Educación Superior” en Colombia: Un País y un Sistema en

Transcripción

República de Colombia
Departamento Nacional de Planeación
Dirección de Estudios Económicos
ARCHIVOS DE ECONOMÍA
Colombia’s Higher Education Quality Control System and
Potential for Further Development
Maria Otilia OROZCO
Documento 290
11 de Agosto de 2005.
La serie ARCHIVOS DE ECONOMIA es un medio de divulgación de la Dirección de Estudios Económicos, no
es un órgano oficial del Departamento Nacional de Planeación. Sus documentos son de carácter provisional, de
responsabilidad exclusiva de sus autores y sus contenidos no comprometen a la institución.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction - The Expansion of the Higher Education Sector .................1
2. The Development of Colombia’s Quality Control Policies and
Institutions................................................................................................................9
a. Graded Registration (Registro Calificado) ..............................................10
b. Accreditation................................................................................................11
c. Standardized Tests......................................................................................17
d. Formal and Informal Exchange of Information......................................19
3. International Systems of Higher Education: Models for Colombia?.....26
a. Chile ..............................................................................................................26
b. Brazil .............................................................................................................29
c. United States ................................................................................................31
4. A Developing System with Still Prevalent Weaknesses – Conclusions
and Recommendations for New and Revised Policies .............................36
References ...............................................................................................................44
Maria Otilia Orozco*
1. Introduction - The Expansion of the Higher Education Sector
Higher education in Colombia has recently experienced both an expansion of
students desiring to enter institutions and increases in the numbers and variety of
institutions and programs offering educational opportunities. In 1985, 383,640 students
were enrolled in higher education programs. Following an increase of enrollment,
possibly due to improvements in basic and secondary education and a growing
recognition of the increased returns to a tertiary education, 873,322 students were
enrolled in higher education institutions in 2000 – an average yearly enrollment increase
of 8.5%. By 2002, 969,213 students attended higher education programs, with 911,770
enrolled in undergraduate programs and 57,443 enrolled in graduate studies in
approximately 320 higher education institutions. (See Tables 1 and 2)1 Despite this
enrollment growth, coverage of higher education eligible population remained around
20.0% in 2002, compared with a Latin American average of 25% and Organization for
Economic and Co-operation and Development (OECD) country average of 54%.2
Although the nation’s public universities educated many citizens throughout the
1980s and the 1990s, the increasing demand for higher education overwhelmed the
supply of educational opportunities available in the public sector. Government
resources for public education were inadequate and schools could only adequately
educate a limited student population.
*Intern, Dirección de Estudios Económicos del Departamento Nacional de Planeación.
1 In a 2003 study, the World Bank estimated that higher education graduates earned 2.75 times more than
average workers and 6.5 times more than those with no education. World Bank, Tertiary Education in
Colombia: Paving the Way for Reform, April 2003, xx. ICFES and additional studies in 2001 and 2003
suggested that rates of return to secondary and higher education in Colombia were respectively 5 and 18
percent. Lauritz B. Holm-Nielsen and Kristian Thorn, Higher Education in Latin America – A Regional
Overview, World Bank, Nov. 2002, 17. Alberto Roa Varelo, Acreditación y Evaluación de la Calidad en la
Educación Superior Colombiana, Estudio realizado para IESALC-UNESCO, May 2003, 15. La Revolución
Educativa, Plan Sectorial 2002-2006, <http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/
docs.asp?s=9&id=27>, 10.
2 Alberto Roa Varelo, Acreditación y Evaluación de la Calidad en la Educación Superior Colombiana, 13.
1
Recognizing the need for additional higher education suppliers to accommodate
increased student demand, private institutions emerged as an alternative to a public
university education. As a result, the expansion of the private sector flourished rapidly
and the percentage of institutions and student enrollment in private institutions soon
outgrew those in the public universities. The explosion of private higher education
continued throughout the late 1980s and 1990s, and as a result, Colombia today
possesses one of the largest percentages of private higher education in the world. While
41% of students were enrolled in private schools in the 1960s, about 63.9% were enrolled
in private higher education programs as of 2003 according to the National Accreditation
Council (CNA – Consejo Nacional de Acreditación).3 Of 969,213 recorded students in
2002, 381,063 attended public institutions and 530,707 were enrolled in private
programs. Colombia’s 64% rate of private enrollment in 1994 ranks among the highest
rates in Latin America and 6th among the higher percentages in the world, such as Korea
(80%) and the Philippines (88%).4 (See Figure 3)
Alberto Roa Varelo, Acreditación y Evaluación de la Calidad en la Educación Superior Colombiana, 12.
Laurence Wolff and Claudio de Moura Castro, Public or Private Education for Latin America? That is the
(False) Question, (Inter-American Development Bank: Washington, D.C., August 2001) 3. Presentation,
Policy Workshop on Private Higher Education, Damascus, World Bank, December 8, 2004, <
http://www1.worldbank.org/education/tertiary/ppt/Private%20Higher%20Education%20%20Syria%20Dec%2004.ppt>. World Bank, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, Washington,
D.C., 1994, 35.
