Geological methods applied to speleogenetical research in

Transcripción

Carbonates Evaporites (2011) 26:29–40
DOI 10.1007/s13146-011-0052-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Geological methods applied to speleogenetical research in vertical
caves: the example of Torca Teyera shaft (Picos de Europa,
northern Spain)
Daniel Ballesteros • Montserrat Jiménez-Sánchez
Joaquı́n Garcı́a-Sansegundo • Santiago Giralt
•
Accepted: 19 February 2011 / Published online: 5 March 2011
Ó Springer-Verlag 2011
Abstract Research in large vertical caves (shafts) is rare
and usually restricted to speleological explorations because
of difficult access. The systemic methodology of work in
shafts has not been established. Picos de Europa massif, in
the Cantabrian Mountains of Spain, has a spectacular
development of shafts deeper than 500 m. One of them is
Torca Teyera cave, which is 738 m deep and 4 km long.
The present study established a methodology to characterize the geological and geomorphological aspects of this
special group of caves and to identify the factors contributing to karst development. The research is multidisciplinary, needs data from the cave and the caves’
surroundings and involves (1) the speleological cave survey at a 1:500 scale: the construction of a 3D model and
morphometric analyses; (2) the geomorphological mapping
on the cave survey at 1:500; (3) the geological and fracture
mapping of the cave environment and cross section at
1:5.000; and (4) the comparison in stereographic projection
of the obtained survey data and joint measures.
Keywords Karst Shafts Speleogenesis Picos de Europa Geomorphological maps Structural control
D. Ballesteros (&) M. Jiménez-Sánchez J. Garcı́a-Sansegundo
Departamento de Geologı́a, Universidad de Oviedo,
C/Arias de Velasco s/n, 33005 Oviedo, Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
S. Giralt
Instituto de las Ciencias de la Tierra Jaume Almera (CSIC),
C/Lluı́s Solé i Sabarı́s s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
Introduction
Research in vertical caves or shafts is typically limited due
to difficult access and methodological constraints. Scientific studies of these require speleological exploration,
which can often include the discovery of new caves and
passages, as well as careful documentation (Kambesis
2007) such as cave surveys, exploration reports, photographs and morphological descriptions of the cavities.
The exploration of large shafts in Europe began in the
late 1970s with the publication of several speleological
studies on the Alps, Slovenia, the Pyrenees and the Picos
de Europa Mountains. Since 1981, the Oxford University
Cave Club has explored the shaft Pozu del H.itu (1,135 m
deep; Singleton and Naylor 1981). The calcareous massif
of the Picos de Europa is considered as one of the prime
sites for investigation by speleologists owing to the spectacular development of large shafts (e.g., Ogando 2007).
The speleological documentation in Picos de Europa is
extensive, but it is neither systematized nor inventoried.
The main karst systems are well known through speleological publications, which sometimes include geological
observations (e.g., Erheyden et al. 2008). Some geological
research in large caves of this massif has been developed
from speleological explorations (e.g., Laverty and Senior
1981; Senior 1987). Currently, Picos de Europa contains
13% of the shafts known in the world to be deeper than
1,000 m. Most of the karst systems have shafts of only a
few kilometers. The deepest shaft in this system is Torca
del Cerro del Cuevón, which is 1,589 m (Estévez 1998),
and the largest cave system is the Red del Toneyu, with a
development of 18,970 m (Gea 1991). Nevertheless, few
works have focused on endokarsts (Hoyos Gómez 1979;
Smart 1984, 1986; Hoyos Gómez and Herrero, 1989;
Fernández- Gibert et al. 1992, 1994, 2000).
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30
The present study documents a methodological
approach useful for the geological and geomorphological
characterization of these special environments and discusses the conditioning of karst development.
Setting
Torca Teyera is a large shaft, 738 m deep, located on
the northern part of the Picos de Europa (Fig. 1), a
mountain massif located in the Cantabrian Mountains of
northern Spain. From the structural standpoint, Picos de
Europa belongs to the Cantabrian Zone of the Variscides
domain (Lotze 1945; Julivert et al. 1972; Alonso et al.
