successive Processing in the Classroom
Successive processing is involved when children work with sounds in order to form words. Children learn to speak by putting the correct sounds of words into the correct order. They learn the
sequences of sounds used to make words before they begin to read. When they begin to learn to
read, the sounds of the words are important and so is the association of those sounds with sequences of letters. Therefore, reading/decoding involves Successive processing. In Figure 1, the
child must sequence the correct sounds in order to say the phrase “Arty ate apples,” put the
words in the correct order, and put the letters used to spell these words in the correct order. The
similarity of the words (all begin with the letter a) makes this difficult. Because sequencing of
sounds is involved in reading, a related example is found in spelling. Successive processing is involved in spelling because the child must produce the correct sequence of letters to form a
Words with Similar Sounds
word (e.g., “h-o-u-s-e”).
Name:
Date:
Copy each sentence carefully.
1.
Arty ate apples.
2.
Larry lost his little lock.
3.
She sees sea shells by the sea.
4.
Betty bought a box of baseballs.
Figure 1.
Learning basic math facts requires Successive
processing if the child is instructed to learn by
repeatedly writing the facts. The child who
writes “8 + 9 = 17” is being taught a specific
string of numbers, which requires Successive
processing. The completion of more complex
math also involves Successive processing. For
example, completing the equation “3(3 + 7) –
12 = x” requires following a specific sequence
of operations (add, multiply, subtract) to arrive
at the right answer. A child who has trouble remembering basic math facts or the order of
math procedures is likely to have a weakness in
Successive processing.
An example of an activity that requires Successive processing.
page 1 of 2
Successive Processing Explained (continued)
Successive processing is involved in several kinds of activities.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Working with things in specific order (e.g., ordering sounds or words)
Understanding facts based on order
Perceiving stimuli in a sequence
Executing movements in order
Remembering and holding sounds or words in sequences
Retaining sequences of events from text and serial organization of speech
Here are some problems related to Successive processing:
•
•
•
•
•
Poor word decoding skills
Failure to comprehend syntax structure
Failure to pronounce words and sequence word segments accurately
Difficulty with following steps or tendency to omit steps needed to solve problems
Lack of comprehension of the sequence of events in a story
Strategies for Developing Successive Processing
•
•
•
•
•
•
Teach the child to organize things in steps as a strategy for completing tasks.
Say and write alphabet letters or numbers in order.
Memorize poems, songs, or lines in a play (and make it fun).
Arrange items or repeat events from a story or occasion in order.
Follow specific, ordinal instructions.
Write out steps of an everyday activity.
How Is Successive Processing Measured?
Successive processing can be measured using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). The
CAS gives an overall score and separate PASS scores for the four cognitive scales, including Successive processing. The average score is 100. Scores below 90 are considered below average.
Resources
Naglieri, J.A., & Das, J.P. (1997). Cognitive assessment system. Itasca, IL: Riverside.
page 2 of 2
Teaching Students About Successive Processing
How Learning Depends on Successive Processing Ability
The purpose of education is to provide students knowledge and skills, but researchers have
found that children also need to learn how to learn. To achieve that goal, we must teach students
to recognize that information is often organized in a specific sequence and learning that sequence
is a key to success. Words are made by the proper sequence of sounds, sentences are understandable only when the words are sequenced correctly, math problems must be done in a particular order, and so forth. In other words, many tasks require that we follow a particular sequence
or else failure will result. When we teach our students to recognize when sequencing is especially
important, we are teaching using a method called Cognitive Strategy Instruction (Scheid, 1993),
and this is an effective way to teach.
When learning to read, and especially when decoding words and spelling new words, the student
must recognize how the information is sequenced. For example, the student must recall the sequences of the sounds to say the word “Mississippi.” Similarly, to understand the statement “The
girl hit the boy” requires appreciation of the order of the words, especially to answer the question
“Who got hurt?” The order of the words drives the meaning of the sentence. Similarly, the order of
the letters and the correspondence of those letters to letter sounds are critical for decoding and
spelling. Sequencing is important in math as well.
One of the most important basic skills a child needs to obtain is mastering essential math facts.
Memorizing the basic addition and multiplication facts is often very dependent upon learning
information in a specific order. When a student is taught basic facts by rote memory (e.g., writing
4 + 8 = 12 ten times each day until is it learned), the child remembers the specific statement
(e.g., “4 plus 8 equals 12”), which is based on the recall of those words in that specific order.
This is why children who learn that 4 plus 8 equals 12 may not know that 8 plus 4 also equals 12.
Teachers should keep in mind that Successive processing is used to remember these statements,
making this approach to teaching math facts good for children with good Successive processing
ability.
When we teach students to recognize when Successive processing ability is needed to solve a
problem, we are teaching students to use an important ability. This way of learning and the behaviors associated with Successive processing ability that are presented in this book (see the
handout Successive Processing Explained, p. 61) will help students be more successful. We must
teach children to be aware of this important ability and to use it effectively.
How to Teach Successive Processing Ability
The first step in teaching children about their own abilities is to explain what Successive processing ability is. In Figure 1 (which is included in the PASS poster on the CD), we provide a fast and
page 1 of 2
Teaching Students About Successive Processing (continued)
Figure 1. A graphic that helps students understand Successive
processing.
simple message: “Think smart and follow the sequence!” We should begin by helping children realize that they have many different types of abilities
and that Successive processing is one of them.
During appropriate times during the day, remind students to closely attend to the sequence of information—when reading, presenting information in written text, examining the sequence of letters when
doing spelling, solving math equations, and so forth.
We need to teach children to approach all of their
work with an understanding of how the information
is sequenced. Throughout the day, the teacher
should do the following:
1. Teach children that most information is presented in a specific sequence so that it
makes sense.
2. Encourage children by asking, “Can you see the sequence of events here?” or “Did
you see how all of this is organized into a sequence that must be followed?”
3. Remind the students to think of how information is sequenced in different content
areas, such as reading, spelling, and arithmetic, as well as in sports, playing an instrument, driving a car, and so forth.
4. Teach children that the sequence of information is critical for success.
5. Remind students that seeing the sequence requires careful examination of the serial
relationships among the parts.
Resources
page 2 of 2
How to Be Smart: Planning
When we say people are smart, we usually mean that they know a lot of information. But being
smart also means that someone has a lot of ability to learn new things. Being smart at learning
new things includes knowing and using your thinking abilities. There are ways you can use your
abilities better when you are learning.
What Does Being Smart Mean?
One ability that is very important is called Planning. The ability to plan helps you figure out how to
do things. When you don’t know how to solve a problem, using Planning ability will help you figure
out how to do it. This ability also helps you control what you think and do. It helps you to stop before doing something you shouldn’t do. Planning ability is what helps you wait until the time is
right to act. It also helps you make good decisions about what to say and what to do.
How Can You Be Smarter?
You can be smarter if you PLAN before doing things. Sometimes people say, “Look before you
leap,” “Plan your work and work your plan,” or “Stop and think.” These sayings are about using
the ability to plan. When you stop and think about how to study, you are using your ability to plan.
You will be able to do more if you remember to use a plan. An easy way to remember to use a
plan is to look at the picture “Think smart and use a plan!” (Figure 1). You should always use a
plan for reading, vocabulary, spelling, writing, math problem solving, and science.
Do you have a favorite plan for learning spelling words? Do you use flashcards or go on the Internet to learn? Do you ask the teacher or another student for help? You can learn more by using a
plan for studying that works best for you.
It is smart to have a plan for doing all schoolwork.
When you read, you should have a plan. One plan is
to look at the questions you have to answer about
the story first. Then read the story to find the answers. Another plan is to make a picture of what you
read so that you can see all the parts of the story.
When you write you should also have a plan. Students who are good at writing plan and organize their
thoughts first. Then they think about what they are
doing as they write. Using a plan is a good way to be
smarter about your work!
Figure 1.
Picture reminder for using a plan.
page 1 of 2
How to Be Smart: Planning (continued)
You can also be better in math if you use a plan. Think about the problem, choose a way to solve
it, see if that plan works, change plans if necessary, and check the final answer carefully. Use a
plan to draw a diagram of the problem so that you understand the question. Using a plan is a
good way to be smart!
How Can You Interact Smartly with Other People?
You should always use a plan with the people in your life. Think about how you want to behave.
If what you are doing is not working, plan for another way to reach your goal. Think about what
you want to say and choose your words carefully before you say it. Think about how the other
person might feel or act after you say something. Doing these things will help other people understand you better, and you will understand them better, too. Using a plan with other people is another way to be smart!
Remembering to Plan
Remember that sometimes when you are scared, tired, or just doing too many things at one time,
you might forget to plan. This is a bad way to do things. When you see that you are not using a
plan, say to yourself, “Stop and use a plan.” Use a plan, and you will be a lot smarter!
Resources
neuropsychology (3rd ed.) (pp. 783–800). New York: Springer.
page 2 of 2
How to Be Smart: Attention
When we say people are smart, we usually mean that they know a lot of information. But being
smart also means that someone has a lot of ability to learn new things. Being smart at learning
new things includes knowing and using your thinking abilities. There are ways you can use your
abilities better when you are learning.
Attention is a very important ability that everyone has. Everything we do requires the ability to
focus on some things and ignore others. The ability to pay attention is what makes us able to
focus our thoughts on one thing and resist distractions. No one can learn without the ability to attend. We cannot attend to all the information our brain is receiving. In order to focus, we must resist attending to some things so we can focus on others. In school there is much to attend to and
many things that are distracting. Students hear others talking, a noise in the hallway, or the beep
of a computer; they see a flash of light from the window; and so forth. Schoolwork requires a lot
of focus of attention.
You can be smarter if you carefully use your ability to attend. Remember to be aware of how well
you are attending. Be sure to notice if you are being distracted. If you are having a problem, do
something to help you pay attention. You will be able to do more if you remember to “Think smart
and look at the details!” (see Figure 1). Remember to think about how well you are attending
when you do your work.
It is smart to be aware of your level of attention. Also
remember to notice if you are being distracted. Ask
yourself, “Am I losing my ability to focus?” or “Am I
getting distracted?” If so, change your seat, take a
short break, stand up and stretch, or do something
to help you attend better. Remember that you can’t
learn if you can’t pay attention.
Figure 1.
Picture reminder to attend to the details.
You should remember that Attention can be disrupted by loud noises or seeing something distracting. It is important to notice when your ability to attend is good or bad. If you are having trouble
attending, figure out what you need to do to attend
better.
page 1 of 2
How to Be Smart: Attention (continued)
Resources
page 2 of 2
How to Be Smart: Simultaneous
When we say someone is smart, we usually mean that they know a lot of information. Yet, being
smart also means having a lot of ability to learn new things. Being smart at learning new things includes knowing and using thinking abilities. There are ways to use your abilities better when you
are learning.
Simultaneous ability is what you use to see how things fit together. This ability helps you see the
big picture. This ability is what helps you understand the meaning of a sentence and a story. It is
also very important for seeing patterns in numbers, word spellings, or themes in a story. It also
lets you judge distances. For example, when you throw a ball you have to judge the distance to
your target and how high you have to aim to get it there.
You can be smarter if you look to see how things are connected. Sometimes people say, “Get the
big picture.” This saying is about using your Simultaneous ability. When you stop and think about
how things fit together to make the “big picture,” you are using your Simultaneous ability.
You will be able to learn more if you remember to see patterns and themes in all you do. An easy
way to remember to do this is to look at the picture “Think smart and put the pieces together!”
(Figure 1). You should always use your ability to see how parts go together to make a whole when
reading; studying vocabulary, spelling, or science; and solving math problems.
It is smart to use your ability to see the big
picture when doing all schoolwork. When you
read, you should draw a picture of the characters and story line. Use a series of drawings that
shows what happens in the story. Creating a
story by using pictures is an excellent way to
organize the information. Simultaneous ability is
used when you do that, and it is a good way to
be smarter about your work!
Figure 1.
Picture for remembering to see the big picture.
You can improve your math skills if you use Simultaneous ability. Think about the problem, see
what information is needed and what is not, figure out what is related to what, and use estipage 1 of 2
How to Be Smart: Simultaneous (continued)
mation to get an idea of how big the answer might be. Draw a diagram of the problem so that you
understand the question better. Using your Simultaneous ability in this way is a good way to be
smart!
How Can You Be Smart with Other People?
You should always use Simultaneous ability with the people in your life, too. Think about who likes
whom and how people form groups. If you do something, how does it affect the group? Do some
people in the group act the same and others act differently? Looking at groups of people will help
you see how each person is related to the other. Using Simultaneous ability with other people is
another way to be smart!
Resources
Goldstein, S. & Naglieri, J.A. (2007, October 22–27). Planning and attention problems in ADHD: What parents and
page 2 of 2
How to Be Smart: Successive
When we say people are smart, we usually mean they know a lot of information. But being smart
also means that someone has a lot of ability to learn new things. Being smart at learning new
things includes knowing and using your thinking abilities. There are ways you can use your abilities better when you are learning.
Successive ability is what you use to put information in order. It is what you use when you have to
remember the sequence of information, such as a telephone number. When you tie your shoe you
have to do all the steps in the right order. When you are sounding out a word you haven’t seen
before, you are using your Successive ability to say the sounds in the correct order. When you
repeat a word you have never heard before, especially if it is in a different language, you are using
Successive ability. This ability also helps you put sounds together to say words, and words together to make sentences. Sequential ability is very important for reading, math, and all of your
subjects.
You can be smarter if you pay attention to the sequences in which things must be done. There
are ways of making the sequence easier to remember. For example, group letters when spelling
words. Find out if writing the words 10 times each helps you. Do flashcards work better for you?
It is smart to find out how you learn sequences best and then to use what works best for you.
Thinking about the sequences of things is a good way to be smarter about your work!
Remembering to
Follow the Sequence
Remember that sometimes when you are anxious,
tired, or just doing too many things at one time, you
might forget to look at the order in which information is presented. When you see that you are not
using your Successive ability, say to yourself, “Think
smart and follow the sequence!” (see Figure 1).
Looking closely at the sequences of things will
make you smarter!
Figure 1.
Picture for remembering to follow the sequence.
page 1 of 2
How to Be Smart: Successive (continued)
Resources
neuropsychology (3rd ed.). (pp. 783–800). New York: Springer.
page 2 of 2
Overcoming Problems with Inattention
Attention is the process a person uses to focus thinking on a particular stimulus while ignoring
others. Throughout a school day, a student must pay attention to the teacher, the instructions
being given, what must be done, and what specific materials are needed, while ignoring other
students talking, students playing outside the window, and a cart rolling by in the hall. Attention
processes allow a child to selectively focus on things heard or seen and resist being distracted by
irrelevant sights and sounds. Focused attention is direct concentration on something, such as a
specific math problem. Selective attention involves the resistance to distraction, such as listening
to the teacher and not the cart in the hall. Sustained attention is continued focus over time.
Some children have difficulty with focused thinking and resisting distractions. These children fit the
description of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), predominantly inattentive type
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Children with the inattentive type of ADHD are different
from those with the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type of ADHD, which is described by
Barkley and Murphy (1998) as a delay in the development of inhibition, disturbed self-regulation,
and poor organization over time. Children with ADHD, hyperactive-impulsive type cannot control
their behavior and have inattention problems that are related to a failure in the process of planning
on the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri, 1999).
How to Help a Child Overcome Problems with Inattention
The first step is to help the child understand the nature of his or her Attention problems, including
1.
2.
3.
4.
Concepts such as Attention, resistance to distraction, and control of Attention
Recognition of how Attention affects daily functioning
Recognition that the deficit can be overcome
Basic elements of the control program
Second, teachers and parents can help the child improve his or her motivation and persistence:
1. Promote success via small steps.
2. Ensure success at school and at home.
• Allow for oral responses to tests.
• Circumvent reading whenever possible.
3. Teach rules for approaching tasks.
• Help the child to define tasks accurately.
• Assess the child’s knowledge of problems.
• Encourage the child to consider all possible solutions.
• Teach the child to use a correct test strategy (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995).
page 1 of 2
Overcoming Problems with Inattention (continued)
4. Discourage passivity and encourage independence.
• Reduce the use of teacher solutions only.
• Require the child to take responsibility for correcting his or her own work.
• Help the child to become more self-reliant.
5. Encourage the child to avoid:
• Excessive talking
• Working fast with little accuracy
• Giving up too easily
• Turning in sloppy, disorganized papers
Third, teachers and parents should give the child specific problem-solving strategies.
1. Model and teach strategies that improve attention and concentration.
2. Help the child to recognize when he or she is under- or overattentive.
Who Should Receive Help with Overcoming Problems with Inattention?
This instruction benefits students who have problems maintaining attention and/or who are overactive. These strategies may be particularly helpful for children who demonstrate low scores in Attention and children who show weaknesses in Attention along with problems with Planning. Because a student who has a Planning weakness may have a particularly difficult time monitoring
and controlling his or her actions, these strategies may be useful to provide structure and help the
student follow specific plans to increase his or her self-control and focus of attention.
Resources
Sources for information on Attention problems and other educational problems can be found at
http://www.chadd.org.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.)
Washington, DC: Author.
Barkley, R.A., & Murphy, K.R. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A clinical workbook (2nd ed.) New York:
Guilford Press.
Welton, E. (1999). How to help inattentive students find success in school: Getting the homework back from the dog.
Teaching Exceptional Children, 31, 12–18.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Remembering
Memorizing facts is an important part of school learning. Many times, children recite facts, such
as 8 + 9 = 17, which requires understanding the order of the numbers because of their arrangement. Memory strategies (e.g., a plan) are an excellent way to help children remember facts they
need to know because the strategies change the way children think about or process the information. Memory or mnemonic strategies are techniques for increasing learning to help long-term
memory of important information. When people read facts, they are better able to remember them
later when the facts are made more meaningful through their relationship to other things already
known and through elaboration. Using mnemonics is a specific strategy for doing this.
Mnemonics
Figure 1 illustrates how a child who has difficulty remembering the order of math operations can
use a memory strategy (i.e., a plan). In this example, the mnemonic device allows the child to perform the operations in the correct order by using the strategy rather than by relying on the memory of the sequence of operations. Other plans for remembering include associations of pictures
with a word.
Figure 1. A drawing that represents a common mnemonic. (From Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. [1991]. Teaching students ways to remember [p. 89]. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books; reprinted by permission.)
page 1 of 2
Plans for Remembering (continued)
How to Teach Plans for Remembering
The keyword method is a plan for remembering that enhances learning by helping the individual
organize incoming information for better storage and retrieval. The following are steps for using
the keyword method to remember new vocabulary words.
1. The child associates a new word to a familiar word. For example, ranid (which means
frog) is matched to a similar sounding word, rain.
2. The child remembers that the keyword for ranid is rain.
3. The child relates the keyword to the unfamiliar word’s meaning. For example, frogs like
water, so they like rain.
4. The child makes a mental image of a frog in the rain.
5. The child retrieves the new word’s meaning. For example, the child might think, “What
does ranid mean? It sounds like rain, and I remember the image of a frog in the rain.
Ranid means frog.”
Who Should Be Taught Plans for Remembering?
Plans for remembering appear most useful for memorization of specific words or facts for the sciences, history, foreign languages, rules for writing, math facts, and so forth. Children who perform
poorly in Successive processing often have trouble with remembering facts based on the order of
information. This instruction benefits students who are poor in Successive processing and students who score low in Planning because it gives them a strategy or plan for remembering.
Resources
More examples, written instructions, lessons, and classroom handouts related to mnemonics can
be found on the web at http://www.mindtools.com/memory.html.
Kirby, J.R., & Williams, N.H., (1991). Learning problems: A cognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1991). Teaching students ways to remember. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
page 2 of 2
Self-Monitoring for Planning and Attention Problems
Children who behave well and are successful in the classroom must manage their own behavior
by attending to the teacher, concentrating on the task at hand, and monitoring and adjusting their
own social and academic behavior. To do this, children must be able to focus attention on what is
relevant, resist distraction by irrelevant things, and monitor and evaluate how they are doing.
Some children, however, have a difficult time with controlling their behavior. They are easily distracted and often off task, and they are limited in their strategic approaches to controlling their
own behavior. Teachers can use a strategy called self-monitoring to help students control their
own behavior.
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring is a technique used to help children monitor their productivity (how much they
have completed in a given time) and their accuracy (how correct they are in a given time) during
the school day. Self-monitoring academic performance increases the amount of on-task behavior
by children who are typically off-task. It helps children focus on what they need to be doing and
whether they are doing it. Even when the self-monitoring task is related to specific schoolwork,
better behavior usually results.
How to Teach Self-Monitoring
This section describes the use of self-monitoring to affect academic performance, but the strategy may be modified so that the students are randomly signaled several times during a session to
record if they are on-task or not (after explicit and positive descriptions of what on-task behavior
is). The teacher should follow these steps:
1. Provide specific description of academic accuracy and academic productivity.
2. Hand out a record sheet, and explain that at the end of each session the child is to
record the number of items completed with the total number of items given (productivity) and the number of items correct with the total number of items given (accuracy) in
the appropriate columns (see Figure 1).
3. Explain that self-monitoring is important for on-task behavior and successful learning
and demonstrate how to calculate and record the percentages for accuracy and productivity at the end of the session (10- to 30-minute period).
4. Provide a session in which the students work on a task with a specific number of items
(e.g., spelling list, math problems, question sheets related to a story). It is acceptable
for students at different levels to have different activities.
5. At the end of the session, have students record and calculate their progress.
6. Have students keep daily logs and encourage students to compare percentages of
previous sessions to recent sessions. Teachers may choose to have students graph
page 1 of 2
Self-Monitoring for Planning and Attention Problems (continued)
My Work Log
Date
Figure 1.
Number
finished
Total
number
Percentage
Number
correct
Total
number
Percentage
A sample record sheet for self-monitoring.
their own progress or to post a graph in
class charting the productivity and accuracy of individual students or the whole
class. Reinforcement or rewards are not
necessary, but some teachers do
choose to reward students for certain
levels of success.
Throughout these steps the teacher
should model self-recording and monitoring, provide feedback, allow students
to independently record their performance, encourage students to examine
their performance over time, praise accurate self-reporting, and be patient—
success may not come immediately.
Who Should Learn Self-Monitoring?
The self-monitoring strategy is helpful for students who need to learn to be more productive in
class. Children who are inattentive or who score low in Planning processing are likely to need to
learn self-monitoring strategies for doing schoolwork (Naglieri, 1999).
Resource
page 2 of 2
Graphic Organizers for
Connecting and Remembering Information
Remembering and relating information is a common part of learning and daily life. Students are
often expected to learn large amounts of new and unfamiliar information. Learning facts requires
the student to see how information is connected or related. Students often remember this information better if they see it graphically and understand how it relates to knowledge they already
have. Graphic organizers are designed to help students (and teachers) present and organize information so it is easier to understand and remember.
Graphic Organizers
New information is better remembered if it is connected to information the students already know.
Graphic organizers are visual representations of information that shows the links of new information to other new and existing information. This makes the new information easier to understand
and learn. Furthermore, the visual nature of graphic organizers and the links they make help students understand the connections between information parts. For example, a graphic organizer
might be used to teach young children about different animals. A child learning about different
kinds of animals might already know what a fish is. This knowledge can be used to graphically organize whales, sharks, and dolphins. They all live underwater, but sharks have gills and are fish.
(Whales and dolphins have blowholes and breathe air, so they are not fish.) Figure 1 represents
one way to map this graphically.
Another type of graphic organizer is a Venn diagram, which
uses circles to demonstrate how concepts are related. Figure
2 shows the same information as Figure 1, but in the form of a
Venn diagram.
Ocean
creatures
Dolphins
Whales
Sharks
How to Teach Graphic Organizers
Blowholes
Gills
Fish
Figure 1. One kind of graphic organizer.
Graphic organizers are fairly simple to create. They need not
be reserved for factual information. They can be used for activities such as exploring creative concepts, organizing writing,
and developing language skills. The following four steps can
be used to create a graphic organizer:
1.
2.
Select information that you need to present to the child
(which may be from a story, a chapter, or any concept).
Determine the key components that are necessary for the
child to learn.
page 1 of 2
Graphic Organizers for Connecting and Remembering Information
(continued)
Ocean animals
Fish
Blowholes
Dolphins
Whales
Gills
Sharks
Figure 2. A Venn diagram used as a graphic organizer.
3. Create the graphic representation of the information. The illustration should include the
key concepts, concepts the child already knows, and the linkages between the concepts.
4. Present the organizer to the child and discuss it to be sure he or she understands the
information and sees the connections.
Students may also be taught to develop their own graphic organizers as a strategy to help them
understand and learn information independently.
Who Should Learn Graphic Organizers?
Students who have trouble learning new information or organizing information may find graphic
organizers helpful. Students who score low in Simultaneous processing have trouble understanding how information is related and may find graphic organizers particularly helpful. They may also
be helpful for students who score low in Planning (Naglieri, 1999) as a strategy to help them organize information.
Resources
An excellent resource can be found at http://www.teachervision.fen.com/graphic-organizers/
printable/6293.html
Dye, G.A. (2000). Graphic organizers to the rescue! Helping students link—and remember—information. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3), 72–76.
page 2 of 2
Stop and Think! Teaching Self-Control
Students who behave well use self-control to think about what they are doing and change their
behavior if it is not okay. For some students, self-control is natural. These students actively monitor their behavior, determine if what they are doing or going to do is okay, and change it if it is not.
If they decide their behavior will not be acceptable, they think about other options and choose the
best one. This requires that the student be aware of his or her own behavior and understand that
behavior relative to the rules or his or her own goals. Stop and Think! is intended to teach students a plan to help them control their behavior.
Some students act inappropriately because they have not monitored their behavior, selected the
best way to act from their options, or even realized that they have other options. To help these
students, explicitly teach them that they need to monitor and control their behavior and to stop
and think about their behavior, and then give them a plan for doing so.
How to Teach Stop and Think!
To encourage positive self-control, a student should be first directly taught to pay attention to and
think about his or her behavior. Teachers can explicitly teach the student that when the phrase
“Stop and think!” is said, the student should think about what he or she is doing. The student
then should be taught to ask him- or herself appropriate questions about actions, such as “What
am I doing?” and “Is what I’m doing okay?” If the child is about to do something, the questions
“What do I want to do?” and “Is what I want to do okay?” may be posed. Initially, these questions
could be put on the student’s desk or posted on the wall as a reminder.
The student may be given the following plan to follow to determine what is going on in a situation,
think about what his or her options are, and choose the best one.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Stop and think.
Identify the situation.
Ask, “What do I want to do?”
Ask, “Is there a problem?”
Ask, “What are possible solutions?”
Consider the consequences to each solution.
Choose the best solution.
Evaluate the results.
Each of these steps should be explicitly taught and discussed so that the student understands
what to do for each step.
page 1 of 2
Stop and Think! Teaching Self-Control (continued)
Who Should Be Taught Stop and Think?
Students with difficult behavior are likely to benefit from being taught to stop and think. Students
who have a Planning weakness may have a particularly difficult time monitoring and controlling
their actions (Naglieri, 1999). This technique may be used to help these students follow a specific
plan to increase their self-control.
Resources
Ashman, A.F., & Conway, R.N.F. (1997). An introduction to cognitive education. London: Routledge.
page 2 of 2
Teaching Self-Awareness
Successful learners know how to study well, use good and appropriate learning strategies that
help them remember better, and regulate their own activity. These students are aware that, depending on the task, some ways to learn may be better than others. Good learners are aware of
the demands of the learning task and select a good way to complete the task. Self-awareness
and the ability to choose appropriate strategies involve forethought and planning. For some students, explicit instruction to be self-aware of one’s own learning is necessary. This intervention is
intended to help students learn successfully by being more self-aware.
Self-Awareness
Many students with academic problems are not aware of how their behavior can influence their
own learning. They may lack the self-awareness that more successful learners have. These students often seem disorganized and unsure of how to approach a learning task. These types of
students must be directly taught to be self-aware and to use strategies for better learning.
How to Teach Self-Awareness
In general, students must be made aware of the importance of learning strategies. Educators
should teach knowledge of learning by discussing that
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Students can do some things that help them remember better.
People sometimes forget things they have learned.
Some things are more difficult to remember.
People forget things for different reasons.
Attention and effort have roles in improving memory.
Repetition can be helpful.
Knowing and using strategies can be very helpful.
Teachers should spend time discussing with students their methods for learning tasks and what
ways are better than others. Students should be instructed to pay attention to the learning situation. In other words, students should ask themselves the following questions:
•
•
•
•
“What is the reason for doing this?”
“Have I done something like this before?”
“What are the different ways I can do this?”
“What is the best way to do this?”
Students can also be instructed to evaluate what they are doing while they are doing it:
• “Is this strategy working?”
page 1 of 2
Teaching Self-Awareness (continued)
• “Is there another way I can do this that is better?”
• “Is this working for me?”
Recognizing the importance of using specific strategies is critical because at first strategies may
not seem worth the effort. Using strategies can be encouraged by giving regular positive feedback when the student is using a strategy, by highlighting when a student was successful because a strategy was used, and by attributing failure to the lack of strategy use. When students
realize they have some control over their success through strategy use, they are more likely to be
self-aware and to use strategies. Furthermore, if a teacher regularly uses and models a strategy,
students are more likely to use it themselves.
Who Should Be Taught Self-Awareness?
Most students can benefit from being taught good self-awareness. Students who score low in
Planning may benefit even more from direct instruction and strategies in self-awareness (Naglieri,
1999).
Resources
Corral, N., & Shirin, A.D. (1997, March/April). Self talk strategies for success in math. The Council For Exceptional
Children, 42–45.
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
page 2 of 2
Promoting Good Listening
Teachers provide most of their instruction and directions orally, which means that good listening
skills are critical for all students. Being a good listener requires being able to follow along, understand what is expected, and understand what is being taught. Some students do not have good
listening skills. These students need to be specifically taught good listening skills, be given opportunities to practice listening skills with feedback, and be provided an environment that encourages
good listening.
Children who are effective listeners are better able to receive the information presented to them.
They look at their teacher during instruction, actively listen to what is being said, and connect
what they hear to their understanding of the topic. Good listeners understand cues in speech
(e.g., first, second, third; “The next important step is...”) and use those cues to focus their attention. This strategy is intended to provide the teacher with some approaches to help promote
good listening in students.
How to Teach Good Listening
Teachers can do the following to promote good listening:
1. Be sure the students can hear, taking into account hearing ability as well as seat
placement.
2. Explain the purpose of listening.
3. Specifically teach and use organizational cues.
4. Use phrases such as “this is important” and “make sure you remember this.”
5. Describe specific verbal and nonverbal cues that highlight important information (e.g.,
when the teacher explains something and writes it on the board).
6. Use students’ names during direct instruction.
7. Vary the teaching pace.
8. Write important parts, directions, and connectors on the board.
9. Give students advanced organizers so that they know what to expect and listen for.
10. Prompt students to generate questions before the lecture and listen for the answers.
11. Have students relate the presentation to their own experience and knowledge.
12. Provide students with partial outlines in which they must listen and fill in the blanks.
13. Stop regularly to verify that students understand what is going on and have them summarize the main points.
page 1 of 2
Promoting Good Listening (continued)
Who Should Be Taught Good Listening?
All students can benefit from being taught good listening skills. Teaching and supporting good listening skills is particularly helpful for students who score low in Attention (Naglieri, 1999) and may
also be helpful for students who score low in Planning.
Resources
Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (2000). The inclusive classroom: Strategies for effective instruction. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Merrill.
page 2 of 2
Teaching Good Thinking Skills
Information is learned better when it is carefully and thoroughly examined and especially when it is
connected to what is already known. For example, it is easier to remember a new person’s name
if it is the same as your own or someone close to you. In this case, the new name is easier to remember because it relates to something with which you are already familiar. Successful students
know that thoroughly thinking about a new topic helps them learn more and helps them learn the
material better. Students who are thoughtful learners are usually aware that carefully reflecting and
relating new information to old helps them learn the information better. Those students who have
good thinking skills know how to study well, use good and appropriate learning strategies that
help them remember better, and regulate their own activity.
Some students need to be taught to think closely, examine new information, and relate to things
already known to help them learn better—that is, they need to learn thinking skills. These students may have academic problems because they are not aware of the need to have good thinking skills in order to learn. They lack the self-awareness required to recognize the need for learning strategies that more successful learners have. These students often seem disorganized and
unsure about how to approach a learning task. They should be directly taught to be self-aware
and to think deeply about information.
How to Teach Thinking Skills
Students need to be taught about how they think and how they can improve their learning by
being aware of ways to think and learn. One way to do this is to teach them about the different
types of knowledge. These students need to recognize that learning involves knowledge and
ways of using knowledge (i.e., strategies). It is important to teach children that there are essentially three types of knowledge.
1. Content knowledge: Specific information that a person knows
2. Strategy knowledge: The way in which a person thinks or processes information
3. Metacognitive knowledge: Knowledge about how a person works with information in
different ways and chooses how to process it (e.g., knowing to use a specific strategy)
Students need to understand that they learn better when they think very carefully about what they
are trying to learn. They must be taught good thinking strategies for effective learning. Teachers
should explicitly teach students to use a method for how to do something and think about the
activity, the goal, and the desired outcome. They should also teach that a plan requires the
person to
1. Think: What do I want to do? What is my goal?
2. Do: Act. Begin to complete the task.
3. Monitor: Is it working? Am I getting what I wanted?
page 1 of 2
Teaching Good Thinking Skills (continued)
4. Modify: Do I need to modify my plan?
5. Verify: Am I finished with the task?
The teacher should teach specific strategies and carefully explain when and where they should be
used. Instruction should provide a limited number of strategies, but they should be taught extensively. Emphasis is placed on reflective, not rapid, task completion that facilitates attention and
concentration to the academic task. The students should be explicitly encouraged to
•
•
•
•
•
•
Discover and use strategies.
Monitor their performance.
Generalize their use of strategies.
Be aware of the importance of strategies.
Achieve self-regulated strategy use.
Become thoughtful, planful, and evaluative.
Teachers should also demonstrate good thinking skills to the students and describe good thinkers
as people who are
• Patient: Understanding and ideas do not always come right away.
• Curious: Good thinkers ask questions (e.g., why, what if, when) about what they learn
and look for more information.
• Focused: Good thinkers concentrate on what is being learned.
• Open: Good thinkers are receptive to other ideas and possibilities about information.
• Flexible: Good thinkers are ready to change what is learned and known to new information.
• Relaxed: Good thinkers know that they may not understand everything right away.
Who Should Be Taught Thinking Skills?
All students can benefit from discussion of good thinking skills. Students who score low in Planning are particularly likely to benefit from using this instruction because it helps them gain important strategies for learning (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
Ashman, A., & Conway, R. (1993). Using cognitive methods in the classroom. New York: Routledge.
page 2 of 2
Strategies for Improving Organization
Being successful with schoolwork requires good organization. Successful students are thoughtful
about how they organize their materials and how they plan to get their work done. Some children
(especially those with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder) have considerable difficulty in school
because they are disorganized, do not stay on task, and do not use strategies when working.
These children need to be taught to use strategies and to be more organized.
Children can be explicitly taught to be more organized and to use strategies when doing schoolwork. Educators should teach strategies in all academic areas. They should explain when and
where to use strategies. Teachers should offer a few specific strategies but explain them extensively. In this approach, emphasis is placed on reflective completion, rather than fast-task completion, so that attention and concentration on the academic task is achieved. The goal is to teach
strategies generated by the teacher, and later by the students, so that the students can develop
and use their own strategies.
How to Teach Strategies for Organization
The teacher should provide the students with instruction about strategies for specific instructional
areas (e.g., decoding, reading comprehension, vocabulary, spelling, writing, math problem solving, science).
There are two basic steps. In Step 1, teachers should tell students that 1) a plan is a method for
how to do something that involves thinking about the activity and outcome, and 2) a plan requires
a person to
•
•
•
•
•
Think: What do I want to do? What is my goal?
Do: Act. Begin to complete the task.
Monitor: Is it working? Am I getting what I wanted?
Modify: Do I need to modify my plan?
Verify: Am I finished with the task?
The second step involves explicitly encouraging students to accomplish several things when
doing schoolwork:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Discover and use strategies.
Monitor their performance.
Generalize their use of strategies.
Be aware of the importance of strategies.
Achieve self-regulated strategy use.
Become thoughtful, planful, and evaluative.
page 1 of 2
Strategies for Improving Organization (continued)
Who Should Be Taught Strategies for Organization?