3
4
2
Table 1. Higher education institutions in Colombia by institution type, 1985-2002
Type of institution
Number
Technical/Professional
1985
% of Total
Number
1989
% of Total
Number
1993
% of Total
62
34
28%
15%
61
45
25%
19%
52
55
21%
22%
Universities
59
70
26%
31%
62
73
26%
30%
51
87
21%
36%
Total
225
100%
241
100%
245
100%
Technological
University Institutions
Type of institution
Number
1994
% of Total
Number
1997
% of Total
Number
2000
% of Total
2002
Number
% of Total
53
59
20%
23%
52
59
19%
22%
53
65
18%
22%
53
68
17%
22%
Universities
61
87
23%
33%
65
93
24%
35%
78
95
27%
33%
88
104
28%
33%
Total
260
100%
269
100%
291
100%
313
100%
Technological
University Institutions
3
Table 2. Higher education programs in Colombia by type, 1985-2000
Type of institution
Number
1985
% of Total
Number
1989
% of Total
Number
1993
% of Total
Technological
290
247
15%
13%
297
255
14%
12%
319
425
12%
16%
Universities
1017
53%
1004
47%
1285
48%
1554
382
1936
80%
20%
100%
1556
586
2142
73%
27%
100%
2029
662
2691
75%
25%
100%
% of Total
Number
Subtotal
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
Total
Type of institution
Number
1994
% of Total
Number
1997
2000
% of Total
Technological
340
532
11%
17%
419
617
10%
14%
478
732
9%
14%
Universities
1393
45%
1912
44%
2303
43%
2029
662
1691
73%
27%
100%
2948
1427
4375
67%
33%
100%
3513
1817
5330
66%
34%
100%
Subtotal
Undergraduate
Postgraduate
Total
Source for Tables 1 and 2: ICFES < http://www.icfes.gov.co/> and José Revelo Revelo and Carlos
Augusto Hernández, The National Accreditation System in Colombia: experiences from the National
Council of Accreditation (CNA), International Institute for Educational Planning, 2003, 20.
4
Figure 1. Percentage of Student Enrollment in Private Higher Education Programs
and Institutions
Percentage of Private Enrollm ent
Philippines
Korea, Rep.
Japan
Belgium
Indonesia
Netherlands
Colombia
India
Brazil
Bangladesh
Nicaragua
Paraguay
Jordan
Peru
Ecuador
Chile
Zaire
Portugal
Nepal
United States
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Source: World Bank, Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience, Washington, D.C., 1994, 35.
A New Framework for Higher Education: Autonomy AND Government Control
The introduction of a national Constitution in 1991 and the passage of Law 30 in
1992 established the new legal and political framework for a higher education system of
growing size and heterogeneity. Both the Constitution and Law 30 advocate the
autonomy of the educational institution and call for government control of the quality of
education, considered to be a public good.
Article 69 of the Constitution of 1991 guarantees university autonomy and grants
them the freedom to conduct academic activities and training as they see fit. Yet,
simultaneously, the Constitution speaks of the right of the government to intervene and
remain vigilant regarding the quality of educational offerings.
5
Law 30 further clarifies this dichotomy of values present in the Constitution.
Article 3 states:
“El Estado, de conformidad con la Constitución Política de Colombia y
con la presente Ley, garantiza la autonomía universitaria y vela por la
calidad del servicio educativo a través del ejercicio de la suprema
inspección y vigilancia de la Educación Superior.”
Articles 28 through 30 also specify the rights enjoyed by higher education institutions,
such as the right to develop academic programs, select professors and use financial
resources to fulfill missions, while Article 31 establishes the responsibility of the
President to inspect, survey, and ensure evaluation of higher education institutions and
programs through the Ministry of Education (MEN – Ministerio de Educación Nacional).
Law 30 of 1992, considered by many as the “Law of Higher Education (“La Ley
de la Educación Superior”),” also served as further recognition by the government of the
need to strengthen the higher education system in Colombia. Law 30 also contains
significant details for the development of a quality assurance system and names specific
mechanisms to enhance the quality of programs. Among certain provisions, new and
already-existing higher education programs must register with government institutions
and prove adherence to basic minimum operating standards. The law also created the
National Accreditation Council (CNA), a body that serves as the undergraduate
accrediting organization, and a National Commission of Doctorates and Masters
(CNDM - Comisión Nacional de Doctorados y Maestrías), an accrediting board for
doctoral and masters programs. The National System of Higher Education Information
(SNIES - Sistema Nacional de la Información de la Educación Superior) was also
authorized as a public source of information on available programs.
Law 30 also established the four distinct types of higher education institutions
present today:
•
•
•
•
Technical Professional Institutions: operative and instrumental training
programs for occupations, usually 5 or 6 semesters;
Technological Institutions or Schools: technical and technological programs;
usually 8 semesters depending on specialization;
University Institutions: occupational training programs, academic programs for
professions or disciplines, specialized technical or technological programs,
usually 8-10 semesters;
Universities: institutions with technological and scientific research, academic
6
training, cultural learning; professional programs, masters and doctoral
programs; usually 10-12 semesters.5
Additional Opportunities But Questionable Quality
Despite the benefits of increased coverage offered by the free education market
and the mechanisms of quality assurance authorized by Law 30, some academic experts,
professors, students, policymakers, and the general population would argue that many
of these higher education institutions are of questionable and sometimes poor quality.