2009). The bedrock consists mainly of 1,200 m of carboniferous limestone affected by E–W to NW–SE and
south-directed imbricate variscan system thrust (Fig. 2).
The décollement level of the structures is above siliciclastic rocks from the Pisuerga-Carrión province (PérezEstaún et al. 1988; Marquı́nez 1989; Farias and Heredia
1994; Bahamonde et al. 2007; Merino-Tomé et al. 2009).
During the Alpine orogeny, some of these thrusts were
reactivated, causing the rotation of some thrust sheets
Fig. 1 Situation map of the
Picos de Europa massif. The
locations of the cave of study
(Torca Teyera, Fig. 5) are also
shown
123
and leading to the formation of the main relief
(Alonso et al. 1996; Pulgar et al. 1999; Gallastegui
Suárez 2000).
Picos de Europa is characterized by a rough and calcareous relief with peaks exceeding 2,500 m above sea
level (asl) and by the presence of narrow canyons, such as
the Cares Gorge. Canyons up to 2,000-m deep evidence the
important fluvial incision derived from uplifting. The karst
forms dominate the landscape (Hoyos Gómez 1979; Smart
1984, 1986; Hoyos Gómez and Herrero 1989; Santos
Alonso and Marquı́nez Garcı́a, 2005), although glacial and
periglacial features are preserved (Alonso 1991; González
Suárez and Alonso 1994; Gale and Hoare 1997; Alonso
1998; Jiménez-Sánchez and Farias Arquer 2002; González
Trueba 2006, 2007; Moreno et al. 2009; Serrano Cañadas
and González Trueba 2004). Moreover, nival, gravity and
fluviotorrential processes also control the geomorphological evolution of the landscape.
Torca Teyera shaft was discovered, explored and surveyed by the Groupe Spe´leó du Doubs, the Socie´te´ Suisse
de Spe´leó-Section de Gene`ve, the Socie´te´ des Amateurs des
Caverns and the Spe´leó Club of Nyon between 1979
and 1982 (Borreguero 1986). During these explorations,
31
Fig. 2 Geological map of Picos de Europa (after Martı́nez Garcı́a and Rodrı́guez Fernández 1984; Marquı́nez 1989; Merino-Tomé et al. 2009).
Location of Torca Teyera (Fig. 5) is shown
Borreguero (1986) prepared the first karst research presenting the structural control and cave development. From
2007 to 2009, 2,700 m of new cave passages were
discovered by the Asociación Deportiva GEMA. At the
present, Torca Teyera has 4 km of known passages
reaching a depth of 738 m.
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32
Methodology
The present methodology includes multidisciplinary
observations to obtain both surficial data and data from the
underground of the cave. The method is adapted to attain
access to the shaft, which is difficult, and is based on speleological (Butcher 1950), geomorphological and structural
geology techniques (Alonso et al. 1999; Jiménez-Sánchez
et al. 2004, 2005, 2006). The method includes the definition of an area of 12 km 2 (Figs. 1, 2) including the cave
and its surroundings: (1) the speleological survey at a 1:500
scale; (2) the geomorphological mapping of the cave at a
scale of 1:500 and surrounding of the cavity at a 1:5,000
scale; and (3) the structural study that includes the geological and fracture mapping at a 1:5,000 scale, the cross
section, rose diagram analyses and the definition of the
joints families on stereographic projection.
Cave survey and morphometric analyses
The cave survey that corresponds to the Torca Teyera shaft
is the cave projection in a horizontal plane. The survey was
mapped using the speleological classical method at a 1:500
scale where successive stations were defined in the passages. Distances, orientation and dip data were measured
between stations using a tape measure or laser, a ruler and a
clinometer, respectively. The cavity survey was made by
considering a reference level between 30 cm and 1.5 m
above the cave floor. The collected data were managed
using the VisualTopo.503 software program (David 2009)
to define the survey line (a line connecting the stations).