Most students, especially students who are disorganized, are likely to benefit from using strategies for organization. Students who score low in Simultaneous processing and Planning are particularly likely to benefit from using this intervention because it helps them be aware of the need to
be organized and gives them a strategic plan to help them organize (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
page 2 of 2
Improving Attention
Paying attention to the teacher and what is going on in class is very important for students. This
requires that students be able to attend to specific information and resist responding to distractions in order to focus thinking. Sometimes children need help with their attention. Some children
may have a form of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), predominantly inattentive type
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000). This handout provides help for students who struggle
with attention and resistance to distraction.
Because of these problems with attending, these children may also
•
•
•
•
•
Fail to complete work
Make careless errors
Appear easily distracted
Not follow through on assignments, chores, and so forth
Forget assignments, books, pencils, and other important materials
Children with attention problems may also have difficulty
• Following classroom instruction because they are not getting all the information that is
provided
• Resisting distractions in the classroom
• Listening
• Working for long periods of time
• Concentrating
Students who are inattentive and have difficulties with resisting distractions need to be aware of
the problem and to learn strategies for attending. Teachers and parents also need to understand
that a child’s behavior can be influenced by a real problem with focus of attention, and they need
to develop ways to address it.
How to Help Students Improve Their Attention
Teachers and parents can do a number of things to help students improve their attention. Here
are several suggestions:
• Break lessons and assignments into segments that the child can complete.
• Simplify instructions and present them in segments that the child can manage.
• Establish a cue that the teacher or parent always uses to help the child recognize when
attention is lost.
• Teach the child to systematically and carefully look at materials before responding (e.g.,
look at all the options before choosing an answer).
• Decrease the amount of distracting information in the environment.
page 1 of 2
Improving Attention (continued)
• Use materials that are interesting to the child.
• Teach the child to check work using calculators, spell checkers, and other helpful
items.
• Encourage the child to slow down and look carefully at how words are spelled, for example.
Who Needs Help with Improving Attention?
Students who have problems attending and/or those with low scores in Attention on the Cognitive
Assessment System (CAS) are likely to benefit from using this plan as a structure to help throughout the day (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
An excellent source for information on attention problems and other educational problems can be
found at http://www.chadd.org.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.).
page 2 of 2
Making a Plan for Organizing
Successful students organize their materials well by separating specific subjects from one another; arranging their notebooks in meaningful ways; keeping track of notes, homework, and
handouts; and prioritizing the tasks they have to do. This requires that students be planful and
understand how pieces of information are related to one another and can be organized and
grouped. This helps these students to be more efficient and task oriented, which helps them
study and learn successfully. The following strategies are ways to help students become more
organized.
For some students, organizing material and prioritizing tasks does not come easily. They have difficulty with organization and may not see how things can be grouped together. These students
often have messy, jumbled notebooks and desks. They often cannot find papers when they are
requested and frequently miss assignments because they have forgotten them. Students such as
this may lack good organizational skills and need to be explicitly taught strategies to help them be
better organized.
How to Teach Plans for Organizing
One way to help students organize their materials is by color coding the information. For students
who have trouble keeping different subjects organized, each subject may be given a color, and all
materials, including books, handouts, and notebook tabs, should be labeled with that color. For
example, a science book would be covered in orange paper, science handouts would be printed
on orange paper, science notes would be written on orange paper, and the science notebook tab
would be orange. Other subjects would use other colors in the same way, and a key would be
made for the notebook listing each subject and its corresponding color. When using colored
paper is not possible, colored sticky notes placed on the materials or large marks with colored
markers in highly noticeable places could be used.
For a student who has trouble prioritizing material, a similar approach could be used. Instead of
using colors to code different subjects, colors could be used to code for priority or urgency. A red
sticky note or mark could be put at the top of homework materials, and red pencil could be used
to note hot or urgent homework in a datebook. Purple could be used for less urgent work, and
blue could be used for cool or least important work.
Who Should Be Taught Plans for Organization?
This strategy should be used when children need to organize and prioritize their schoolwork more
efficiently. Children who are poor in Planning processing are likely to need good strategies for organization and prioritizing and cannot figure out these strategies on their own (see Naglieri, 1999).
page 1 of 2
Making a Plan for Organizing (continued)
Children with Simultaneous processing problems might also have trouble organizing materials into
meaningful groups and are also likely to benefit from learning organization strategies.
Resource
page 2 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Planning
Resilient children experience a sense of accomplishment and joy each time they engage an area
of personal strength. These children often find what makes them feel proud, and they develop the
confidence and self-esteem needed to persevere in the future. Their lives can become a cycle of
affirmation in which they can continue to grow in confidence and maturity while they learn to positively engage in new situations and the challenges of daily life. Other children, however, may have
personal strengths that are unrecognized, especially at school, which can make them view their
world negatively.
Academically challenged students may watch their peers readily achieve success in the classroom and label them smart but have a poor view of themselves because they do not do well in
school. Even when they are successful, it may feel more like an accident or luck, and they do not
give themselves credit for their accomplishments. Other children may have trouble recognizing
their achievement because it does not match what a parent or teacher has defined as success.
For example, despite an incredible skill for computer programming, a child with learning disabilities may still be described as a “poor student” due to low grades.
When a child has a strength, that strength should be recognized and nurtured. Nurturing a child’s
strength helps that child develop confidence. This helps the strength grow and, in turn, can help
the child succeed and even overcome weaknesses or obstacles he or she may encounter.
How to Use Nurturing Strengths: Planning
Successful experiences help children recognize their strength, which leads to improved selfesteem and the capacity to overcome daily challenges. When a child shows a strength in Planning, it means he or she is good at evaluating a task, selecting or developing a way of doing
something (i.e., a strategy to approach a task), monitoring progress, and developing new strategies when necessary. He or she will do well figuring out how to do something. Use the following
recommendations as a guideline to nurture the kind of successful experiences children need in
order to help them discover and use their strength in Planning:
1. Identify a child’s strength. Formal testing may reveal a child’s strength in planning.
However, good observation and use of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS;
Naglieri, 1999) may also help identify a child’s strength.
2. Recognize a child’s strength. A child should be told when he or she has a strength in
Planning, and the process should be explained to the child (see the Teaching Students
About Planning handout, p. 56). Help the child recognize that he or she has ability and
control by providing experiences that match the child’s strengths. In other words, give
the child opportunities to show what he or she can do by encouraging him or her to
do things that involve Planning. Some suggestions include
page 1 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Planning (continued)
• Planning out a trip, vacation, or hike
• Organizing a meeting or party
• Planning out a school newspaper or magazine
• Planning out a dinner or meals for the week
• Producing a plan for grocery shopping
• Deciding how to build something original, such as a fort
3. Celebrate a child’s accomplishments by expressing support and enthusiasm for what
he or she does. Children feel more successful when they are acknowledged and appreciated for what they do. When a child has a strength in Planning, it should be celebrated so the child is proud of the strength and comfortable using that strength, as
well as encouraged to use it whenever possible. Those around the child should watch
for times when the child uses or could use good Planning, point it out, and recognize
it.
4. Give a child time to let his or her strengths develop. Some children take longer than
others to develop the solid foundation of skills needed to achieve. However, the more
opportunities children are given to use their skills and find success in their strengths,
the more likely they will be to expand upon these skills and overcome more difficult
challenges at an early age. When a child has a strength in Planning, he or she might
not readily use it, but with time and encouragement it will develop.
Who Should Use Nurturing Strengths: Planning?
The core feature of Planning is the ability to figure out a way to do something. Children who are
good at this should be encouraged to use the strength whenever possible. Creating situations
that highlight this process and celebrating children’s abilities will help them feel competent and
successful while they continue to learn. Use the ideas presented here and the handouts Planning
Explained (p. 55) and Teaching Students About Planning (p. 56) as a springboard for more ways
to nurture a child’s strength in Planning.
Resources
Brooks, R., & Goldstein, S. (2002). Raising resilient children: Fostering strength, hope, and optimism in your child.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
page 2 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Attention
of personal strength. These children often find what makes them feel proud, and they develop the
world negatively.
How to Use Nurturing Strengths: Attention
Successful experiences help children recognize their strengths, which leads to improved selfesteem and the capacity to overcome daily challenges. When a child shows a strength in Attention, it means he or she is good at focusing on one thing and ignoring distractions. Resisting distractions in the environment is an important part of Attention. Use the following recommendations
as a guideline to nurture the kind of successful experiences children need in order to help them
discover and use their strength in Attention:
1. Identify a child’s strength. Formal testing may reveal a child’s strength in Attention.
However, good observation and use of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS;
Naglieri, 1999) may also help identify a child’s strength.
Attention, and the process should be explained to the child (see the handout Teaching
Students About Attention, p. 58). Help the child recognize that he or she has ability
and control by providing experiences that match the child’s strengths. In other words,
give the child opportunities to show what he or she can do by encouraging him or her
to do things that involve Attention. Some suggestions include
page 1 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Attention (continued)
• Doing word finds
• Making comparisons between pictures and watching for differences
• Proofreading
• Picking out someone in a crowd
• Looking for details in pictures
• Noticing details others usually do not see
he or she does. Children feel more successful when they are acknowledged and appreciated for what they do. When a child has a strength in Attention, it should be celebrated so that the child is proud of the strength and comfortable using that strength,
as well as encouraged to use it whenever possible. Those around the child should
watch for times when the child uses or could use good Attention, and then point it out
and recognize it.
challenges at an early age. When a child has a strength in Attention, he or she might
Who Should Use Nurturing Strengths: Attention?
The core feature of Attention is the ability to selectively focus on things heard or seen and to resist
being distracted by less relevant sights and sounds. Children who are good at this should be encouraged to use the strength whenever possible. Creating situations that highlight this process
and celebrating children’s abilities will help them feel competent and successful while they continue to learn. Use the ideas presented here and the handouts Attention Explained (p. 57) and
Teaching Students About Attention (p. 58) as a springboard for more ways to nurture a child’s
strength in Attention.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Simultaneous Processing
of personal strength. These children often find what makes them feel proud and they develop the
world negatively.
For example, despite having an incredible skill for computer programming, a child with learning
disabilities may still be described as a “poor student” due to low grades.
How to Use Nurturing Strengths: Simultaneous Processing
Successful experiences help children recognize their strengths, which leads to improved selfesteem and the capacity to overcome daily challenges. When children show a strength in Simultaneous processing, it means that they understand how individual parts fit into the whole. They will
do well on visual-spatial tasks, such as using maps and the organization of ideas into groups. Use
the following recommendations as a guideline to nurture the kind of successful experiences children need in order to help them discover and use their strength in Simultaneous processing:
1. Identify a child’s strength. Formal testing may reveal a child’s strength in Simultaneous
processing. However, good observation and use of the Cognitive Assessment System
(CAS; Naglieri, 1999) may also help identify a child’s strength.
Simultaneous processing, and the process should be explained to the child (see the
Teaching Students About Simultaneous Processing handout, p. 60). Help the child
recognize that he or she has ability and control by providing experiences that match
the child’s strengths. In other words, give the child opportunities to show what he or
she can do by encouraging the child to do things that involve Simultaneous processing. Some suggestions include
page 1 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Simultaneous Processing (continued)
• Building a model
• Completing puzzles
• Creating a map or web of pictures or information
• Creating a family tree
• Making lists of how categories of things are similar (e.g., food groups)
• Making a pattern or meaningful design
• Making a collage
• Networking people for a party or job
he or she does. Children feel more successful when they are acknowledged and appreciated for what they do. When a child has a strength in Simultaneous processing, it
should be celebrated so the child is proud of the strength and comfortable using that
strength, as well as encouraged to use it whenever possible. Those around the child
should watch for times when the child uses or could use Simultaneous processing,
point it out, and recognize it.
challenges. When a child has a strength in Simultaneous processing, he or she might
Who Should Use Nurturing Strengths: Simultaneous Processing?
The core feature of Simultaneous processing is the ability to understand how things go together,
that is, how the different interrelated parts comprise the whole. Children who are good at this
should be encouraged to use the strength whenever possible. Creating situations that highlight
this process and celebrating children’s abilities will help them feel competent and successful while
they continue to learn. Use the ideas presented here and the handouts Simultaneous Processing
Explained (p. 59) and Teaching Students About Simultaneous Processing (p. 60) as a springboard
for more ways to nurture children’s strengths in Simultaneous processing.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Successive Processing
of personal strength. These children often find what makes them feel proud and they develop the
world negatively.
strength helps that child develop confidence. This helps the strength grow and in turn can help
How to Use Nurturing Strengths: Successive Processing
Successful experiences help children recognize their strengths, which leads to improved selfesteem and the capacity to overcome daily challenges. When a child shows a strength in Successive processing, it means he or she is good at working with information that is arranged in a specific order. Successive processing is also important whenever comprehension is based on
appreciation of the order of events. Use the following recommendations as a guideline to nurture
the kind of successful experiences children need in order to help them discover and use their
strength in Successive processing:
1. Identify a child’s strength. Formal testing may reveal a child’s strength in Successive
processing. However, good observation and use of the Cognitive Assessment System
(CAS; Naglieri, 1999) may also help identify a child’s strength.
Successive processing, and the process should be explained to the child (see the
handout Teaching Students About Successive Processing, p. 62). Help the child recognize that he or she has ability and control by providing experiences that match his or
her strengths. In other words, give the child opportunities to show what he or she can
do by encouraging him or her to do things that involve Successive processing. Some
suggestions include
page 1 of 2
Nurturing Strengths: Successive Processing (continued)
• Keeping track of the steps in cooking something
• Working and remembering numbers
• Sounding out difficult words and using phonics
• Creating step-by-step instructions for how to do something
• Alphabetizing or ordering information
• Sequencing pictures or a slide show
he or she does. Children feel more successful when they are acknowledged and appreciated for what they do. When a child has a strength in Successive processing, it
should be celebrated so the child is proud of the strength and comfortable using that
strength, as well as encouraged to use it whenever possible. Those around the child
should watch for times when the child uses or could use good Successive processing,
point it out, and recognize it.
challenges at an early age. When a child has a strength in Successive processing, he
or she might not readily use it, but with time and encouragement it will develop.
Who Should Use Nurturing Strengths: Successive Processing?
The core feature of Successive processing is the ability to understand the specific order of information so that the parts are correctly sequenced. Children who are good at this should be encouraged to use the strength whenever possible. Creating situations that highlight this process
and celebrating children’s abilities will help them feel competent and successful while they continue to learn. Use the ideas presented here and in the handouts Successive Processing Explained (p. 61) and Teaching Students About Successive Processing (p. 62) as a springboard for
more ways to nurture a child’s strength in Successive processing ability.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Using Plans to Overcome Anxiety
Some children feel very anxious when they approach a new situation, and they are not sure what
to do. Anxiety is a very common emotion for anyone, especially children, and it can be particularly
strong if a child does not have a plan for how to handle a situation. Many times children who do
not have a good plan may avoid the situation. Sometimes they may become very fearful, or they
may actually have real physical symptoms, such as headaches or stomachaches. The more the
situation is avoided, the more likely children will withdraw when anxious. Although withdrawal can
make children less anxious, it is not a good long-term solution. Children who are very anxious in
new situations may lack a good plan for what to do. To stop this cycle, their anxiety needs to be
recognized, and they need to be taught how they can plan for a situation.
How to Use Plans to Overcome Anxiety
Follow these steps to help anxious children use plans to reduce their anxiety:
1. Recognize anxiety. First, adults working with children need to recognize which students’ anxiety is interfering with the ability to be successful. Sometimes it may be obvious because a child says he or she is scared, hides, or cries in response to a difficult
task. In other cases, anxious children hide their anxiety by avoiding activities, acting
tough, or saying they do not care. Watching for these signs and recognizing that they
may indicate anxiety is the first step.
2. Determine how a plan might help. Once it is recognized that a child is anxious about
something, look to determine how a plan could help. Try to determine what part of the
situation is causing the anxiety. For instance, a student trying out for a new sport may
be comfortable talking to peers but may be anxious about what to do. Conversely, a
student meeting new people may be comfortable with what to do, but may not know
what to talk about. Give the children some ideas of how they could respond in these
situations.
3. Develop a plan. When it is clear what is making the child anxious, the next step is to
make specific plans for how to handle it. This may include specifically figuring out what
to do, where to go, or what to say. For instance, if a student is going to call to ask
about a volunteer job, some specific plans should be made about whom to call, what
questions to ask, and what information to provide. Plans can be written out, discussed, and/or memorized. Sometimes simply talking to a child before something is
about to happen and giving the child some ideas for what to do is enough to reduce
his or her anxiety.
4. Practice the plan. Often it is important to practice the plan. If a student has actually
had a chance to do what makes him or her anxious, even if it is just role play, it can
help reduce anxiety. For instance, if a student has to give a speech, the student can
page 1 of 2
Using Plans to Overcome Anxiety (continued)
plan out what to do and say and then practice it in front of a couple of friends or family
who are supportive.
5. Revise and/or add plans. It is important that the child monitor the success of the plan.
Sometimes after a plan has been used it becomes clear that the initial plan is not best.
In this case, a new plan can be developed. In other cases, additional plans can be
added. For example, if a student is going to be interviewed but does not know what
the questions will be, he or she can come up with several plans for how to respond
and practice them all.
Using Plans and Practice to Overcome Anxiety
All children can benefit from using plans and practice for situations that make them anxious. However, children weak in Planning often have particular trouble creating a plan for new and challenging situations, which in turn can create anxiety. In fact, some children low in Planning may first be
identified as highly anxious even though that is not the cause of their difficulty. They need help
planning!
Resource
Kline, F.M., & Silver, L.B. (Eds.). (2004). The educator’s guide to mental health issues in the classroom. Baltimore:
Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
page 2 of 2
Summarization Strategy for Reading Comprehension
Comprehension of written passages often demands that the child see how different parts of the
story are connected. Making and understanding the connections between parts of a story and
seeing the big picture requires that the child understand how all of the facts are related to one another. A reading strategy that teaches children to see how the parts of a story are connected will
help them better understand the text. The technique called summarization is such a method. Because not all students learn how to summarize a story on their own, it is necessary to specifically
teach some children how to do this.
Summarization is an effective strategy to help students enhance understanding of what is read.
The method requires that a student rewrite or outline only the important parts of a passage. Summarization encourages a student to look for the most important parts and determine what parts of
a story are less important and what should be ignored. This also helps students see how different
parts of a story relate to each other, including how parts of the text fit with the title or main topic.
How to Teach Summarization
When students need help, the teacher should encourage them to use modified or elaborated
methods of summarization that best fit the students and the situation. The first step is to show the
students how to summarize a story (i.e., model the strategy).
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ask the students for the overall idea of the selected reading.
Have the students help write a general statement about the story.
Ask them to list the main ideas with two or three supporting ideas for each main idea.
Give each part of the story a heading and record important details that the students
help to identify.
Ask the students what information is and is not important.
Ask the students to describe the parts of the passage.
Relate the important parts of the passage to the main topic and/or the title.
Have the students write a summary that includes each of these parts.
Have the students check the summary against what was read to see if anything important was left out.
The second step is to allow the students to practice summarization with help.
• Guide the students to underline or circle the most important parts.
• Encourage the students to look back in the text and scan (but not reread everything).
• Encourage the use of overall or general labels for information (e.g., ducks, cows,
sheep, and chickens are barnyard animals).
• Instruct the students to write down important ideas, order the ideas by importance,
and ignore unimportant information.
page 1 of 2
Summarization Strategy for Reading Comprehension (continued)
The final step is to encourage the independent use of the summarization strategy.
• Students should independently perform the activities in Step 2.
• Have students check each other’s summaries.
• Each student should check his or her own summary for key components.
After the strategy has been taught and monitored, the steps can be given to students or posted
in the room as a reminder of how to use the summarization strategy. It is also important that students practice the summarization strategy and get feedback from the teacher about the quality of
their summaries. Some other guidelines for teachers follow:
•
•
•
•
•
Use direct explanation. Teach why, when, and where to apply summarization strategies.
Model skills. Talk through examples and show how the skill is applied.
Break down complicated parts into small steps.
Summarize short paragraphs before proceeding to longer passages.
Phase out teacher direction and phase in student use throughout instruction.
Who Should Learn Summarization?
Summarization is likely to benefit students who score low in reading comprehension. Because this
intervention helps children see how the parts are all connected, it involves Simultaneous processing. Students who have a Simultaneous processing weakness may have a particularly difficult
time reading for understanding or comprehending all the parts of a story and how they relate to
each other. This technique may also be used with children who have a Planning weakness. It
helps them approach reading in a more strategic (i.e., planful) way that prompts them in a stepby-step manner to look for important and related parts of a story.
Resources
McCormick, S. (1995). Instructing students who have literacy problems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Understanding Text
Good reading comprehension requires understanding the meaning of what is written even when it
is not specifically stated. This level of reading comprehension involves relating the information the
reader already knows and information from reading earlier parts of the text to information being
read (Klein, 1988). Extended questioning and self-questioning are two techniques that help students make the connections among facts known, information from earlier text, and what they are
currently reading so that they are better at comprehending what they read.
Extended Questioning and Self-Questioning
Extended questioning and self-questioning help students think more deeply about what they are
reading and encourage them to make the necessary connections between what they know, have
read, and are reading. Extended questioning is an approach to improving understanding that
teaches children to analyze the text through questioning (by another person or the child him- or
herself). The questions are intended to produce elaborations on the to-be-learned facts and connections to what is known.
How to Teach Extended Questioning and Self-Questioning
This can be done by individual students (through self-questioning) or students in interactive small
groups (through extended questioning). This intervention can be accomplished by teaching students to ask questions about the text they have read.
1. Assign students to groups.
2. Have the students read the text.
3. Have students ask each other questions, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Why are you studying this passage?
What are the main ideas in each paragraph? Underline them.
Can you think of some questions about the main idea you have underlined?
What do you already know about this topic?
What do you want to learn about this topic?
How does this relate to what you have already learned?
Tell students how to learn the answers to their questions by always looking back at the
questions and answers to see how each question and answer provides them with
more information.
4. Ask the class these questions as a group, list answers to the questions, and note the
elaborations.
page 1 of 2
Plans for Understanding Text (continued)
Who Should Learn Extended Questioning and Self-Questioning?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who score low in reading comprehension. To comprehend text, students must understand all the parts of a text as well as other information and how it
relates to the text, which requires Simultaneous processing. This intervention may be helpful for
students with a weakness in Simultaneous processing because it helps children think more
deeply about the text and how it relates to other information. This technique may also be used for
children with a Planning weakness. It helps them approach reading in a more strategic (i.e., planful) way that prompts them in a step-by-step manner to more deeply think about and understand
what they read.
Resources
Klein, M. (1988). Teaching reading comprehension and vocabulary: A guide for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Reading Comprehension
Good readers use a variety of strategies to understand what they read. They combine their background knowledge with context cues to create meaning, they monitor their progress as they read,
and they evaluate what they have read (e.g., Is the content believable? Does it make sense?).
This thoughtful approach to reading takes good planning. Good comprehension instruction
should incorporate not only decoding and understanding what is read, but also approaching
the text in a systematic or planful way in order to comprehend what is read. When students
encounter difficult texts, they have more success if they use multiple comprehension strategies
(Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995).
How to Teach Plans for Reading Comprehension
The following strategies can be easily taught and are very helpful for readers who are struggling
with comprehension, especially those who do not have good plans for comprehension. A few
strategies for reading comprehension are described. Teachers should make the strategies and
mental processes for good comprehension explicit in their instruction by describing how and
why to use strategies. Have students engage in these activities when they read:
• Predict upcoming content by relating prior knowledge to ideas already encountered in
text. This includes checking whether the predictions made were consistent with what
happens in the text.
• React to text by relating ideas to prior knowledge. This is sometimes stimulated by
encouraging students to integrate their background knowledge and relate it to text.
• Construct images representing the ideas in the text.
• Slow down, read more carefully, and check back in the text when the meaning is
unclear.
• Generate questions in reaction to the text, perhaps by using specific questions or
asking methods, with the answers then pursued by reading groups.
• Summarize the text using notes that capture the important ideas.
• Use story maps. Using this strategy is a plan to improve comprehension.
The teacher’s role in strategy use includes explanation, modeling, and providing feedback.
Pressley and Woloshyn (1995) suggested the following tips for teachers:
• Use strategy terms (e.g., summarizing or question generation) and define the terms
when necessary.
• Model strategies by thinking aloud while applying the strategy during reading, including
explaining the reasoning for applying particular strategies.
• Emphasize that strategies are coordinated with one another before, during, and after
reading the text, and that different strategies are appropriate at different points in a text.
page 1 of 2
Plans for Reading Comprehension (continued)
• Tell students the purpose of the strategy lesson (e.g., to understand stories by using
the imagery strategy along with other strategies).
• Discuss with students how they benefit from strategy use (i.e., how strategies help their
comprehension), emphasizing that strategies are a means for obtaining comprehension
and learning goals.
Who Should Learn Plans for Reading Comprehension?
These plans are likely to help students who have difficulty with reading comprehension. Students
having difficulty in comprehension and who show deficits in Planning may find the direct instruction and support of these strategies particularly helpful. Because these students may not be able
to generate their own strategies for comprehension, they may find success when provided with
specific and multiple strategies as well as an environment that suggests and supports strategy
use.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Chunking for Reading/Decoding
Reading/decoding requires the student to look at the sequence of the letters in words and understand the organization of specific sounds in order. Some students have difficulty with long sequences of letters and may benefit from instruction that helps them break the word into smaller,
more manageable units, called chunks. Sometimes the order of the sounds in a word is more
easily organized if the entire word is broken into these units. These chunks can be combined into
units for accurate decoding. Chunking for reading/decoding is a strategy designed to do that.
How to Teach Chunking for Reading/Decoding
Teachers should first teach the children what it means to chunk or group information so that it can
be remembered more easily. Use number sequences and letters for illustration (e.g., how telephone numbers are grouped). Then introduce
words to be read and break the words into
Plan
Action
units, such as re-mem-ber for remember or
Look at the word.
“I see the word beginning.”
car-pet
for carpet. Try to organize the groups
“I see the chunk ginn in the middle.”
Find the chunk.
Sound out the chunk.
“I say, ‘ginn.’”
of letters in the word in ways that are natural
“I say, ‘be.’”
Sound out the beginning.
(see Figure 1). For example, re-me-mb-er orSound out the chunk.
“I say, ‘ginn.’”
ganizes the letters in groups of two, but that
Sound out the ending.
“I say, ‘ing.’”
is not as easy to remember as re-mem-ber
“I say, ‘beginning.’”
Say the word.
because it does not follow the way people
Figure 1. Recommended organization of letter groups in a word.
naturally say the sounds.
Who Should Learn Chunking for Reading/Decoding?
Children who have difficulty with sounding out words are likely to find chunking for reading /
decoding helpful. Children who have difficulty working with things in order often have low Successive processing ability and may find this strategy particularly helpful. This strategy also teaches
children with low Planning processing scores some ways of reading.
Resources
page 1 of 1
Word Families for Reading/Decoding
Reading/decoding involves making sense out of printed letters and words and includes understanding the sounds that letters represent and how letters work together to make sounds.
Knowing what order letters, letter sounds, and words must be in to make sense requires careful
examination of the successive series or order of the sounds. A strategy that encourages the comparison of known words to new words with similar spelling patterns may be helpful for the student
having trouble with decoding a word or text for the first time. Using a strategy for decoding also
provides plans needed for recognition of details such as letter orders (ie or ei), punctuation, focus
on the story line, and so forth. Word families is such a strategy.
Word Families
Using word families for reading/decoding, students are taught to compare and contrast words
they do not know to words they do know that are similar in order to help pronounce them. Words
that sound the same often are spelled similarly, and children who know how to pronounce a word
such as tank could make a reasonable guess at rank. The same student might also have a good
chance at pronouncing bank, Frank, and thank if he or she were to recognize that these words
are similar to tank. This helps the student read a word without relying on the successive nature or
order of the letters in the word.
How to Teach Word Families for Reading/Decoding
One way to present this strategy is to explicitly teach it and then introduce known target words
along with five to six new words that can be related to the words the students already know. Students are encouraged to learn the new words by analogy and are asked why and how the strategy helps them.
Teachers can present each word on a sheet of paper and have the students write two or three
other words that share the same spelling pattern. (This also helps children with spelling problems).
After this stage, the students should be asked to read passages containing the new words and to
use analogies to decode them. The teacher should always model the use of analogies while reading and provide feedback for each student independently using the strategy. It is important to
consider that this reading method need not be confined to simple words or comparisons, such
as bug, hug, and rug. More complex words and analogies can be made; for example, the words
at, ten, and the suffix -tion may be put together or analogized to form attention. Although not a
direct combination, this analogy can serve to help the student approach the word thoughtfully
and independently.
For more advanced levels of reading, the teacher should help students to automatically use the
compare and contrast strategy. They may be allowed to work together, discussing how to figure
page 1 of 2
Word Families for Reading/Decoding (continued)
out new words. Students should be encouraged to explore additional words that do not match.
For example, the words pull and gull look quite similar but sound different. In this stage, the
teacher may begin to present words that look similar yet sound different along with the list of
more difficult target words. Also, teachers may begin to explore word meanings (e.g., the words
read and read), how words can be put together to form bigger words (e.g., classroom), and prefixes and suffixes. This focus on the structure of words helps children to recognize the patterns,
inconsistencies, and the general makeup of words.
Once the strategy is introduced, the teacher has modeled it, and the students have practiced it,
students may be simply encouraged to use the strategy whenever they encounter new words. It
may be helpful for the teacher to continue to post a list of words the students know by sight that
they may refer to when they encounter a new word. Throughout these stages of instruction, the
teacher’s role is to
•
•
•
•
Discuss the rationale or helpfulness of the strategy.
Use and model the strategy.
Provide ample opportunity for practice and feedback.
Encourage the use of the strategy.
Who Should Learn Word Families for Reading/Decoding?
Children who have poor reading/decoding skills may benefit from using word families for reading/decoding. Children who need help with Successive processing skills are likely to have decoding problems (see Naglieri, 1999), and those with a Planning weakness often have few plans to
help them learn how to decode. This strategy for reading/decoding should be applied when the
child has a Successive and/or Planning weakness along with reading/decoding problems.
Resources
page 2 of 2
Story Grammar for Reading Comprehension
Traditional stories that students read follow a general order. Students who are aware of this order
sometimes find it easier to follow along, anticipate events, and comprehend the story. This requires an awareness of the sequential nature of stories. Instruction that makes the order of stories
explicit is likely to be helpful to students. This intervention is designed to help students focus on
the order of things they read. Stories generally have a specific grammar and order:
1. Introduction, including a description of
• The main character
• The setting
2. A problem encountered by the main character
3. Events or attempts on the part of the main character to solve the problem
4. A solution or resolution to the problem
Students who are aware of the order of a story have a structure to relate to and a way to anticipate the events of the story. Teaching this structure and anticipation reduces the amount of effort
needed to read a story and helps the student focus on the important parts of the story.
How to Teach Story Grammar
A basic idea for helping a student with Successive processing problems is to provide strategies to
remember or practice the order of things. Instruction should begin by describing the idea of story
grammar, the order of most stories, and each of the parts. Once story grammar has been described, one (or both) of two approaches can be used.
1. The student reads a story and recalls the parts and order of events in the story. This
generates an opportunity for the teacher. The teacher can indicate any mistakes and
instruct the student to find where he or she went wrong and try again. Simple stories
should be used first; the student can proceed to more complex stories as he or she
masters basic skills.
2. The student may also be provided with a card (or poster on the wall) that lists the parts
of a story and the order of the story. The student should be instructed to reference the
card and determine where in the order he or she is.
Who Should Learn Story Grammar?
Story grammar is useful for students who have trouble following or understanding what they read.
This intervention may be particularly helpful for students with Successive processing problems by
providing a story structure to follow (Naglieri, 1999). It is also intended to help the student focus
on the order of the story.
page 1 of 2
Story Grammar for Reading Comprehension (continued)
Resources
Newby, R.B., Caldwell, J., & Recht, D.R. (1989). Improving the reading comprehension of children with dysphonetic
and dyseidetic dyslexia using story grammar. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(6), 373–380.
page 2 of 2
Reading/Decoding Rules
For students to decode words, they must make sense out of printed letters and words and translate letter sequences into sounds. This requires understanding the sounds letters represent and
how they work together to make sounds. Students should know and apply a handful of useful
rules for decoding words. This strategic approach to reading/decoding can help students who
have difficulty with sequences.
When a child uses a rule or plan to read, the answer is obtained by thinking rather than just relying
on remembering the string of letters or sounding out each letter. For example, a student may want
to read the word quiet. The child can be taught that the letter q is always written with u and
sounds like “kw.” This strategy changes the task from one that demands a lot of sequencing to
one that involves using a plan. The following is a number of rules and strategies for decoding (and
spelling) words. These rules may be varied, and the more memorable they are for the student, the
more likely they are to be used and remembered. Students need to also understand that these
are rules of thumb and that the rules do not work for every word.
How to Teach Reading/Decoding Rules
It is likely to be helpful to teach a few of these rules at a time while giving the student ample opportunity to learn, use, and practice them using target words in reading and writing. Once the student has mastered using the rule correctly and has begun to recognize some of the target words
on sight, new rules and words may be added. The following list is not intended to be exhaustive
but includes many of the major rules used for spelling. More can be found on the Internet by
doing a search on spelling rules.
•
•
•
•
•
The letter q is always written with a u.
The letters qu always sound like “kw.”
The letter c before e, i, or y sounds like “s” (e.g., cent, city, cycle).
The letter g before e, i, or y may sound like “j” (e.g., gentle).
Vowels a, e, o, and u usually sound like “ey,” “ee,” “ai,” “oh,” and “yu” at the end of
a syllable (e.g., belong, protect, futile).
• The letters or may sound like “er” when w comes before it (e.g., work, worm).
• The letter combinations ti, si, and ci are used to say “sh” at the beginning of any syllable after the first one (e.g., nation, session, special). The combination ch sounds like
“sh” in a word of French origin (e.g., chic).
• The letter combination si is used to say “sh” when the syllable before it ends in s
(e.g., session) and when the base word has an s where the word changes (e.g., tense,
tension).
page 1 of 2
Reading/Decoding Rules (continued)
• When a two-syllable word ends with a vowel and a consonant, double the final consonant when adding a vowel suffix if the accent is on the last syllable (e.g., admit, admitted, admitting).
• Vowels i and o may sound like “ih” and “aw” when followed by two consonants (e.g.,
gift, bond).
• The letters dge, which sound like “j,” may be used after a single vowel that sounds like
“ah,” “eh,” “ih,” “aw,” and “uh” (e.g., badge, edge, ridge, lodge, fudge).
• Only one word ends in -sede: supersede. Only three words end in -ceed: exceed, proceed, succeed. All other words ending with this pronunciation use -cede (e.g.,
concede, precede, recede).
Who Should Learn These Rules?
Children who have trouble with basic reading and decoding may find using reading/decoding
rules helpful. Also, children who score low in Successive processing and who have problems with
reading/decoding may find reading/decoding rules particularly helpful because they change the
successive nature of reading and give them a plan to figure out words.
Resources
An excellent resource can be found at http://www.ezschool.com.
Moats, L.C. (2000). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
page 2 of 2
Segmenting Words for
Reading/Decoding and Spelling
Decoding a written word requires the person to make sense out of printed letters and words and
to translate letter sequences into sounds. This demands understanding the sounds that letters
represent and how letters work together to make sounds. Sometimes words can be segmented
into parts for easier and faster reading. The word into is a good example because it contains two
words that a child may already know: in and to. Segmenting words can be a helpful strategy for
reading as well as spelling.
How to Teach Segmenting Words
Segmenting words is an effective strategy to help students read and spell. By dividing the words
into groups, students also learn about how words are constructed and how the parts are related
to one another. Students should be taught that words can be broken down into segments or
chunks. The teacher should present the following methods in a direct and explicit manner:
• Take the word apart. Break down the word into its component parts or syllables. For
example, look at the word reshaped. It includes the main word shape with the prefix reand the ending -d. Knowing that the main word shape has re and d added makes it
easier to recognize than to try and sound out r-e-s-h-a-p-e-d.
• Identify prefixes. A prefix is a letter or group of letters at the beginning of a word. When
a word has a prefix, imagine that there is a hyphen between the word and the prefix,
and you can usually see the main word. For example, misstep includes the prefix misand the word step that are simply put together.
• Identify suffixes. Similarly, when a word has a suffix (i.e., a letter or group of letters at
the end), you can often use a strategy similar to the prefix strategy. Just imagine a hyphen between the word and the suffix (e.g., heart-less).