While some private institutions provided adequate educational opportunities, the
“universidades del garaje” or “garage universities” that were also opened lacked
sufficient qualified teaching staff, experienced low graduation rates, and poor
employment rates following completion of studies. A 2002 World Bank study also
suggested that many of Colombia’s higher education institutions also provided students
with irrelevant skill training, complicating their search and ability to secure meaningful
employment.6 While certain private universities experienced increased academic
prestige, many private institutions earned a public reputation of being motivated by
profit while providing a low-quality, insufficient education out of touch with the true
needs of the labor market and a developing country.7
The quality of teaching in Colombia also raises concerns in the higher education
sector. A 1998 study noted that less than 4% of professors in Colombia possess doctoral
level degrees. This average education level is below the Latin American average of
professors with Ph.D’s – about 6% - and much lower when compared to the regional
leader Brazil (about 30%) or the United Kingdom (about 40%).8 Only about 20% of
professors instruct full-time while others maintain employment in other sectors or
institutions.9 The scarcity of available professors is exacerbated by Colombia’s inability
to produce many graduate students or prevent top scholars from attending institutions
The text of the Constitution of 1991 and Law 30 of 1992 can be found on CNA’s website.
<http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/legislacion/index.htm.> Alberto Roa Varelo, Acreditación y Evaluación de
la Calidad en la Educación Superior Colombiana, 7.
6 World Bank. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Loan in the Amount of $200 million to the
Republic of Colombia for a Higher Education-Improving Access Project, 2002, 7.
7
Ulpiano Ayala Oramas writes that observations about the higher education sector in Colombia have
noted: “escasa coberatura, inequidad, ineficiencia, competencia en contra de la calidad y la movilidad de
los estudiantes, proliferación institucional y de programas que parecen excesivas, autonomía sin
responsabilidad, y un alto costo y dependencia excesiva del fisco en las instituciones oficiales.” Ulpiano
Ayala Oramas, “La Regulación de la Educación Superior en Colombia,” Obra Escogida, Fedesarrollo,
2004. 82.
8 Holm-Nielsen and Thorn, Higher Education in Latin America – A Regional Overview, 9.
9 Alberto Roa Varelo, Acreditación y Evaluación de la Calidad en la Educación Superior Colombiana, 26.
5
7
abroad to complete their graduate studies. In 2000, Colombia exhibited a PhD
production rate of only .4 per 1 million residents.10 This “Brain Drain,” a common
occurrence in developing countries, is marked by an estimation that the majority of
immigrants entering the U.S. have a tertiary level education and that the population of
Colombians in the U.S. has increased over recent years.11 In addition, the National
Planning Department estimated that 85,000 citizens with higher education left Colombia
between 1998 and 1999.12 This human capital loss creates inefficiencies within the
Colombian economy and hindered science and technology development.
If Ley 30 created significant regulatory and evaluation mechanisms to supervise
the quality of higher education, why were so many poor quality public and private
institutions allowed to operate without improving services or providing accurate
information to incoming students? Have MEN and other higher education government
organizations further enhanced evaluation and regulation programs and has this helped
improve the quality of both public and private institutions? If improvements to the
quality assurance system have occurred, how have MEN and cooperating institutions
altered these mechanisms or steam-lined processes to increase efficiency and
effectiveness? Can Colombia’s educational community model their quality control after
other international examples of developing and established higher education systems?
What additional reforms are necessary to further develop the quality of higher
education and the higher education quality assurance system in Colombia in 2005 and
beyond?
This paper attempts to examine the past and current developments of the higher
education quality control system. The extensive quality control reforms of recent years
are discussed and conclusions are drawn as to their effectiveness and efficiency. In
addition, comparisons are made between Colombia’s situation and international
examples of higher education systems in Chile, Brazil, and the United States, countries
also with high proportions of private enrollment and at varying stages of development.
Drawing upon international observations and investigation of Colombia’s system
through research and in-person interviews, recommendations are suggested to address
major areas of weakness, such as: asymmetric information, an ineffective system of
incentives, and the lack of a culture of evaluation among higher education institutions
and government quality control programs and institutions. The objective of this study is
to paint a clearer picture of the current higher education system and explore possibilities
for even further reform in the future.
World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, 29.
World Bank, Project Appraisal-Improving Access Project, 7.
12 World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, 150.
10
11
8
2. The Development of Colombia’s Quality Control Policies and
Institutions
Despite Law 30’s authorization of various measures to ensure government
monitoring of the quality of the supply of higher education, many proposed programs
required several years to develop, and some policies and reforms are still being
completed today. Some programs, such as accreditation, are voluntary and have had a
questionable effect upon improving quality. Other mechanisms, such as SNIES and the
Quality of Higher Education Exams (ECAES – Exámenes de Calidad de la Educación
Superior), have required further development and improvement. Additionally, MEN
and its associated organizations, such as CNA and the Colombian Institute for the
Promotion of Higher Education (ICFES – Instituto Colombiano para el Fomento de la
Educación Superior) were poorly constructed to handle policy-making, regulation,
evaluation, and accreditation of an expanding education market. Poor governance
allowed the inefficient duplication of tasks, for example, both MEN and ICFES
contributed to policymaking or both ICFES and CNA completed Previous Accreditation
(Acreditación Previa) for different fields of study.13 The structure of these government
organizations also created conflicts of interest in the tension between regulation and
evaluation of adherence to those regulations.
The following sections discuss the development of quality assurance mechanisms
proposed by government agencies and past legislation, such as:
•
•
•
•
•
Graded Registration (Registro Calificado)
Undergraduate and Graduate Accreditation
Standardized Tests
Formal and Informal Exchange of Information
Higher Education Government Reform.