The survey is conducted over the survey line consulting the
sketches made during the data collection phase. The
VisualTopo.503 software produces a 3D model approximating the passages by an octagonal conduit, the axes of
which are the height and width of the passages.
The morphometric analyses consist of the representation
of the survey data on stereographic projection, a common
structural technique applied to compile figures on the
direction and dip of the cave passages. The orientation and
inclination data are represented on the plot per meter of
surveyed cave. Afterward, a density analysis is made and
the main groups of passages established according to this
direction and dip.
Geomorphological research
The geomorphological research includes geomorphological
mapping of both cave and cavity surroundings. Cave geomorphological mapping was carried out at a 1:500 scale,
taking the cave survey as a topographical basis. Cavity
features were inventoried and classified according to
genetic, morphological and sedimentary criteria (Jiménez-
123
Sánchez et al. 2006; Ford and Williams 2007). Sometimes,
the geomorphological mapping and the survey were performed simultaneously. The limits of the different features
were established and projected on the survey map. Some of
the geomorphological elements located in the cave walls
could not be represented by projecting them on the survey,
since the survey had to be made at different heights above
the ground. This problem was due to the difficulties in
establishing objectively the boundary between the floor and
the wall of the cave. Therefore, the geomorphological
elements are shown schematically on the outside contour of
the passages to minimize these problems. These elements
were brought down on the walls along an axis located on
the edge of the passages.
A geomorphologic mapping of the cave surroundings
was charted at a 1,500 scale using field observations and
photo interpretation. This map covers a surface of 12 km2
and includes different landscape features that are classified
according to genetic criteria (Martı́n-Serrano et al. 2004) in
karstic, glacial, snow, periglacial, gravity and mixed forms.
This map also includes the entrances of the caves and the
projection of their passages that have been explored by the
speleologists (Borreguero 1986; Carbajal Rodrı́guez and
Saiz Barreda 2003); Carbajal et al. 2008; Ballesteros et al.
2009, 2010).
Geological mapping and structural analyses
The geological and fracture maps, covering a combined
total surface of 12 km2 (Fig. 2), were produced at a
1:5,000 scale by means of field work and photo interpretation. Three geological cross sections were also prepared. The cavity study and others were projected over
the maps and over the geological cross sections. Rose
diagram from the data of the fracture map was prepared to
compare with a rose diagram obtained from the orientation of the cave passages. Furthermore, 157 joint data
measures (dip and direction) were taken on the surface
(124) and in the shaft (33). These data were represented
on stereographic projection and a density analysis was
made. The analysis of densities allows the establishment
of joint families in which the median plane is illustrated
in the plot with the bedding. Afterward, the density plot of
the orientation and dip of the passages were represented
on the stereographic projection to compare the control of
the joints and the bedding with the direction and inclination of the passages.
Results and discussion
The application of the methods described above obtained
the following results.
Cave survey and morphometric analyses
The cave survey and the 3D model are shown in Fig. 3.
The cavity consists of three levels of galleries (horizontal
passages) and several pits (vertical passages). The galleries
represent 72% of the development of the cave and are
narrow meanders up to 50 m that join as tributaries and
converge to the NE. Thus, the cavity is a branchwork cave
defined by Palmer (1991). The passages follow the NW–SE
and NE–SW direction in the northern part of the cavity and
the N–S and E–O trend in the southern area.
The groups of passages according to their orientation
and dip were determinate by the representation of the
survey data on stereographic projection. This approximation is sufficient for passages, but not fully adequate for
shafts because the survey depends on the track of the
speleologists. Therefore, a part of the subvertical measures
does not represent subvertical passages. This fact has been
taken into account for the interpretation of data. Four
groups of passages were established and the median value
of the direction and dip are: (1) subvertical, (2) N10°W/
20°NW, (3) N45°E/20°NE and (4) N125°E/0°.