Who Should Learn This Technique?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who are poor in reading and spelling. Because this intervention gives students strategies (i.e., plans) for solving the reading or spelling activity, it involves
Planning processing. For this reason, students who have difficulty with Planning should be taught
to use this strategy. This strategy should also be used with students who are good in Planning but
have a Successive processing weakness and problems with reading and spelling because it will
help them approach reading in a more strategic way that does not rely on their problem areas.
Resources
An excellent resource can be found at http://www.ezschool.com.
page 1 of 1
Letter–Sound Awareness
English is based on an alphabet in which letters and groups of letters represent specific sounds
(phonemes). A basic part of reading is recognizing that words are made up of a sequence of
these sounds. This is called phonemic awareness. For example the letters h, a, and s include the
sounds “h,” “ah,” and “z” and can be put together to form the word has. Students often sound
out words they do not know using phonemic rules. To do this, they must organize the sounds of
the letters in the correct sequence or order. Providing students with ways to pay attention to the
sounds in words and to practice the sequencing of those sounds is likely to help them improve
in reading.
How to Teach Phonemic Awareness Strategies
Phonemic awareness is not necessarily easy for students to understand because we are more
concerned with the meaning of what we are saying than the sounds we make when we speak.
The following strategies are ways for teachers to teach students phonemic awareness and to
practice putting together words, their sounds, and the sequences of those sounds.
Here are the steps for the Letter Switch strategy:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Write a word on the board (e.g., book).
Guide students to sound out the word (“b-oo-k”).
Replace or add one letter of the word on the board (e.g., blook).
Ask students to sound out the new word (“bl-oo-k”).
Continue with variations, including changes to consonants, vowels, and beginning and
ending letters.
6. Change word parts and focus on the sounds of the word parts (e.g., booking, booked,
boot, reboot).
7. Complete each word by asking the students to use the word in a sentence. This encourages them to consider the word’s pronunciation and its meaning.
Here are the steps for the Chained Words game:
1. Select 10 target words to be learned.
2. Break the words into their sound parts (e.g., “c” and “at” for cat) and write the parts on
separate cards.
3. Place cards face down and ask the student to pick one.
4. Have the student say the word part and then pick another card.
5. Have the student say the second word part, then put it with the first, saying both word
parts and blending them together.
6. Ask the student if the word is real or not. If it is not, have the student replace one card
and continue with Step 4.
page 1 of 2
Letter–Sound Awareness (continued)
7. If the word is real, the student gets to keep the cards and start again. The student is
finished when all the cards are gone.
As a variation, words can be longer and more cards can be picked up to make complete words.
These strategies are only two of many possible ways for helping students improve their phonemic
awareness. The resources section includes sources that have more instructional plans.
Who Should Learn Phonemic Awareness?
All students are likely to benefit from instruction in phonemic awareness. Organizing sequences of
sounds in order to form meaningful words requires Successive processing. Students who have a
Successive processing weakness may have a particularly difficult time with basic reading, phonemic awareness, and sounding out words. These students may find this intervention helpful.
Resources
Adams, M.J., Foorman, B.R., Lundberg, I., & Beeler, T. (1998). Phonemic awareness in young children: A classroom
curriculum. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Richards, R.G. (1999). The source for dyslexia and dysgraphia. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Word Syllables
Students must be able to break an unfamiliar word they are trying to read into its parts. This helps
them sound the word out and then blend it together. For example, a child trying to pronounce the
word manipulate can break it down into its syllables, “man-,” “-ip-,” “-u-,” and “-late.” Broken
down this way, each part can be sounded out and blended together. This requires understanding
the order or relationship of each letter or word part to the next. Providing students with a strategy
to break words down into their syllables may prove useful.
How to Teach Syllable Division Rules
The following rules are ways for students to divide words up so they can more easily sound them
out. It helps students by giving them another way to figure out a word, other than sounding each
letter out.
1. Words that are made of two words—compound words—are divided between the two
words (e.g., race-car).
2. Words with two consonants are divided between the two consonants (e.g., lit-ter).
3. In words with -le, the consonant before -le is included in the syllable (e.g., cir-cle).
4. In words that end in -ed after a syllable ending in d or t, the -ed is another syllable
(e.g., punt-ed).
5. Words with a consonant between two vowels in which the first vowel is long are usually divided so that the consonant is with the second syllable (e.g., pa-per).
6. Words with a consonant between two vowels in which the first vowel is short are usually divided so that the consonant is with the first syllable (e.g., shov-el).
7. Words that have two different consonants between two vowels are usually divided between the consonants (e.g., sis-ter).
Who Should Learn Syllable Division Rules?
Students who have trouble sounding out and reading words may find syllable division rules helpful. Students who have a Successive processing weakness may have a particularly difficult time
with basic reading and sounding out words, and they may find this strategy especially useful.
These rules may be used to help the student learn and practice sounding out words in a different
and strategic way.
Resources
More examples, written instructions, lessons, and classroom handouts can often be found in libraries, educational bookstores, educational resource centers, and online. An excellent resource
can be found at http://www.ezschool.com.
page 1 of 2
Plans for Word Syllables (continued)
page 2 of 2
Improving Reading Skills Online:
Emphasizing Planning
Engaging Students with Online Learning Games
Even though children like to play video games, one of the major criticisms about online educational games has been that they do not excite students enough to make them want to play repeatedly or as frequently as mass-marketed, recreational computer games. There is a growing
body of research that suggests, however, that Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) programs do
engage children so that academic skills can be acquired. These online programs engage players
by allowing them to control the action of a character who performs various tasks in a simulated
world and acquires reading and math skills at the same time. For example, the player can learn to
read while controlling a character in the game that is doing things that require learning. The children become completely immersed in the online world and learn at the same time. These digital
games merge learning and playing by using an action/adventure and role-playing format. A major
strength of using DGBL as a learning tool is that children are very attracted to this media, even
those who may not have had much access to computer games in their homes. Because DGBL is
online, children can access it at a library or community center that has Internet. Children do not
have to have an expensive computer or game console to play and learn.
There are several digital game-based learning programs to choose from, but there are two that
were designed to teach academic skills with consideration of the PASS processing abilities discussed in this book. These are Ramps to Reading (RTR) and Skatekidsonline (SKO)
(http://www.skatekidsonline.com). RTR is intended for children in grades K–2, and SKO is intended for grades 3–5. Some games included in these programs help children learn to read by
emphasizing the use of a strategy for success, which encourages the use of Planning ability. This
is accomplished when a narrator suggests that the player think about how to complete the game
(e.g., ways of remembering the order of letters or sounds) if the player makes a mistake. RTR includes three games (Design-a-Door, Silly Scenes, and Zoo Adventures) and SKO includes six
games (Beach Builder, Board Tech, Gallop Park, Skate Create, Skidmarks, and Soda Jerk). Several games from these programs that help children improve reading through better use of Planning processing are described next.
RTR Games that Involve Planning Processing
• Design-a-Door. The player is shown a scene with a door that is decorated with a design made up of different combinations of shapes and colors. After viewing the design
for 10 seconds, the user is presented with a blank door and has to place the shapes in
their correct colors on the door in the correct orientation. Each time the player makes an
page 1 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Planning (continued)
error, the narrator tells the player a strategy to help remember the design, such as “Figure out a trick to help you remember the design.” This direct instruction encourages
children to use a strategy for remembering and thereby teaches them to use Planning
ability.
• Silly Scenes: The player is shown a written description, which is read by a narrator, of
people in a beach scene (e.g., The girl pulls the boy in the wagon.). The player can view
the sentence for as long as he or she wishes, and a replay button allows the child to
hear the statement as many times as requested. The user completes the scene by selecting the characters or objects to match the description. The player is given three
tries to recreate each scene. After each incorrect attempt, a narrator tells the player to
use a strategy to help remember and gives a suggestion (e.g., “Picture the scene in
your head.”) for strategies to use. This instruction encourages children to use a strategy
for remembering and this teaches them to use Planning ability.
SKO Games that Involve Planning
• Skidmarks: The player is shown a written description of a place to move a car on a
map to accomplish some task (e.g., bring a present to someone across town). After the
player has viewed the sentence for as long as he or she wishes, the user is presented
with an aerial view of a town and he or she moves the car to the location(s). The player
is told to complete the task using a plan so that the path the user takes is most efficient. The game also requires the player to consider how to complete the task using
the least amount of gas. All of this requires understanding the various ways of traveling
around the environment, making decisions about how to proceed, self-correcting when
necessary, and using the best strategy.
• Soda Jerk: The player controls a character (a waiter) in a restaurant scene whose task
is to get the appropriate food items to the customers. Additional customers increase
the need for a plan to fill the orders in a timely manner. The game requires managing
several demands, selecting which customers to respond to, and careful consideration
of how to accomplish the goal of meeting every character’s request. All of this requires
considerable monitoring of the environment, making decisions about how to proceed,
self-correcting when necessary, and using the best strategy.
• Beach Builder: The player is shown a written description, which is read by a narrator, of
people in a beach scene (e.g., Gabe is sitting on a red chair under the umbrella.). The
player can view the sentence for as long as he or she wishes, but it is read one time
only. The user is then presented with the scene of a beach with people and objects that
they place in the scene to match the description. This portion of the task involves Simultaneous ability, but Planning ability is encouraged after each incorrect attempt when
a narrator tells the player to use a strategy to help remember and gives some suggestions for strategies to use. When a child is encouraged to think about making decisions
about how to do a task and self-correcting when necessary, Planning is being taught.
page 2 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Planning (continued)
How and When to Use RTR and SKO
Children who are poor in Planning processing ability often do not have any strategies for learning
to read or write. RTR and SKO games should be used to help these children learn to use strategies when reading and to teach them that Planning is a key to improving learning. Teachers and
parents should reinforce the idea that thinking of a plan to do something is important to being
successful, whether playing a game or learning.
It is also important to remember that RTR and SKO are games that can be used to help children
learn to read and spell. They provide engaging activities that should augment regular reading instruction, not replace it. The games should be used on a regular basis by the students as a part
of the curriculum. Teachers should not use the game as a prize for good work or good behavior,
but, instead, encourage the students to use the program on a regular basis. Parents can use the
games as an additional reading instructional activity at home. Children love to play games, and
RTR and SKO are games children will enjoy, but it is important to remember that each of these
games is a serious educational tool.
Resources
RTR and SKO are on the web at http://www.skatekidsonline.com.
Naglieri, J.A., & Conway, C. (2009) Empirical validation of an on-line literacy program using DIBELS for Title 1
students. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Naglieri, J.A., & Conway, C. (2009) Evaluation of an on-line literacy program for Title I students using DIBELS: A replication and extension study. Manuscript submitted for publication.
Pivec, M. (2007). Editorial: Play and learn: Potentials of game-based learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 38, 387–393.
Prensky, M. (2005). True believers: Digital game-based learning in the military. Journal Tech Trends, 45(5), 34–42.
page 3 of 3
Emphasizing Attention
engage children so that academic skills can be acquired. These online programs allow the player
to control the action of a character who performs various tasks in a simulated world and acquires
reading and math skills at the same time. For example, the player can learn to read while controlling a character in the game who is doing things that require learning. The children become completely immersed in the online world and learn at the same time. These digital games merge learning and playing by using an action/adventure and role-playing format. A major strength of using
DGBL as a learning tool is that children are very attracted to this media. Even those who may not
have much access to computer games in their homes can use them because they can be accessed online at a library, school, or community center.
were designed to teach academic skills with consideration of the PASS processing abilities discussed in this book. These are Ramps to Reading (RTR) and Skatekidsonline (SKO)
(www.skatekidsonline.com). RTR is intended for children in grades K–2, and SKO is intended for
grades 3–5. Some games included in these programs help children learn to read by emphasizing
the importance of Attention. This is accomplished by the design of specific games in RTR (Animal
Roundup, Scuba Dude, and Zoo Adventures) and SKO (Skidmarks and Soda Jerk). Several
games from these programs that help children improve reading through better attention are described next.
RTR Games that Involve Attention
• Animal Roundup: The player is told by a narrator to identify animals by their size by selecting the up arrow for large and down arrow for small animals. Each time the animal
walks in front of a cage, the player selects the key that corresponds to his or her response (big or little). The game requires the child to focus on the relevant aspects of the
stimulus (e.g., a big or little animal) and resist responding to distracting stimuli (e.g., an
up arrow that appears above a small animal). As the levels become more difficult, the
big animals may be presented small in size on the screen and small animals presented
in large format. This places considerable demands on the child’s ability to attend.
page 1 of 2
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Attention (continued)
SKO Games that Involve Attention
• Soda Jerk: The player controls a character (a waiter) in a restaurant scene whose task
is to get the appropriate food items to the customers. The game requires maintaining
the association of customers and their order in an environment that is very distracting.
For example, as customers wait, they make sounds and are visually distracting (e.g.,
they make repeated requests, then shake, vibrate, and finally explode). The task becomes very demanding on the child’s ability to attend.
Children who are poor in Attention often do not attend very well to details. RTR and SKO games
should be used to emphasize the need to attend and to help these children practice focusing and
resisting distractions. This can improve performance in the game and learning in general. Furthermore, while teaching Attention, these games also reinforce reading skills while being engaging.
It is important to remember that RTR and SKO are games that can be used to help children learn
to read and spell. They provide engaging activities that should augment regular reading instruction, not replace it. The games should be used on a regular basis by the students as a part of the
curriculum. Teachers should not use the game as a prize for good work or good behavior, but, instead, encourage the students to use the program on a regular basis. Parents can use the games
as an additional reading instructional activity at home. Children love to play games, and RTR and
SKO are games the children will enjoy, but it is important to remember that each of these games
is a serious educational tool.
Resources
RTR and SKO are on the web at www.skatekidsonline.com.
page 2 of 2
Emphasizing Simultaneous Processing
engage children so that academic skills can be acquired. These online programs engage players
by allowing them to control the action of a character who performs various tasks in a simulated
world and acquires reading and math skills at the same time. For example, the player can learn to
read while controlling a character in the game who is doing things that require learning. The children become completely immersed in the online world and learn at the same time. These digital
games merge learning and playing by using an action/adventure and role-playing format. A major
strength of using DGBL as a learning tool is that children are very attracted to this media, even
those who may not have had much access to computer games in their homes. Because DGBL is
online, children can access it at a library or community center that has Internet. Children do not
have to have an expensive computer or game console to play and learn.
were designed to teach academic skills with consideration of the PASS processing abilities discussed in this book. These are Ramps to Reading (RTR) and Skatekidsonline (SKO) (http://www
.skatekidsonline.com). RTR is intended for children in grades K–2, and SKO is intended for
grades 3–5. Several games included in these programs help children learn to read by emphasizing the interrelated and spatial way information is organized (Simultaneous processing). In addition, if the player makes a mistake, a narrator suggests that the player think about, for example,
ways of remembering the way information is organized into a whole. This encourages students to
use a strategy to solve the problem, which encourages the use of Planning ability. RTR includes
three games (Design-a-Door, Silly Scenes, and Zoo Adventures) and SKO includes four games
(Beach Builder, Board Tech, Gallop Park, and Skate Create). A few games from each of these
programs that help children improve reading comprehension while teaching better use of
Simultaneous and Planning processing abilities are described next.
RTR Games that Involve Simultaneous Processing
• Design-a-Door: The player is shown a scene with a door that is decorated with a design made up of different combinations of shapes and colors. After viewing the design
for 10 seconds, the user is presented with a blank door and has to place the shapes in
their correct colors on the door in the correct orientation. Each time the player makes
page 1 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Simultaneous Processing (continued)
an error, the narrator tells the player a strategy to help remember the design, such as
“Figure out a trick to help you remember the design.” This direct instruction encourages
children to use a strategy for remembering and thereby teaches them to use Planning
ability.
• Silly Scenes: The player is shown a written description, which is read by a narrator, of
people in a beach scene (e.g., The girl pulls the boy in the wagon.). The player can view
the sentence for as long as he or she wishes; a replay button allows the child to hear
the statement as many times as requested. The user completes the scene by selecting
the characters or objects to match the description. The player is given three tries to
recreate each scene. After each incorrect attempt, a narrator tells the player to use a
strategy to help remember and gives a suggestion (e.g., “Picture the scene in your
head.”) of strategies that can be used. This direct instruction encourages children to
use a strategy for remembering and thereby teaches them to use Planning ability.
SKO Games that Involve Simultaneous Processing
• Beach Builder: The player is shown a written description, which is read by a narrator, of
people in a beach scene (e.g., Gabe is sitting on a red chair under the umbrella.). The
player can view the sentence for as long as he or she wishes, but it is read one time
only. The user is presented with the scene of a beach with people and objects that they
place in the scene to match the description. The player is given three tries to recreate
each scene. After each incorrect attempt, a narrator tells the player to use a strategy to
help remember and gives some suggestions for strategies to use.
• Board Tech: The player is shown a snowboard that has a design made up of different
combinations of shapes and colors. After viewing the design for 10 seconds, the user
is presented with a blank snowboard and has to decorate the board by placing shapes
and choosing colors for the objects. The player is given three tries to recreate each
board’s design. After an incorrect attempt, a narrator tells the player a strategy to help
remember the designs.
• Gallop Park: The player is shown a written description of people in a park (e.g., Brad is
on the fountain next to Betty.). After the player has viewed the sentence for as long as
he or she wishes, the user is presented with the scene of a park with people and objects that they place in the scene to match the description. The player is given three
tries to recreate each scene. After each incorrect attempt, a narrator tells the player to
use a strategy to help remember and gives some suggestions for strategies to use.
• Skate Create: The player is given 10 seconds to view a skateboard with a design made
up of different combinations of shapes and colors. After viewing the design, the user
places the objects in the same spatial locations on the blank skateboard. The player is
given three tries to recreate each board’s design. After an incorrect attempt, a narrator
tells the player a strategy to help remember the designs.
page 2 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Simultaneous Processing (continued)
Resources
RTR and SKO are on the web at www.skatekidsonline.com.
page 3 of 3
Emphasizing Successive Processing
engage children so that academic skills can be acquired. These online programs allow the player
to control the action of a character who performs various tasks in a simulated world and acquires
reading and math skills at the same time. For example, the player can learn to read while controlling a character in the game who is doing things that require learning. The children become completely immersed in the online world and learn at the same time. These digital games merge learning and playing by using an action/adventure and role-playing format. A major strength of using
DGBL as a learning tool is that children are very attracted to this media, even those who may not
have had much access to computer games in their homes.
were designed to teach academic skills with consideration of the PASS processing abilities discussed in this book. These are Ramps to Reading (RTR) and Skatekidsonline (SKO) (http://www
.skatekidsonline.com). RTR is intended for children in grades K–2, and SKO is intended for
grades 3–5. Several games included in these programs help children learn to read by emphasizing the sequences of sounds and letters (Successive processing). In addition, a narrator suggests
that the player think about how to complete the game (e.g., ways of remembering the order of
letters or sounds) if the player makes a mistake. This encourages the students to use a strategy
to solve the problem, which encourages the use of Planning ability. RTR includes four games
(Desert Dash, Rocket Racer, Scuba Dude, and Tubin’ Trouble), and SKO includes six games
(Kayak Attack, Kick Flip Fury, Snowboard Blast, Space Bumpers, Temple of Trouble, and Wake
Thrash). Three games from each of these programs that help children improve word decoding
and spelling while teaching better use of Successive processing are described next.
RTR Games that Involve Successive Processing
• Desert Dash: In this game the child hears sounds and then collects the correct sequence of letters that make the sounds. The student sees a question mark when
sounds are played, remembers the sounds they are looking for, and chooses the letters
that correspond to those sounds. This puts considerable emphasis on the Successive
processing of sounds and their corresponding letter sequences.
page 1 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Successive Processing (continued)
• Rocket Racer: In this game the child’s task is to collect letters in the correct order as
they ride a rocket through space. The letters are presented with the corresponding
sounds and presented so that the symbol to sound association is made. The letters are
presented in serial order, making the use of Successive processing very pronounced.
• Scuba Dude: In this game the child controls a virtual scuba diver to collect jewels in a
specific order as presented at the start of the game. The student must remember the
correct order of items that vary on the basis of attributes, such as color and shape. The
game requires considerable Successive processing to complete it successfully.
SKO Games that Involve Successive Processing
• Snowboard Blast: In this game the child controls a snowboard as it goes down a
mountain and collects letters in a specific order to spell words. As the character travels
down, incorrect letters and obstacles, such as trees and rocks, must be avoided. The
player is given three tries to pick up the correct sequence of letters.
• Kick Flip Fury: The player steers a skateboard down a street filled with obstacles, such
as potholes and safety cones, while trying to pick up a certain sequence of candy presented at the beginning of the game. The player is given three attempts to pick up the
correct sequence of letters.
• Wake Thrash: The player must steer a wakeboard through an ocean and ski over targeted letters given in a specific order while avoiding obstacles, such as shark tails and
logs. The player is given three attempts to pick up the correct sequence of letters.
Children who are poor in Successive processing ability often do not follow the sequences of letters and corresponding sounds very well when they read and spell. RTR and SKO games should
be used to help these children realize that they need to look at the sequences of letters so that
they can better decode words. The games will also encourage them to use strategies for remembering the sequence (that increases the role Planning ability plays in learning). Once decoding is
improved, then better comprehension can follow.
RTR and SKO are games that can be used to help children learn to read and spell. They provide
engaging activities that should augment regular reading instruction, not replace it. The games
should be used on a regular basis by the students as a part of the curriculum. Teachers should
not use the games as a prize for good work or good behavior but instead should encourage the
students to use the programs on a regular basis. Parents can use the games as an additional
reading instructional activity at home. Children love to play games, and RTR and SKO are games
children will enjoy, but it is important to remember that each of these games is a serious educational tool.
page 2 of 3
Improving Reading Skills Online: Emphasizing Successive Processing (continued)
Resources
RTR and SKO are on the web at http://www.skatekidsonline.com.
page 3 of 3
Using Context for Reading Comprehension
Through research, educators have learned that students who have a strong vocabulary often
excel with reading comprehension. Their vocabulary helps them read efficiently and make sense
of what they are reading. Also, good readers effectively use strategies to figure out the meaning
behind the words on the page, even if they are unfamiliar with those words. Once they have figured out a new word, they are more likely to remember the word in the future and ultimately incorporate it into their vocabulary.
Some students have trouble comprehending what they read because they do not understand
many words they encounter. These students often lack good strategies to figure out unfamiliar
words. Traditionally, students have learned the meaning of words by having to look them up in a
dictionary, by doing word searches, or by memorizing definitions. Research suggests that these
approaches are not always effective as a means for increasing vocabulary and reading performance. For students to really learn new words in a functional way, they first need to be taught
strategies to figure them out while reading. Second, they need to have multiple exposures to
those words in order to reinforce what they have learned. Helping these students build their vocabulary by equipping them with strategies to figure out the meaning of words from clues in the
text can help them improve their reading comprehension.
How to Use Using Context for Reading Comprehension
Students should be explicitly taught that they can use the context of a passage—clues from the
text around the unknown word—to figure it out. Students can be taught the following strategy in
a step-wise manner and be given guided practice in using the strategies. Furthermore, teachers
and parents should explicitly model the strategy by using it when they read out loud to the
student.
1. DON’T GET STUCK ON THE WORD! Read the whole sentence or paragraph!
Does reading through give you an idea for what the word might mean?
2. Look for SYNONYMS in other parts of the text—for example, “The elephant was
enormous! It was bigger than anything else around.”
3. CONTRAST the word with other words—for example, “The elephant was enormous!
Everything else looked so small compared to it.”
4. SUBSTITUTE a word in its place. Does the sentence make sense?
5. Look for SIGNAL words or phrases. Words such as is, means, consists of, and refers
to signal clues for meaning—for example, “Enormous elephant refers to the big
elephant in the parking lot.”
Although using context can be very helpful, it is important that students be taught that using context is just one of many strategies for figuring out the meaning of words. They should also be
taught that this is not always the best strategy. Sometimes the context of the passage does not
page 1 of 2
Using Context for Reading Comprehension (continued)
provide enough information or the reader is not familiar enough with the background of the unknown word for it to be a good strategy. Students should be taught to change strategies depending on the task, just like a carpenter uses different tools depending on what part of a house he is
building.
Who Should Use Using Context for Reading Comprehension?
Using context to read better and build vocabulary is a clear strategy or plan. Therefore, students
who are weak in Planning processing and do not naturally use strategies may benefit from this
approach. This strategy also prompts students to think about the different parts of what they read
and how they might relate. Therefore, students who are weak in Simultaneous processing might
benefit from it as well.
Resource
Lubliner, S., with Smetana, L. (2005). Getting into words: Vocabulary instruction that strengthens comprehension.
Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
Getting Into Words provides a number of ideas for teaching students to use context and includes various worksheets for students and instructional aids for teachers.
page 2 of 2
Word Sorts for Improving Spelling
Spelling words correctly requires that students properly order letters. Remembering how words
are correctly spelled not only requires ordering letters but also sequencing letter combinations.
Children are often taught to spell through memorization of weekly spelling lists that puts much
emphasis on recall of the order of the letters. Good spelling instruction should focus on the sequential features of words and the ordering of letter combinations that are associated with particular sounds. An excellent strategy for helping children become better spellers, regardless of their
grade level, is a technique called word sorts.
Word sorts require students to organize words printed on cards or on a worksheet into groups on
the basis of a particular shared spelling feature. The technique enables students to 1) generate
concepts, hypotheses, and generalizations concerning the features of written words and 2) focus
on the relevant aspects of how each word is spelled. In addition, word sorts help link new words
to ones that are already known.
How to Teach Word Sorts
The teacher provides the students with a list of words, such as grape, he, ape, tree, she, voice,
me, and ice. (The teacher may instead present the words on separate index cards.) The teacher
then selects the words grape and he as categories and asks the students to sort all of the words
into two columns. The students learn that sometimes the last letter is pronounced as a long e and
other times it is silent.
Another way to sort words is to use categories that are based on shared features that the students themselves discover. This type of sort can be useful because it allows the students to figure
out how the words can be grouped and how they relate to one another. It is important to have the
students talk about the words while they are sorting them. This discussion may help them learn
the similar ways words are spelled, see the words in groups, and promote greater understanding
of how spelling works. These activities should be conducted about 10 minutes each day and can
be done either with individual students or pairs of students.
Who Should Learn Word Sorts?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who are poor in spelling. Because the intervention
helps children focus on the sequences of letters within groups and how groups of words with the
same letters sound the same, it involves Simultaneous processing. In addition, students who have
not been able to learn spelling by writing or saying the sequence of letters because of poor Successive processing are likely to benefit from this intervention.
page 1 of 2
Word Sorts for Improving Spelling (continued)
Resources
Excellent resources can be found at http://www.sitesforteachers.com.
Kirby, J.R., & Williams, N.H., (1991). Learning problems: A cognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
Zutell, J. (1998). Word sorting: A developmental spelling approach to word study for delayed readers. Reading & Writing Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 14, 219–238.
page 2 of 2
Chunking for Spelling
Learning to spell requires that students remember the order of the letters that make up words.
Some students have difficulty remembering the specific order of things and, therefore, have
trouble with spelling. These children may benefit from instruction that breaks the sequence of
letters into smaller, more manageable units, called chunks. Chunking for spelling is a specific
strategy to help children do this.
Most adults can only remember about seven to nine separate pieces of information in a sequence
without organizing it in a meaningful way. Information can be organized into groups to help people
remember long sequences, such as a telephone number. That is why telephone numbers are organized into two groups of three numbers and one group of four. Chunking is a technique that
can be used to help children (who have shorter spans of memory) remember numbers or sequences of letters for spelling.
How to Teach Chunking for Spelling
Teachers should first teach the children what it means to chunk or group information so that it can
be remembered more easily. Use number sequences and letters for illustration. Then, introduce
words to be learned and break the words into units (e.g., gr-oup for group, re-mem-ber for remember). Try to organize the groups of words in sequences that have easy-to-remember sounds.
For example, re-me-mb-er is not as easy to recall as re-mem-ber.
Who Should Learn Chunking for Spelling?
Poor spellers are likely to benefit from learning chunking for spelling. Children who have difficulty
remembering things in order often have low Successive processing. Students who score low in
Simultaneous processing may find chunking particularly helpful (see Naglieri, 1999). Careful analysis of the maximum span of items that the child can remember (e.g., two or three words in order)
can help determine the largest span of letters within each chunk that should be used.
Resources
page 1 of 1
Letter Ordering for Spelling
Spelling words and lists are a staple of the elementary classroom. Spelling words by writing or
saying the letters requires students to understand the order or sequence of the letters. Children
are often challenged by learning to correctly spell new words, especially ones that cannot be
spelled by sounding the word out. Good spelling instruction should focus on the successive features of words. Letter ordering is designed to help students do just that and become better
spellers.
Letter ordering is a useful strategy to help develop a student’s awareness of the order of sounds
in words, ability to recode letters into their sounds and recognize the visual patterns in words,
and ability to recall the order of the letters. This activity can be done in small groups or individually.
The English language has thousands of words, so there is an unlimited number of ways to use
letter ordering.
How to Teach Letter Ordering
In letter ordering, teaching a student how to spell a word requires four steps. For each step,
individual magnetic letters, letter tiles, or letters written on small pieces of paper or cardboard
are used.
1. Pronounce a spelling word and ask the student to place the letter chips in the correct
order.
2. After the word is formed by the student, scramble the letter chips and ask the student
to say the word slowly and create it again with the chips.
3. Next, have the student say the word again and write it on a piece of paper.
4. As the child’s skill increases and the complexity of the words increases, use chips to
break the word into syllables or build complex words.
For difficult words, follow these steps:
1. Have the student slowly pronounce the word.
2. Ask the student to repeat the word, pronouncing the separate sounds of the word
individually.
3. Tell the student to look at the word and letter chips and note how the letters match the
sounds.
4. Have the student tell you which sounds go with each letter as you point to the letters
in sequence.
5. Ask the student to write each letter while saying the sounds.
6. Tell the student to practice the word until he or she can write it from memory.
page 1 of 2
Letter Ordering for Spelling (continued)
Who Should Learn Letter Ordering?
Students who have trouble spelling may benefit from letter ordering. Students who score low in
Successive processing often have difficulty with the sequencing of letters in words (see Naglieri,
1999). Also, students who have limited Attention often fail to focus on the specific letters in
spelling. This intervention is likely to help students who score low in Successive processing,
Attention, or both.
Resources
Goldstein, S., & Mather, N. (1998). Overcoming underachieving: An action guide to helping your child succeed in
school. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
page 2 of 2
Mnemonics for Spelling
Spelling is an important part of education and relates to many other areas in school. Good
spellers are skilled at memorizing how to correctly spell words, even when the words are difficult
or unpredictable. These students often have special strategies for remembering hard-to-spell
words. Memorizing spelling words requires a good plan or strategy to be effective and efficient.
It also requires that students understand the relationship between the letters in words. This intervention is intended to help students remember how to spell difficult words, particularly ones that
are not spelled the way they sound.
Memory or mnemonic strategies are techniques for increasing learning. A mnemonic is a specific
method that is applied to learn information. Mnemonics have been found to have considerable
positive effects on student success. When students spell words and try to memorize them, they
are more successful if the spelling facts are made more meaningful. Mnemonic spelling strategies
make words more meaningful by combining the difficult spelling word with a part of the word in a
sentence or a clever sentence or rhyme. One mnemonic uses a smaller word to focus the speller
on the difficult portion of the word. Here are some examples:
•
•
•
•
•
•
The school principal is your pal.
Do not mar your grammar with bad spelling.
You gain when you bargain.
Ask someone to feed the cat before you leave for vacation.
You would rather double your dessert than die in the hot desert.
The word believe has a lie in it.
Other mnemonics for spelling are:
• When two vowels go walking, the first does the talking.
• The silent e makes the vowel say its name (e.g., tape).
• I before e except after c or when sounded like “a” as in neighbor or weigh. Note that
weird is weird, and there are a few other words that do not follow this rule (e.g., kaleidoscope).
• Arithmetic can be spelled using the first letter of each word in the mnemonic “a rat in
the house might eat the ice cream.”
• Separate is spelled with a rat.
How to Teach Mnemonics
To help a student spell better using mnemonics, the teacher should first tell the student what
mnemonics are and how they can help. From there, the teacher or student can identify words that
are particularly difficult and create special sentences or tricks to remember them. The process of
creating the mnemonic may itself help the student remember how to spell the word better.
page 1 of 2
Mnemonics for Spelling (continued)
Who Should Learn to Use Mnemonics?
Mnemonics can be helpful for all students, especially ones who have trouble remembering how to
spell using traditional methods (i.e., memorization). Mnemonic strategies may be particularly helpful for students who score low in Planning because they provide specific strategies. It may also be
helpful for students who score low in Successive processing because it gives them a different way
of working with the words that focuses less on the successive nature of the word (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
River, NJ: Merrill.
page 2 of 2
Strategies for Spelling
Spelling is an activity that requires the recall of specific letters in order and combining sounds with
letter groups so that words can be recognized. Good spellers are skilled at memorizing how to
correctly spell words even when the words are difficult or unpredictable. Often, spelling lists are
given and students write the words over and over or rewrite them alphabetically. In order to make
spelling easier for these students, give them a plan or strategy that includes various rules for
spelling. A child who knows or has access to various spelling rules is likely to be able to spell
many words correctly, rather than just the few that have been memorized. This intervention is intended to help students use certain rules or plans to spell words, particularly ones that are commonly misspelled or are spelled in a way other than how they sound.
When a child uses a rule or plan to spell, the answer is obtained by thinking (using the plan or
rule), rather than just relying on remembering the string of letters. For example, a student may
want to spell science but may not be sure of the order of the letters. If the child is taught the rule
“i before e except after c,” then he or she is more likely to spell the word correctly. This strategy
changes the task from one that demands Successive processing to one that involves Planning.
How to Teach Strategies for Spelling
Following are a number of rules and strategies for spelling words. This list is not intended to be
exhaustive, but it includes many of the major rules used for spelling. These rules may be varied,
and the more memorable they are for the student, the more likely they are to be used (see the
Mnemonics for Spelling handout [p. 101] for additional interventions). Students also need to
understand that these are rules of thumb, and in some cases the rules do not work for every
word.
•
•
•
•
•
Write i before e except after c (e.g., receive, perceive, field, believe, niece, siege).
The letter q is always written with u and sounds like “kw.”
The vowel y, not i, is used at the end of English words (e.g., my).
The majority of nouns in English form their plural by simply adding a final -s.
Nouns that end with -s, -z, -x, -sh, -ch, and -o form their plural by adding -es (e.g.,
glasses, buzzes, boxes, bushes, switches, potatoes, heroes). Some exceptions include
studios, pianos, kangaroos, and zoos.
• To form plurals for nouns that end in a consonant and -y, change -y to -i and add -es
(e.g., babies, spies, puppies).
• To form plurals for nouns that end in -f or -fe, change the -f to -v and add -es (e.g.,
shelves, wolves, knives, wives).
• When a one-syllable word ends with one short vowel and one consonant, double the
final consonant before adding a vowel suffix (e.g., hopping, hopped).
page 1 of 3
Strategies for Spelling (continued)
• When a two-syllable word ends with a vowel and a consonant and the accent is on the
final syllable, double the final consonant when adding a vowel suffix (e.g., admitted,
admitting).
• Words with a silent final e are written without the e when adding an ending that begins
with a vowel (e.g., having, writing, biking).
• After a single vowel at the end of a one-syllable word, the -l, -f, and -s are often
doubled (e.g., full, puff, pass).
• The letter s never follows the letter x (e.g., boxes).
• All is written with one l when added to another syllable (e.g., almost, also).
• When added to another syllable, till and full are written with one -l (e.g., until, beautiful).
• The letter z, never s, is used for the “z” sound at the beginning of a word (e.g., zero,
zipper).
• Words beginning with a vowel and ending in e often lose the e when an ending is
added or when a y is added (e.g., desire/desirable, educate/education, noise/noisy).
There are some exceptions to this general rule (e.g., likeable, lovely).
• Only one word ends in -sede: supersede. Only three words end in -ceed: exceed,
proceed, succeed. All other words ending with this sound use -cede: concede,
precede, recede.
Some Other Strategies
• Take the word apart. Break down words into their component parts. For example, look
at the word competition. Why is it spelled competition rather than compitition? A competition is a petition of two or more people for the same thing; they seek the same objective. You get the correct spelling by dividing the word into its two parts: com-petition.