The sections also attempt to identify their individual success or failure in promoting a
culture of quality in Colombia’s higher education system. Changes to the programs are
analyzed and their current effectiveness is also debated. This paper will also analyze the
reform of government institutions such as MEN, ICFES, and CNA, as a further quality
control mechanism.
13
9
a. Graded Registration (Registro Calificado)
Law 30 of 1992 and Decree 1478 of 1994 established a mandatory registration of
all previous higher education programs and new programs upon their creation.
Originally, ICFES, and currently MEN, require new programs to satisfy basic minimum
standards of quality for operation. Decree 2566, enacted in September of 2003, firmly
established the fifteen minimum qualifications needed to open schools and obtain
registration for seven years, which include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Academic denomination of the program
Justification for the program
Curricular aspects
Organization of training activities for academic credits
Research training
Social projection
Selection and evaluation of students
Academic personnel
Educational means/environment
Infrastructure
Academic-administrative structure
Auto-evaluation
Policies and strategies for tracking of graduates
University Well-Being
Financial Resources.14
Failure to submit information for MEN review can result in severe penalties and
mandatory closings of schools until they are able to satisfy all requirements. For
example, Universidad Antonio Nariño was ordered by MEN in 2001 to cease operations
for one year because some programs were functioning without a legitimate ICFES
registration.15 Institutions that petition for registration but are not qualified to receive
official recognition must cease operations immediately. These programs must submit
improvement plans and guarantee current students that reforms will occur. Based on
observed improvements made, institutions may once again seek registration.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional, República de Colombia, “El Sistema de Aseguramiento de la
Calidad-Un proceso en permanente construcción,” March 11, 2004, <http://www.ascun.org.co/
vicerrectores/document1.htm>.
15 Decree 2230, August 8, 2003, <http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/docs.asp?s=14&id=4>.
14
10
Responsibility for completing graded registration was originally assigned to
ICFES. The obligatory nature of program registration and the quick expansion of higher
education during the 1980s and 1990s strained ICFES’s ability to verify the accuracy of
institutions’ claims.16 Following higher education government sector reform in 2003,
MEN now conducts all registrations and publicizes lists of programs that did not seek
formal registration.17
Teams of academics in the program area are asked by MEN to evaluate minimum
operating conditions. The National Inter-Sector Commission to Ensure the Quality of
Higher Education (CONACES - Comisión Nacional Intersectorial para el
Aseguramiento de la Calidad de la Educación Superior) also partakes in the registration
process by defining minimum standards that should be met by all programs. This
commission, created by Decree 2230 of 2003, is comprised of 33 academic experts.18
The majority of new programs have sought obligatory registration from MEN. As of
April 11, 2005, MEN reports that 2162 programs have been registered, while 51
programs did not meet minimum operating standards required by law and were denied
registration.
Additionally, 123 programs with enrolled students did not seek
registration and are required to cease operations. Fifty-eight programs without enrolled
students did not seek registration and must also close.19
b. Accreditation
The National System of Accreditation was established by Law 30 to enhance the
quality of academic institutions and provide the public with information as to the
conditions of schools.20 Colombia’s accrediting system designates institutions and
programs with higher levels of quality and utilizes various types of accreditation and
Lists of institutions who did not seek registration with MEN can be found on MEN’s website at
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/docs.asp?it=234&s=29&id=99Z>.
18 Website of the Ministerio de Educación Nacional and Decree 2230, August 8, 2003,
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/index.asp>.
19 Of the academic programs that did not seek graded registration, MEN notes that 84 administration
programs with enrolled students and 34 administration programs without enrolled students are required
to cease operations. Ministerio de Educación Nacional, “Ministerio de Educación Presenta Informe de
Registros Calificados para Programas de Educación Superior ,” <http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/
prensa/detallenoticias.asp?s=6&id=206>.
20 Alberto Roa Varelo, Hacia Un Modelo de Aseguramiento de la Calidad en la Educación Superior en
Colombia: Estandares Básicos y Acreditacion de Excelencia, May 2003, 5.
16
17
11
standards that attempt to recognize the wide variety of programs and institutions
available. CNA, authorized in 1992 but initiated in 1995, is composed of seven
academics solicited from the higher education community and appointed by MEN for a
limited time period.
CNA serves as the main voluntary accrediting body for
undergraduate academic programs and institutions by coordinating and evaluating the
process of accreditation for all schools requesting approval. CNDM, which was created
in 1994, possesses a composition similar to CNA’s and is responsible for voluntary
accreditation programs for postgraduate programs offering Masters and Doctorate
degrees. The Commission also acts as an ambassador of Colombian higher education
and facilitates contacts and exchanges with institutions abroad.
CNA has recently developed several accreditation incentive programs, including
an “Award for the Concern with Quality” or tax breaks for those who donate to
accredited institutions.21
Previous Accreditation (Acreditación Previa)
Law 115 in 1994 required certain undergraduate programs to obtain Previous
Accreditation. This classification, described as an accreditation ensuring a minimum
standard of quality, was made mandatory by Decree 272 in 1998 for all teacher training
Additional decrees have mandated Previous Accreditation for
programs.22
undergraduate programs in health, education, certain engineering fields, and most
recently for law programs. Although ICFES was originally authorized to issue
obligatory accreditation for legal programs, government reforms have re-established
CNA as the sole evaluator of programs required to obtain Previous Accreditation.