Cave geomorphological mapping
A selected portion of the geomorphological map of the
southern sector of the shaft is illustrated in Fig. 4. The
legend of the map is divided into three parts: issues related
to (1) the survey, (2) geomorphological features and (3)
geological aspects. The first group includes morphometric
data related to the passages: contour (using the upper and
lower contour when there is an overlap), scarps and pits,
presence of rivers or lakes, the slope of the ground and the
value of altitude and depth from the cave entrance at
several points. The position of possible continuations of
33
cave passages is also shown. The group of geomorphological features includes (1) speleothems, (2) fluviokarst
and (3) gravity forms. Speleothems are classified into
dripstones, flowstones, and mixed and other forms. Dripstone forms include stalagmites, stalactites and columns.
The flowstones present as cascades and laminar forms. The
mixed forms include stalagmite masses that originated by
drip and flow of water (Fig. 4a). Other peculiar forms such
as pool deposits or collaroids forms are noted. The fluviokarst forms are classified as erosive forms or sedimentation forms. The erosive forms include scallops, roof
pendants, corrosion notches, solution runnels, potholes and
relict channels. The erosive forms are mostly located in
active and canyon shaped passages, shafts and at higher
levels, such as relict forms (Fig. 4b). The fluvial deposits
are divided into deposits of the active stream channel and
the fluvial terrace (Fig. 4c). These deposits have been
classified according to the grain size as pebbles, sand and
pebbles, sand, and clay and mud. Finally, the gravity forms
are debris deposits, fallen boulders and single pebbles and
gravel that have been shed by rockfall processes (Varnes
1978). The breakdown deposits cover or are covered by
other fluvial and precipitation deposits. The geomorphological map also includes other remarkable geological
aspects: quartz, galena and malachite mineralizations,
altered substrate, structural data and volcanic rocks.
Geomorphological mapping of the cave surrounding
Torca Teyera is located under a free and half-exposed
karren, dominated by karstic, glacial and nival activity. The
geomorphologic map of the cave surroundings is shown in
Fig. 5a. The distribution of the geomorphological features
is uneven. The deposits represent 27.3% of the area of
study and are mainly situated in the valleys. The erosive
Fig. 3 a The cave survey and
b the 3D model of Torca
Teyera. The study location
described in Fig. 4 is shown
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Fig. 4 Details from a selected
portion of the cave
geomorphology map, its legend
and pictures of different
passages. Inset a represents a
gallery shaped like a canyon,
b a stalagmite mass and
c terrace deposits formed by
levels of mud and sand
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35
Fig. 5 a Geomorphological
map, b geological map and
c fracture map of Torca Teyera
area. The shaft is projected on
maps and cross section of
Fig. 6a. The data of the caves
are from Borreguero (1986),
Carbajal Rodrı́guez and Saiz
Barreda (2003), Carbajal et al.
(2008), Ballesteros et al. (2009,
2010)
forms have been identified at the hillside and the peaks.
The closed depressions occupy 5.0% and are developed on
slopes up to 40°.
Karstic, snow, glacial, periglacial and gravity forms
were mapped. The former includes karstic deposits,
dolines, glaciokarst depressions, caves and cave passages
projections. The karst deposits are situated in the areas
without slope and are mainly formed by mud that comes
from the dissolution of the limestone. The sinkholes are
depressions of 5- to 20-m wide and 1- to 5-m depth and
associated with gravitational deposits. The dolines are
closed and dominated by breakdown processes; thus, they
are mostly collapsed sinkholes. The glaciokarst depressions
are closed hollows of 600-m wide and 70-m depth located
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36
at the valley bottom. The depressions originated from
glacial, karstical and snow activity (Smart 1986; Alonso
1998). The entrances of caves are mainly situated in
sinkholes or glaciokarst depression and represent cave
passages truncated by erosion. Torca Teyera is located
under a free karren with a lot of closed depressions, gravity
deposits and some glacier cirques.