• Identify prefixes. A prefix is a letter or group of letters at the beginning of a word. When
a word has a prefix, imagine that there is a hyphen between the word and the prefix,
and you can generally see the correct spelling. Resolve consists of re-solve. Display
consists of dis-play. A word that is combined with the prefix dis- is spelled with ss if the
root word begins with s, but only uses a single s if it begins with any other letter (e.g.,
dissatisfy).
• Identify suffixes. When a word has a suffix (i.e., a letter or group of letters at the end),
you can often use a strategy similar to the prefix strategy. Imagine a hyphen between
the word and the suffix, then double the letter if the word ends and the suffix begins
with the same sound (e.g., actual-ly, soul-less). Do not double it when the two letters
are different (e.g., sincere-ly, clever-ness, heart-less).
Who Should Learn Strategies for Spelling?
All students are likely to benefit from using strategies to help them spell. Students who have a
Successive processing weakness may have a particularly difficult time spelling correctly. Strategies for spelling may help students who score low in Successive processing because it helps
page 2 of 3
Strategies for Spelling (continued)
them approach spelling in a different and strategic way. Strategies for spelling may also be helpful
for those who score low in Planning because it gives them specific plans for spelling.
Resources
More examples, written instructions, lessons, and classroom handouts can often be found in libraries, in educational bookstores, at educational resource centers, and online.
River, NJ: Merrill.
page 3 of 3
Story Plans for Written Composition
Name:
Date:
Who am I writing for?
What is the purpose of the
story?
What are the facts?
How should I organize the facts?
In what order should I present the information?
Figure 1.
Writing a story requires that a student organize and write information in a way that
makes sense. To do this, the sentences of
the story must relate to the story topic. Each
sentence and paragraph of the story needs
to relate to the other parts so they flow and
support the main idea. Good writing instruction should focus on bringing the parts of a
story together in a way that supports the
main idea. Giving students procedures to
follow to plan a story that is organized and
fits together is likely to be helpful. A story
plan is a diagram of the important parts of a
story or text (see Figure 1). The purpose is
to help the child determine the facts that
might be included in the story, consider the
relationships among the parts of the story,
and determine how to order the information.
Using story plans is an excellent method to
help students write a good story.
An example of a story plan form.
How to Teach Story Plans
To use this intervention, follow these steps:
1. Tell the students that the story plan is a place for them to organize their thoughts.
2. Have the students fill in the parts of the story plan.
3. Ask the students to use arrows or draw pictures to show the connections among the
various facts of their story.
4. Have the students reexamine their plan and make corrections as needed.
5. Discuss the story with the students and ask them how it was summarized in the story
plan and about the story plan’s correctness and usefulness.
6. Have the students write the story using the story plan.
page 1 of 2
Story Plans for Written Composition (continued)
Who Should Learn Story Plans?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who are poor in writing. Because story plans help students see how the parts of a story are related, they may be useful for students who have a weakness in Simultaneous processing. Furthermore, children who score low in Planning are likely to
find story plans useful because they give them a way to organize or map out how to write a story.
Resources
Idol, L. (1987). Group story mapping: A comprehension strategy for both skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 20(4), 196–205.
Idol, L., & Croll, V.J. (1987). Story mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly, 10, 214–229.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Writing
Writing paragraphs, stories, and essays is a common task for students throughout schooling and
requires a lot of forethought and planning. Good writers typically generate enough content material and organize their writing to coherently convey a message. These writers create concise topic
sentences and build on their topic to provide relevant information. Their sentences are logical and
connected to one another. Students poor in writing often do not generate enough content and do
not write sentences that relate well to one another. Furthermore, their writing is often poorly organized and does not follow a reasonable progression. Providing these students with a specific
plan to follow that helps them focus on relevant information and guides them to write concise
sentences that support and relate to one another is likely to be useful. This plan is a step-by-step
process that teachers can use and that can later be followed by students independently. It helps
students by prompting them to develop a plan for writing.
How to Teach the Plan
1. Ask students to write a sentence about something or someone using the following
rules:
• Create a sentence about which you can say something more.
• Concentrate on what the person or object does.
• Be specific about what exactly the person or object does.
• Keep the sentence short.
• Write the sentence as a statement, not a question or command.
• Have only one statement.
• Do not use a descriptive or narrative sentence.
2. Have students write three sentences about the original sentence. The sentences
should be simple, clear, and direct, and they should pertain to the entire original sentence.
3. Have students write four or five sentences about each of the three sentences in Step
2. Sentences must be specific and concrete. Explain that the goal is to describe what
has already been stated, not to introduce more information.
4. Have students insert a clear, explicit reference to the theme of the preceding paragraph in the following paragraphs.
5. Have students work to ensure that every sentence is connected with the previous sentences and makes a clear statement.
Visual displays posted in the classroom or on the students’ desks can remind students of the
steps and the information that should be included.
page 1 of 2
Plans for Writing (continued)
Who Should Use Plans for Writing?
Students who produce writing that is poorly structured or lacks content are likely to benefit from
this plan. Students who score low in Planning are also likely to benefit from using this plan because it gives them a structure to help them write (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
Mather, N., & Goldstein, S. (2008). Learning disabilities and challenging behaviors: A guide to intervention and classroom management (2nd ed.). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
page 2 of 2
Story Grammar for Writing
Traditionally, paragraphs, essays, and stories follow a certain order. Good writers use this order to
help plan what they are going to write. This requires that students be aware of the order or sequence of what they want to write. Students who do this are likely to write in a more logical and
understandable manner. This intervention is designed to help students write clearly by providing a
strategy to plan the order of their writing. Creative stories often occur in the following order:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction
The main character/subject
The setting/relative factors
Problem
Events/circumstances
Solution/conclusion
Students who are aware of the order of a story have a structure to follow in planning what to
write. This structure provides students with a framework and helps them focus on the important
parts of the story.
How to Teach Story Grammar
Instruction should begin by describing the idea of story grammar (i.e., that most stories have an
order) and by describing each of the parts. Once students have a good understanding of story
grammar, they can learn to use this grammar to prompt themselves about what important steps
to include and in what order. The parts of a story may be posted on a wall or on the students’
desks for reference.
Who Should Learn Story Grammar?
Story grammar can be helpful for all students, especially ones who have trouble writing in a logical
way. This intervention is particularly useful to help students with Successive processing problems
and Planning problems by providing a story structure to follow.
Resources
page 1 of 1
Teaching Vocabulary Using Visual Cues
Students are often required to learn vocabulary for a specific subject area prior to actually working
in it. Science and math, for example, require that basic terminology be learned before concepts
and higher-level topics can be covered. Sometimes vocabulary can be presented to a student in
a way that helps comprehension. Building visual images of concepts in the words that are being
taught (i.e., visual cues) is one way to do that.
Some students can learn terminology more quickly if the words they need to learn are presented
in a way that is consistent with the meaning. For example, the words in Figure 1 each present a
mathematical term that is drawn in a way that communicates the meaning of the word. For example, semicircle is presented in an arch, and slope is written on an angle. This method of presentation integrates the word with the meaning in a way that is visually correct, and, therefore, the
orientation of the words communicates their meaning. This helps the student process the information in another way, which will help him or her remember it.
e
p
o
l
s
Figure 1.
cle
s
emicir
yperbola exponential
mptote
asy
frac
tion
Examples of visual cues.
Who Should Learn Using Visual Cues?
All students can benefit from using visual cues, but those who are not especially good at Simultaneous processing are likely to benefit from using this instruction (Naglieri, 1999). The spatial nature of the information will be helpful for these students.
Resource
page 1 of 1
Planning by Writing Sentence Openers
Good writers start a project with a plan for what to write and how to construct the text. This requires forethought about a number of things that need to be included in what is written. Some
students find it hard to write because they cannot think of what to write about or do not know
what they want or need to say. It may be helpful for students to be prompted about questions
that are important to answer and to use those to guide the writing process. This intervention is
designed to help students use a plan for writing.
Sentence openers are idea-generating questions that help students think of things to write. A
sentence opener can be used to begin a sentence. Providing the statements or questions for students to answer acts as a cue for generating pieces of information to write about.
How to Teach Sentence Openers
When a topic is selected, students should be asked a set of questions to help them generate information to write about. Examples include the following:
1. Describing an object
• What does it look like?
• What does it smell like?
• What does it sound like?
• What does it feel like?
• What does it taste like?
2. Describing a sequence of events
• What happened first?
• What happened next?
• What happened last?
• Where did the events happen?
• Who did the events happen to?
3. Describing in general terms
• Who?
• What?
• When?
• Where?
• Why?
• How?
Sentence openers may be followed by other writing strategies that help the student to bring the
information together in a coherent composition.
page 1 of 2
Planning by Writing Sentence Openers (continued)
Who Should Learn Sentence Openers?
Students who have difficulty with thinking of what to write and writing with sufficient detail may
find sentence openers useful. Students who score low in Planning may find it difficult to begin
writing because they do not have a useful way of starting the process. Sentence openers may
help these students by giving them a strategy or plan to get started.
Resource
page 2 of 2
Planning to Write
Writing successfully requires considerable planning. Successful writers include many steps in their
writing, such as gathering material, organizing information, discussing their topic and ideas with
others, outlining, writing, rewriting, editing, reading aloud, and so forth. Some students may not
come up with or use good strategies. Often, strategies such as visualization, rehearsal through
discussion, and proofing by reading aloud are not used by students. Providing students with explicit instruction in these strategies for writing is likely to help them.
Writing Strategies
Visualization: Students sometimes are unable to decide what to write. Teaching them to take time
to close their eyes and imagine the topic they are going to write about, including details about
who, what, when, where, why, and how, can help them get started. Visualizing themselves writing
can also help the students focus.
Rehearsal: It is helpful to discuss a topic before writing. Students should be encouraged to discuss what they are going to write about before writing. Discussion of a writing topic should help
students think about what should be included and what connections should be made, especially
when led by the teacher. If students are encouraged to ask questions about each other’s topics,
they may be clearer and more detailed in their own writing. In some cases, a student could be allowed to record his or her topic discussion or story description and then be allowed to listen to it
and write it down.
Reading Aloud: Once a student is done writing, it can be very helpful if the student reads all of
what has been written aloud to the teacher or to a class partner. This helps the student see the
flow, logic, and clarity of what has been written and where mistakes have been made. Often students will notice mistakes themselves. This also helps the student recognize what is missing and
how it can be corrected.
Who Should Learn Writing Strategies?
Students who are poor writers because they produce poorly structured content or lack of content
are likely to benefit from this plan. Students who score low in Planning are also likely to benefit
from using this plan because it gives them the structure to help them write (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
page 1 of 1
Goal Setting for Good Writing
Successful people set goals for much of what they do. They make lists, prioritize tasks, and systematically work through the goals to be successful. Similarly, good writers set goals and priorities
for what they write. They clarify the purpose of what they are writing, identify the key parts that are
needed to achieve that purpose, organize the text to communicate effectively, and examine the
finished product carefully. They begin with a set of prioritized goals in mind, then write and revise
to ensure that all the goals are met.
Some students have trouble writing because they do not set goals. Even if there is a clear goal,
many students do not pay attention to their progress toward that goal. They do not keep their
goal in mind as they work or attend to what they are doing to see if they are achieving that goal.
These students tend to lose sight of the parts necessary to achieve the goal, and they often fail to
write enough to support their point, write things that do not meet the demands of the assignment,
or simply do not get the assignment done. These students need to be explicitly taught to identify
their writing goal and to build upon smaller goals in order to reach the larger one. The following
approach, suggested in part by Steve Graham and Karen R. Harris in their book Writing Better:
Effective Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning Difficulties (2005), can help students write
with the end in mind.
How to Use Goal Setting for Good Writing
The teacher or parent should discuss with the student the importance of using good strategies
when writing. The goal should be written down and then smaller goals included. For instance, a
student’s goal may be to write an essay describing the benefits of having a dog in a school classroom. Elaborated goals might include explaining the overall benefits of pets, the benefits of dogs,
and then the benefits of pets in a school setting. Next the teacher or parent can review the goals
with the student to ask why they were set and how he or she will achieve each of the goals. Asking “how” prompts the student to carefully consider what he or she needs to do to reach his or
her goal and engages Planning ability.
The student then writes with his or her goals in mind. The teacher or parent should occasionally
refer to the importance of the goal and prompt the student to check what he or she is writing with
the intended goal. It may be best for the student to self-monitor by reading and checking off
smaller, elaborated goals as he or she covers each one. For some students, this is also the point
where the handout Self-Monitoring for Writing (p. 109) could be used to help increase the quality
and quantity of the writing. Graham and Harris (2005) also suggested a revising goal that includes
the following steps:
1. The teacher or parent prompts the student to revise his or her composition by adding
at least three things to improve the paper.
page 1 of 2
Goal Setting for Good Writing (continued)
2. The student brainstorms five ideas to be added to the paper and writes them on a
separate sheet.
3. The student picks the three best ideas from the five that will best improve the paper.
4. The student then decides how to incorporate the checked ideas into his or her work
(crossing off each idea as it is added).
Note that steps two and three are general. In some cases, the number of ideas may need to be
less or more. Also note that goals are best set by students whenever possible. Goals set by others (e.g., teachers, parents) are generally less motivating than ones that are set by the students
themselves.
Who Should Use Goal Setting for Good Writing?
This approach helps give students a clear strategy or plan for writing something. Therefore, students who are weak in Planning processing will benefit from this approach. Furthermore, because
it prompts students to think of the various parts that are important in a writing assignment, it may
be helpful for students low in Simultaneous processing who may fail to include and connect the
various parts of their topic.
Resource
For more approaches to good writing instruction, see
Graham, S., & Harris, K.R. (2005). Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning difficulties.
page 2 of 2
Self-Monitoring for Writing
Every day, students are given various writing assignments. Some may be as simple as writing
down a sentence or two that describes a science topic. Others may be very complex, such as
writing a story with a beginning, middle, and end. These longer assignments usually require a fair
amount of effort to be accomplished, which calls for good focus and persistence. Good writers
set writing goals (see Goal Setting for Good Writing handout, p. 108) and then self-monitor their
progress toward that goal in order to stay focused and productive.
Self-monitoring helps good writers measure their progress toward their goal. In many activities,
we keep an accounting of what we have accomplished to see how far we have progressed and
to motivate ourselves. We count how many miles we have driven to our destination, how many
hours we have worked in a week, or how many steps we have taken on our pedometer. When we
do this, we are self-monitoring, measuring what we have done and often comparing that to our
goal. This measurement can help us stay motivated and focused.
Some students have trouble staying focused and productive when writing compositions. These
students often simply sit down to write with no goal in mind and with no way to monitor their
progress. Without a good strategy to achieve their goal, they often lose focus and motivation.
Steve Graham and Karen R. Harris, in their book Writing Better: Effective Strategies for Teaching
Students with Learning Difficulties (2005), suggested a self-monitoring and recording writing output strategy to improve written performance.
How to Use Self-Monitoring for Writing
This strategy can help students increase how much they write as well as increase their on-task
behavior by counting and recording words written in a specific time frame. Not unlike a fundraising thermometer that visually graphs money raised on the way to a specific goal, this strategy can
be used to visually demonstrate what has been written on the way to a specific goal. Students
follow three steps in this strategy.
1. Students write for a specific period of time, such as 5 minutes, 15 minutes, or a class
period, which is selected based on age and ability level. Shorter periods of time are
often better for unmotivated or unfocused students. After writing, students count the
number of words in their composition. They count all words, including titles, headings,
and so forth and even count misspelled words.
2. Students then record the number of words they wrote on a graph or chart. This chart
may be at their desk, in a writing folder, or with the teacher for review.
3. For each period of time the students write, they compare their output with previous
times. They can see if their output is increasing, decreasing, or staying the same.
page 1 of 2
Self-Monitoring for Writing (continued)
Teachers and parents can use this data to set clear goals for each student. Ultimately, students
should find comparing their own performance to previous periods or reaching their goal as motivation enough, but rewards could be added to enhance motivation if need be.
In teaching the strategy, note the following:
1. The teacher should discuss with the students the importance of how writing more usually makes a story more complete, better, and more interesting.
2. The teacher should explicitly describe how the self-monitoring strategy works and how
it will be used, including how to count, graph, and set goals. Goals should be concrete, such as “100 words or more.” Although goals should be challenging, they
should also be within reach of each student. (Note: Students will not all have the same
goals.)
3. Students should be allowed to practice the strategy by counting and charting a previous composition.
4. Teachers should monitor the use of the strategy with each student. This can be done,
for example, by holding regular conferences to review progress and to see if it is working for the student.
Optional Modification or Alternate Strategy
Another approach can be used for the previously described strategy. Rather than counting and
graphing words, students may be taught to count and graph their completion of certain story
parts. This may be particularly effective for older students. For example, a high school composition student may be given a graph that visually depicts the parts of an essay, including the following: introductory sentence, introductory paragraph, supporting paragraph one (through three),
concluding paragraph, and concluding sentence. The student can graph each part as he or she
writes. Although relatively simple, this approach can be very effective for students who are unfocused or unmotivated.
Who Should Use Self-Monitoring for Writing?
This intervention is particularly strategic in that it helps students monitor their performance. Therefore, students who are weak in Planning processing and/or Attention may find this strategy particularly helpful.
Resource
page 2 of 2
STOP and LIST for Written Expression
Throughout school, students are expected to write frequently and with various objectives. Students are asked to write short stories, descriptive paragraphs, book reports, autobiographies, research papers, and, of course, the “What I Did Last Summer” essay. Good writers usually plan
out what they are going to write with their goal or the conclusion in mind. They include all the important details and order the information in such a way that it flows well, makes sense, and conveys their point.
Some students have trouble expressing themselves in written form. These students usually write
in limited amounts, and their writing often seems disjointed. For example, their writing does not include all of the important parts, some points need expanding, and one idea does not sequentially
lead into the next. These students need to be taught to approach writing carefully by using a
good strategy to help them keep their ultimate goal in mind. This includes incorporating all of the
important points and sequentially ordering them in a way that makes sense to the reader. Steve
Graham and Karen R. Harris, in their book Writing Better: Effective Strategies for Teaching Students with Learning Difficulties (2005), suggested STOP and LIST for Written Expression as one
strategy students can be taught to more successfully express themselves in written form.
How to Use STOP and LIST for Written Expression
Using a strategic approach to writing helps the writer meet the intended goal of the assignment,
fully explain ideas, and organize those ideas in a way that makes sense. This strategy uses the
acronyms STOP and LIST as mnemonics for students to remember what to do (see Figure 1).
The first part, STOP, stands for Stop and Think Of Purposes. This prompts the student to be
strategic and to Stop, or pause, and take time to plan. The student then Thinks of the Purpose or
intended goal of the assignment. The student considers what the reader will experience or should
understand after reading what the student has written. There may be more than one purpose or
goal for what the student writes. For example, if a student is instructed to write a short autobiography, he or she may want the reader to understand his or her family background, where he or
she lives now, and what he or she does and does not like.
Next, the student uses the LIST mnemonic, which stands for List Ideas and Sequence Them. This
is the point where the student brainstorms all of the things that are important to include. Thinking
about the topic and the goal(s), the student then writes down all of the ideas that might be important. Then the student goes back and sequences, or orders, the ideas by putting a number next
to them. The student may also decide to cross off certain ideas altogether. This is a good stage
for a teacher or parent to talk with the student about what he or she has written down as the purpose, as well as what items are on the list and in what order. Asking students what their goals are,
why they decided on what ideas to include, and how they decided to order their ideas can help
students think through their plans.
page 1 of 3
STOP and LIST for Written Expression (continued)
Stop
Purposes:
Think
1.
Of
2.
Purposes
3.
and
List
Ideas
Sequence
Them
Remember: Decide which ideas to use and show their sequence by numbering them.
Figure 1. Planning sheet for STOP and LIST. (From Graham, S., & Harris,
K.R. [2005]. Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with
learning difficulties [p. 56]. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.;
reprinted by permission.)
Students can then use their plans to write. Graham and Harris suggested the following tips:
1. Some students may have trouble generating their own purposes or goals (especially
those low in Planning processing). One way to address this is to give the students a list
of goals from which to choose. Then, as they become more confident, the teacher or
parent can gradually remove this support.
2. Some students may forget to use one or more of the ideas they put down for their
LIST. These students can be prompted to put a checkmark by each idea as they write
to be sure they included everything.
3. Using STOP and LIST every time a student writes may not be possible. Students
should be instructed to use the strategy whenever possible and to realize that sometimes they will need to simply recall it from memory.
page 2 of 3
STOP and LIST for Written Expression (continued)
Furthermore, for students who are best at verbal expression, it may be helpful for them to simply
talk about their goals and ideas while a teacher or parent writes them down. Then the student can
take the written list, organize it, and use it as a guide from which to compose.
Who Should Use STOP and LIST for Written Expression?
Two strong components of this intervention are that it is strategic and that it helps students manage their thoughts in an appropriate and sequential order. Therefore, students who are weak in
Planning processing and/or Successive processing may find this strategy particularly helpful.
Resource
page 3 of 3
Planning Facilitation for Math Calculation
Math calculation is a complex activity that involves recalling basic math facts, following procedures, working carefully, and checking one’s work. Math calculation requires a careful (i.e., planful)
approach to follow all of the necessary steps. Children who are good at math calculation can
move on to more difficult math concepts and problem solving with greater ease than those who
are having problems in this area. For children who have trouble with math calculation, a technique
that helps them approach the task planfully is likely to be useful. Planning facilitation is such a
technique.
Planning facilitation helps students develop useful strategies to carefully complete math problems
through discussion and shared discovery. It encourages students to think about how they solve
problems, rather than just think about whether their answers are correct. This helps them develop
careful ways of doing math.
How to Teach Planning Facilitation
Planning facilitation is provided in three 10-minute time periods: 1) 10 minutes of math, 2) 10 minutes of discussion, and 3) 10 more minutes of math. These steps can be described in more detail:
Step 1: The teacher should provide math worksheets for the students to complete in the first
10-minute session. This gives the children exposure to the problems and ways to solve them. The
teacher gives each child a worksheet and says, “Here is a math worksheet for you to do. Please
try to get as many of the problems correct as you can. You will have 10 minutes.” Slight variations
on this instruction are okay, but do not give any additional information.
Step 2: The teacher facilitates a discussion that asks the children about how they completed the
worksheet and how they will go about completing the problems in the future. Teachers should not
attempt to reinforce the children. For example, if a child says, “I used xyz strategy,” the teacher
should not say, “Good, and be sure to do that next time.” Instead, the teacher may probe using
a statement designed to encourage the child to consider the effectiveness of the strategy (e.g.,
“Did that work for you?”). Discussion works best in groups in which students can learn from one
another. The general goals are to encourage the children to describe how they did the worksheet.
The teacher’s role is to encourage the children to verbalize ideas (which facilitates Planning), explain why some methods work better than others, encourage them to be self-reflective, and get
them to think about what they will do the next time they do this type of work. Here is a list of
suggested probes:
•
•
•
•
“How did you do the page?”
“Tell me how you did these problems.”
“What do you notice about how this page was completed?”
“What is a good way to do these pages, and what did this teach you?”
page 1 of 2
Planning Facilitation for Math Calculation (continued)
• “Why did you do it that way? What did you expect to happen?”
• “How are you going to complete the page next time so that you get more correct
answers?”
• “What seemed to work well for you before, and what will you do next time?”
• “What are some reasons why people make mistakes on problems such as these?”
• “You say these are hard. Can you think of any ways to make them easier?”
• “There are many problems here. Can you figure out a way to do more?”
• “Do you think you will do anything differently next time?”
Step 3: The teacher gives each child a math worksheet and says, “Here is another math worksheet for you to do. Please try to get as many of the problems correct as you can. You have
10 minutes.”
Aids to Facilitate Discussion
• Project a blank worksheet so the children can see it during discussion.
• Make an overhead of a completed worksheet (with the name omitted).
• Have the children do a projected blank worksheet as a group .
It is important for teachers not to say things such as, “Watch me. This is how to do it,” “That’s
right. Good, now you’re getting it!” “You made a mistake. Fix it now,” or “Remember to use your
favorite strategy.” This discourages discussion among the students and does not help to meet the
goals of the strategy.
Who Should Learn Planning Facilitation?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who are poor at mathematics calculation. Because
Planning facilitation helps students focus on their approach to solving problems, it helps them be
more careful or planful. Children who score low in Planning are likely to improve the most from this
instruction.
Resources
Good starting points for mathematics intervention can be found at http://www.mathgoodies.com,
http://www.sitesforteachers.com, and http://www.mathprojects.com.
Naglieri, J.A., & Gottling, S.H. (1997). Mathematics instruction and PASS cognitive processes: An intervention study.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 513–520.
Naglieri, J.A., & Johnson, D. (2000). Effectiveness of a cognitive strategy intervention to improve math calculation
based on the PASS theory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 591–597.
page 2 of 2
Number Squares for Math Concepts
Math concepts and skills (e.g., counting, counting by twos and threes, counting by odd and even
numbers) require the student to work with numbers in a specific order. Children often rely on rote
memory techniques to remember how to count. Some children need to be taught the relationships among the numbers directly and in a way that helps them understand how the numbers
relate to one another. Using number squares is a good strategy to help students understand and
see the relationship among numbers.
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Number squares can help students learn the conceptual
relationships among numbers by helping them see the patterns in numbers and how certain numbers relate to others
in a graphic way. Number squares give a particular order or
seeable pattern to an otherwise abstract and nonvisual
concept. This can give greater meaning, understanding,
and enjoyment to learning mathematics.
A number square is a large square divided into 100 smaller
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squares in rows and columns of 10. Each small square is
numbered, 1–100, starting at the upper left square as
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shown in Figure 1. Having 10 numbers in each row focuses
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the student’s attention on the basic groupings of numbers
Figure 1. A standard number square.
in base 10. A student can explore the grid and see how
numbers relate to each other (e.g., how the numbers in
each column have the same second digit and how the numbers in each row, with the exception
of the first row, have the same first digit).
When teaching a concept such as odd and even numbers,
the student can be encouraged to explore the grid and
shade in every other number. Doing this exposes the student not only to the meaning of odd and even numbers,
but also to how they look and relate to one another. The
student can see that every number is either odd or even
and that a class of numbers is odd or even (1, 11, 21, 31,
41, and so forth in the ones column). If even numbers are
the focus, the grid can serve as a guide or prompt for
counting by twos. Furthermore, this same grid can be used
to teach multiplication. Take the case of multiplying by 6.
A student can be instructed to use a new grid, count by 6,
and shade each sixth number (see Figure 2). Then, when a
fact is presented, say 6 multiplied by 8, the student can
count up eight shaded blocks and arrive at the answer.
This allows the student to see the answer and the pattern
involved in it.
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Figure 2.
A number square that shows counting by sixes.
page 1 of 2
Number Squares for Math Concepts (continued)
Number squares can be used in many ways.
• As a way to present a new concept (e.g., counting, odd or even numbers, number
groups, multiplication)
• As an exploration device (e.g., “What patterns do you see?”)
• As a tool for the student to refer to, similar to a calculator
How to Teach Number Squares
A teacher instructing adding, counting, or multiplying by fours may wish to provide students with
a number square and ask them to shade every fourth number, starting from number 1 (see Figure
3). The teacher may then ask questions about the pattern
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created, how the numbers are the same or different in each
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teacher then may encourage the students to have this
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shaded square handy so that they can refer to it when pre31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
sented with a number problem. A new square can be pro41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
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Who Should Learn Number Squares?
Number squares can be used in many areas of math and
at many different age levels. It gives the student a way to
Figure 3. A number square that shows counting by fours.
look at the patterns formed by a sequence of numbers.
This changes the task from one that demands considerable Successive processing to one that
requires Simultaneous processing. The creation of patterns makes a sort of visible rhythm that
can be better remembered by the student. Therefore, this strategy is especially useful for children
who have trouble with number concepts and may be particularly useful for students who score
low in Successive processing.
Resources
Excellent starting points for both students and teachers are available at
forum.swarthmore.edu/dr.math/dr-math.html and http://www.mathgoodies.com.
Orton, A. (Ed.). (1999). Pattern in the teaching and learning of mathematics. New York: Cassell.
page 2 of 2
Plans for Basic Math Facts
Learning basic addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division facts typically demands that students memorize a large amount of information. Students who memorize math facts learn the information in order. For example, students are often encouraged to say or write the basic facts in
sequence (7 + 8 = 15). Writing or saying this sequence of numbers puts the task into a linear
order with at least five steps. A strategy that teaches children to obtain the correct answer without
relying on memorization of a string of digits can be helpful. Because many students may not use
strategies to learn their basic facts, they should be specifically taught to do so.
Plans to Learn Basic Math Facts
Using plans to learn math facts is an effective strategy because the answer is obtained by thinking
(using the plan or method) rather than by relying on remembering the string of numbers. The
method requires that the student use some rule or method of arriving at the answer. For example,
the “doubles plus one” rule can be used to help students find the answer to 7 + 8 without relying
on memory of the answer because the answer can be obtained by thinking as follows: “7 + 8 . . .
well, 7 + 7 is 14, so 7 + 8 has to be one more than 14, so the answer is 15.” Here are some
strategies for addition:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
2 + 2 is a car with four wheels.
3 + 3 is the legs of an ant.
4 + 4 is an octopus with four legs on each side.
5 + 5 is fingers on both hands.
6 + 6 is an egg carton (or the legs of two ants).
7 + 7 is two weeks.
8 + 8 is two spiders.
9 + 9 is two baseball teams.
Here are some rules for multiplication:
0 multiplied by any number is always 0 (0 9 = 0).
1 multiplied by any number is always that number (1 7 = 7).
2 multiplied by a number will end in a zero or an even number (2 2 = 4, 2 10 = 20).
5 multiplied by any number gives an answer that must end in 0 or 5. 5 multiplied by any
number involves counting by fives, as when telling time from a standard clock. 5 multiplied by an even number is half that number with a 0 added (5 4 = 20, 5 8 = 40).
• 9 multiplied by any number can be solved by a plan: take one away from the multiplier.
That number goes into the tens place. Subtract that number from 9. That number goes
into the ones place, which gives the answer (9 8 = 72, 8 – 1 = 7, which goes in the
tens place. 9 – 7 = 2, which goes in the ones place for a final answer of 72). 9 multiplied by any number is that number multiplied by 10 minus the number (9 7 = 63,
•
•
•
•
page 1 of 2
Plans for Basic Math Facts (continued)
10 7 = 70, and 70 – 7 = 63). Of course, the tens rule should be mastered before
this one.
• The answer to 10 multiplied by any number always ends in 0. Simply put a 0 on the
end of the multiplier (4 10 = 40).
After learning all of the multiplication rules, only the following facts must be specifically memorized: 3 3; 3 4; 3 6; 3 7; 3 8; 4 4; 4 7; 4 8; 6 7; 7 7; 7 8; 8 8.
Teachers should teach a few rules at a time, allowing students to learn each one thoroughly before moving to the next. After the rules have been taught and monitored, they can be posted in
the room for independent use. Throughout instruction the teacher should
•
•
•
•
Use direct explanation. Teach why, when, and where to use these rules.
Model skills. Talk through examples and show how the skill is applied.
Provide practice with feedback.
Phase out teacher direction and phase in student use throughout instruction.
Who Should Learn Plans for Math Facts?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who have had problems learning math facts. Because
this intervention encourages children to solve the problems by applying a strategy, it involves a lot
of Planning. If a child scores low in Successive processing, he or she is likely to have problems
memorizing math facts because they are presented in a specific order. Students with Successive
processing problems should be taught to use these math strategies or plans. This technique may
be used to help students approach multiplication and division in a strategic way that does not rely
on their problem area (Successive processing).
Resources
Two excellent starting points for both students and teachers are available at
Muschla, J.A., & Muschla, R.G. (1995). The math teacher’s book of lists. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
page 2 of 2
Cuisenaire Rods and Math
Children must work with numbers regularly and understand the abstract meanings and relationships that numbers have. Understanding the relationships among the numbers or their specific
order is sometimes difficult for students. Often, students rely on techniques such as rote memory
to remember how to count, calculate, and recall basic facts. When a child attempts to learn these
facts by rote (e.g., counting by evens: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10), the numbers remain abstract. Using a strategy that helps students relate to numbers in a graphic way can be helpful. Using Cuisenaire rods
is a good strategy to do this.
Cuisenaire rods are a set of carefully designed rods in graduated length and color that use color
to identify length. For example, a red rod represents a unit of 2, and it is twice as long as a white
rod, which represents a unit of 1. This helps children identify each rod and its relationship to the
others. With number values assigned to the rods, children can see number relationships from patterns the rods create. Cuisenaire rods can help a student see the patterns involved in numbers
and how they relate to others in a graphic way. This can give the student greater meaning, understanding, and enjoyment in the learning of mathematics.
How to Teach Using Cuisenaire Rods
Cuisenaire rods can be used in many ways and at different grade levels. They can be used to introduce and work with numbers, simple addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and other
number concepts such as fractions. The key to using cuisenaire rods for teaching mathematics is
to encourage students to see the physical relationships the rods have to each other. Doing this
helps students recognize the concepts of larger, smaller, the same, sums, differences, products,
factors, and fractions.
Who Should Learn to Use Cuisenaire Rods?
Children who have trouble understanding numbers and mathematics are likely to benefit from
using Cuisenaire rods. Because Successive processing is involved when a child works with numbers in order, students who are weak in Successive processing may find Cuisenaire rods particularly helpful. For a child who is weak in Successive processing, this method encourages the student to use a different way of thinking about and working with the numbers—for example, how
the numbers can be related to shapes or patterns and grouped together visually. Cuisenaire rods
can help a student see the patterns involved in numbers and how certain numbers relate to others in a graphic way. They give a particular physical representation or pattern to otherwise abstract and nonvisual concepts.
page 1 of 2
Cuisenaire Rods and Math (continued)
Resources
More examples, written instructions, lessons, and classroom handouts can be found online at
http://www.etacuisenaire.com.
Davidson, P.S. (2002). Idea book: Mathematics activities for Cuisenaire Rods at the primary level. Vernon Hills, IL:
ETA/Cuisenaire.
page 2 of 2
TouchMath for Calculation
Young students are asked to perform many types of counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division problems throughout the school day. Performing mathematics requires understanding and using numbers in sequence. When students find counting and performing equations
in their head difficult, they often use their fingers to count. This is a helpful strategy in that it makes
the task more concrete so they can feel the order of the numbers. However, this strategy may be
inefficient and may not lend itself to the written completion of math problems. TouchMath is another strategy for calculation that helps children see a pattern in an otherwise abstract and nonvisual concept.
How to Teach Using TouchMath
TouchMath is a multisensory method of computation that may be used in all four processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It begins with counting the correct number of
touchpoints corresponding to the number value placed on the face of each numeral. Figure 1 is
used to help children learn to conceptualize by touching and counting. This creates a visual representation of the number that illustrates the number value, eliminates guesswork, and reduces errors. Teachers should follow these guidelines to use TouchMath.
• Provide students with a sheet of TouchMath numbers.
• Teach TouchMath points: Each number has dots that are to be touched and counted in
a specific order. Single touchpoints are touched and counted one time. Double touchpoints are touched and counted twice.
• Model counting and using correct touching and counting patterns on numerals 1–9.
• Provide worksheet problems with TouchMath numbers.
• Have students practice using the strategy several times so that they may master it.
Phasing Out TouchMath
Once children master the use of touchpoints with guidance, they may be instructed that the
touchpoints can be used even when they are not actually on the number.
• Provide guided practice without actual touchpoints.
• After the skill is mastered, phase out the touchpoints.
Figure 1. An example of TouchMath numbers. (Key: single TouchPoint,
double TouchPoint). (From Bullock,
J. [2002]. TouchMath: The TouchPoint Approach for Teaching Basic Math Computation [4th ed.]. Innovative Learning Concepts Inc., 6760 Corporate Drive, Colorado Springs, CO 80919-1999; 800-888-9191; reprinted by permission.)
page 1 of 2
TouchMath for Calculation (continued)
Who Should Learn TouchMath?
TouchMath should be used for children who have problems with addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It may be particularly useful for students who score low in Successive processing (see Naglieri, 1999). It may be especially helpful for the child who scores low in Successive
processing and scores high in the area of Simultaneous processing because the strategy helps
the child to see numbers and how number values relate to others in a physical way.
Resources
More information can be found by calling 1-800-888-9191 and going online at http://www.
touchmath.com. A web search on TouchMath also provides a vast source of information,
suggestions, lessons, and examples.