The requirements for Previous Accreditation are more rigorous than the
registration process. Programs must satisfy 26 criteria requiring certain inputs and
conditions that vary depending on the type of program. Programs initially submit
relevant information to CNA, which then sends teams to observe and verify the
reported data. The visiting academics report their findings to CNA to complete a final
evaluation and recommend the program to MEN.
José Revelo Revelo and Carlos Augusto Hernández, The National Accreditation System in Colombia,
98.
21
12
Previous Accreditation is granted for seven years. During this time period,
programs must complete the process for obtaining High Quality Accreditation or they
then must re-initiate the evaluation required for Previous Accreditation. If a program
does not meet requirements, they have two-years to improve and satisfy requirements.
Programs that fail to improve after this additional time may then be closed by MEN.23
Previous Accreditation ensures that programs focusing on training future
professionals in key social areas, such as health, education, law, and engineering,
maintain a minimum level of quality. As a developing country, Colombia must ensure
that the higher education system is enhancing human capital and capability of the
population, as well as adequately training skilled physicians, nurses, lawyers and
teachers necessary for further development. Previous Accreditation allows the
government to exhibit some quality control over these programs. The minimum level of
quality required by this classification ensures that programs offer more than just basic
elements, yet does not require programs to immediately invest in the more extensive
and costly characteristics required for High Quality Accreditation.
High Quality Accreditation (Acreditación de Alta Calidad)
Voluntary High Quality Accreditation is reserved for undergraduate programs
that demonstrate highest academic excellence.
CNA coordinates an extensive
evaluation process that includes an initial petition, a period of self-evaluation, and
further evaluation and sight visits by appointed members of the council. An extensive
self-evaluation of the program must first be presented to CNA. This is meant to foster a
culture of self-evaluation and requires institutions and programs to question the
performance of their programs and the quality of inputs.24 Once the self-evaluation is
reported, CNA begins its formal evaluation process and arranges for teams of volunteer
experts and academics to observe the programs.
CNA then makes its final
recommendations to MEN which then grants formal accreditations of excellence. The
results of the evaluation and any recommendations for improvements are available only
to the programs, although the public can determine whether programs are granted the
highest accreditation.25 Depending on the field of study, programs must re-apply for
accreditation after varying durations.
Xiomara Zarur Miranda, Coordinadora de Programas Académicos, ASCUN, Interview.
25 Accrediting status of higher education programs and institutions can be found on CNA’s website.
<http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/acr_alt_cal/index.htm>. Additionally, many institutions advertise
whether they have obtained High Quality Accreditation on their websites and in newspaper
advertisements.
23
24
13
High Quality Accreditation aims to award excellent programs and thus evaluates
programs according to 66 characteristics. These qualities are organized according to
seven factors such as: institutional plan; students and professors; academic process;
organization, administration, and management; impact of students on society; physical
and financial resources. For example, in regards to the factor addressing students and
professors, the academic program must demonstrate that the number of students
admitted is compatible with available resources and ability to provide a quality
education. CNA requires programs to demonstrate a policy for admittance numbers
and record student-professor ratios and ICFES scores, in addition to other indicators.26
The development of the accreditation of excellence system has been slow to have
a significant effect on the quality of higher education. Initially, few programs applied
for High Quality Accreditation, citing numerous quality criteria and the additional
resources needed to conduct auto-evaluation. Higher-quality programs with sufficient
financial resources applied for and received accreditation, but many lower-quality
programs with limited capability to complete extensive self-evaluation chose to remain
unaccredited. For schools of questionable quality, the cost of completing improvements
to satisfy criteria far outweighed the cost of students lost because the school did not
possess High Quality Accreditation.
Despite the minimal initial effect of the voluntary accreditation system, recent
years have seen an increase in the number of programs applying. As students and the
public have become more aware of officially accredited for excellence programs through
newspaper advertisements, systems of information, and word-of-mouth, programs that
had obtained high quality accreditation enjoyed a higher public reputation.27
Institutions, aware that the public was increasingly knowledgeable of better educational
offerings, were pressured by competition to obtain High Quality Accreditation and
complete the extensive process. In 2003, CNA had granted only 110 programs High
Quality Accreditation out of 3400 registered programs (3.2%). Two years later, as of
June 30, 2005, CNA had granted accreditation to 282 programs. Additionally, as of July
19th, 2005, 498 programs are officially involved in the process of obtaining accreditation,
with approximately 49% of the programs originating from private institutions and 51%
from public institutions. Recently, 112 programs, of which 70 are from private
institutions, have also submitted their petitions to begin the process of accreditation.28
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación, Lineamientos para la Acreditación, <http://www.cna.gov.co/
cont/acr_alt_cal/index.htm.>
27 Xiomara Zarur Miranda, Coordinadora de Programas Académicos, ASCUN, Interview
28 Consejo Nacional de Acreditación, < http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/acr_alt_cal/index.htm.> July 1,
2005.
26
14
Accreditation remains a primary signal of quality to the public. As government
institutions develop other sources of public information, High Quality Accreditation
separates the majority of programs from those that truly provide a high quality
education. Yet, as more and more programs seek accreditation of excellence and are
granted that status, the novelty of such an accreditation could lose its value. In addition,
voluntary accreditation has increased information available to the public, yet it still
provides limited information on the success rates of graduates or the quality of
investigation that is completed. The indicators used by CNA are dominated by input
characteristics, and do not extensively consider outputs or outcomes, perhaps an
effective measurement of the quality of a program.