The nivation forms include one moraine and some cirques originated by snow activity. The nivation cirques are
observed in some walls of dolines and in scarps oriented to
the NE or SW. The snow moraine is located under one
nival cirque. Glacial forms cover till deposits, horns, arête,
cirques and moraines. A glacial valley is observed in the
NW of Torca Teyera shaft. Till deposits, mainly formed by
limestone pebbles and boulders, sand and mud, are found
in this valley. In some cases, boulders of limestone in
certain facies are found on the bedrock of limestone with
other facies. The till is often presented in moraines of 1- to
6-m wide and 50- to 60-m long. The horns are degraded
and are situated in the peaks where some arêtes converge.
The cirques are greatly degraded by karstification and their
size is between 100 and 300 m. The only periglacial evidence is a rock glacier shown on the eastern part of the
map. The deposit is formed by limestone gravels and
boulders, and presents some transverse and longitudinal
ridges and furrows.
Gravitational forms include debris fall, talus deposits
and rock avalanches and are situated under scarps and in
sinkholes. The debris fall generally consists of angular
pebbles and gravels of limestone. The talus deposits are
mostly formed of limestone pebbles and gravel, sand and
mud; these are usually vegetated. The rock avalanches are
formed from disorganization of angular boulders and
pebbles of limestone in the NE of the map.
Some geomorphological features (till, closed depressions, cirques, arêtes, gravity deposits and the rock glacier)
are mainly orientated following the NW–SE and NE–SW
directions. This trend represents the orientation of the
bedding, thrusts and the main faults.
Geologic mapping and structural research
The cavity surrounding of the geological map was formed
by both the cave development and the tectonics (Fig. 5b).
The surroundings of Torca Teyera were formed by 1,000 m
of limestone of the Valdeteja and Picos de Europa Formations stacked vertically. The limestone is divided into
three strata domain as defined by Bahamonde et al. (2007):
(1) toe of slope and basin facies, (2) slopes facies and (3)
platform top facies. The toe of slope and basin facies
include well-stratified coarse-grained beds formed by
breccias, bioclastic pack to grainstone limestone, chert and
shales. The slopes facies consist of massive limestone,
123
breccias and boundstone with botryoidal cement fans. The
platform top facies include stratification rocks, mainly
formed by skeletal pack, to grainstone limestone and pink
fossil-rich limestone. Moreover, an andesitic dyke is recognized in the western middle part of the geological map.
The cavity studied is developed on limestone affected by
an NW–SE trending, subvertical and SW-directed thrusts
and other faults, the direction of which is SE–NW, SW–NE
or N–S (Figs. 5b, 6a). Two sequences of thrusts have been
recognized based on their geometric relationships. The first
sequence dips 50–70 NE and is interrupted by an out-ofsequence anomaly, which dips by 80–90° NE.
Figure 5a shows 2,367 fractures in the study area; these
are represented in a rose diagram (Fig. 6b). The plot shows
three groups of fractures with directions: (1) NE–SW, (2)
N–S and (3) NW–SE. The first group represents 45% of the
total fractures and the second group represents another 17%.
The direction of the cave passages are analyzed by another
rose diagram (Fig. 6c). On comparing both (fracture and
cave direction) rose diagrams, the first structural control of
the orientation can be semiqualitatively established. The
dispersion of values of the shaft orientation is greater than
the fracture data, although the NW–SE direction of the cave
is noted. The group considered as Fracture 1 is the most
abundant collection, but its influence on the cavity development is less than the group considered as Fracture 2. This
method does not consider the influence of the bedding and
the intersection between discontinuities; consequently, it is
only a first approximation to the structural factor.