Bullock, J. (2002). TouchMath: The TouchPoint approach for teaching basic math computation (4th ed.). Colorado
Springs: Innovative Learning Concepts Inc.
page 2 of 2
Part–Whole Strategy for Math Calculation
Math calculation is a complex activity that involves recalling basic math facts, remembering procedures to be followed, working carefully, and checking one’s work. Children who are good at math
calculation can move on to more difficult math concepts and problem solving with greater ease
than those who are having problems in this area. A strategy that teaches children to planfully and
carefully work with math problems is likely to help. The part–whole strategy is such a method.
Researchers have found that children can be taught to perform better when doing math calculations if they are taught to solve the problems carefully. The method called part–whole strategy
(Van Luit & Naglieri, 1999) teaches children to break down math problems into more manageable
parts. This method is also easy to apply and helps students approach problem solving in a
planful way.
How to Use Part–Whole Strategy
Part–whole strategy should be directly taught to students who are learning basic math calculation.
Students should be taught to use this strategy in a flexible way and to think aloud as they do the
math. The teacher should lead the discussion of the strategy, encourage strategies developed by
the students, and assist children to reflect about the value of the methods they have suggested.
Teachers should explicitly teach strategies that help students see that calculation problems can
be broken into parts and solved more easily. The following strategies should be taught:
1. Addition of parts: An addition problem, such as 10 + 9, can be broken into parts:
5 + 5 + 9.
2. Doubling: A problem such as 8 6 can be broken into two parts: 4 6 and 4 6,
which when added yield the same answer as 8 6.
3. Doubles plus 1: When doing simple addition, such as 7 + 8, break the problem into
two like numbers (7 + 7), then add 1 (7 + 7 + 1 = 15)
4. Doubles plus 2: A problem such as 7 + 9 can be solved by adding 1 to the smaller
number and subtracting one from the larger number (7 + 1 = 8) + (9 – 1 = 8) so 8 plus
8 is 16.
5. Reconstruction: A problem such as 7 + 9 can be modified into a simpler form:
10 + 7 – 1 = 16. Similarly, a multiplication problem, such as 9 5, can be modified
to (10 5) – 5. Also using this strategy, 9 8 = (10 8) – 8 = 72.
6. Multiplication as addition: Multiplication is repeated addition, so 6 4 is the same as
(6 1) + (6 1) + (6 1) + (6 1).
page 1 of 2
Part–Whole Strategy for Math Calculation (continued)
Who Should Learn Part–Whole Strategy?
The part–whole strategy should be used when children need to learn math calculation. It may be
particularly helpful for students who are poor in Planning or Successive processing. Children who
are poor in Planning processing (see Naglieri, 1999) are unlikely to have good strategies for doing
math calculation and will not figure out these strategies on their own. Children with Successive
processing problems have trouble remembering basic facts when they are taught in a sequence
(e.g., 9 8 = 72).
Resources
Two excellent starting points for both students and teachers are available at forum.swarthmore
.edu/dr.math/dr-math.html and http://www.mathgoodies.com.
Van Luit, J.E.H., & Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Effectiveness of the MASTER strategy training program for teaching special
children multiplication and division. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32, 98–107.
page 2 of 2
Seven-Step Strategy for Math Word Problems
Math word problems are often difficult for many children. Word problems are much easier when a
student knows and uses effective strategies to solve them. Students who approach math word
problems without a strategy often make procedural and computational errors. Interventions for
math word problems should target both basic skills and use of strategies “to enable students to
be thoughtful problem solvers” (Scheid, 1993, p. 9). In addition, academic instruction must be
tailored to the cognitive needs of individual students. Giving students some strategies or plans
for doing word problems can be very helpful.
A Plan for Working on Math Word Problems
Math word problems especially require a careful and systematic approach, a plan that includes
developing ways to do the problem as well as checking that the solution is reasonable and correct. Strategy use, or good Planning, is critical for coming up with an effective way of approaching
the problem and monitoring the effectiveness of the strategy. Children who have poor Planning
skills will find these problems especially hard to solve, and therefore they should be instructed to
use a plan.
How to Teach the Plan for Doing Word Problems
The following are the basic steps for teaching plans for doing word problems:
1. Read (for understanding and getting information).
• Read the problem. If you do not understand it, read it again.
• Ask, “Have I read and understood the problem?”
• Check for understanding as you read the problem.
2. Paraphrase (use your own words to restate the problem).
• Underline the important information. Put the problem in your own words.
• Ask, “Have I found the important facts? What is the question I am looking for?”
• Check that the information goes with the question.
3. Visualize (a picture or a diagram of the problem).
• Make a drawing or a diagram.
• Ask, “Does the picture fit the problem?”
• Check that the information goes with the question.
4. Hypothesize (make a plan to solve the problem).
• Decide how many steps and operations are needed. Write the symbols (+, –, , /).
• Ask, “If I do it this way, what will I get? If I do this, then what do I need to do next?
How many steps are needed?”
• Check that the plan makes sense.
page 1 of 2
Seven-Step Strategy for Math Word Problems (continued)
5. Estimate (predict the answer).
• Round the numbers, do the problem, and write the estimate.
• Ask, “Did I round up and down? Did I write the estimate?”
• Check that you used the important information.
6. Compute (do the arithmetic).
• Do the operations in the right order.
• Ask, “How does my answer compare with my estimate? Does my answer make
sense? Are the decimals or money signs in the right places?”
• Check that all the operations were done in the right order.
7. Check (make sure everything is right).
• Check the computation.
• Ask, “Have I checked every step and calculation, and is my answer right?”
• Check that everything is right. If not, go back. Then, ask for help if you need it.
Who Should Learn the Plan for Word Problems?
All students are likely to find using this plan helpful for doing word problems. Math word problems
involve all the PASS processes. Successive processing is involved when a child has to remember
the ordering of relevant information. Attention is involved when the child must separate relevant
from irrelevant details in the word problem. Simultaneous processing is very important so that the
child can see how all the information in the problem is related. However, students who score low
in Planning are likely to benefit from using this plan as a structure to help them work through math
word problems (Naglieri, 1999).
Resources
forum.swarthmore.edu/dr.math/dr-math.html and www.mathgoodies.com.
Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on mathematical problem solving of middle-school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230–248.
Montague, M. (1995). Cognitive instruction and mathematics: Implications for students with learning disorders. Focus
on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 17, 39–49.
Montague, M. (1997). Cognitive strategy instruction in mathematics for students with learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 30, 164–177.
Montague, M., Applegate, B., & Marquard, K. (1993). Cognitive strategy instruction and mathematical problemsolving performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 8, 223–232.
Montague, M., & Bos, C. (1986). The effect of cognitive strategy training on verbal math problem solving performance
of learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 26–33.
page 2 of 2
Chunking Strategy for Multiplication
Multiplication is a task that involves recalling basic math facts, remembering procedures to be followed, working carefully, and checking one’s work. Sometimes children need a way to organize
the numbers when doing multiplication, especially when they try to do the work by breaking the
multiplication problem into parts. Providing these students with a strategy to do basic multiplication facts can help them be more successful.
The multiplication strategy of chunking helps children break the numerical problem into separate
parts that can be more easily solved. Children who have trouble doing multiplication may benefit
from this strategy because it helps them break the problem down into more manageable parts.
The way the strategy works is that the children are taught to break the numbers into groups (i.e.,
chunks) that can be more easily managed. For example, 2 8 is the same as counting by twos
eight times. If a child is taught to use a slash mark ( / ) for each step of counting by twos, when
the eighth slash mark is written the problem is solved. Use the following steps to teach the chunking strategy:
1. Read the problem: 2 8 = ____ .
2. Point to the number you use to count by twos.
3. Make the number of slash marks indicated by the other number (in this case the
number 8).
4. Count by twos as you touch each mark: “2, 4, 6, 8 . . .”
5. Stop counting at the last mark: “. . . 10, 12, 14, 16.”
6. The number you stop on is the answer: “16.”
Who Should Learn the Chunking Strategy for Multiplication?
This strategy can be useful for students having difficulty learning multiplication facts. It can also be
very useful for students who are poor in Planning or Successive processing. Children who score
low in Planning processing are unlikely to have good strategies for doing multiplication and will not
figure out these strategies on their own (see Naglieri, 1999). Children with Successive processing
problems have trouble remembering basic facts when they are taught in a sequence (e.g., 9 8
= 72). These children are also most likely to benefit from learning calculation strategies.
Resources
Excellent starting points for both students and teachers are available at
page 1 of 2
Chunking Strategy for Multiplication (continued)
Shapiro, E.S. (1989). Academic skills problems direct assessment and intervention. New York: Guilford Press.
page 2 of 2
Crossed Lines Multiplication Strategy
Multiplication is a skill that involves remembering basic math facts. Students can learn these facts
in a variety of ways. Some children write the facts over and over; others might refer to a multiplication matrix that is posted in the room or kept at their desks. These methods help students
commit facts to memory. Sometimes students cannot immediately remember facts and need a
strategy to figure out the correct answer on their own. Doing this can also help them remember
the facts better. The crossed lines multiplication strategy is a specific plan students can use to figure out math facts and help them arrive at the correct answer.
Students can use the crossed lines multiplication strategy to figure out a multiplication fact that
has not been committed to memory. It is a strategy not unlike counting on your fingers, but it uses
lines that the students make to represent the numbers. It helps make the abstract concept of
multiplication more concrete. This makes it easier for students to work with and understand.
How to Teach Crossed Lines Multiplication Strategy
This strategy can be easily taught. Here is an example using the steps of this strategy.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ask, “What is 3 times 2?”
Draw three lines across for the first number in the problem (3).
Draw two lines down for the second number in the problem (2).
Count the number of times the lines cross (or intersect) to get the answer to the
problem.
5. For future facts, including either of the two numbers already used, additional lines can
be added (e.g., for 3 3, a third vertical line could be added for a total of nine intersections).
Example:
3x2
Who Should Learn the Crossed Lines Multiplication Strategy?
This strategy should be used when children need to learn multiplication. Children who score low
in Planning processing are unlikely to have good strategies for doing multiplication and will not
figure out these strategies on their own. Children with Successive processing problems have
page 1 of 2
Crossed Lines Multiplication Strategy (continued)
trouble remembering basic facts when they are taught in a sequence (e.g., 9 8 = 72). For this
reason, students who are poor in Planning or Successive processing may find this strategy
particularly useful.
Resources
page 2 of 2
More Strategies for Math Word Problems
Math word problems are among the most challenging activities for children and adults. Being able
to do them is an important skill, however, because we often have to figure out math-related problems in everyday life. Word problems involve many skills, concepts, and procedures. In order to
manage all of these demands, children should use systematic strategies that will aid in the successful completion of the problem. The strategies should include consideration of the basic skills
needed to solve the problem, the procedures required, and the methods needed for success.
Here are some basic strategies for math word problems:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Read the problem slowly and carefully.
Cross out information that is not relevant.
Draw a diagram of the problem or visualize it.
State the facts and the problem in your own words.
Estimate what the answer should be.
Calculate the answer and check against the estimate.
Check your work.
Remember that you have to know the basic math facts to get the correct answer.
Be persistent.
Be sure you read the problem correctly.
Students should be taught how to classify arithmetic word problems into four types: change,
combine, compare, and equalize.
1. Change: These problems involve values that are changed as the result of some action
by the student. For example, Jack had two pencils. Mary gave him three more. How
many pencils does Jack have now? Students should be taught to think about how to
represent this type of problem. For example, the student can visualize Mary handing
Jack her three pencils to put with his two.
2. Combine: Word problems of this type require the child to use a more general view of
the mathematical situation by computing a total based on a new way of organizing the
problem. Jack has two pencils. Mary has three pencils. How many pencils do they
have altogether? By asking this question, a new concept of the two children as a
group is required.
3. Compare: In these problems, the quantity of the sets does not change, but the operations demand that a relative relationship be determined. For example, Jack has two
pencils. Mary has three pencils. How many more pencils does Mary have than Jack?
Children should be taught to recognize the greater than/less than nature of this type of
problem, and that it will typically involve subtraction.
4. Equalize: These problems require that the values in the problem be equalized. For example, Jack has two pencils. Mary has three pencils. How many more pencils does
Jack need in order to have as many as Mary? Children should be taught to recognize
equalize problems and expect that they will likely involve both subtraction and addition.
page 1 of 2
More Strategies for Math Word Problems (continued)
Who Should Learn a Plan for Word Problems?
All students are likely to find using a plan helpful for doing word problems. Math word problems
involve all the PASS processes. Successive processing is involved when a child has to remember
the ordering of relevant information. Attention is involved when the child must separate relevant
from irrelevant details in the word problem. Simultaneous processing is very important so the child
can see how all the information in the problem is related. However, students who score low in
Planning (Naglieri, 1999) are likely to benefit from using a plan as a structure to help them work
through math word problems.
Resources
Geary, D.G. (1999). Children’s mathematical development. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
page 2 of 2
General Strategies for Test Taking
Doing well on a test not only requires that students know specific information, it also requires that
they be good at test taking. Students who prepare for a particular test, have an idea or plan for
what to study, and think about how to answer the questions are likely to do well on a variety of
tests. Some students need to be taught good test preparation and test-taking strategies to be
successful. Teaching general test-taking strategies can help students be planful and strategic in
their approach to answering questions during a test. Although some students use strategies
when they take tests, others do not and need to be explicitly taught good test-taking skills.
How to Teach General Strategies
First, students should be taught that specific strategies for test taking can be helpful. They should
be told how they can prepare and how to take tests in strategic ways. To accomplish this goal,
children should be taught several steps.
1. Prepare for the test by asking the following questions:
• What is the content of the test? In order to be prepared, students need to find out
exactly what the content of the test will be. Students should also consider what will
not be on the test. Asking about specific materials they should study can also be
helpful.
• What is the test format? Will the questions on the test be multiple choice, fill in the
blank, or essay? How specific will the questions be? When studying, students
should think of questions and answers in the format of the test. Their teachers can
help by giving practice tests.
2. Take the test carefully and be relaxed.
• Be careful. Students should be prompted to take a test very carefully and not to
rush. Breaking a test session down into two parts may be helpful. Using this strategy, students use the first half of the test session to take the test and the second
half to check their work. This can assist in curbing students who want to rush to
finish without checking their work.
• Relax. Specifically instruct students to relax before taking a test. Give them time to
do so. Consider having students stretch, breathe deeply, and even close their eyes
and daydream before a test. Teacher comments can also be very important in helping students relax.
Who Should Learn General Strategies for Test Taking?
Most students can benefit from these strategies. Students who score low in Planning could find
these strategies particularly helpful because these students may have trouble developing test-
page 1 of 2
General Strategies for Test Taking (continued)
taking strategies on their own. These strategies may also be helpful for students who are particularly anxious about taking tests.
Resource
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Teaching test-taking skills: Helping students show what they know. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
page 2 of 2
Strategies for Multiple Choice,
Matching, and True–False Tests
Careful preparation and planning is necessary for good performance on multiple choice, matching, and true–false tests. Students can be more successful if they plan and study for the specific
kind of test they are taking. There are many different strategies for doing multiple choice, matching, and true–false tests. They all require the recognition of specific facts. These tests can be especially tricky, and, therefore, students need to be aware that they can use specific strategies for
these tests. Although some students use strategies when they take the test, others do not and
need to be explicitly taught good test-taking skills.
How to Teach Test Taking for Objective Tests
Specifically teach students to do the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Think of what the answer might be before reading the answer choices.
Carefully and completely read the questions.
Highlight key words in the question.
Eliminate answers that are clearly incorrect.
Draw a picture to help organize the question.
Estimate an answer to eliminate options that are likely wrong.
Read ALL the answer choices, even the ones that look wrong.
Read the question and answers twice.
Do not pick the longest answer.
Do not choose an answer based on the location (first, middle, last).
Who Should Learn Strategies for
Multiple Choice, Matching, and True–False Tests?
the strategies particularly helpful because these students may have trouble developing test-taking
strategies on their own. These suggestions may also be helpful for students who are particularly
anxious about taking tests.
Resource
page 1 of 1
Strategies for Written Tests
Written tests are particularly difficult for students because they require students to know the information that is being asked and to answer in a coherent and logical way. These types of tests
require considerable preparation and specific strategies for completing the assignment. Using a
good strategy for taking written exams can help students be successful because they can work
more efficiently and therefore produce a better answer. Although some students use strategies
when they take tests, others do not and need to be explicitly taught good test-taking skills.
How to Teach Strategies for Written Tests
Students should be specifically told how they can take written tests using strategies that will help
them produce a better response. Scruggs and Mastropieri (1992) suggested that students be
taught to use the acronym SNOW for essay test taking: Study the question; Note important
points; Organize the information; and Write directly to the point of the question. Students
should be taught to
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Study the question carefully.
Be sure to completely answer the question that is asked.
Make a list of the specific points.
Do not leave a question unanswered.
Provide an answer even when they are not sure because partial credit is better than
no credit.
6. Use words and ideas from the question.
7. Check their work when they are finished.
Who Should Learn Strategies for Written Tests?
the strategies particularly helpful because these students may have trouble developing test-taking
strategies on their own. These suggestions may also be helpful for students who are particularly
anxious about taking tests.
Resource
page 1 of 1
Using Mental Imagery to Improve Spelling
Spelling is an important academic skill that is necessary for writing and reading/decoding. Remembering how words are spelled requires ordering letters as well as sequencing letter combinations. Children are often taught to spell through memorization of weekly spelling lists that puts
much emphasis on recall of letter order. Good spelling instruction should focus on the sequential
features of words, as well as the image of the word as a whole. One technique for learning words
as a whole involves making a mental image it.
Using a mental image is a powerful strategy that has been shown to be effective in a number of
content areas. The technique requires that children carefully examine the sequence of letters in a
word presented visually. Next they close their eyes and try to imagine the word as it might appear
on a large screen. Once they have created the image of the word, they are told to hold it as long
as they can. The goal is to be able to see the word with their eyes closed for one minute.
How to Teach Mental Imagery with Spelling
Mental imagery instruction should begin by selecting a list of appropriate words for the children’s
current skill level. The steps for imagery training are as follows:
1. Present one word printed in black ink on white paper (or on a computer screen).
2. Tell the students to examine the word carefully, looking at both the sequence of letters
and the word as a whole.
3. Expose the word for a fixed period of time (e.g., 20 seconds).
4. Once the word is removed, have the children close their eyes and imagine what the
word looks like. Have them think of how the word looks for a minute.
5. Repeat for the next word.
Who Should Learn Mental Imagery?
This instruction is likely to benefit students who are poor in spelling and low in Successive processing. Because the intervention helps children visualize the sequences of letters and groups of
letters, it involves Simultaneous processing. Students who have not been able to learn spelling by
writing or saying the sequence of letters because of poor Successive processing are likely to benefit from this intervention. Students who are strong in Simultaneous and low in Successive processing should utilize this intervention.
Resources
Radaker, L. (1963). The effect of visual imagery upon spelling performance. The Journal of Educational Research, 56,
370–372.
page 1 of 1
Facilitating Long-Term Memory
For students to successfully remember information for long periods of time, that information must
be transferred from short-term to long-term memory. Good students actively enhance their ability
to transfer information into long-term memory by using specific strategies that help them process
the information more deeply and connect it to what they already know.
Some students have trouble remembering information because they do not actively use strategies
to move new information into long-term memory. These students often simply listen to new information or read it and assume they will remember it. These students need to be taught the value
of facilitating their memory and specific strategies to do so.
How to Use Facilitating Long-Term Memory
Actively employing strategies that improve learning helps students remember more information.
Students should be taught that they need to process information deeply and actively make connections between new information and what they already know to remember the information better. Some specific strategies that they can be taught to improve memory include:
1. Organize information in meaningful ways. Organizing information into groups of similarities or networks of related parts is a good strategy because it connects information together. Furthermore, it is a good strategy because it helps recall. When a student
thinks carefully about new information to make connections, the student is processing
that information more thoroughly, which means that it will be remembered better.
2. Use prior knowledge. Students can remember information more easily when it is linked
to what they already know. Teachers and parents should encourage students to relate
new information to what they already know by encouraging them to compare and contrast new information with old information. This also helps students retrieve the information later because they can recall what they knew before, which in turn facilitates recall of the new information.
3. Apply new information. Actually using new information requires students to process it
more thoroughly, which means it is more likely to be remembered. For instance, if a
student learns about the First Amendment and is then asked to apply it to a popular
song, the student is more likely to remember what it means.
Who Should Use Facilitating Long-Term Memory?
Students who are weak in Simultaneous processing often have trouble remembering information
because they do not make connections between the facts. Therefore, students who are weak in
Simultaneous processing may find these strategies particularly helpful.
page 1 of 2
Facilitating Long-Term Memory (continued)
Resources
For more approaches to good memory instruction, see the following sources:
Minskoff, E., & Allsopp, D. (2003) Academic success strategies for adolescents with learning disabilities and ADHD.
page 2 of 2
Focusing Strategies to Improve Memory
Good students are able to take in new information and hold it in their mind for a short time while
they think about other things. This is called short-term or working memory. Remembering a telephone number someone just told you requires short-term memory. Remembering information
over a longer period of time is called long-term memory, which can be maximized by using strategies. For example, a student may learn that dessert is spelled with ss and desert is spelled with
s. The student may decide that a good way to remember this spelling is that dessert has more
than one s because people usually want more dessert. This strategy is likely to help the student
remember the spelling over time. Successful students are often good at long-term memory
because they use strategies to remember.
Some students have trouble remembering information because they have trouble holding information in their minds long enough to remember it. These students may be easily distracted. In some
cases, the information may be forgotten almost immediately because the student is not paying attention to the right information. These students need to be taught good strategies to take control
of themselves and their environment so that they can focus and remember better.
How to Use Focusing Strategies to Improve Memory
Actively employing strategies that improve learning helps students remember more information.
If a student’s environment is not distracting, the student is more likely to be able to manipulate information in his or her mind. In turn, the student will be better able to remember the information
over time. Furthermore, if the student employs strategies to self-monitor how distracted he or she
is, the student is more likely to be able to focus. This strategy uses the mnemonic acronym PATS
as described by Esther Minskoff and David Allsopp (2003) in Academic Success Strategies for
Adolescents with Learning Disabilities and ADHD (see also the handout Plans for Remembering,
p. 68). PATS stands for:
1. Pick the right environment to study.
• Pick a good place to study that is comfortable. Consider how quiet the place
should be, how busy it should be, and how bright it should be (bright light can be
as distracting as low light can be difficult to see).
• Set aside a dedicated place to study. A student’s mind might be confused and distracted by trying to study in bed, for example, because a bed is associated with
sleeping.
2. Always reduce visual distractions.
• Find a place such as at a desk facing away from activity.
• Only have the necessary material. Other books, toys, magazines, and computers
can be distracting.
page 1 of 2
Focusing Strategies to Improve Memory (continued)
3. Try to eliminate noise around you.
• Study in a quiet room. Lights and fans may contribute noise, so earplugs may be
helpful.
• Some people like to study with music. Be sure it is not distracting. If it is, pick a
quieter volume or different style.
4. Self-talk to control internal distractions.
• Some students may be distracted by internal factors such as thoughts about other
things, hunger, or worry. Students should monitor their internal distractions and use
positive self-talk to focus. For example, if a student is eager to e-mail a friend, the
student should say to himself, “I’m distracted by wanting to e-mail, but I need to
study more. I’ll study for 15 more minutes and then take a break to e-mail.” In this
example, a timer would be a great way to help quantify study time and focus.
The student should be explicitly taught PATS and guided to use it. During class or study at home,
a teacher or parent can remind the student to use PATS when he or she needs to really focus and
remember information.
Who Should Use Focusing Strategies to Remember Better?
Often, students who are weak in Attention have trouble remembering information because they
do not focus well. Therefore, students who are weak in Attention may find this strategy particularly
helpful. Furthermore, this strategy employs good plans to remember information, so it may be
helpful for students low in Planning.
Resource
For more approaches to good study skills, see the following:
Minskoff, E., & Allsopp, D. (2003). Academic success strategies for adolescents with learning disabilities and ADHD.
page 2 of 2
Planificación explicada
La Planificación es un proceso mental por el cual un individuo determina, selecciona, aplica y
evalúa las soluciones a los problemas. Esto incluye: 1) seleccionar información relevante en la
tarea, 2) seleccionar conocimiento previo que sea relevante, 3) utilizar una estrategia antes de realizar una tarea, 4) cotejar su progreso y 5) desarrollar nuevas estrategias cuando sea necesario.
Ejemplo de la Planificación explicada en el salón de clase
La Figura 1 muestra una actividad que conlleva Planificación en el salón de clase. Una tarea
común para los niños es aprender a deletrear palabras correctamente. Los maestros usualmente
les dan a sus estudiantes exámenes de deletreo sobre listas de palabras específicas. Existen
varias maneras en que un niño puede memorizar una lista de deletreo. En este ejemplo, el niño es
motivado a utilizar un plan o método para aprender a deletrear una lista de palabras. Escribir la
lista en orden alfabético, en tarjetas, escribir las palabras en oraciones, escribir la lista todos los
días y simplemente leer la lista son algunas formas en que los niños pueden aprender palabras.
Algunas de estas estrategias son mejores que otras para
algunos niños. Una planificación adecuada conlleva seleccionar uno de estos métodos, aplicarlo, comprobar si
funciona y cambiarlo si no resulta. Un niño que planifica
cómo realizar una tarea y que supervisa qué tan bien
funciona la estrategia, tiene la posibilidad de ser más
exitoso que un niño que realiza tareas sin planificar.
La Planificación involucra una serie de factores:
Tomar decisiones acerca de cómo hacer las cosas.
•
Evaluar el ambiente para determinar cómo se puede
resolver un problema o tarea.
• Desarrollar, seleccionar, evaluar y usar planes o
estrategias para resolver problemas.
• Modificar planes o estrategias para ser más eficiente.
• Determinar cuándo una tarea ha sido completada
apropiadamente.
Figura 1. Ejemplo de una actividad en el salón de clase que
• Controlar la conducta, los impulsos y la actividad
requiere Planificación.
mental.
• Definir un problema (la necesidad de un plan), seleccionar y aplicar el plan para resolverlo (completar una tarea).
Existen varios problemas en el salón de clases que están relacionados a la Planificación:
• Falta de organización en las tareas y las asignaciones.
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Copyright © 2010 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved. Todos los derechos reservados.
Planificación explicada (continuación)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Inefectividad al cambiar estrategias según las demandas del trabajo escolar.
Inefectividad al corregir malas interpretaciones sobre lo leído.
Aplicación inconsistente de reglas al deletrear o resolver problemas matemáticos.
Inefectividad para utilizar recursos de ayuda al completar una tarea.
Falta de preparación de materiales necesarios para hacer el trabajo escolar.
Incertidumbre sobre cómo o donde comenzar la tarea escolar.
¿Cómo enseñar a los estudiantes
a desarrollar mejores destrezas de Planificación?
1. Enseñe a los niños sobre planificación y el uso de estrategias.
2. Discuta la importancia de la planificación en el salón y cómo ésta ayuda a los estudiantes a organizarse a sí mismos de modo que puedan terminar a tiempo y ser más
exitosos.
3. Motive a los estudiantes a desarrollar, utilizar y evaluar sus propias estrategias.
4. Motive la expresión verbal de ideas y estrategias.
5. Explique por qué algunas técnicas o métodos de planificación funcionan mejor que
otros.
6. Haga preguntas relacionadas a la planificación, tales como:
• ¿Cómo hiciste la tarea?
• ¿Hiciste algún plan antes de comenzar la tarea?
• ¿Qué hiciste la última vez? ¿Te funcionó?
• ¿Por qué lo hiciste de esa forma?
• Estos son difíciles. ¿Existe alguna manera de hacerlos mas fácil?
• ¿Existe una mejor manera o existe otra manera para hacerlo?
• ¿Qué estrategia funcionó para ti?
• ¿Crees que harás algo diferente la próxima vez?
• ¿Cómo puedes verificar si el trabajo está correcto?
¿Cómo se mide la Planificación?
La Planificación se puede medir utilizando el Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). El CAS ofrece
una puntuación total y puntuaciones separadas de los procesos de Planificación, Atención, Simultáneos y Sucesivos (PASS) en cuatro escalas cognitivas. La puntuación promedio es 100.
Las puntuaciones por debajo de los 90 puntos son consideradas por debajo del promedio.
Recursos
Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Essentials of CAS assessment: New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Atención explicada
La Atención es un proceso mental por el cual la persona se enfoca en un estímulo particular e ignora otros. La Atención permite que un niño se enfoque selectivamente en las cosas que escucha o ve, e ignore estímulos y sonidos irrelevantes. La atención focalizada es concentrarse directamente hacia algo en particular. La atención selectiva requiere resistencia a la distracción y la
atención sostenida requiere mantenerse enfocado de forma continua a través de un período de
tiempo específico. Estas dimensiones trabajan en conjunto para permitir que el niño atienda.
Ejemplo de la Atención en el salón de clase
Los niños usualmente toman exámenes de selección múltiple que incluyen problemas con una
lista de posibles respuestas. En la hoja de trabajo presentada en la Figura 1, el niño debe enfocarse en un problema o pregunta específica y examinar cuidadosamente las posibles respuestas.
El niño debe enfocarse en la contestación correcta y al mismo tiempo ignorar las demás respuestas que, aunque incorrectas, pudieran estar bastantes cerca de la respuesta correcta. Un proHoja de trabajo de matemáticas
blema de matemáticas pregunta: “¿Qué número
para decenas y unidades
tiene 5 decenas y 2 unidades?” y la lista de posiNombre: ____________________
Fecha:______________
bles respuestas es 50, 25, 52, 502 y 55. Este
problema contiene varias opciones que distraen.
Circula la contestación correcta
El número 2 puede estar en cualquier lugar, pero
¿está localizado correctamente en el lugar de las
1. ¿Cuál es el número para 5 decenas y 2 unidades?
50 25
52
502
55
decenas? Esto crea una situación con un objetivo
específico (el lugar de las decenas) y distrac2. ¿Cuál número tiene un 2 en el lugar de las decenas y un 7 en el
ciones (el lugar de las unidades y las centenas).
lugar de las unidades?
El “responder” o “no responder” requiere aten27
270
72
22
702
ción selectiva y resistencia a la distracción. De
3. ¿Cuál número tiene un 5 en el lugar de las decenas y un 4 en el
igual manera, la Atención es necesaria en el salón
de clases cuando un estudiante debe enfocarse
504
54
55
45
50
selectivamente en la maestra que está frente del
4. ¿Cuál número tiene un 6 en el lugar de las decenas y un 9 en el
salón, mientras debe ignorar los ruidos del
pasillo, los estudiantes que juegan afuera y al
66
690
96
69
996
compañero a su lado.
Figura 1.
Ejemplo de una actividad que requiere Atención.
La Atención requiere una serie de actividades:
•
•
•
•
•
Enfocarse en un estímulo a la vez
Resistir distracciones
Sostener el esfuerzo a través del tiempo
Prestar atención selectiva a una cosa y a la vez omitir otras
Mantenerse enfocado a través del tiempo
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Atención explicada (continuación)
Posibles dificultades en el salón de clases relacionadas a la Atención
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Habilidad limitada en trabajar por varios minutos en una misma tarea
Inhabilidad para enfocarse en los aspectos relevantes de las tareas
Dificultad en resistir las distracciones en el salón de clases
Tareas incompletas porque el niño no sostuvo el esfuerzo
Tendencia a contestar preguntas basadas en información incompleta
Tendencia a contestar la pregunta equivocada
Fracaso en comenzar una tarea porque el niño no atendió las instrucciones
Estrategias para desarrollar la Atención
• Modele y enseñe estrategias que mejoren la atención y la concentración.
• Enseñe el uso de autodirecciones verbales (ej. “cálmate y piensa sobre la pregunta”.)
• Enseñe estrategias para enfocarse (ej. cotejar los aspectos críticos y escuchar con
cuidado).
• Enseñe al niño a usar sólo los materiales requeridos.
• Enseñe estrategias que mejoren la inhibición y la organización.
• Motive el uso de agendas y portafolios para organizar los papeles.
• Enseñe al niño a detenerse y pensar antes de contestar.
• Enseñe al niño a contar hasta el 10 antes de contestar.
• Enseñe estrategias para aumentar su estado de alerta.
• Enseñe al niño a estar consciente de su estado de alerta.
• Enseñe al niño el uso de autoafirmaciones para relajarse.
• Planifique recesos para que el niño no tenga que sostener su atención por demasiado
tiempo.
¿Cómo se mide la Atención?
La Atención se puede medir utilizando el Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). El CAS ofrece una
puntuación total y puntuaciones separadas de los procesos de Planificación, Atención, Simultáneos y Sucesivos (PASS) en cuatro escalas cognitivas, incluyendo la Atención. La puntuación
promedio es 100. Puntuaciones por debajo de los 90 son consideradas por debajo del promedio.
Recursos
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Procesamiento Simultáneo explicado
El procesamiento Simultáneo es un proceso mental utilizado para relacionar diversas partes de
información en un grupo o considerar cómo las partes se relacionan como un todo. Usualmente
el procesamiento Simultáneo se manifiesta en tareas que involucran habilidades espaciales tales
como el uso de bloques para construir un diseño, hacer geometría, reconocer patrones en
números, reconocer un grupo de letras como una palabra, entender palabras como un todo, entender una oración como parte de un párrafo y la comprensión de lectura. El aspecto espacial del
proceso Simultáneo incluye la percepción de un objeto como un todo e identificar patrones. El
procesamiento Simultáneo está involucrado en la comprensión de lectura debido a que requiere
la integración y comprensión de relaciones entre palabras, preposiciones y los sonidos de las
letras, para que así el niño pueda derivar el significado basado en una idea completa. Los niños
que son buenos en el procesamiento Simultáneo pueden reconocer temas fácilmente y entender
cómo la información se integra para formar un todo.
Ejemplo del procesamiento Simultáneo en el salón
El procesamiento Simultáneo está relacionado a la comprensión del lenguaje hablado y escrito.
Por ejemplo, la oración “El gato negro corrió.” requiere que el estudiante relacione al elemento
“gato” con el elemento del color (negro) y relacionarlos a la acción de “correr”. Agrupar las palabras “flores”, “pájaros”, “piedras” y “nubes” a un grupo de “cosas que se pueden encontrar
afuera” implica utilizar el procesamiento Simultáneo porque requiere entender cómo cada una de
esas cosas se relacionan unas con otras y a su vez con la aseveración.
El procesamiento Simultáneo es requerido para considerar las cosas como un todo. Para reconocer una figura en una colección de líneas que forman un cubo se requiere procesamiento Simultáneo, así como dibujar un mapa (ver Figura 1).
Dibujar o hacer un mapa requiere comprender la
Prueba de figura
relación de un lugar a otro de una manera significaDibuje cada figura desde una vista delantera, superior y lateral.
tiva, en lugar de ver un mapa cómo una colección
de líneas y figuras.
Figura 1. Ejemplo de de una actividad que requiere procesamiento
Simultáneo.
Una tarea sencilla, pero común para los niños en el
salón de clases es dibujar figuras o imágenes sobre
un cuento que ellos han escrito o leído. El simplemente dibujar la imagen y considerar cómo cada
parte, color y diseño se ajustan para hacer que el
trabajo de arte tenga significado requiere del procesamiento Simultáneo. Un dibujo que incluye todas
las partes necesarias en un grupo bien organizado
involucra el procesamiento Simultáneo. Relacionar
la imagen a lo que es leído o escrito requiere que el
estudiante entienda el cuento y cómo sus partes se
interrelacionan.
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Procesamiento Simultáneo explicado (continuación)
El procesamiento Simultáneo describe varias actividades:
•
•
•
•
Relacionar las partes en un todo comprensible para ver cómo se ajustan unas a otras
Entender relaciones entre palabras, imágenes e ideas
Trabajar con relaciones espaciales
Reconocer varios elementos o integrar palabras dentro de una idea más amplia
A continuación hay algunos problemas en el salón de clases relacionados al procesamiento
Simultáneo:
•
•
•
•
•
Falla en reconocer palabras comunes rápidamente
Cometer errores al interpretar la palabra, oración o significado del texto
Dificultad en reconocer las formas de las palabras o en trabajar con tareas espaciales
Falla en reconocer patrones en el texto o en problemas matemáticos
Falla en comprender problemas verbales matemáticos
Estrategias para desarrollar el procesamiento Simultáneo
• Hacer actividades de pareos y juegos de categorización con el niño (ej. fotos, palabras), incluyendo antónimos
• Demostrarle al niño la reproducción de figuras en rotación y desde diferentes perspectivas
• Hacer que el niño practique el completar rompecabezas, hojas de trabajo con dibujos
ocultos y construir objetos tridimensionales
• Pedir al niño que provea detalles que falten en los cuentos
• Motivar el uso de la rima
• Fomentar al niño el uso y creación de mapas; tanto contextuales como geográficos
• Enseñar al niño cómo resumir cuentos o artículos
¿Cómo se mide el procesamiento Simultáneo?