Institutional Accreditation
Colombia’s accreditation system originally prioritized program evaluation. This
approach was based on a hypothesis that as more programs of an institution are
accredited, the institution itself will improve.29
CNA only recently started granting voluntary institutional accreditation of
excellence in 2001.
While program accreditation analyzes academic and technical
capabilities in specific areas, institutional accreditation attempts to designate institutions
that exhibit high quality management capability and availability of student services.
Institutions are evaluated according to 33 characteristics organized by 10 factors, such
as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mission and Institutional plan
Professors and Students
Academic Processes
Research
Relevance and Social Impact
Processes of Auto-evaluation and Auto-regulation
Institutional well-being
Organization, Management and Administration
Physical Resources and Academic Support Resources
Financial Resources.30
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación, Lineamientos para la Acreditación Institucional,
<http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/acr_alt_cal/index.htm>.
29
30
15
In addition, institutions must accredit at least two academic programs in each
major knowledge area before they are permitted to seek institutional accreditation.
Although this ensures a high level of quality throughout the institutions, this might be
considered discrimination against institutions that offer quality services in one
particular field or those that are limited by financial resources to widely diversify their
academic expertise.
As of July 12, 2005, only 10 institutions have received accreditation – the majority
of which are concentrated in major cities.31 Although institutional accreditation is a
recent quality enhancement mechanism, it allows Colombia’s accreditation system to
address varying areas needing quality improvement and creates additional methods for
evaluating quality in a heterogeneous higher education system. While program
accreditation recognizes academic quality, institutional accreditation provides further
information regarding the academic environment and various resources available to the
student. Previous hypothesis suggested enhanced programs improve institutions.
Institutional accreditation may account for recognition that the quality of the learning
environment will enhance individual programs.32
Accreditation of Graduate Programs
Decree 916 of May 22, 2001 established CNDM as the primary evaluator of
Colombian graduate programs. Graduate programs must solicit graduate program
accreditation from the commission and MEN. CNDM evaluates programs according to
their ability to meet established requirements and sends teams of academics and staff to
institutions to conduct in-person surveillance. CNDM then makes recommendations to
MEN which will grant registration for programs complying with standards. The Decree
also establishes basic values that a graduate program should adhere to, such as:
a. “The development of the capacity to confront the history and development
of one’s science and knowledge.
b. Construction of a system of values and concepts, based on scientific and
critical rigor, with respect to truth and intellectual autonomy, recognizing
the support of others and practicing a balance between responsibility and
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación website. As of June 30, 2005, the following institutions have received
institutional accreditation: Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Universidad del Norte, Universidad Escuela
de Administración y Finanzas y Tecnologías –EAFIT, Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Externado
de Colombia, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Universidad del Valle, Universidad Tecnológica de
Pereira, Universidad de los Andes.
31
16
risk implied in one’s work.
c. Understanding of human kind, nature, and society as beneficiaries of one’s
efforts, assuming social, institutional, ethical, political and economic
implications of one’s research.
d. Development of aptitudes to communicate and argue in the specific field
of knowledge and to communicate developments of the science to
society.”33
Masters programs receive registration of five years after which they are required
to resubmit programs for evaluation. Doctorate programs are authorized for eight years
before required re-evaluation. Any programs that were not registered before the
establishment of Decree 916 have one year to seek registration with MEN and the
Commission.34 CNDM continues to regulate these programs and evaluate whether they
meet quality standards even after accreditation authorization. As of 2003, 43 PhD
programs and 250 Masters programs have received authorization.35
c. Standardized Tests
All students graduating from secondary school must take a state exam
administered by ICFES. The test results provide tangible evidence to secondary schools
of the typical performance of their students. The tests, which measure knowledge
gained and performance ability of students in key areas, can serve as regional and
national indicators of the performance of schools and educators. ICFES results also
serve as quality control mechanisms for higher education institutions. Higher education
institutions use ICFES test scores as admission criteria and as indicators of likely student
performance and schools can admit higher-scoring students to maintain a high level of
ability among their academic community.
ICFES has also recently expanded the coverage of the Quality of Higher
Education Exams (ECAES), standardized tests meant to evaluate the performance of
students in higher education programs. In 2002, these tests became mandatory for
students graduating from programs in medicine, law, and mechanical engineering.
ICFES has further developed area-specific exams and in November of 2003, the exams
Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Decreto 916 de 22 Mayo 2001, <www.mineducacion.gov.co/
normas/descarga/Decreto_0916_2001.pdf>.
34 Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Decreto 916 de 22 Mayo 2001, <www.mineducacion.gov.co/
normas/descarga/Decreto_0916_2001.pdf>.
35 World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, April 2003, 109-110.
33
17
were administered nationwide in 27 different types of undergraduate programs. ICFES
will continue exam development and plans to administer examinations in 42 different
academic areas. Exams are not currently mandatory for all areas, but MEN and other
institutions will continue discussing the potential benefits of mandating a nationwide
system of evaluation and academic accountability.36
ECAES results serve as an additional quality control mechanism. Institutions can
observe graduating student performance and determine if academic offerings are
effective in preparing students for the exams – which are constructed by ICFES to
measure relevant skills and knowledge necessary for employment and further study.
The results of ECAES are announced on ICFES’ website and have been mentioned for
possible inclusion in SNIES.37 Students and families can view test results online and
make judgments about the program’s preparation ability.