Seven families of joints have been established on the
stereographic projection. The average plane of each family
is represented in Fig. 7a. The families J2, J3 and J5 correspond to the fractures already recognized in a previous
work (Borreguero 1986). The density plot of the orientation
and dip of the passages has been shown in gray scale on the
stereographic projection (Fig. 7a) to compare the main
orientations and dips of the joints, the bedding and the cave
passages. Figure 7a highlights that subvertical cave passages (Group 1 of galleries) are conditioned by the joint
families J1, J3, J4 and J6, as well as their intersections. The
galleries belonging to Group 2 (N10°W/20°N) are mainly
controlled by the intersection between the families J5 and
J6. The passages dipping down 20° to the NE (Group 3)
are ruled by the intersection between family J1, J2, J5 and
J7. The latter group of passages consists of horizontal
galleries in the direction N125°E and follows the bedding
(Fig. 7b).
Conclusions
The use of a multidisciplinary methodology including the
speleological cave survey, geomorphological mapping and
37
Fig. 6 a One of the three cross
sections prepared, the position
of which is shown in Fig. 5b.
b Rose diagram of the fracture
direction and c of the orientation
of Torca Teyera passages
structural techniques is adequate to develop reliable geomorphological assumptions for a cave with difficult access.
Also, this multidisciplinary methodology allows the definition of factors controlling karst development, especially
the quantitative evaluation of the structural influence on
endokarst.
The speleological cave survey is a graphical document
that is useful to plot geological and geomorphological
information. However, its development is complex due to
the adversity of the environment and the subjective criteria
of the researcher who has to include different elements
located at inconstant heights above the floor. The 3D model
approximates the geometry of the endokarst system as a
whole. In the scale of the passage, the approximation is not
correct because the irregularities of the passage walls are
not seen. When a section of a gallery or a shaft is not
subcircular, the model does not properly represent the shape
of the passage because the software uses an octagonal
section to approximate the shape of the section. Where the
galleries display a canyon morphology, modeling results are
not accurate because, in the model, the value of passage
widths decreases with the distance to the floor and the roof.
After modeling, further analyzing the cave survey data with
stereographic projection is useful to quantitatively classify
the cavity passage according to the direction and dip.
Cave geomorphologic mapping indicates the different
forms and their spatial distribution. The map informs about
the genetic processes and their spatial and temporal relationships. These aspects are the base of the speleogenetical
model of the shaft. Some limitations of the method are
conditioned by the precision of the cave survey. In the wall
of the passages, several interesting forms are present;
nevertheless, these forms cannot be represented on the cave
survey because the plot is only a horizontal projection. If
the forms on the walls are projected over the survey, all of
them are situated in the same place. The imprecision of
information on walls can be solved by projecting down the
forms on the cave limits.
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38
Fig. 7 a Stereographic
projection of the orientation and
dip of the passages showing the
position of the planes that
represent the main families of
joints and the bedding; b a cave
passage that has been controlled
by the bending; and c the
structural control of each group
of galleries
The geological and fracture mapping of the cave surrounding and the cross section with the shaft projection
determine the qualitative structural control of the cave. The
comparison between the fracture direction and the orientation of the cavity passage allows a first hypothesis about
the structural control. This comparison does not consider
the bending, dip or the hypothetical intersection between
the discontinuities. These limitations can be resolved using
stereographic projection, where the dip and the direction of
joints, bedding and cave passages are represented. This plot
that includes survey data together with structural data
evaluates quantitatively the relationship between the
structure and the endokarst.
Acknowledgments This research has been funded through the
CONTRACT project (CN-06-177) provided by ASTURIAS
GOVERNMENT-OVIEDO UNIVERSITY, CALIBRE project
(CAVECAL) (CGL2006-13327-C04/CLI) provided by Ministerio de
Educación y Cultura and GRACCIE project (CONSOLIDER
PROGRAM) (CSD2007-00067) provided by Centro de Investigación
Cientı́fica y Tecnológica. We acknowledge Dr. Juan Bahamonde,
Dr. Óscar Merino, Gemma Sendra, Irene de Felipe, Asociación
Deportiva Gema, Grupo Espeleológico Polifemo and GES Montañeiros Celtas for their help.
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Geological methods applied to speleogenetical research in

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