El procesamiento Simultáneo puede ser medido usando el Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
El CAS ofrece una puntuación total y separa las puntuaciones de los procesos de Planificación,
Atención, Simultáneos y Sucesivos (PASS) para las cuatro escalas cognitivas, incluyendo el
procesamiento Simultáneo. La puntuación promedio es 100. Las puntuaciones por debajo de los
90 son consideradas por debajo del promedio.
Recursos
Kirby, J., & Williams, N. (1991). Learning problems: A cognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
página 2 de 2
Procesamiento Sucesivo explicado
El procesamiento Sucesivo es un proceso mental que involucra utilizar o colocar información en
un orden específico. En este proceso la información recibida es organizada en orden específico
enlazándose unas partes con otras, permitiendo que el niño reconozca como las partes se organizan secuencialmente. Este proceso es importante cuando es necesario mantener información
en el orden correcto. Por ejemplo, los niños que son eficientes en el procesamiento Sucesivo
usualmente son capaces de seguir bien las instrucciones verbales. El procesamiento Sucesivo involucra recordar la información en orden, incluyendo el orden de sonidos y movimientos. Por esta
razón, el procesamiento Sucesivo es utilizado en la integración de sonidos para formar palabras y
al colocar las palabras en la sintaxis correcta.
Ejemplo del procesamiento Sucesivo en el salón de clases
El procesamiento Sucesivo está involucrado cuando el niño trabaja con sonidos para formar palabras. Los niños aprenden a hablar colocando los sonidos de las palabras en el orden correcto.
Ellos aprenden las secuencias de sonidos involucradas en las palabras antes de comenzar a leer.
Cuando se comienza a aprender a leer, los sonidos de las palabras son importantes, así como la
asociación de esas palabras con las secuencias de letras. Por lo tanto, leer/decodificar involucra
el procesamiento Sucesivo. En la Figura 1, el niño tiene que ordenar los sonidos correctamente
para así decir la frase “Mi mamá me mima mucho”, colocar las palabras en el orden correcto y
colocar las letras usadas para deletrear en el orden correcto. La similitud de las palabras (todas
comienzan con la letra M) hace que esto sea difícil. Debido a que la secuencia de sonidos está involucrada en la lectura, un ejemplo relacionado a esta tarea sería el deletrear. El procesamiento
Sucesivo involucra el deletreo ya que el niño
debe producir la secuencia correcta de letras
Palabras con sonidos similares
para formar la palabra (ej. c-a-s-a).
Nombre:
Fecha:
Copie cuidadosamente cada oración.
1.
Mi mamá me mima mucho.
2.
Tres tristes tigres comían trigo.
3.
El que poco coco come, poco coco compra.
4.
Pancha plancha con cuatro planchas.
Figura 1.
Ejemplo de una actividad que requiere procesamiento Sucesivo.
Aprender los conceptos básicos matemáticos a
través de la escritura repetida de los mismos requiere procesamiento Sucesivo. Al niño que escribe “8+9 =17” se le está enseñando una serie
específica de números que requieren procesamiento Sucesivo. Ejecutar problemas
matemáticos más complejos también requiere
procesamiento. Por ejemplo, completar la
ecuación “3(3+7) – 12 = x” requiere seguir una
secuencia específica de operaciones (sumar,
multiplicar y restar) para llegar a la contestación
correcta. El niño que presenta problemas recordando datos básicos o el orden de procedimientos matemáticos pudiera manifestar alguna
debilidad en el procesamiento Sucesivo.
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Procesamiento Sucesivo explicado (continuación)
El procesamiento Sucesivo está involucrado en varios tipos de actividades:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Trabajar con información en un orden en específico (ej. ordenar sonidos o palabras).
Entender los hechos basados en un orden específico.
Percibir estímulos en una secuencia específica.
Ejecutar movimientos en orden.
Recordar y retener sonidos o palabras en secuencias.
Retener las secuencias de los eventos en un texto y organizar en serie los componentes del habla.
Algunos problemas relacionados al procesamiento Sucesivo son:
• Pobres destrezas para la decodificación de palabras.
• Cometer errores en la comprensión de la estructura sintáctica.
• Fallar al pronunciar palabras y poner en secuencia segmentos de palabras adecuadamente.
• Dificultad en seguir una secuencia de pasos o tendencia a omitir pasos necesarios
para resolver problemas.
• Falta de comprensión en la secuencia de eventos en un cuento.
Estrategias para desarrollar el procesamiento Sucesivo
• Enseñarle al niño a organizar la información en pasos, como estrategia para completar
tareas.
• Decir y escribir las letras del alfabeto, palabras, oraciones, números (o grupos de
números) en orden.
• Memorizar poemas, canciones o líneas de una obra.
• Organizar ítems o repetir eventos de un cuento o situaciones ocurridas en orden.
• Seguir instrucciones secuenciales específicas.
• Escribir los pasos de una actividad diaria.
¿Cómo se mide el procesamiento Sucesivo?
El procesamiento Sucesivo puede ser medido utilizando el Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
El CAS ofrece una puntuación total y separa las puntuaciones del PASS para las cuatro escalas
cognitivas, incluyendo el procesamiento Sucesivo. La puntuación promedio es 100. Las puntuaciones por debajo de los 90 puntos son consideradas por debajo del promedio.
Recursos
Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Essential of CAS assessment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
página 2 de 2
Venciendo problemas con la inatención
La Atención es el proceso mediante el cual una persona enfoca en un estímulo particular mientras ignora otros. Durante el día de clases, el estudiante debe prestar atención al maestro, a las
instrucciones ofrecidas, qué debe hacer y qué materiales específicos son necesarios; mientras ignora a otros estudiantes hablando, a los estudiantes que están jugando afuera y lo que sucede
en los pasillos de la escuela. Los procesos de Atención permiten que el niño enfoque selectivamente en las cosas que ha escuchado o visto, e ignore estímulos visuales y sonidos irrelevantes.
La atención focalizada es la concentración directa en algo, como por ejemplo un problema específico de matemáticas. La atención selectiva requiere la resistencia a distracciones tales como
escuchar al maestro y no a los ruidos en el pasillo de la escuela. La atención sostenida es mantenerse enfocado a través del tiempo.
Algunos niños tienen dificultad para enfocarse y resistir distracciones. Estas características se
pudieran relacionar con la descripción del trastorno por déficit de atención e hiperactividad
(TDAH), tipo predominantemente inatento (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Los niños
con TDAH tipo inatento son diferentes a aquéllos con TDAH tipo hiperactivo-impulsivo, descritos
por Barkley y Murphy (1998). Según este autor, los niños con TDAH tipo inatento, presentan retraso en el desarrollo de la inhibición del comportamiento, la auto-regulación de la conducta y la
organización del tiempo. Los niños con TDAH, tipo hiperactivo-impulsivo, tienen dificultad con el
control de su conducta y problemas de inatención que están relacionados a bajas puntuaciones
en los procesos de Planificación evaluados en el Cognitive Assessment System (CAS).
¿Cómo ayudar a un niño a sobrepasar los problemas de inatención?
El primer paso es ayudar al niño a entender la naturaleza de sus problemas de Atención, incluyendo:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Conceptos tales como atención, resistencia a la distracción y control de atención
Reconocer cómo la atención afecta el funcionamiento diario
Reconocer que el déficit se puede vencer
Elementos básicos en el programa de control
Segundo, tanto los maestros como los padres pueden ayudar al niño a mejorar su motivación y a
ser persistentes:
1. Promoviendo el éxito a través de pequeños pasos.
2. Asegurando el éxito en la escuela y en la casa.
• Permitiendo respuestas orales en los exámenes
• Evitando la lectura cuando sea posible
3. Enseñando reglas para involucrarse en las tareas
• Ayudando al niño a definir tareas con exactitud
• Evaluando el conocimiento que el niño posee sobre los problemas
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Venciendo problemas con la inatención (continuación)
• Motivando al niño a considerar todas las posibles soluciones
• Enseñando al niño a cómo utilizar correctamente las estrategias para tomar un
examen (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995)
4. Desalentando la pasividad y motivando la independencia:
• Proveyendo sólo la asistencia necesaria
• Reduciendo el uso de las soluciones ofrecidas por el maestro
• Fomentando que el niño asuma la responsabilidad de corregir su propio trabajo
• Ayudando al estudiante a ser más autosuficiente
5. Evitando que el niño haga lo siguiente:
• Hablar excesivamente
• Trabajar rápidamente con poca exactitud
• Rendirse demasiado rápido
• Entregar papeles descuidados y desorganizados
Tercero, tanto los maestros como los padres deben proveer al niño estrategias específicas para la
solución de problemas que:
1. Modelen y enseñen estrategias que mejoren la atención y la concentración.
2. Ayuden al niño a reconocer cuando él es poco atento o demasiado atento.
¿Quién debería recibir ayuda para vencer los problemas de inatención?
Esta intervención beneficia a estudiantes que tienen dificultades manteniendo la atención y/o que
son sobre activos. Estas estrategias pueden ser particularmente útiles para niños que manifiesten
puntuaciones bajas en las escalas de Atención y para niños que muestren debilidad en Atención
junto con problemas en Planificación. El estudiante que presenta debilidad en Planificación puede
que tenga dificultad particularmente supervisando y controlando sus acciones, por lo que estas
estrategias pueden ser útiles en proveer estructura y ayudar al estudiante a seguir planes específicos para aumentar su autocontrol y su foco de atención.
Recursos
Fuentes de información sobre problemas de atención y otros problemas educativos pueden ser
encontradas en http://www.chadd.org.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.)
Barkley, R.A., & Murphy, K.R. (1998). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A clinical workbook (2nd ed.) New York:
Guilford Press.
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academics performance (2nd ed.). Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
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¡Detente y piensa! Enseñando autocontrol
Los estudiantes que tienen un buen comportamiento utilizan el autocontrol para pensar lo que
están haciendo y cambian su conducta si la misma no es correcta. Para algunos estudiantes, el
autocontrolarse es natural. Estos estudiantes monitorean activamente su comportamiento, determinan si lo que están haciendo o lo que van a hacer es correcto y modifican la conducta si es
necesario. Si deciden que su conducta no es aceptable, piensan sobre otras opciones y seleccionan la mejor. Esto requiere que los estudiantes estén conscientes sobre su conducta y que
entiendan que la misma es relativa a las reglas o a sus propias metas. ¡Detente y piensa!, está
dirigida a enseñar a los estudiantes un plan para ayudarles a controlar su comportamiento.
Algunos estudiantes actúan de manera inapropiada porque ellos no han examinado su conducta,
no seleccionan la mejor manera de actuar e incluso, no se dan cuenta de que tienen otras opciones de comportamiento. Para ayudar a estos estudiantes, enséñeles explícitamente que necesitan examinar y controlar su conducta, detenerse y pensar sobre la misma, y luego, establecer
un plan para realizarla.
¿Cómo enseñar detente y piensa?
Para motivar el autocontrol positivo, los estudiantes deben ser enseñados directamente a prestar
atención y a pensar sobre su conducta. Primero, los maestros pueden enseñar explícitamente
que cuando la frase “¡Detente y Piensa!” sea mencionada, el estudiante debe pensar sobre lo que
él o ella esté haciendo. El estudiante debe ser enseñado a cuestionarse a sí mismo acerca de sus
acciones, con preguntas apropiadas tales como “¿Qué estoy haciendo?” y “¿Lo que estoy haciendo está bien?” Si el niño está a punto de hacer algo, las preguntas “¿Qué es lo que quiero
hacer?” y “¿Lo que quiero hacer está bien?” podrían ser presentadas. Inicialmente, estas preguntas podrían ser puestas en el escritorio o expuestas en la pared como un recordatorio.
A los estudiantes se les podría ofrecer el siguiente plan para determinar lo que está ocurriendo en
una situación, pensar sobre cuáles son sus opciones y seleccionar la mejor.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Detente y piensa.
Identifica la situación.
Pregunta, “¿Qué es lo que quiero hacer?”
Pregunta, “¿Hay algún problema?”
Pregunta, “¿Cuáles son las posibles soluciones?”
Considera las consecuencias para cada solución.
Escoge la mejor solución.
Evalúa los resultados.
Cada uno de estos pasos debe ser enseñado específicamente y discutido de manera que el estudiante entienda lo que tiene que hacer para cada paso.
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¡Detente y piensa! Enseñando autocontrol (continuación)
¿A quién debe enseñársele detente y piensa?
Los estudiantes con problemas de comportamiento son los que más se pueden beneficiar de
Detente y Piensa. Los estudiantes que presentan debilidades en Planificación podrían tener dificultades particulares en examinar y controlar sus acciones (Naglieri, 1999). Esta técnica puede
ser utilizada para ayudar al estudiante a seguir un plan específico para mejorar su autocontrol.
Recursos
Ashman, A.F.,& Conway, R.N.F. (1997). An introduction to cognitive education. London: Routledge.
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Enseñando buenas destrezas de razonamiento
La información se aprende mejor cuando es examinada cuidadosa y minuciosamente, y especialmente cuando puede conectarse con información previa. Por ejemplo, es más fácil recordar el
nombre de una persona recién conocida si es igual al suyo o al de alguien cercano a usted. En
este caso, el nuevo nombre es más fácil de recordar porque se relaciona con algo con lo que
usted ya está familiarizado. Los estudiantes exitosos saben que pensar profundamente sobre un
tema nuevo les ayuda a aprender más material. Los estudiantes que llevan a cabo un proceso de
razonamiento usualmente están conscientes que reflexionar y relacionar la información nueva con
la ya adquirida, les ayuda a aprender mejor la información. Aquellos estudiantes que tienen buenas destrezas de pensamiento saben cómo estudiar bien, utilizan estrategias apropiadas que les
ayudan a recordar mejor y a regular su propia actividad.
Para aprender mejor algunos estudiantes necesitan que se les enseñe a pensar cautelosamente,
a examinar la información nueva y a relacionarla a cosas conocidas. Es decir, necesitan aprender
destrezas de razonamiento. Algunos estudiantes pueden tener problemas académicos porque no
están conscientes de la necesidad de tener buenas destrezas de razonamiento para aprender.
Ellos carecen de la conciencia requerida para reconocer la necesidad de tener estrategias de
aprendizaje que la mayoría de los aprendices exitosos poseen. Estos estudiantes parecen desorganizados e inseguros sobre cómo aproximarse a una tarea de aprendizaje. Deben ser enseñados directamente a ser autoconscientes y a pensar profundamente acerca de la información.
¿Cómo enseñar destrezas de razonamiento?
Los estudiantes necesitanive que se les enseñe acerca de cómo ellos piensan y cómo pueden
mejorar su aprendizaje, estando conscientes de las maneras que razonan y aprenden. Una manera de hacerlo es enseñarles las diferentes formas de utilizar el conocimiento. Estos estudiantes
necesitan reconocer que el aprendizaje implica conocimiento y las formas de utilizarlo (ej. estrategias). Es importante enseñar a los niños que hay tres tipos esenciales de conocimiento:
1. Conocimiento de contenido: Información específica que una persona conoce
2. Conocimiento de la estrategia: La manera en la que una persona piensa o procesa la
información
3. Conocimiento metacognitivo: Conocimiento sobre cómo una persona trabaja la información de diferentes maneras y selecciona cómo procesarla (ej. conocimiento para
utilizar una estrategia específica)
Los estudiantes necesitan entender que ellos aprenden mejor cuando razonan cuidadosamente
en lo que están intentando aprender. Se les debe enseñar buenas estrategias de razonamiento
para un aprendizaje efectivo. Los maestros deben enseñar a sus estudiantes a utilizar un método
para pensar y actuar sobre una actividad, la meta y el resultado deseado. También deben enseñarles que un plan requiere que la persona:
página 1 de 2
Enseñando buenas destrezas de razonamiento (continuación)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Piense: ¿Qué quiero hacer? ¿Cuál es mi meta?
Actúe: Acto. Comience a completar la tarea.
Reflexione: ¿Está funcionando? ¿Estoy consiguiendo lo que deseaba?
Modifique: ¿Necesito modificar mi plan?
Verifique: ¿Terminé con la tarea?
El maestro debe enseñar estrategias específicas y explicar cuidadosamente cuándo y donde
deben utilizarse. La instrucción debe proporcionar un número limitado de estrategias, pero deben
enseñarse extensivamente. El énfasis no radica en la rapidez, sino en completar la tarea de forma
reflexiva, que facilite la atención y concentración en la misma. Los estudiantes deben ser motivados explícitamente a:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Descubrir y utilizar estrategias
Supervisar su ejecución
Generalizar el uso de estrategias
Estar conscientes de la importancia de las estrategias
Lograr el desarrollo de estrategias de autoregulación
Llegar a ser reflexivos, planificadores y evaluativos
Los maestros también deben demostrar buenas destrezas de razonamiento a sus estudiantes y
describir a los que razonan bien como personas que son:
• Pacientes: El entendimiento y las ideas no siempre surgen rápidamente.
• Curiosos: Los que razonan bien preguntan (ej. por qué, y qué tal si, cuándo) acerca de
lo que están aprendiendo y buscan más información.
• Enfocados: Los que razonan bien se concentran en lo que están aprendiendo.
• Abiertos: Los que razonan bien son receptivos a otras ideas y posibilidades acerca de
la información.
• Flexibles: Los que razonan bien están dispuestos a cambiar lo que ya han aprendido y
conocido por nueva información.
• Relajados: Los que razonan bien saben que podrían no entender inmediatamente.
¿A quién debe enseñársele las destrezas de razonamiento?
Todos los estudiantes pueden beneficiarse de la discusión de buenas destrezas de razonamiento.
Los estudiantes con puntuaciones bajas en Planificación son los que particularmente se benefician más de usar esta instrucción, ya que les ayuda a obtener estrategias importantes para el
aprendizaje (Naglieri, 1999).
Recursos
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Estrategias para mejorar la organización
Ser exitoso en las tareas escolares requiere buena organización. Los estudiantes exitosos piensan cómo organizar sus materiales y planifican cómo hacer su trabajo. Algunos niños (especialmente aquellos con déficit de atención e hiperactividad-TDAH) presentan dificultades significativas en la escuela por no ser organizados, no se mantienen en una tarea y no utilizan estrategias
mientras trabajan. Estos niños necesitan que se les enseñe a utilizar estrategias y a ser más organizados.
Los niños pueden ser enseñados explícitamente a ser más organizados y a utilizar estrategias al
momento de hacer sus tareas escolares. Los educadores deben enseñar estrategias en todas las
áreas académicas. Deben explicar cuándo y cómo utilizar estrategias. Los maestros deben ofrecer algunas estrategias específicas pero deben explicarlas a profundidad. En esta intervención el
énfasis radica en la reflexión de cómo completar tareas y no en la terminación rápida de éstas. De
este modo se logra la atención y la concentración en la tarea académica. La meta es enseñar estrategias generadas por el maestro, y luego por los estudiantes, para que éstos últimos puedan
desarrollar y utilizar sus propias estrategias.
¿Cómo enseñar estrategias de organización?
El maestro debe proveer a los estudiantes instrucciones acerca de las estrategias para áreas específicas (ej. decodificación, comprensión de lectura, vocabulario, deletreo, escritura, solución de
problemas matemáticos, ciencia).
Existen dos pasos básicos. En el paso 1, los maestros deben decirle a los estudiantes que: 1) un
plan es un método de cómo hacer algo que involucra pensar en la actividad y en su resultado y
2) un plan requiere que una persona:
•
•
•
•
•
Piense: ¿Qué quiero hacer? ¿Cuál es mi meta?
Hazlo: Actúe. Comience a hacer la tarea.
Coteje: ¿Está funcionando? ¿Estoy obteniendo lo que quiero?
Modifique: ¿Necesito modificar mi plan?
Verifique: ¿He terminado la tarea?
El segundo paso requiere alentar a los estudiantes a lograr varias cosas cuando estén haciendo
las tareas escolares:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Descubrir y utilizar estrategias
Verificar su ejecución
Generalizar su uso de estrategias
Estar conscientes de la importancia de las estrategias
Lograr utilizar estrategias sin ayuda externa
Convertirse en alguien precavido, que planifique y evalúe
página 1 de 2
Estrategias para mejorar la organización (continuación)
¿A quiénes se les deben enseñar estrategias de organización?
La mayoría de los estudiantes, especialmente aquellos que son desorganizados, pueden beneficiarse del uso de estrategias de organización. Los estudiantes que obtienen puntuaciones bajas
en procesamientos Simultáneos y en Planificación podrían beneficiarse particularmente del uso
de esta intervención ya que les ayuda a estar más conscientes de la necesidad de organizarse y
les ofrece un plan estratégico para ayudarles a lograrlo (Naglieri, 1999).
Recursos
página 2 de 2
Creando un plan para la organización
Los estudiantes exitosos usualmente organizan bien sus materiales escolares, separándolos específicamente por materias; organizando sus libretas de manera útil; revisando los apuntes, asignaciones y folletos; y dando prioridad a las tareas que deben realizar. Esto requiere que el estudiante sea organizado y entienda cómo las piezas de información se relacionan unas con otras y
cómo pueden ser organizadas o agrupadas. Esta práctica ayuda a los estudiantes a ser eficientes y a estar mejor orientados hacia las tareas que son de prioridad. Además los ayuda a la
hora de estudiar, y por consiguiente, a aprender de forma exitosa. Las siguientes estrategias son
maneras de ayudar a los estudiantes a ser más organizados.
Para algunos estudiantes no les resulta muy fácil organizar los materiales y otorgarle prioridad a
las distintas tareas. Ellos tienen dificultad con la organización y podrían tener problemas al momento de agrupar efectivamente los materiales. Frecuentemente, estos estudiantes poseen libretas y escritorios muy sobrecargados y desorganizados. Por esta razón, la mayoría de las veces
no encuentran los papeles o materiales cuando los necesitan, y además, frecuentemente fracasan en la entrega de asignaciones porque las olvidan. Estudiantes como éstos podrían carecer
de buenas destrezas de organización y necesitan ser adiestrados explícitamente sobre estas estrategias.
¿Cómo enseñar estrategias de organización?
Una forma para enseñar a los estudiantes a organizar sus materiales es a través de la técnica de
codificación por colores. Para un estudiante que tenga problemas con la organización de los materiales de sus clases, puede que les resulte efectivo el otorgarle a cada clase un color, incluyendo los materiales que pertenezcan a ésta como libros, anotaciones, folletos y libretas. Por
ejemplo, para ciencias, el libro podría ser cubierto con un papel anaranjado, los folletos serían impresos en papel anaranjado, las anotaciones también en papel del mismo color y finalmente la libreta debe ser cubierta o etiquetada de color anaranjado. A otras materias se les asignarían diferentes colores y se podría preparar una clave o leyenda, para uso personal, en la cual se tenga
una lista de todas las materias con sus respectivos colores. Cuando no sea posible usar papel de
color, entonces se le deberá colocar sellos, notas adhesivas o marcas grandes en el color que
corresponde en lugares donde pueda distinguirse fácilmente.
Una estrategia similar podría ser utilizada para aquellos estudiantes que tengan problemas clasificando los materiales y tareas en orden de prioridad. En vez de utilizar los colores para codificar
las diferentes materias, los colores podrían utilizarse con el propósito de clasificar las tareas por
prioridad. Una nota adhesiva roja o una marca notable roja se podría colocar en la parte superior
de las materias o asignaciones urgentes, en una agenda o calendario. El color violeta puede ser
utilizado para trabajos con menor urgencia y el color azul para trabajos o actividades menos importantes.
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Creando un plan para la organización (continuación)
¿A quiénes se les debe enseñar estrategias de organización?
Esta estrategia debe ser utilizada con estudiantes que necesitan mejorar sus estrategias de organización para ser más eficientes en su trabajo. Los niños que tienen deficiencias en procesos de
Planificación, son propensos a necesitar buenas estrategias de organización y usualmente no les
resulta fácil el adquirir estas destrezas por sí mismos (Naglieri, 1999). Los niños con problemas en
procesamiento Simultáneo también podrían tener problemas en organizar materiales escolares en
forma efectiva y se beneficiarían grandemente del aprendizaje de estrategias de organización.
Recursos
página 2 de 2
El resumen como estrategia
para la comprensión de lectura
La comprensión de pasajes escritos usualmente demanda que el niño reconozca como las diferentes partes de un cuento están conectadas. Realizar y entender las conexiones entre las
partes de un cuento y hacerse una imagen completa, requiere que el niño entienda cómo las
partes del cuento están relacionadas unas con otras. Una estrategia de lectura que enseñe a los
niños a reconocer cómo se conectan las partes de un cuento sería de ayuda para que entiendan
el texto. La técnica de resumir es un método para este propósito. Debido a que no todos los estudiantes aprenden a resumir cuentos por sí mismos, es necesario explicarles específicamente
cómo hacerlo.
Resumir es una estrategia efectiva para ayudar a los estudiantes a ampliar su entendimiento
acerca de lo que han leído. Este método requiere que el estudiante vuelva a escribir o haga un
bosquejo que sólo incluya las partes más importantes del cuento. Al resumir, el estudiante se motiva a buscar las partes más importantes del cuento, a determinar qué partes son menos importantes y qué partes deben ser ignoradas. Esto también ayuda a los estudiantes a reconocer
cómo las partes de un cuento se relacionan entre sí, incluyendo cómo las partes del texto se
relacionan con el título o el tema principal.
¿Cómo enseñar a resumir?
Cuando un estudiante necesita ayuda, su maestro debe motivarlo a utilizar métodos elaborados
de resumir. Estos métodos deben ser los que mejor se ajusten a las necesidades del estudiante y
a la situación. El primer paso es enseñar a los estudiantes a cómo resumir un cuento (ej. modelar
la estrategia).
• Pregunte al estudiante acerca de la idea general de la lectura seleccionada.
• Con la ayuda de los estudiantes escriba un enunciado general acerca del cuento.
• Pídale a los estudiantes que realicen una lista de las ideas principales, que incluya dos
o tres ideas de apoyo por cada idea principal.
• Asigne a cada parte del cuento un encabezado y anote los detalles importantes que
los estudiantes ayuden a identificar.
• Pregúntele a los estudiantes cuál información es importante y cuál no lo es.
• Pídale a los estudiantes una descripción de las partes del cuento.
• Relacione las partes importantes del cuento con el tema principal y/o el título.
• Pídale a los estudiantes que escriban un resumen que incluya cada una estas partes.
• Pídale a los estudiantes que verifiquen el resumen en relación a lo leído para cotejar si
alguna idea importante quedó fuera.
El segundo paso es permitir que los estudiantes practiquen hacer el resumen con ayuda.
• Guíe a los estudiantes para que subrayen o circulen las partes más importantes.
• Motive a los estudiantes a que repasen el texto (pero sin tener que leerlo todo nuevamente).
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El resumen como estrategia para la comprensión de lectura (continuación)
• Promueva el uso de etiquetas generales para clasificar la información (ej, patos, vacas,
ovejas y gallinas son animales de granja)
• Instruya a los estudiantes a escribir las ideas importantes, que las organicen en orden
de importancia y luego ignoren la información que no sea importante.
El paso final es alentarlos al uso independiente de las técnicas para resumir.
• Los estudiantes deben realizar las tareas del paso 2 de forma independiente.
• Permita que revisen sus propios resúmenes entre ellos mismos.
• Cada estudiante debe revisar su propio resumen para cotejar si están los componentes claves.
Luego de haberles enseñado la estrategia y supervisarla, estas técnicas se le pueden entregar a
los estudiantes o colocarlas sobre la pared mediante una ilustración. Esto funciona como recordatorio referente a los pasos para resumir. También es importante que los estudiantes practiquen
la estrategia de resumir y que reciban retroalimentación (“feedback”) por parte del maestro acerca
de la calidad de sus resúmenes.
Otras recomendaciones para los maestros son:
• Uso de explicaciones directas. Enseñe por qué, cuándo y donde las técnicas de
resumir son aplicables.
• Modele la destreza. Mientras hable, utilice ejemplos y muestre cómo la destreza es
aplicada.
• Divida las partes complicadas en pequeños fragmentos.
• Resuma los párrafos más cortos antes de proceder con los más largos.
• Sea menos directivo y permítale al estudiante trabajar con menos supervisión.
¿Quiénes deben aprender a resumir?
Resumir puede ser de mucha ayuda para los estudiantes que obtienen una baja puntuación en
comprensión de lectura. Esta intervención ayuda al niño a identificar cómo todas las partes están
conectadas, lo que requiere procesamiento Simultáneo. Los estudiantes con debilidades en procesos Simultáneos podrían tener problemas leyendo con entendimiento o comprender todas las
partes de un cuento y cómo éstas se relacionan unas con otras. Esta técnica también podría ser
utilizada con niños con debilidades en el área de Planificación. Esta los ayuda a leer de una forma
más estratégica (ej. planificada) llevándolos paso a paso a buscar las partes importantes y relacionadas en un cuento.
Recursos
Kirby, J.R., & Williams, N.H. (1991). Learning problems: Acognitive approach. Toronto: Kagan & Woo Limited.
McCormick,S. (1995). Instructing students who have literacy problems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Pressley, M., & Woloshyn, V. (1995). Cognitive strategy instruction that really improves children’s academic performance. (2nd ed.). Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
página 2 de 2
Estrategias para entender los textos
La buena comprensión de lectura requiere entender el significado de lo que está escrito, aún
cuando este significado no sea evidente. Este nivel de comprensión de lectura requiere relacionar
la información que el lector ya conoce y la información previa que haya obtenido de la lectura del
texto, con la información que está leyendo en el momento (Klein, 1988). El cuestionamiento extendido y el autocuestionamiento son dos técnicas que ayudan a los estudiantes a establecer
conexiones entre datos conocidos, información de partes anteriores del texto y lo que están
leyendo al momento, de manera que puedan entender mejor la lectura.
Cuestionamiento extendido y autocuestionamiento
El cuestionamiento extendido y el autocuestionamiento ayudan a los estudiantes a pensar profundamente acerca de lo que leen, y los motiva a establecer las conexiones necesarias entre lo
que saben, lo que han leído y lo que están leyendo. El cuestionamiento extendido es un método
utilizado para mejorar el entendimiento de la lectura. En este método se les enseña a los niños a
analizar el texto mediante el cuestionamiento a otra persona o al estudiante mismo. Las preguntas tienen el objetivo de que el lector elabore acerca de los datos que está aprendiendo y los
conecte con los que ya conoce.
¿Cómo enseñar a utilizar el
cuestionamiento extendido y el autocuestionamiento?
Esta estrategia puede ser realizada individualmente (mediante el autocuestionamiento) o en pequeños grupos interactivos (mediante el cuestionamiento extendido). Esta intervención puede ser
exitosa si se enseña a los estudiantes a hacerse preguntas acerca del texto que han leído.
1. Ubique a los estudiantes en grupos.
2. Permita que los estudiantes lean el texto.
3. Permita que los niños se hagan preguntas entre sí, como por ejemplo:
• ¿Por qué estudias este pasaje de la lectura?
• ¿Cuál es la idea o ideas centrales en cada párrafo? Subráyalas.
• ¿Puedes pensar en algunas preguntas acerca de la idea central que has subrayado?
• ¿Qué conoces acerca de este tema?
• ¿Qué quieres aprender sobre este tema?
• ¿Cómo se relaciona esto a lo que ya has aprendido?
Dirija a los estudiantes a que revisen las respuestas a sus preguntas repasando siempre las preguntas y las respuestas anteriores, de manera que puedan notar cómo
cada pregunta y respuesta les provee más información.
4. Hágale estas preguntas al grupo completo, escriba las respuestas que ofrecen y tome
nota de las elaboraciones producidas.
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Estrategias para entender los textos (continuación)
¿Quién debe aprender
cuestionamiento extendido y autocuestionamiento?
Este tipo de intervención puede beneficiar a los estudiantes que obtengan puntuaciones bajas en
comprensión de lectura. Para comprender un texto los estudiantes deben entender todas las
partes del mismo, al igual que conocer otra información y cómo ésta se relaciona al texto. Este
tipo de tarea requiere procesamiento Simultáneo. Esta intervención puede resultar de ayuda para
estudiantes que reflejan debilidad en el procesamiento Simultáneo, ya que la misma ayuda a los
niños a pensar con más profundidad acerca del texto y cómo éste se relaciona con otros contenidos. Esta técnica también puede ser utilizada con niños que presentan debilidad en Planificación. Esto les ayuda a enfrentarse a la lectura de una manera más estratégica (o sea, planificada) que los encamina paso a paso a entender y pensar más profundamente acerca de lo
que leen.
Recursos
Klein, M. (1988). Teaching reading comprehension and vocabulary: A guide for teachers. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
página 2 de 2
Planes para la comprensión de lectura
Los buenos lectores utilizan una variedad de estrategias para comprender lo que leen. Ellos combinan su conocimiento previo con señales del contexto para crear significados, observan su progreso mientras leen y evalúan lo que han leído (ej. ¿Es el contenido creíble? ¿Hace sentido?).
Este enfoque profundo al leer requiere una buena planificación. La enseñanza para una buena
comprensión debe ser incorporada no sólo para decodificar y entender lo que se está leyendo,
sino también para acercarse al texto de modo sistemático o planificado de manera que se comprenda lo que se está leyendo. Ante textos difíciles los estudiantes tienen mayor éxito de entenderlos si éstos utilizan múltiples estrategias para la comprensión (Pressley & Woloshyn, 1995).
¿Cómo enseñar planes para comprensión de lectura?
Las siguientes estrategias se pueden enseñar fácilmente y son muy útiles para lectores que están
luchando con la comprensión de lectura, especialmente para aquellos que no tienen buenas destrezas en los planes para compresión de lectura. Algunas estrategias para la comprensión de
lectura deben ser descritas a los estudiantes. Los maestros deben presentar de manera explícita
las estrategias y explicar los procesos mentales necesarios para una buena comprensión. También deben explicar cómo y por qué es importante utilizar estrategias. Permita que los estudiantes se comprometan con estas actividades cuando leen:
• Predecir el próximo contenido, relacionando el conocimiento previo con las ideas encontradas en el texto. Esto incluye verificar si las predicciones hechas fueron consistentes con lo que ocurre en el texto.
• Reaccionar al texto relacionando ideas con el conocimiento previo. A veces esto puede
realizarse alentando a los estudiantes a integrar su conocimiento previo y relacionarlo
con el texto.
• Construir imágenes representando las ideas en el texto.
• Calmarse, leer más despacio y verificar nuevamente el texto cuando el significado no
esté claro.
• Generar preguntas en reacción al texto, tal vez utilizando preguntas específicas o
métodos de cuestionamiento, buscando las respuestas entre los estudiantes que componen los grupos de lectura.
• Resumir el texto utilizando notas que capturen las ideas importantes.
• Utilizar mapas de cuentos. Esta estrategia es un plan para mejorar la comprensión.
El rol del maestro en el uso de esta estrategia incluye la explicación, el modelo y proveer retroalimentación (“feedback”). Pressley y Woloshyn (1995) sugirieron los siguientes consejos para los
maestros:
• Utilizar términos estratégicos (ej. resumen o generación de preguntas) y definir los términos cuando sea necesario.
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Planes para la comprensión de lectura (continuación)
• Modelar estrategias como pensar en voz alta mientras se aplica una estrategia durante
la lectura, incluyendo explicar el razonamiento para aplicar estrategias particulares.
• Enfatizar que las estrategias son coordinadas la una con la otra, antes, durante y después de leer el texto, y que diferentes estrategias son apropiadas en diversos puntos
del texto.
• Decir a los estudiantes el propósito de la lección estratégica (ej. entender los cuentos
utilizando estrategias de imágenes junto con otras estrategias).
• Discutir con los estudiantes cómo se benefician de utilizar estrategias (ej. cómo las estrategias ayudan a la comprensión de lectura), enfatizando que las estrategias son
guías para alcanzar metas de comprensión y aprendizaje.
¿Quién debería utilizar planes para la comprensión de lectura?