While test scores can provide some evidence of the ability of programs to arm
students with skills and knowledge, the use of standardized tests for such a
heterogeneous education system might invoke some criticism.
Standardized
evaluations of the performance of basic, secondary, and tertiary education students has
been both praised and criticized internationally, such as in the United States and
Brazil.38 Academics, politicians, and educators applaud the feedback provided by test
scores, additional accountability for institutions, and the opportunity to analyze areas
for pedagogical improvement. Others criticize the limitations of the measurements of
standardized evaluations or the proliferation of a culture of “teaching to the test” when
academic programs face punitive measures or poor public perception due to low scores.
Although ICFES has recognized the need for various tests to evaluate diverse disciplines
World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, April 2003, 110.
Natalia Ariza Ramírez, Asesora, Subdirección de Educación, Interview and Instituto Colombiano para
el Fomento de la Educación Superior website, <http://www.icfes.gov.co/.>
38 Following the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act in 2002 in the United States,
standardized tests have taken on increased importance in the basic and secondary school sector.
According to federal law, schools must reach certain performance benchmarks, measured by standardized
state test scores, with the ultimate goal of high performance by all students in the school year 2013 -2014.
The heavy reliance on standardized exams has been met with criticisms of “teaching to the test,” unfair
cultural biases in test material, and inaccurate measures of the quality of the learning environment and
teaching performance. U.S. colleges and universities usually require the completion of a standardized
higher education admission exam, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) or the American College
Testing Program (ACT). These standardized exams have received similar criticism for cultural biases or
inaccurate measurements of the true aptitude of a potential higher education student. Brazil has
incorporated a nationwide higher education system of exams that has been met both with praise and
criticism (Provão). More complete information regarding the debate surrounding Provão will be
provided later in this discussion.
36
37
18
and programs, an extensive exam system such as ECAES may never fully be able to
compensate for different training and teaching mechanisms, wide ranges of curriculum
contents, various cultural and previous educational level differences, and differing
employment and knowledge needs of local and national labor market and communities.
d. Formal and Informal Exchange of Information
The Colombian higher education system has established various formal and
informal mechanisms of information exchange regarding the quality of higher
education. The major agents –MEN and its fellow regulatory institutions, such as ICFES
and CNA; institutions of higher education; employers in the labor market; students
currently enrolled or readying to enroll – exchange information via the National System
of Higher Education Information (SNIES), accreditation status, ECAES results, the Labor
Market Observatory, and reports of important quality indicators completed by higher
education institutions. This section evaluates the main formal and informal exchanges
of quality information between the higher education and public institutions: SNIES,
information and statistics submitted to MEN, and the Labor Market Observatory.
National System of Higher Education Information (SNIES):
The National System of Higher Education Information (SNIES) was also
established by Law 30 with “(el) objetivo fundamental es divulgar información para
orientar a la comunidad sobre la calidad, cantidad y características de las instituciones y
programas del sistema.”39 In addition to its intention to provide potential student
consumers of with reliable information regarding institution and program availability
and offerings, objectives of SNIES include facilitating the improvement of education
quality and creating an information database that will advance regulation and control.
The system aimed to make higher education information more visible and more
available to other important agents besides MEN and institutions.40
Originally, ICFES collaborated with the contracted Instituto SER de
Investigaciones to complete original design and implementation of the system. ICFES
operated SNIES for approximately three years until government restructuring reassigned system responsibility to MEN.
Translation: “The fundamental objective is to disclose information to orient the community regarding
quality, quantity, and characteristics of institutions and programs of the system.”
40 Hernán Jaramillo Salazar, (et al). Hacia un Sistema Nacional de Información de la Educación Superior,
(Bogota: Centro Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2005), 25.
39
19
Currently, students, parents, and members of the education community can
access SNIES via MEN’s website and obtain information about institutions, programs,
research, and instructor information. In addition to providing the status of registered
and accredited programs, the system also contains additional information, such as:
•
•
•
•
Institutional resources
Directories of Institutions according to Chancellors, Legal Representatives,
Administration
Reported Research
Information about instructors according to area of concentration, level of
education, and by department.
Despite the contents of SNIES, most members of the educational community
argued that SNIES requires a major overhaul to provide useful, accurate, and current
higher education information. The indicators utilized by the system can aid students in
discovering available programs and institutions within certain geographic areas or
fields of discipline. Yet, apart from limited indicators such as professor quality and
measurements of financial resources, SNIES contains little relevant or easily accessible
information regarding quality, effectiveness, and success of programs in universities
and technical institutions. This information is relevant when students are deciding
upon a career path or weighing positives and negatives of various academic or technical
programs. SNIES provides internet connections to institution websites where some
students may find relevant information, yet this information may not be reliable or
accurate.41 SNIES’s current conditions in reality accomplish very little in reducing the
condition of asymmetric information in the higher education market. Students and
families are at a disadvantage when choosing a program to attend because they do not
possess complete information regarding the quality of their choice.
In recognition of the limited applicability of SNIES, MEN has undertaken
projects to provide an accurate and legitimate higher education information system to
the general public. Among current plans, MEN will incorporate information regarding
the results of ECAES, provide statistical information on a bi-monthly basis, publish
yearly studies and additional indicators of quality including graduation rates.42 MEN is
also currently developing AKADEMIA, an electronic system that provides a
Salazar, (et al)., 46.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Capacitación Captura de Información SNIES – 2005, Subdirección de
Análisis, Presentación, Dirección de Apoyo y Segumiento a la Educación Superior Viceministerio de la
Educación Superior, Marzo-Abril 2005, <http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/
TALLERCRES%20SUR_1_04_05.PPT?it=241&s=29Z>.