Estos planes son para ayudar a los estudiantes que tienen dificultades con la comprensión de
lectura. Los estudiantes que tienen dificultades en la comprensión, y que demuestran deficiencias
en Planificación, podrían encontrar que las instrucciones directas y el apoyo en estas estrategias
le son particularmente útiles. Los estudiantes que no logran generar sus propias estrategias para
la comprensión podrían obtener éxito cuando se les provee estrategias múltiples y específicas, y
además, un ambiente que sugiera y apoye el uso de las estrategias.
Recursos
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Gramática de cuentos para
la comprensión de la lectura
Los cuentos tradicionales que los estudiantes leen siguen un orden general. Los estudiantes que
reconocen este orden se les hace más fácil seguir la lectura, anticipar los eventos y comprender
el cuento. Esto requiere estar consciente de la secuencia natural de los cuentos. Hacer que el
orden de los cuentos sea explícito podría resultar útil a los estudiantes. Esta intervención ha sido
diseñada para ayudar a los estudiantes a enfocarse en el orden de las cosas que leen. Por lo
general, los cuentos tienen una gramática y un orden específico:
1. Introducción, incluyendo una descripción de
• El personaje principal
• El lugar donde ocurren los eventos
2. Un problema que enfrenta el personaje principal
3. Eventos o intentos por parte del personaje principal para resolver el problema
4. Una solución o resolución al problema
Los estudiantes que están conscientes del orden de un cuento tienen una estructura para relacionar y anticipar los eventos del mismo. Enseñar esta estructura y anticipar las partes del cuento
reduce la cantidad de esfuerzo necesario para leer el mismo y ayuda a los estudiantes a enfocarse en las partes importantes del cuento.
¿Cómo enseñar gramática de cuentos?
Una idea básica para ayudar a los estudiantes con problemas de procesamiento Sucesivo es el
proveerles estrategias para recordar o practicar el orden de las cosas. La enseñanza de tal estrategia debe comenzar por describir la idea de la gramática de cuentos, el orden de la mayoría
de los cuentos y cada una de sus partes. Una vez se haya descrito la gramática de cuentos, uno
(o ambos) de los siguientes dos enfoques puede utilizarse.
1. El estudiante lee un cuento y recuerda las partes y el orden de los eventos del mismo.
Esto genera una oportunidad para el maestro. El maestro puede indicar cualquier error
e instruirle al estudiante que encuentre en donde se equivocó para que lo intente otra
vez. Inicialmente se deben utilizar cuentos sencillos; el estudiante puede proseguir a
cuentos más complejos a medida que vaya dominando las destrezas básicas.
2. Además, se les puede proveer a los estudiantes una tarjeta (o un afiche en la pared)
que contenga una lista de las partes y el orden del cuento. El estudiante debe ser instruido a referirse a la tarjeta y a determinar en qué parte del orden del cuento se encuentra.
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Gramática de cuentos para la comprensión de la lectura (continuación)
¿Quién debe aprender gramática de cuentos?
La gramática de cuentos es útil para los estudiantes que tienen problemas siguiendo y entendiendo la lectura. Esta intervención puede resultar particularmente útil a los estudiantes con problemas de procesamiento Sucesivo al proveer una estructura del cuento para seguir (Naglieri,
1999). También está diseñada para ayudar a los estudiantes a enfocarse en el orden del cuento.
Recursos
Newby,R.B., Caldwell,J., & Recht, D.R. (1989). Improving the reading comprehension of children with dysphonetic
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Reglas para decodificar/leer
Para que un estudiante decodifique las palabras, él necesita entender el sentido de las letras y
palabras escritas, además de traducir la secuencia de letras a sonidos. Esto demanda comprensión de los sonidos que las letras representan y cómo las letras se juntan para formar sonidos. El
estudiante debe conocer y aplicar varias reglas para decodificar las palabras. Esta estrategia para
leer y decodificar puede ayudar a estudiantes que presentan dificultades con secuencias.
Cuando un niño utiliza una regla o plan para leer, obtiene la respuesta a través del razonamiento
en lugar de sólo depender en recordar la secuencia de letras o el sonido de cada letra. Por ejemplo,
a un estudiante que quiere leer la palabra “queso”, se le puede enseñar que la letra “q” siempre
se escribe con la “u” y suena como “k”. Esta estrategia cambia la tarea de una que requiere
muchas secuencias a una que implica el uso de un plan. Las siguientes son reglas y estrategias
para decodificar (y deletrear) palabras. Estas reglas pueden variar y, entre más memorables sean
para el estudiante, tendrán mayor probabilidad de ser utilizadas y recordadas. Los estudiantes
también necesitan entender que estas reglas son guías que no funcionan con todas las palabras.
¿Cómo enseñar reglas para decodificar/leer?
Es útil enseñar algunas de estas reglas a la misma vez, mientras se le ofrecen al estudiante amplias oportunidades para aprenderlas, utilizarlas y practicarlas cuando leen y escriben. Cuando el
estudiante ha logrado utilizar una regla correctamente, y ha comenzado a reconocer algunas de
las palabras, se le puede enseñar nuevas reglas y aumentar el número de palabras. Esta lista de
reglas no pretende ser exhaustiva, pero incluye muchas de las reglas mayormente utilizadas para
deletrear. Otras reglas se pueden encontrar en el Internet buscando bajo reglas para deletrear.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
La letra “q” siempre se escribe con la “u”.
Las letras “qu” siempre suena como “k” (queso).
La letra “c” antes de la “e”, “i” suenan como “s” (cielo, círculo, centavo).
La “g” ante “e”, “i” suena como “j” (gente, gigante).
Las vocales “a” “e” “i” “o” “u” suenan como su propio nombre.
En la combinación de “gui” la “u” es muda (águila, guitarra).
En la combinación de “güi” la “u” sí suena como su propio nombre (güiro, pingüino,
cigüeña, lingüística).
El grupo -cción, -ción suena como “sión”.
La “ll” no se pronuncia como “l”, se pronuncia realmente como “y” (llamar, lluvia,
llavero, anillo, bombilla).
La “y” se pronuncia como “i” al final de la palabra (estoy, rey, ley, buey) o en la conjunción (sol y playa, María y Luisa).
La “r” tiene varias formas de pronunciarse:
Si la “r” se encuentra entre dos vocales (amarillo, flores, verdura) o al final (amor, comer)
se pronuncia con una vibración simple.
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Reglas para decodificar/leer (continuación)
• Si la doble “r” se encuentra vocales (bancarrota, arroz, arruga) o la simple “r” estrá al
principio de una palabra (ropa, romper), es un sonido vibrante múltiple o fuerte.
• Después de la “l” (alrededor), “n” (sonrojar, enredar, sonreír) y “s” (israelita) también se
pronuncia fuerte.
¿Quién debe aprender estas reglas?
Les niños que presentan dificultades con la lectura básica y la de codificación pueden encontrar
el uso de la estrategia reglas para leer/decodificar muy útil. También niños con puntuación baja
en procesamiento Sucesivo, y que tienen problemas leyendo/decodificando, pueden encontrar
estas reglas particularmente útiles. Esta estrategia permite cambiar la secuencia natural de la lectura y les ofrece una manera para descifrar palabras.
Recursos
Un excelente recurso se puede encontrar en http://www.ezschool.com.
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Segmentando palabras para leer/
decodificar y deletrear
Decodificar la palabra escrita requiere que la persona entienda el sentido de las letras y las palabras impresas y que traduzca la secuencia de letras a sonidos. Esto demanda comprensión de
los sonidos que las letras representan y cómo las letras se juntan para formar sonidos. A veces
las palabras pueden estar segmentadas en partes para una lectura más fácil y rápida. La palabra
sinfín es un buen ejemplo porque contiene dos palabras que el niño ya conoce: sin y fin. Segmentar palabras puede ser una estrategia útil tanto para leer como para deletrear.
¿Cómo enseñar palabras segmentadas?
Segmentar palabras es una estrategia efectiva para ayudar al estudiante a leer y a deletrear. Al dividir las palabras en grupos los estudiantes también aprenden cómo las palabras son constituidas y cómo las partes se relacionan unas con otras. Los estudiantes deben aprender que las
palabras pueden ser divididas en segmentos o en fragmentos. El maestro debe presentar los
siguientes métodos de una manera directa y explícita:
• Fragmente la palabra. Divida la palabra en sus componentes o en sílabas. Por ejemplo,
vea la palabra re-estructurado. Esto incluye la palabra principal estructura, con el prefijo re- y el final -do. Sabiendo que la palabra principal es estructura, tiene re- y –do
añadido, hace que sea mas fácil reconocer en vez de intentar y pronunciarla en voz
alta r-e-e-s-t-r-u-c-t-u-r-a-d-o.
• Identificar prefijos. Un prefijo es una letra o grupo de letras al comienzo de una palabra.
Cuando una palabra tiene un prefijo, imagine que hay un guión entre la palabra y el
prefijo, y de esta manera podrás ver la palabra principal. Por ejemplo, reacción incluye
el prefijo re- y la palabra acción que simplemente se han unido.
• Identificar sufijos. De igual manera, cuando una palabra tiene un sufijo (una letra o
grupo de letras que están al final), podrás utilizar una estrategia similar a la estrategia
del prefijo. Sólo imagine un guión entre la palabra y el sufijo (ej. triste-za)
¿Quiénes deben aprender esta técnica?
Esta instrucción podría beneficiar a estudiantes con dificultades en la lectura y al deletrear. Debido a que esta intervención les ofrece a los estudiantes estrategias (planes) para resolver actividades de lectura o de deletreo, involucra procesos de Planificación. Por esta razón, los estudiantes que tienen dificultades con Planificación deben ser enseñados a utilizar esta estrategia. Esta
estrategia también debe ser utilizada con estudiantes que son buenos en la Planificación, pero
que tienen dificultad en el procesamiento Sucesivo y problemas con la lectura y el deletreo. Esto
los ayudará a involucrarse en la lectura de una forma más estratégica.
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Segmentando palabras para leer/decodificar y deletrear (continuación)
Recursos
Un excelente recurso puede ser encontrado en http://www.ezschool.com.
Naglieri, J.A. (1999). Essential of CAS assessment. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
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Planes para dividir palabras en sílabas
Los estudiantes deben tener la habilidad de separar en partes una palabra desconocida cuando
están tratando de leerla. Esto les ayuda a leer la palabra sonido por sonido y después unirla de
forma completa. Por ejemplo, un niño tratando de pronunciar la palabra “manipular” la puede
separar en sus sílabas “ma-,” “ni-,” “pu-,” “lar.” Separada de esta manera, cada parte se puede
leer sonido por sonido y luego combinarlos. Esto requiere entender el orden o relación de cada
letra o sílaba con la siguiente. Enseñar las estrategias de dividir las palabras en sílabas podría ser
útil a los estudiantes.
¿Cómo enseñar las reglas de dividir las palabras en sílabas?
Las siguientes reglas son ejemplos de algunos métodos que los estudiantes pueden usar para dividir palabras y así poder leer sonido por sonido más fácilmente. Esto ayuda a los estudiantes
ofreciéndoles otra manera para descifrar la palabra, en lugar de leer el sonido de cada letra.
1. Palabras que están compuestas de dos palabras, se separan en medio de las dos y
se dividen en sílabas (ej. rom-pe/ca-be-zas).
2. Palabras con dos consonantes (iguales o diferentes) se separan en medio de las dos
consonantes (ej. ac-ción, dur-mien-do, co-lum-na).
3. Cuando hay dos vocales fuertes consecutivas, cada vocal pertenece a una sílaba
diferente (ej. ca-er, a-e-ro-puer-to).
4. Si la segunda consonante es “l” o “r” entonces forman un grupo consonántico, no
deben separase y la letra “l” o “r” va unida en la misma sílaba con la vocal siguiente (ej.
ha-blar, po-dré).
5. Una consonante entre dos vocales, se agrupa a la segunda sílaba (ej. lá-piz, so-ni-do).
6. Cuando hay tres consonantes consecutivas, las primeras 2 se agrupan en la sílaba
con la vocal anterior y la tercera en la sílaba con la siguiente vocal (ej. cons-tar, ins-titu-to).
7. Cuando hay cuatro consonantes, se dividen dos en la sílaba con la vocal anterior y
dos en la sílaba con la siguiente vocal (ej. ins-truir, obs-truir).
¿Quién debe aprender las reglas de dividir las palabras en sílabas?
Los estudiantes que presentan dificultades leyendo por sonido o leyendo palabras pueden encontrar las reglas de dividir las palabras en sílabas útiles. Los estudiantes que muestran debilidad
en el área de procesamiento Sucesivo pueden tener dificultad con la lectura básica y leyendo
sonido por sonido. Estos estudiantes pueden encontrar esta estrategia útil. Estas reglas se
pueden utilizar para ayudar al estudiante a aprender y practicar la lectura por sonido de una manera diferente y estratégica.
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Planes para dividir palabras en sílabas (continuación)
Recursos
Más ejemplos, instrucciones escritas, lecciones y materiales para el salón de clase se encuentran
frecuentemente en bibliotecas, librerías educativas, centros de recursos didácticos y en el Internet. Un excelente recurso se puede encontrar en http://www.ezschool.com.
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Fragmentación para el deletreo
Aprender a deletrear requiere que el estudiante recuerde el orden de las letras que forman palabras. Algunos estudiantes tienen dificultad recordando el orden específico de las cosas y por lo
tanto, pueden tener un problema relacionado al deletreo. Estos niños se pueden beneficiar de
una instrucción que divida la secuencia de letras, en unidades más pequeñas y manejables, llamadas fragmentos. La fragmentación para el deletreo es una estrategia específica para ayudar a
los niños a deletrear.
La mayoría de los adultos sólo pueden recordar entre 7 a 9 segmentos separados de información
en una secuencia sin tener que organizarlos de una manera significativa. La información puede
ser organizada dentro de grupos para ayudar a las personas a recordar secuencias largas, tales
como un número de teléfono. Es por eso que los números de teléfono son organizados dentro de
dos grupos de tres números y un grupo de cuatro números. La fragmentación puede ser utilizada
para ayudar a los niños (con lapsos cortos de memoria) a recordar números o secuencias de letras para deletrear.
¿Cómo enseñar la fragmentación para el deletreo?
Primero, los maestros deben enseñarles a los niños lo que significa fragmentar o agrupar información de modo que pueda ser recordada con más facilidad. Utilice secuencias de números y letras
como ilustración. Luego, presente palabras para ser aprendidas y divídalas en unidades (ej. gru-po
para grupo, re-cor-dar para recordar). Intente organizar los grupos de palabras en secuencias que
tengan sonidos fáciles de recordar. Por ejemplo, re-co-rd-ar no es tan fácil como re-cor-dar.
¿Quiénes deben aprender la fragmentación para el deletreo?
Los estudiantes con dificultades para deletrear pudieran beneficiarse de aprender la fragmentación para el deletreo. Los niños que tienen dificultad recordando las cosas en orden, usualmente tienen un procesamiento Sucesivo bajo. Estudiantes que tienen resultados bajos en el
procesamiento Sucesivo pueden encontrar la fragmentación particularmente beneficiosa (ver
Naglieri, 1999). Un análisis cuidadoso de la capacidad máxima de ítems que el niño pueda recordar (ej. dos a tres palabras en orden) puede ayudar a determinar cuál es la cantidad máxima de
letras que debe ser usada dentro de cada fragmento.
Recursos
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Ordenamiento de letras para deletrear
Deletrear palabras es una actividad básica del salón de clase a nivel elemental. Deletrear palabras, ya sea escribiéndolas o diciendo las letras, requiere que los estudiantes entiendan el orden
o la secuencia de las mismas. Los niños son retados constantemente a aprender a deletrear
nuevas palabras correctamente, especialmente aquéllas que no pueden ser deletreadas con sólo
escuchar el sonido de las mismas. La buena enseñanza del deletreo debe enfocarse en las características sucesivas de las palabras. El ordenamiento de las letras está diseñado para ayudar a
los estudiantes a hacer esto y deletrear mejor.
El ordenamiento de letras es una estrategia útil que ayuda al estudiante a desarrollar: conciencia
sobre el orden de los sonidos en las palabras, aumentar la habilidad de recodificar letras en sus
sonidos y de reconocer los patrones visuales en palabras, y la habilidad para memorizar el orden
de las letras. Esta actividad puede ser realizada en grupos pequeños o individualmente. El idioma
español tiene miles de palabras y por esto hay un número ilimitado de maneras de cómo utilizar
el ordenamiento de letras.
¿Cómo enseñar el ordenamiento de detras?
Enseñar a un estudiante ordenamiento de letras requiere cuatro pasos. Para cada paso se puede
utilizar los siguientes materiales: letras magnéticas, bloques con letras o letras escritas en
pequeños pedazos de papel.
1. Pronunciar una palabra y pedirle al estudiante que ubique las letras en el orden
correcto.
2. Después que la palabra esté formada por el estudiante, mezclar las letras y pedirle al
estudiante que diga la palabra lentamente y que cree nuevamente la palabra con las
piezas.
3. Próximo, pida que el estudiante diga nuevamente la palabra y que la escriba en un
pedazo de papel.
4. Según el niño vaya progresando y la complejidad de la palabra aumente, utilice las
letras para romper la palabra en sílabas o crear palabras complejas.
Para palabras difíciles, siga los siguientes pasos:
1. Pídale al estudiante que pronuncie la palabra lentamente.
2. Pídale al estudiante que repita la palabra, pronunciando los sonidos separados de la
palabra individualmente.
3. Dígale al estudiante que mire la palabra y las letras y que se percate de cómo las
letras parean con el sonido.
4. Pídale al estudiante que diga qué sonidos van con cada letra mientras se van señalando las letras en secuencia.
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Ordenamiento de letras para deletrear (continuación)
5. Pídale al estudiante que escriba cada letra mientras pronuncia los sonidos.
6. Pídale al estudiante que practique la palabra hasta que él o ella pueda escribirla de
memoria.
¿Quién debe aprender el ordenamiento de letras?
Los estudiantes que tienen problemas deletreando podrían beneficiarse del ordenamiento de letras. Estudiantes que obtienen una puntuación baja en procesamiento Sucesivo, usualmente
tienen dificultad con la secuencia de letras en las palabras (ver Naglieri, 1999). También estudiantes que tienen una atención limitada, usualmente fallan en enfocarse en letras específicas mientras están deletreando. Esta intervención también ayuda a estudiantes que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en procesamiento Sucesivo, que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en Atención, o en
ambos.
Recursos
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Planificación de cuentos
para composiciones escritas
Nombre:
Fecha:
¿Para quién estoy
escribiendo?
¿Cuál es el propósito del
cuento?
¿Cuáles son los hechos?
¿Cómo debo organizar los hechos?
¿En qué orden puedo presentar la información?
Figura 1.
Escribir un cuento requiere que el estudiante organice y escriba la información de
manera que el mismo tenga un sentido.
Para realizar esta tarea se necesita que
cada oración y párrafo del cuento estén
relacionados con el tópico del mismo. La
enseñanza de una buena escritura debe enfocarse en unir las partes del cuento de
manera que éstas apoyen la idea principal.
Resulta de gran ayuda ofrecer a los estudiantes instrucciones para planificar un
cuento de manera organizada en todas sus
partes. Planificación de cuentos es una estrategia que incluye un diagrama de las
partes importantes del cuento (ver Figura 1).
El propósito es ayudar al estudiante a determinar lo que se debe incluir en el cuento,
considerando la relación entre sus partes y
determinando el orden en que acomodará
la información.
Ejemplo del formato para planificar un cuento.
¿Cómo enseñar planificación de cuentos?
Para utilizar esta estrategia debes seguir los siguientes pasos:
1. Dígale a los estudiantes que planificación de cuentos es un método mediante el cual
pueden organizar sus ideas.
2. Pídale a los estudiantes que completen las partes de planificación de cuentos.
3. Sugiera a los estudiantes que hagan uso de flechas o dibujos para mostrar las conexiones entre los hechos del cuento.
4. Permita que el estudiante revise su plan y que realice las correcciones necesarias.
5. Discuta el cuento con los estudiantes y pregúnteles cómo se resumió en el ejercicio de
planificación de cuentos y si el resumen es correcto. Pregunte si la planificación fue de
alguna ayuda.
6. Permita que los estudiantes escriban su cuento utilizando la Planificación.
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Planificación de cuentos para composiciones escritas (continuación)
¿Quién debería aprender planificación de cuentos?
Esta estrategia puede beneficiar a los estudiantes que tengan dificultades con su escritura ya que
las planificaciones ayudan al estudiante a ver cómo las partes del cuento se relacionan entre sí.
Planificar puede beneficiar a estudiantes con problemas en procesamiento Simultáneo. Estudiantes que obtienen baja puntuación en Planificación pueden usar esta estrategia ya que provee
una manera de organizarse para escribir un cuento.
Recursos
Idol, L. (1987). Group story mapping: A comprehension strategy for both skilled and unskilled readers. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 20(4), 196–205.
Idol, L., & Croll, V.J. (1987). Story mapping training as a means of improving reading comprehension. Learning Disability Quarterly,10, 214–229.
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Planes para escribir
Escribir párrafos, cuentos y ensayos es una tarea común en la educación y requiere premeditación y planificación. Los buenos escritores típicamente generan suficiente contenido del tema y
organizan su escritura para transmitir un mensaje coherentemente. Estos escritores crean oraciones concisas y elaboran sobre un tema para proveer información relevante. Sus oraciones son
lógicas y se conectan unas con las otras. Estudiantes con dificultades en la escritura a menudo
no generan suficiente contenido y no escriben las oraciones de manera que se interrelacionen
unas con otras. Además, su escritura a menudo está mal organizada y no sigue un orden razonable. Para estos estudiantes podría ser útil el proporcionar un plan específico que los ayude a
enfocar en la información relevante. Este plan los debe guiara escribir oraciones concisas que
apoyen lo escrito y que se relacionen unas con otras. Este plan es un proceso paso por paso que
los maestros pueden iniciar y, posteriormente, los estudiantes pueden seguirlo independientemente. Esto ayuda a los estudiantes incitándolos a desarrollar un plan para escribir.
¿Cómo enseñar el plan?
1. Pida a los estudiantes que escriban una oración acerca de algo o alguien utilizando las
siguientes reglas:
• Crear una oración sobre la cual usted pueda decir algo más.
• Concentrarse en lo que la persona o el objeto hace.
• Ser específico acerca de qué exactamente la persona o el objeto hace.
• Mantener la oración corta.
• Escribir la oración como una declaración, no como una pregunta o mandato.
• Tener una sola declaración.
• No utilizar una oración descriptiva o narrativa.
2. Haga que los estudiantes escriban tres oraciones acerca de la oración original. Las
oraciones deben ser sencillas, claras, directas y pertinentes a la oración original.
3. Haga que los estudiantes escriban cuatro o cinco oraciones acerca de cada una de
las tres oraciones que escribieron en el paso 2. Las oraciones deben ser específicas y
concretas. Explique que la meta es describir lo que ya ha sido escrito y no introducir
más información.
4. Haga que los estudiantes incluyan una referencia clara y explícita sobre el tema del
párrafo anterior en los párrafos siguientes.
5. Haga que los estudiantes se aseguren que cada oración este conectada con las oraciones previas y sea una declaración clara.
Visuales colocados en el salón de clase o en los escritorios de los estudiantes pueden recordarle
los pasos y la información que deben ser incluidos.
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Planes para escribir (continuación)
¿Quiénes pueden utilizar planes para escribir?
Los estudiantes que producen escrituras poco estructuradas o con falta de contenido, son los
que más se benefician de estas estrategias. Los estudiantes que tienen bajas puntuaciones en
Planificación también se benefician de utilizar esta estrategia ya que les ofrece una estructura
para ayudarlos a escribir (Naglieri, 1999).
Recursos
Mather, N., & Goldstein, S. (2008). Learning disabilities and challenging behaviors: A guide to intervention and classroom management (2nd ed.).Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
página 2 de 2
Gramática de cuentos para escribir
Tradicionalmente los párrafos, ensayos y cuentos presentan cierto orden. Los buenos escritores
utilizan este orden para planificar lo que van a escribir. Esto requiere que los estudiantes estén
conscientes del orden o la secuencia de lo que desean escribir. Los estudiantes que siguen un
orden suelen escribir de manera más lógica y comprensible. Esta intervención esta diseñada para
ayudar a los estudiantes a escribir con claridad, proveyéndoles un plan estratégico para ordenar
lo que escriben. La creación de un cuento suele seguir un orden:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Introducción
Personaje principal/sujeto
Escenario/eventos relacionados
Problema
Eventos/circunstancias
Solución/conclusión
Los estudiantes que están conscientes del orden de un cuento tienen una estructura a seguir al
planificar lo que van a escribir. Esta estructura provee a los estudiantes un esquema para escribir
y los ayuda a enfocarse en las partes importantes del cuento.
¿Cómo enseñar gramática de cuentos?
Se inicia describiendo la idea de la gramática de cuentos (ej., la mayoría de los cuentos tiene un
orden) y se describe cada una de sus partes. Cuando los estudiantes hayan entendido la
gramática de cuentos, pueden aprender a utilizarla para que ellos mismos puedan determinar
qué pasos importantes incluir y en qué orden. Se puede colocar un afiche con las partes de un
cuento en la pared o en sus escritorios y así los estudiantes pueden utilizarlo como referencia.
¿Quién debe aprender gramática de cuentos?
La gramática de cuentos puede ser útil para todos los estudiantes, particularmente para aquéllos
que tienen dificultad escribiendo de manera lógica. Esta intervención puede resultar particularmente útil a los estudiantes con problemas de procesamiento Sucesivo y Planificación, proveyéndoles una estructura de cuentos a seguir.
Recursos
página 1 de 1
Enseñando vocabulario utilizando claves visuales
A menudo a los estudiantes se les requiere que aprendan un vocabulario para áreas específicas
antes de trabajar en ellas. Por ejemplo, las ciencias y las matemáticas requieren aprender terminología básica antes de que se discutan conceptos y temas de mayor dificultad. A veces, el vocabulario puede ser presentado a los estudiantes de una manera que ayude a la comprensión del
material. Una manera de hacerlo es construyendo imágenes visuales de los conceptos en las palabras que están siendo enseñadas (ej. Claves visuales).
micír
culo
se
Algunos estudiantes pueden aprender la terminología más rápido si las palabras que necesitan
aprender son presentadas de una manera consistente con su significado. Por ejemplo, cada una
de las palabras de la Figura 1 presenta un término matemático dibujado de una manera que comunica el significado de la palabra. Por ejemplo, el semicírculo es presentado con un arco, y la
pendiente es presentada con una flecha inclinada. Este método integra las palabras con su significado de una manera que es visualmente correcta y por esto la orientación de las palabras comunica el significado. Esto ayuda al estudiante a procesar la información de otra manera, lo que
lo ayudará a recordarla.
te
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Figura 1.
ipérbole
exponencial
ntota
así
frac
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Ejemplos de claves visuales.
¿Quiénes deben aprender a usar claves visuales?
Todos los estudiantes se pueden beneficiar al usar claves visuales, pero aquellos que tienen dificultad con los procesos Simultáneos son los que tienden a beneficiarse más al usar esta estrategia (Naglieri, 1999). La naturaleza espacial de la información puede ayudar a estos estudiantes.
Recurso
página 1 de 1
Planificando la escritura
utilizando oraciones de inicio
Los buenos escritores comienzan un proyecto con un plan sobre lo que van a escribir y cómo
construir el texto. Esto requiere la premeditación de una serie de elementos que necesitan ser incluidos en lo que se está escribiendo. Algunos estudiantes presentan dificultades al escribir debido a que no pueden pensar acerca de lo que van a escribir, o no saben lo que quieren o necesitan decir. En el proceso de escritura podría ser útil alentar a los estudiantes a contestar
preguntas importantes y utilizarlas como guía. Esta intervención esta diseñada para ayudar a los
estudiantes a utilizar un plan para escribir.
Las oraciones de inicio son preguntas generadoras de ideas que ayudan a los estudiantes a pensar en cosas para escribir. Las oraciones de inicio pueden ser utilizadas para comenzar una
oración. Proveer a los estudiantes aseveraciones o preguntas para que las contesten, estimula a
que éstos generen información sobre la cual escribir.
¿Cómo enseñar oraciones de inicio?
Al seleccionar un tema, se les debe hacer a los estudiantes una serie de preguntas que les ayuden a generar información para escribir. Algunos ejemplos son:
1. Describir un objeto
• ¿Cómo se ve? ¿Qué apariencia tiene?
• ¿Cómo huele?
• ¿Cómo suena? ¿Qué sonido tiene?
• ¿Cómo se siente?
• ¿Qué sabor tiene? ¿A qué sabe?
2. Describir una secuencia de eventos
• ¿Qué pasó primero?
• ¿Qué pasó después?
• ¿Qué pasó último?
• ¿Donde ocurrieron los eventos?
• ¿A quién le ocurrieron los eventos?
3. Describir en términos generales
• Quién
• Qué
• Cuándo
• Dónde
• Por qué
• Cómo
página 1 de 2
Planificando la escritura utilizando oraciones de inicio (continuación)
Las oraciones de inicio pueden ser seguidas de otras estrategias que ayuden al estudiante a unir
la información de forma coherente.
¿Quién debería aprender oraciones de inicio?
Los estudiantes que tienen dificultad pensando en lo que deben escribir, y cómo escribirlo con
suficientes detalles, podrían encontrar las oraciones de inicio de gran utilidad. Los estudiantes
con una puntuación baja en Planificación podrían presentar dificultad para comenzar a escribir, ya
que no tienen una manera conveniente de iniciar el proceso. Las oraciones de inicio podrían ayudar a estos estudiantes proveyéndoles una estrategia o plan para comenzar a escribir.
Recursos
página 2 de 2
Planificación al escribir
El éxito en la escritura requiere una planificación considerable. Los escritores exitosos incluyen
una serie de pasos para sus escritos, tales como, la búsqueda de material, organización de la información, discusión de sus temas e ideas con otros, bosquejar, escribir, reescribir, editar, leer en
voz alta, entre otros. Muchos estudiantes no hacen uso de estas estrategias o por lo menos no
las utilizan de la manera correcta. A menudo, estrategias como la visualización, la práctica mediante la discusión y la verificación mediante la lectura en voz alta no son utilizadas por los estudiantes. Proveerles a los estudiantes instrucciones explícitas sobre estas estrategias al escribir
podría ayudarles.
Estrategias para la escritura
Visualización: En algunas ocasiones los estudiantes no pueden decidirse sobre lo que van a escribir. Para ayudarlos a comenzar a escribir se les puede enseñar a que cierren sus ojos e imaginen aspectos del tema que van a escribir, incluyendo detalles como quién, qué, cuándo, dónde,
por qué y cómo. Además, visualizarse ellos mismos escribiendo puede ayudarlos a enfocarse.
Práctica: Discutir un tema antes de escribirlo es de mucha ayuda. Los estudiantes deben ser
alentados a discutir lo que van a escribir antes de comenzar a escribirlo. La discusión de un tema
puede ayudar a los estudiantes a que piensen qué deben incluir y qué conexiones deben hacer
en sus trabajos. Esta discusión podría ser útil, especialmente si es conducida por la maestra o el
maestro. Si los estudiantes son motivados a hacer preguntas sobre los temas que sus compañeros desarrollan, van a estar más claros y tendrán más detalles en sus propios escritos. En algunos casos se le puede permitir grabar en audio su tema o la descripción de su historia para
que luego de escucharla, la escriba.
Leer en voz alta: Una vez el estudiante haya finalizado su trabajo, puede serle de mucha ayuda
que lea lo que ha escrito en voz alta tanto a su maestra/o o algún compañero de clase. Esto
ayuda a notar la fluidez, la lógica y la claridad de lo que ha escrito y a reconocer los errores
cometidos. Muchas veces los estudiantes se dan cuenta de sus propios errores, lo que a su vez
los ayuda a reconocer lo que falta y cómo puede ser corregido.
¿Quiénes deben aprender las estrategias de escritura?
Los estudiantes que presentan dificultad al desarrollar un tema por escrito, debido a una pobre
estructura o falta de contenido en sus trabajos, pueden beneficiarse con este plan. También se
pueden beneficiar los estudiantes que tienen puntuaciones bajas en Planificación, ya que les
ofrece la estructura para ayudarlos a escribir (Naglieri, 1999).
Recursos
página 1 de 1
La Planificación facilitada
para los cálculos matemáticos
Los cálculos matemáticos son actividades complejas que involucran recordar conceptos
matemáticos básicos, seguir procedimientos, trabajar cuidadosamente y verificar su propio trabajo. Los cálculos matemáticos requieren un enfoque cuidadoso (ej. Planificar) para seguir todos
los pasos necesarios. Los estudiantes que son buenos en cálculos matemáticos pueden avanzar
hacia conceptos matemáticos más difíciles y solucionar problemas con más facilidad que aquéllos que tienen problemas en esta área. Los estudiantes que tienen problemas con los cálculos
matemáticos, podrían beneficiarse de una técnica que los ayude a involucrarse en la tarea de
manera planificada.
La Planificación facilitada ayuda a los estudiantes a desarrollar estrategias útiles para completar
cuidadosamente los problemas de matemática a través de la discusión y el descubrimiento compartido. Esto motiva a los estudiantes a pensar sobre cómo ellos solucionan problemas, en vez
de solamente pensar sobre cuál es la respuesta correcta. Esta estrategia los ayuda a desarrollar
maneras cuidadosas para realizar cálculos matemáticos.
¿Cómo enseñar la Planificación facilitada?
La Planificación facilitada se ofrece en tres períodos de tiempo de 10 minutos: 1) 10 minutos de
matemáticas, 2) 10 minutos de discusión y 3) 10 minutos adicionales de matemáticas. Estos
pasos se describen en más detallen:
Paso 1: El maestro debe proveer hojas de trabajo de matemática para que los estudiantes las
completen en la primera sección de 10 minutos. Esto le permite al estudiante estar expuesto a
los problemas y a las maneras de resolverlos. El maestro le brinda a cada estudiante una hoja de
trabajo y les dice, “Aquí está la hoja de trabajo de matemática para que la hagas. Por favor trata
de hacer la mayor cantidad de problemas correctamente. Tendrás 10 minutos”. Variaciones a
esta instrucción son permitidas, pero no provea información adicional.
Paso 2: El maestro facilita la discusión preguntando a los estudiantes cómo completaron la hoja
de trabajo y qué estrategia utilizaría para completar los problemas en el futuro. Los maestros no
deben reforzar al niño. Por ejemplo, si el niño dice “yo usé la estrategia xyz”, el maestro no debe
decir, “muy bien y asegúrate de usarlo la próxima vez”. En su lugar, el maestro puede utilizar un
enunciado diseñado a motivar al niño a considerar la efectividad de la estrategia (¿Funcionó para
ti?). La discusión funciona mejor en grupos en los cuales los estudiantes puedan aprender unos
de los otros. Las metas generales son motivar a los niños a describir cómo ellos realizaron la hoja
de trabajo. La función del maestro es motivar a los estudiantes a verbalizar las ideas (lo cual facilita la Planificación), explicar por qué algunos métodos funcionan mejor que otros, motivarlos a
ser autoreflexivos y hacer que piensen acerca de lo que van a hacer la próxima vez que tengan
que realizar este tipo de trabajo. Aquí se presenta una lista de interrogantes sugeridas.
página 1 de 3
La Planificación facilitada para los cálculos matemáticos (continuación)
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•
“¿Cómo hiciste esta página?”
“Dime cómo hiciste estos problemas.”
“¿Qué notas acerca de cómo los problemas matemáticos fueron completados?”
“¿Cuál sería una buen manera de hacer estos problemas y qué aprendiste al hacerlos?”
“¿Por qué lo hiciste de esta manera? ¿Qué resultado esperabas?”
“¿Cómo completarías la página la próxima vez para obtener más contestaciones correctas?”
“¿Qué pareció funcionar bien para ti la vez anterior y qué harás la próxima vez?”
“¿Cuáles son algunas de las razones por las cuales estudiantes cometen errores en
problemas como éstos?”
“Dices que éstos son difíciles, ¿puedes pensar en maneras para hacerlos más fáciles?
“Aquí hay muchos problemas, ¿puedes explorar una forma de cómo hacer más problemas?”
“¿Crees que harás algo distinto la próxima vez?”
Paso 3: El maestro le ofrece al niño una hoja de trabajo de matemáticas y dice: “aquí tienes otra
hoja de trabajo de matemáticas para que la completes. Por favor, intenta contestar correctamente la mayor cantidad de problemas que puedas. Tienes 10 minutos.”
Ayudas para facilitar la discusión
• Prepare una hoja de transparencia con los problemas sin contestar para ser proyectada mientras se discute el trabajo.
• Prepare una hoja de transparencia con los problemas completados por algún estudiante (con el nombre omitido).
• Permita a los estudiantes completar en grupo una transparencia para ser proyectada.
Es importante que los maestros no digan cosas como, “Mírame, así es como se hace”. “Está
bien”, “Bien, ¡ahora sí lo estás entendiendo!”, “Cometiste un error. Arréglalo ahora”, o “Recuerda
utilizar tu estrategia favorita”. Esto desanima la discusión entre estudiantes y no ayuda a alcanzar
las metas de la intervención.
¿Quiénes deben aprender la Planificación facilitada?
Esta instrucción puede beneficiar a los estudiantes con dificultades en los cálculos matemáticos.
Debido a que la Planificación facilitada ayuda a los estudiantes a enfocarse en la manera que resuelven problemas, les ayuda a ser más cuidadosos y planificadores. Los niños que obtienen una
puntuación baja en Planificación son los que más podrían beneficiarse de esta intervención.
página 2 de 3
La Planificación facilitada para los cálculos matemáticos (continuación)
Recursos
Algunas intervenciones para las matemáticas pueden ser encontradas en http://www
.mathgoodies.com, http://www.sitesforteachers.com, y http://www.mathprojects.com.
Naglieri, J.A., & Gottling, S.H. (1997). Mathematics instruction and PASS cognitive processes: An intervention study.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30, 513–520.
página 3 de 3
Cuadrados de números para conceptos matemáticos
Los conceptos y destrezas matemáticas (ej. contar, contar por dos o por tres, contar en números
pares e impares) requiere que el estudiante trabaje con números en un orden específico. A
menudo los niños confían en las técnicas de la memoria remota para recordar cómo contar. Algunos niños necesitan ser enseñados a establecer relaciones entre los números de manera que
entiendan cómo los números se relacionan entre sí. Utilizar cuadrado de números es una buena
estrategia para ayudar al estudiante a entender y a notar las relaciones entre los números.
Los cuadrados de números pueden ayudar a los estudiantes a aprender la relación conceptual
entre los números, ayudándolos a ver de manera gráfica los patrones entre los mismos y cómo
se relacionan unos con otros. Los cuadrados de números a menudo brindan un orden particular
o patrón visual a conceptos que de otra manera serían abstractos y no visuales. Esto permite un
mayor entendimiento y disfrute del aprendizaje de las matemáticas.
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Un cuadrado de números es un cuadrado grande dividido
en 100 cuadrados pequeños, 10 por 10. Cada cuadrado
pequeño es enumerado del 1 al 100, empezando desde el
cuadrado superior izquierdo (ver Figura 1). El ubicar 10
números en cada fila, enfoca la atención del estudiante en
la agrupación básica de números a base de 10. Un estudiante puede explorar el cuadriculado y ver cómo los
números se relacionan unos con otros (ej. los números en
cada fila hacia abajo tienen el segundo dígito igual y los
números en cada columna tienen el mismo primer dígito).
En el caso de enseñar un concepto como los números
pares e impares, el estudiante puede ser motivado a explorar el cuadriculado y sombrear de forma alterna los
Figura 1. Cuadrado de números.
números (un número
sí y otro no). Realizar esta tarea no sólo expone al estudiante
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al significado de los números pares e impares, sino también
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a cómo se ven y se relacionan entre sí. El estudiante puede
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ver que los números son pares o impares y qué clase de
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número es par o impar (1, 11, 21, 31, 41, y así sucesiva41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
mente en las columnas). Si el foco son los números pares,
el cuadriculado serviría como guía para contar de dos en dos. 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
Además, este mismo cuadriculado puede utilizarse para
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enseñar multiplicación. Escoge el caso de multiplicar por 6.
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Un estudiante puede ser instruido a utilizar un nuevo cuadricu81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
lado, contar de seis en seis y sombrear cada seis números
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(ver Figura 2). Luego, cuando el ejercicio es presentado, digamos 6 multiplicado por 8, el estudiante puede contar ocho
Figura 2. Cuadrado de números que muestra la cuenta
bloques sombreados y llegar a la contestación. Esto permite por seis
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Cuadrados de números para conceptos matemáticos
(continuación)
al estudiante obtener la contestación y los patrones involucrados en la misma. Los cuadrados de
números se pueden utilizar de diferentes maneras:
• Como una forma de presentar un nuevo concepto (ej. contando, números pares o impares, grupos de números, multiplicación)
• Como una exploración (ej. “¿Qué patrones ves?”)
• Como una herramienta de referencia para los estudiantes, al igual que una calculadora
¿Cómo enseñar cuadrados de números?
Un maestro enseñando a sumar, contar o multiplicar por cuatro puede ofrecerle al estudiante un
cuadrado de números y pedirle sombrear cada cuatro números, empezando por el 1 (ver Figura
3). El maestro puede hacer preguntas sobre los patrones creados, cómo los números de cada fila
o columna son iguales o diferentes, y cómo esto puede ayudarle a resolver problemas. El maestro puede motivar a los estudiantes a mantener el cuadrado sombreado consigo para que pueda
utilizarlo cuando se les presente un problema numérico. Puede proveerse de un nuevo cuadrado
de números para cada nuevo número. Más adelante, los
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estudiantes pueden ser motivados a utilizar cuadrados de
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números por si mismos al enfrentarse a nuevos conceptos
y problemas.
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¿Quién debería aprender
los cuadrados de números?
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áreas de las matemáticas y con diferentes edades. Esto
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ofrece al estudiante una manera de ver la formación de pa91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
trones numéricos. La demanda de la tarea cambia de una
que requiere procesamiento Sucesivo a otra que requiere
Figura 3. Cuadrado de números que muestra la cuenta
procesamiento Simultáneo. La creación de patrones ofrece por cuatro.
una clase de estrategia visual que puede ser recordada de mejor manera por el estudiante.
Además, esta estrategia parece especialmente útil para niños que tienen problemas con los conceptos numéricos y puede ser particularmente útil para estudiantes con puntuaciones bajas en
procesamiento Sucesivo.
Recursos
Excelentes recursos relacionados para maestros y estudiantes pueden ser encontrados en
forum.swarthmore.edu/dr.math/dr-math.html y http://www.mathgoodies.com.
página 2 de 2
Barras de “cuisenaire” y matemáticas
Los niños deben trabajar regularmente con números y entender los significados abstractos y las
relaciones que éstos tienen. Entender la relación entre los números o su orden específico es en
ocasiones difícil para los estudiantes. A menudo, los estudiantes confían en técnicas como
memoria rutinaria para contar, calcular y recordar conceptos básicos. Cuando un niño tiende a
aprender por memoria rutinaria (ej. contar pares: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10), no logra internalizar los conceptos numéricos. Utilizar una estrategia que ayude a relacionar los números en una forma gráfica
podría ayudar a muchos estudiantes. El uso de barras “cuisenaire” es una buena estrategia para
este propósito.
Las barras “cuisenaire” son un conjunto de barras diseñadas cuidadosamente en longitud y colores variados que utilizan el color para identificar longitud. Por ejemplo, una barra roja representa
una unidad de 2 y es el doble de largo de una barra blanca, que representa la unidad de 1. Esto
ayuda a los niños a identificar cada barra y relacionarlas con otras. Asignando valores numéricos
a las barras, los niños pueden ver la relación de patrones numéricos. Las barras “cuisenaire”
pueden ayudar al estudiante a ver los patrones involucrados en los números y cómo éstos se
relacionan con otros en forma gráfica. Esta tarea le permite al estudiante un entendimiento mayor
y disfrute del aprendizaje de las matemáticas.
¿Cómo enseñar utilizando las barras “cuisenaire”?
Las barras “cuisenaire” pueden ser utilizadas de diversas formas y en diferentes niveles. Estas
pueden ser utilizadas como introducción y trabajar con números, sumas simples, restar, multiplicar, dividir y otros conceptos numéricos, como las fracciones. La clave de utilizar barras “cuisenaire” para enseñar matemáticas es motivar a los estudiantes a ver la relación física que existe
entre las barras. Esta tarea ayuda a los estudiantes a reconocer los conceptos de largo, pequeño, igualdad, sumas, diferencias, productos, factores y fracciones.
¿Quién debe aprender a utilizar las barras “cuisenaire”?
Los niños que tienen problemas comprendiendo números y conceptos matemáticos suelen beneficiarse en utilizar las barras “cuisenaire”. Debido a que el procesamiento Sucesivo requiere que
el niño trabaje con el orden de los números, los estudiantes que tengan debilidades en procesos
Sucesivos pueden encontrar las barras “cuisenaire” particularmente útiles. Para un niño que presenta dificultad en el procesamiento Sucesivo, este método puede motivarlo a utilizar diferentes
formas de trabajar con números. Por ejemplo, los números pueden relacionarse en formas y patrones y ser agrupados visualmente. Las barras “cuisenaire” pueden ayudar al estudiante a ver
los patrones implicados en números, y cómo ciertos números se relacionan con otros de forma
gráfica. Esto le brinda una representación física o patrón particular que de lo contrario sería abstracto y no visual.
página 1 de 2
Barras de “cuisenaire” y matemáticas (continuación)
Recursos
Más ejemplos, trabajos escritos, lecciones y panfletos para clases pueden encontrarse en línea
en http://www.etacuisenaire.com.
Davidson, P.S. (2002). Idea book: Mathematics activities for Cuisenaire Rods at the primary level. Vernon Hills, IL:
ETA/Cuisenaire.
página 2 de 2
Siete pasos para resolver
problemas verbales matemáticos
Los problemas verbales matemáticos suelen ser difíciles para muchos niños. Los problemas verbales son mucho más fáciles cuando el estudiante conoce y utiliza estrategias efectivas para resolverlos. Los estudiantes que hacen problemas verbales sin utilizar estrategias, constantemente
comenten errores en los procedimientos y en los cómputos. Las intervenciones para los problemas verbales matemáticos deben estar dirigidas tanto a las destrezas básicas como al uso de
estrategias, de modo que se estimule a los estudiantes a razonar mientras resuelven los problemas verbales (Scheid, 1993, p. 9). Además, la instrucción académica debe ir acorde con las
necesidades cognitivas de los estudiantes. Ofrecer un plan o estrategia para resolver los problemas verbales puede ser muy útil para algunos estudiantes.
Un plan para trabajar con los problemas verbales matemáticos
Los problemas verbales matemáticos requieren un plan cuidadoso y sistemático. El plan debe incluir maneras de realizar el problema como también de verificar si la solución es razonable y correcta. El uso de una estrategia, o un buen plan, es necesario para resolver el problema de forma
efectiva y cotejar la efectividad de la estrategia. Los niños con dificultades en el área de Planificación podrían encontrar difíciles estos problemas. Por lo tanto, podrían necesitar que se les enseñe a utilizar un plan.
¿Cómo enseñar el plan para resolver problemas verbales?
A continuación vea los pasos básicos para enseñar a resolver problemas verbales.
1. Lea (para entender y obtener la información)
• Lea el problema, si no lo entiende, léalo nuevamente
• Pregúntese, “¿He leído y entendido el problema?”
• Verifique lo que está entendiendo mientras lee el problema
2. Parafrasee (use sus propias palabras para reafirmar el problema)
• Subraye la información más importante. Ponga el problema en sus propias palabras.
• Pregúntese, “¿He encontrado los datos importantes del problema? ¿Cuál es la
pregunta que estoy buscando?”
• Verifique si la información va con la pregunta.
3. Visualiza (un dibujo o diagrama del problema)
• Realice un dibujo o diagrama
• Pregúntese, “¿Este dibujo va de acuerdo con el problema?”
• Verifique que la información va a la par con la pregunta
página 1 de 3
Siete pasos para resolver problemas verbales matemáticos (continuación)
4. Establezca una hipótesis (realice un plan para resolver el problema)
• Decida cuántos pasos y operaciones necesita. Escriba los símbolos (+, –, , /).
• Pregúntese, “Si lo hago de esta manera, ¿Qué voy a obtener? Si hago esto, ¿Qué
es lo próximo que tengo que hacer? ¿Cuántos pasos son necesarios?”
5. Estime (realice una predicción de la respuesta)
• Redondee los números, haga el problema y escriba un estimado.
• Pregúntese, “¿Redondeé arriba y abajo? ¿Escribí un estimado?”
• Verifique si utilizó la información importante
6. Calcule (haga la aritmética)
• Realice las operaciones aritméticas en el orden correcto.
• Pregúntese, “¿Es mi respuesta comparable con el estimado? ¿Hace sentido mi
respuesta? ¿Están los decimales o signos de dinero en el lugar correcto?”
• Verifique que todas las operaciones se hicieron en el orden correcto.
7. Revise (asegúrese de que todo está bien)
• Verifique los cálculos.
• Pregúntese, “¿He verificado cada paso y cada cálculo? ¿Está mi respuesta correcta?”
• Verifique que todo está correcto. Si no lo está, vuelva a comenzar. Solicite ayuda
de ser necesario.
¿Quiénes deben aprender un plan para los problemas verbales?
Todos los estudiantes pueden encontrar este plan útil al momento de hacer problemas matemáticos verbales. Los problemas matemáticos requieren de los procesos cognitivos de Planificación,
Atención, Simultáneo y Sucesivo (PASS). El procesamiento Sucesivo está incluido cuando un niño
tiene que recordar el orden de la información relevante. La Atención está presente cuando el niño
tiene que separar la información relevante de la irrelevante. Los procesos Simultáneos son muy importantes para que el niño pueda ver cómo se relaciona toda la información del problema. Los estudiantes que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en Planificación están más propensos a beneficiarse
con el uso de esta estrategia para resolver problemas verbales matemáticos (Naglieri, 1999).
Recursos
Dos excelentes puntos, tanto para estudiantes como maestros, están disponibles en
Montague, M. (1992). The effects of cognitive and metacognitive strategy instruction on mathematical problem solving of middle-school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, 230–248.
Montague, M. (1995). Cognitive instruction and mathematics: Implications for students with learning disorders. Focus
on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 17, 39–49.
Montague, M. (1997). Cognitive strategy instruction in mathematics for students with learning disabilities. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 30, 164–177.
página 2 de 3
Siete pasos para resolver problemas verbales matemáticos (continuación)
Montague, M., Applegate, B., & Marquard, K., (1993). Cognitive strategy instruction and mathematical problemsolving performance of students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 8, 223–232.
Montague, M., & Bos, C. (1986). The effect of cognitive strategy training on verbal math problem solving performance
of learning disabled adolescents. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 26–33.
Scheid, K. (1993). Helping students become strategic learners Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
página 3 de 3
Estrategia de fragmentación
para la multiplicación
La multiplicación es una tarea que implica recordar los conceptos básicos matemáticos y los procedimientos que deben ser llevados a cabo, trabajar con cuidado y verificar su propio trabajo. Algunas veces, los niños necesitan una manera de organizar los números cuando realizan multiplicación, especialmente cuando ellos tratan de trabajar fragmentando los problemas de
multiplicación en partes. Proveer a estos estudiantes de una estrategia para hacer procesos de
multiplicación básicos puede ayudarlos a ser exitosos.
La estrategia de fragmentación para la multiplicación ayuda a los niños a romper el problema
numérico en partes separadas de manera que lo puedan resolver más fácilmente. Los niños que
tienen problemas en multiplicación pueden beneficiarse de esta estrategia porque les ayuda a
fragmentar el problema en partes más manejables. La manera en que trabaja la estrategia es enseñando al estudiante a fragmentar los números en grupos, de manera que puedan ser fácilmente manejables. Por ejemplo, 2 x 8 es el mismo cálculo que contar por dos ocho veces. Si el
niño es enseñado a utilizar el símbolo de barra ( / ) para cada paso contando por dos, cuando la
octava barra sea escrita, el problema estará resuelto. Utilice los siguientes pasos para enseñar la
estrategia de fragmentación.
1. Lea el problema: 2 x 8 = ____
2. Señale un número que usted conoce cómo contar por dos
3. Realice el número de marcas de barras ( / ) indicadas por el otro número (en este caso
el número es 8).
4. Cuente por dos, a la vez que toca cada marca: “2, 4, 6, 8 . . .”
5. Pare de contar en la última marca: “. . . , 10, 12, 14, 16”
6. El número donde se detenga, es la contestación: “16”
¿Quién debe aprender la estrategia
de fragmentar para la multiplicación?
Esta estrategia puede ser útil para estudiantes que tienen dificultad aprendiendo multiplicación.
También puede ser muy útil para estudiantes que tienen deficiencias en Planificación o en el
procesamiento Sucesivo. Los niños que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en Planificación, puede que
no posean buenas estrategias para multiplicar y no puedan realizar estas tareas por su propia
cuenta (ver Naglieri, 1999). Los niños con dificultades en procesamiento Sucesivo tienen problemas recordando pasos básicos cuando se les enseñan secuencias (9 x 8 = 72). Estos estudiantes son más propensos a beneficiarse aprendiendo estrategias de cálculo.
página 1 de 2
Estrategia de fragmentación para la multiplicación (continuación)
Recursos
Excelentes recursos relacionados para maestros y estudiantes pueden ser encontrados en
página 2 de 2
Estrategia de multiplicación con líneas cruzadas
La multiplicación es una destreza que requiere recordar procesos matemáticos básicos. Los estudiantes pueden aprender estos procesos matemáticos de varias formas. Algunos niños escriben las tablas de multiplicar una y otra vez y otros utilizan una matriz de multiplicación. La matriz de multiplicación puede estar colocada en una pared o sobre sus escritorios para que hagan
referencia a ella cuando la necesiten. Estos métodos ayudan a los estudiantes a memorizarse las
tablas de multiplicar. En ocasiones, los estudiantes no pueden recordar inmediatamente los procedimientos y necesitan una estrategia para encontrar la respuesta correcta por ellos mismos.
Utilizar estrategias les ayudará a recordar mejor los procedimientos. La siguiente estrategia es un
plan específico que los estudiantes pueden utilizar para descifrar conceptos matemáticos y que
les ayudará a llegar a la respuesta correcta.
Estrategia de multiplicación con líneas cruzadas
Los estudiantes pueden usar la estrategia de multiplicación con líneas cruzadas para determinar
un procedimiento que no ha sido memorizado aún. Esta estrategia no es muy diferente a contar
con los dedos, ya que el concepto abstracto de multiplicación se convierte en uno más concreto.
Esto facilita el trabajo y el entendimiento de los estudiantes.
¿Cómo enseñar multiplicación con líneas cruzadas?
Esta estrategia es fácil de enseñar usando los siguientes los pasos:
1. Pregunte, “¿Cuánto es 3 x 2?”
2. Trace horizontalmente la cantidad de líneas que representa el primer número del
problema (3).
3. Trace verticalmente la cantidad de líneas que representa el segundo número del
problema (2), cruzando las líneas horizontales.
4. Cuente el número de veces que las líneas se cruzan para llegar a la respuesta del
problema.
5. Para problemas matemáticos futuros, incluya cualquiera de los dos números que ya
utilizó y añádale más líneas (ej. 3 x 3)
Ejemplo:
3x2
página 1 de 2
Estrategia de multiplicación con líneas cruzadas (continuación)
¿Quiénes deben aprender multiplicación con líneas cruzadas?
Esta estrategia puede ser utilizada por los niños cuando necesiten aprender multiplicación. Niños
con puntuaciones bajas en procesos de Planificación son propensos a no tener buenas estrategias para multiplicar y puede que no las adquieran por sí mismos. Niños con problemas en
procesamiento Sucesivo tienen dificultad recordando procedimientos básicos cuando se les enseña una secuencia (9 x 8 = 72). Por tal razón, esta estrategia es muy útil para los estudiantes
con dificultades en procesos de Planificación o en procesamiento Sucesivo.
Recursos
página 2 de 2
Estrategias generales para realizar un examen
Una buena ejecución en un examen no sólo requiere que el estudiante conozca la información
específica, sino también requiere que el estudiante posea buenas estrategias para realizar
exámenes. Al prepararse para un examen, los estudiantes que tienen una idea o plan sobre el
material que van a estudiar, y piensan cómo contestar las preguntas del examen, tienden a ejecutar bien en distintos tipos de exámenes. Algunos estudiantes necesitan que al prepararse para un
examen se les enseñe estrategias para realizarlos exitosamente. Enseñar estrategias generales
para tomar exámenes puede ayudarlos a planificar y a crear métodos que los ayuden a desempeñarse mejor mientras contestan preguntas. Aunque algunos estudiantes utilizan estrategias
mientras realizan exámenes, otros no las utilizan y necesitan que se les enseñe explícitamente
buenas estrategias.
¿Cómo enseñar estrategias generales?
Primeramente, se les debe explicar a los estudiantes que el utilizar estrategias para realizar
exámenes puede ser beneficioso para ellos. Ellos deben ser orientados acerca de cómo pueden
utilizar estrategias para prepararse y realizar exitosamente sus exámenes. Podemos enseñar a los
estudiantes algunos pasos para alcanzar esta meta.
1. Prepararse para un examen formulando preguntas.
• ¿Cuál es el contenido del examen? Al prepararse para un examen los estudiantes
deben conocer exactamente cuál será el contenido del mismo. Además, los estudiantes deben considerar qué información no será parte del examen. Resultaría de
gran ayuda hacerse preguntas sobre el material específico que deberían estudiar.
• ¿Cuál es el formato del examen? ¿El examen incluirá distintas opciones tales
como, llena blancos, selección múltiple o ensayo? ¿Cuán específicas serán las
preguntas? Mientras estudien, los estudiantes deben pensar en preguntas y respuestas basándose en el formato en que será el examen. Los maestros pueden
ayudar por medio de exámenes de práctica.
2. Tomar los exámenes con cautela y relajados.
• Sea cuidadoso. Se debe recomendar a los estudiantes que realicen el examen con
mucho cuidado y sin prisa. Dividir la sesión de examen en dos partes puede ser de
mucha ayuda. Al utilizar esta estrategia los estudiantes podrán utilizar la primera
parte para contestar el examen y la segunda mitad para verificarlo. Esto puede
ayudar a los estudiantes que se apresuran en terminar los exámenes y los entregan sin cotejarlos.
• Relajarse. Instruya específicamente a los estudiantes que se relajen antes de tomar
un examen. Ofrézcales tiempo para lograrlo. Considere ejercicios de estiramiento,
respiración profunda, cerrar los ojos y meditar antes del examen. Los comentarios
del maestro también pueden ser importantes para ayudar a los estudiantes a relajarse.
página 1 de 2
Estrategias generales para realizar un examen (continuación)
¿Quiénes deberían aprender
estrategias generales para tomar exámenes?
La mayoría de los estudiantes pueden beneficiarse de estas estrategias. Los estudiantes que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en Planificación podrían beneficiarse debido a la probabilidad de que
tengan problemas en desarrollar sus propias estrategias. Estas estrategias también podrían ser
de mucha ayuda para estudiantes que presenten indicadores de ansiedad antes de tomar un
exámen.
Recursos
página 2 de 2
Estrategias para exámenes
de selección múltiple, pareos y cierto o falso
La preparación cuidadosa y la planificación son necesarias para una buena ejecución en exámenes
de selección múltiple, pareo y cierto o falso. Los estudiantes podrían ser más exitosos si planifican y
estudian para el tipo de examen específico que van a tomar. Existen diferentes estrategias para realizar exámenes. Los exámenes de selección múltiple, pareo y cierto o falso requieren el reconocimiento de datos específicos. Estos exámenes pueden ser especialmente confusos y, por lo tanto,
los estudiantes necesitan estar más alertas sobre las estrategias específicas que pueden utilizar. Algunos estudiantes utilizan estrategias cuando toman un examen. Otros no las utilizan y necesitan
que se les enseñe explícitamente buenas estrategias para tomar exámenes.
¿Cómo enseñar a presentar exámenes objetivos?
Enseñe a los estudiantes específicamente a:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pensar cuál puede ser la respuesta antes de leer las opciones
Leer cuidadosa y completamente la pregunta
Subrayar palabras claves en la pregunta
Eliminar respuestas que son claramente incorrectas
Crear un dibujo que les ayude a organizar la pregunta
Estimar una respuesta para eliminar opciones que son probablemente incorrectas
Leer todas las respuestas, hasta las que parecen incorrectas
Leer la pregunta y las respuestas dos veces
No elegir la respuesta más larga
No elegir la respuesta basándose en la localización (primero, medio, final)
¿Quién debe aprender estrategias para
exámenes de selección múltiple, pareo y cierto o falso?
La mayoría de los estudiantes se benefician de estas estrategias. Los estudiantes que tienen
puntuaciones bajas en Planificación pueden encontrar estas estrategias particularmente útiles.
Estos estudiantes pueden tener problemas desarrollando estrategias para tomar exámenes por sí
mismos. Estas sugerencias también pueden ser útiles para estudiantes que experimentan ansiedad al presentar exámenes.
Recurso
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastroperi, M.A. (1992). Teaching test-taking skills: Helping students show what they know.
Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
página 1 de 1
Estrategias para exámenes escritos
Los exámenes escritos son particularmente difíciles para los estudiantes debido a que requieren
que ellos conozcan la información que se les pregunta, y que contesten de manera lógica y coherente. Este tipo de examen requiere una preparación considerable y estrategias específicas
para completar la tarea asignada. Utilizar una buena estrategia para tomar exámenes escritos
ayuda al estudiante a trabajar más eficientemente, y por consiguiente, producir mejores contestaciones. Aunque algunos estudiantes utilizan estrategias cuando toman exámenes, otros estudiantes no lo hacen y necesitan que se les enseñe explícitamente cómo tomar pruebas correctamente.
¿Cómo enseñar estrategias para tomar exámenes escritos?
Los estudiantes deben ser instruidos específicamente sobre cómo utilizar estrategias para tomar
exámenes escritos que los ayuden a producir mejores respuestas. Scruggs y Mastropieri (1992)
sugieren que a los estudiantes se les enseñe el acrónimo EAOE (SNOW, siglas en inglés) para
tomar exámenes de tipo ensayo: Estudia la pregunta, Anota los puntos importantes, Organiza la
información y Escribe directamente a la pregunta. A los estudiantes se les debe enseñar a:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Estudiar la pregunta cuidadosamente
Asegurarse de contestar completamente la pregunta asignada
Hacer una lista de los puntos específicos
No dejar preguntas sin contestar
Proveer una respuesta aunque no estén seguros del todo; es mejor acumular créditos
parciales que no acumular ninguno
6. Utilizar palabras e ideas incluidas en la pregunta
7. Verificar su trabajo cuando hayan terminado
¿Quién debe aprender estrategias para exámenes escritos?
La mayoría de los estudiantes se pueden beneficiar de estas estrategias. Estas estrategias son
particularmente beneficiosas para estudiantes que obtienen puntuaciones bajas en Planificación,
ya que éstos pueden tener problemas desarrollando estrategias para tomar exámenes por su
cuenta. Estas estrategias también pueden ser beneficiosas para los estudiantes que se ponen
ansiosos antes de tomar una prueba.
Recurso
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Teaching test-taking skills: Helping students show what they know.
Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
página 1 de 1
PASS Rating Scale (PRS)
Child’s name:
Person completing the form:
Test date:
Relationship to the child:
Directions: This scale contains descriptions of behaviors that can help determine how well the child can use important
cognitive processes. To use this scale, rate the questions on the basis of your knowledge of the child. Read each statement and put a checkmark under the word that tells how often you observed the behavior. If you want to change your
answer, cross out your first response and fill in your new choice. Answer every question.
During the past 2 months, how often did the child
1.
Work in a well-organized and neat way
2.
Use strategies and plans when doing work
3.
Evaluate his or her own behavior
4.
Think before acting
5.
Have many ideas about how to do things
6.
Show self-control
7.
Perform well on spatial activities (e.g., maps, diagrams)
8.
Understand how things go together
9.
See the big picture
10.
Understand complex verbal instructions
11.
Work well with patterns
12.
Like to use visual materials
13.
Focus well on one thing
14.
Work without being distracted by people or noises
15.
Pay close attention
16.
Listen to instructions without being distracted
17.
Work well for a long time
18.
Work well in a noisy environment
19.
Work well with information in sequence
20.
Do well with things presented step by step
21.
Remember the order of information
22.
Understand directions presented in sequence
23.
Do well working with sounds in order
24.
Closely follow directions presented in order
Always
Usually
Sometimes
Copyright © 1997 by Jack A. Naglieri. In Helping Children Learn: Intervention Handouts for Use in School and at Home, Second Edition,
by Jack A. Naglieri & Eric B. Pickering. (2010, Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc.)
Never
About the Authors
Jack A. Naglieri, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology at George Mason University in Fairfax, Virginia, and
Senior Research Scientist at Devereux Center for Resilient Children in Villanova, Pennsylvania. He
has published more than 250 scientific journal articles, book chapters, books, tests, and computer
software programs (for more information on these works see http://www.jacknaglieri.com). He is the
coauthor of the Cognitive Assessment System (Riverside Publishing, 1997). For his scholarly efforts,
Dr. Naglieri was awarded the American Psychological Association’s 2001 Senior Scientist Award. He
has devoted most of his career to the study of intelligence and its relationship to learning and learning problems. His more recent areas of interest include personal factors related to resilience, autism,
psychological impairment, and their measurement.
Eric B. Pickering, Ph.D., is School Psychologist at the Grandview Heights City Schools in Grandview,
Ohio, and a private psychologist at Crossroads Counseling in Columbus, Ohio. He has considerable experience with working in all levels of schools and especially with applying the interventions included
in this book. Dr. Pickering has focused his efforts on the development of practical methods for teachers and school psychologists because of his desire to give educational professionals well-researched
instructional interventions that can help children learn. Dr. Pickering was awarded the School Psychologists of Central Ohio 2008 Best Practices award.
Tulio M. Otero, Ph.D., NCSP, ABSNP, is Associate Professor at The Chicago School of Professional
Psychology and a bilingual school psychologist with School District U-46 in Elgin, Illinois. He also conducts independent neuropsychological evaluations and is a consultant to the State of Illinois Correctional System. Dr. Otero has considerable experience in evaluating students bilingually using the
PASS theory and in the selection and application of interventions based on the students’ profile patterns of neurocognitive strengths and weaknesses. Dr. Otero has contributed to the Spanish translations and adaptations of several measures such as the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(Pearson Assessments, 2001), Conners 3 (Multi-Health Systems, 2008), and Autism Spectrum Rating
Scales (Multi-Health Systems, 2010). He has ongoing research projects on the use of the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) with Hispanics and several coauthored chapters on using the CAS in a neuropsychological context.
Mary A. Moreno, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus. She also independently conducts psychoeducational and neuropsychological evaluations. She was part of the team that translated the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) into Spanish.
Her research areas include Spanish translation and adaptation of psychological measures and the study
of cognitive profiles of special populations, such as individuals with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities. Dr. Moreno’s studies with Hispanic populations have been widely recognized both inside and outside of Latin America.
End User
License Agreement
The contents of this CD-ROM may not be reproduced or posted on a network or the Internet except as explicitly stated
in this End User License Agreement.
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The following paragraphs constitute the End User License Agreement (“Agreement”) for this product. For the purposes of
this Agreement, “Software” refers to the files contained in the Helping Children Learn: Intervention Handouts for Use in
School and at Home, Second Edition CD-ROM by Jack A. Naglieri and Eric B. Pickering, with Spanish handouts by Tulio M.
Otero and Mary A. Moreno. Please read the Agreement carefully before using the Software. The Agreement gives you (“the
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Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. (“Brookes Publishing Co.”).
LICENSE
1. Brookes Publishing Co. licenses and authorizes the Purchaser to print and photocopy the handouts and the PASS Rating
Scale (PRS), hereinafter collectively called “the forms,” and to print the PASS poster contained in the Software from a microcomputer located within the Purchaser’s own facilities in the course of the Purchaser’s service provision to students and their
families. Printed copies may only be made from an original CD-ROM or as explicitly stated in Paragraph 2 and are permitted
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PASS poster is not permitted. Each branch or physical office must purchase its own book with accompanying CD-ROM; CDROMs cannot be shared among sites. The copyright protection line is at the bottom of each printable page. Electronic reproduction of the Software is prohibited.
2. Brookes Publishing Co. licenses and authorizes the Purchaser to post the forms and the PASS poster on a local area network (LAN) and to print from the LAN provided that all other stipulations of this Agreement are met and all employees with
access to the forms work at the same physical site as the Purchaser. For use of Adobe® Reader on a LAN, please go to
www.adobe.com. The Software may not be posted on the Internet under any circumstances.
3. This license is granted on a limited, nonexclusive, nontransferable basis. Brookes Publishing Co. and its licensors reserve
all rights not expressly granted to the Purchaser in this Agreement. Unauthorized use beyond the privileges granted in this
Agreement is prosecutable under federal law.
4. The Purchaser agrees to abide by the Copyright Law of the United States of America. Copyright and other laws, including trademark law, protect the Software in its entirety. The law provides the Purchaser with the right to make only one backup
copy. It prohibits the Purchaser from making any additional copies, except as expressly permitted by Brookes Publishing Co.
5. The Purchaser agrees that s/he will not modify the Software or prepare derivative works based on the Software. Such action is not permitted under Copyright Law. For example, the Purchaser may not prepare an alternative hardware version or
format based on the Software. If the Purchaser has a disability and requires access by other means, s/he should contact the
Brookes Publishing Co. Subsidiary Rights Department at [email protected] for written authorization. The Purchaser may not sell, rent, lease, or sublicense the Software.
6. None of the content of this Software may be distributed to generate revenue for any program or individual.
7. The Purchaser acknowledges that the Software is subject to regulation by agencies of the United States government, including the U.S. Department of Commerce, which prohibits export or diversion of certain technical products to certain countries. The Purchaser shall comply with all respects in all export and re-export restrictions applicable to the Software, its documentation, and related materials.
OWNERSHIP
The Software is owned and copyrighted by Brookes Publishing Co. The Purchaser’s license confers no title or ownership in the
Software and is not a sale or grant of any rights in the Software. Brookes Publishing Co. may protect its rights in the event of
any violation of this Agreement.
LIMITED WARRANTY
1. If the Purchaser has a problem with the operation of the Software or believes the disc on which the Software is stored is
defective, the Purchaser may contact Brookes Publishing Co. about securing a replacement. Brookes Publishing Co. cannot,
however, offer free replacements for Software damaged through normal wear and tear, or lost while in the Purchaser’s possession. Nor does Brookes Publishing Co. warrant that the Software will satisfy the Purchaser’s requirements, that the operation of the Software will be uninterrupted or error-free, or that program defects in the Software can be corrected. Except as
described in this Agreement, the Software and disc are distributed “as is” without warranties of any kind either express or implied, including but not limited to implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose or use. Some
states do not allow limitations on the duration of an implied warranty, so the above limitation or exclusion may not apply to
the Purchaser. This warranty gives the Purchaser specific legal rights, and the Purchaser might have other rights that vary
from state to state, or province to province.
2. Additional rights and benefits may come with the Software you have purchased. Contact Brookes Publishing Co. for information.
TERMINATION
Without prejudice to any other rights, Brookes Publishing Co. may automatically terminate the Purchaser’s license to use this
Software for failure to comply with any of the terms of this Agreement. Upon termination, the Purchaser must immediately
destroy the Software.
MISCELLANEOUS
This Agreement does not limit any rights that Brookes Publishing Co. may have under trade secret, copyright, trademark,
patent, or other laws. The agents, employees, and distributors of Brookes Publishing Co. are not authorized to make modifications to this Agreement, or to make any additional representations, commitments, or warranties binding on Brookes Publishing Co. If any provision of this Agreement is invalid or unenforceable under applicable law, then it shall be, to that extent,
deemed omitted, and the remaining provisions will continue in full force and effect. The validity and performance of this
Agreement shall be governed by Maryland law and applicable federal law.
Copyright © 2010 by Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. All rights reserved. “Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.” is a registered trademark of
Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co., Inc. Adobe, the Adobe logo, and Reader are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Adobe Systems
Incorporated in the United States and/or other countries. Microsoft and Windows are either registered trademarks or trademarks of Microsoft
Corporation in the United States and/or other countries. Macintosh is a trademark of Apple Inc., registered in the U.S. and other countries. The
Purchaser may not remove or alter any trademark, trade names, product names, logo, copyright or other proprietary notices, legends, symbols,
or labels in the Software. This Agreement does not authorize the Purchaser to use Brookes Publishing Co.’s or its licensors’ names or any of their
trademarks.

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