41
42
20
standardized format for information submission and aims to ease and facilitate further
information exchange between higher education programs and MEN.43 A letter from
MEN dated February 24, 2005 reminds institutions of their obligation to submit
information as deemed by Decree 2230 of 2003.44 For the year 2005, MEN set goals for
institutions to report on the following characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
Student Population (exemptions, applications, new students, starting
enrollment, total enrollment, dropouts, graduates)
Teaching positions
Professors
Desertion
Administrative Personnel.
The Colombian higher education community has itself concentrated on
developing more streamlined and accurate categories of information. A recent study of
SNIES completed by the Economics Faculty at the Universidad del Rosario suggested it
was imperative to include SNIES indicators that addressed the following areas:
•
•
•
•
General statistics (Numbers of professors, students, graduate students, etc.)
Qualitative Information (Study plans, Program Profiles, etc.)
Institutional indicators
Labor Market Indicators (salaries, employment rates, etc.).45
Authors additionally selected a new model of classification for the wide variety
of programs offered in Colombia. Areas of Basic Nuclear Knowledge (Núcleo Básico de
Conocimiento – NBC) attempt to better describe academic offerings by further
established foci, professional areas, or disciplines within these areas. The NBC system
suggests 55 different areas grouped into 8 knowledge areas and will be incorporated
into the system used by the Labor Market Observatory.46
Luz Emilse Rincón, Ministry of Education, Interview, July 27, 2005.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional, Comunicados a los Rectores de Educación Superior,
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/alldocs.asp?it=215&s=29&id=82>.
45 Salazar, (et al)., 29.
46 Salazar, (et al)., 62-108
43
44
21
Labor Market Observatory:
“Graduados Colombianos: Observatorio Laboral para la Educación” (Colombian
Graduates: Labor Market Observatory for Education) is being created by MEN to
increase information available to the public, the productive sector, potential consumers
of higher education, and institutions of higher education. Among various objectives, the
Observatory hopes to collect relevant information that will enable future employers to
better understand the training and preparation experienced by graduates. Additionally,
the Observatory will observe demand in the labor market and record levels and ease of
employment according to areas of study.
The Observatory, currently under the jurisdiction of MEN, is completing its
primary phase of design and implementation. Since November of 2004, higher
education institutions were mandated to submit information regarding graduates from
the years 2001-2004. Although higher education programs and institutions are required
by Graded Registration and official accreditation to track graduates, the Observatory
will utilize other national databases to augment incomplete data. For example, staff can
use identification data provided by higher education institutions to crosscheck
databases collected by the Ministry of Social Protection, the Administrative Department
of Security (Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (DAS)), or the Colombian
Institute of Educational Credit and Foreign Technical Study (ICETEX). Foreign study
scholarships, immigration records, and social security payments can describe postgraduation employment experiences of graduates. This data will be categorized
according to NBC’s and published to equip students with further knowledge, such as
graduate employment rates and productive sector demands, to be used when choosing
further concentration areas and career path.47
The second phase of the Observatory will collect qualitative data regarding postgraduation employment experiences. This stage will rely more heavily on information
collected by institutions when recording the experiences of their graduates. Currently,
the Observatory anticipates collecting observations from 3000 graduates. 48
In addition to providing information that will empower potential consumers to
make an informed educational choice, the Observatory will amass useful data for
quality improvement in higher education institutions and programs. Future activities
involve collaboration with schools to address reasons why graduates experience
Luz Emilse Rincón, Ministry of Education, Interview, July 27, 2005. Hernán Jaramillo Salazar, (et al).,
62-108.
48 Luz Emilse Rincón, Ministry of Education, Interview, July 27, 2005.
47
22
difficulties finding and maintaining meaningful employment. This information will be
provided to facilitate self-evaluation conducted by programs.
Information Flow in the Higher Education System – Formal and Informal (Figure 2)
MEN
SNIES, ECAES,
Accred., Standards
Graded Registration,
Accred., Info. Reports
ECAES, SNIES,
Accred.
Students
Policies, etc.
ICFES,
Applications
Periodicals,
SNIES
HEI
Labor Market
Observatory
Indicates weak
information flow
Employers
Despite multiple mechanisms to facilitate the exchange of information between
agents of the higher education system, a condition of asymmetric information remains.
The above diagram attempts to identify major agents of the system, mechanisms of
information exchange, and areas of concern and obstacles for information flow (Figure
2).
Higher education institutions (HEI’s) possess more information regarding the
quality of their product. HEI’s are required to submit information to MEN and must
share information when subjected to review for graded registration and accreditation.
Yet, HEI’s only submit required information and will not freely share data indicating
decreases in quality. Penalties for refusal to submit accurate information are weakly
defined and do not create a strong incentive for some institutions to improve
information collection. Additionally, this information flow is weakened by limited
23
resources possessed by some HEI’s. Although it is easier for larger institutions such as
Universidad de los Andes and Universidad Nacional to share information that is
normally collected, smaller institutions may lack financial and personnel resources to
collect accurate data. MEN must also improve its ability to communicate to HEI’s
significant policy changes and requirements.
In addition to communicating with HEI’s and ensuring they maintain quality
levels, MEN serves as an information hub for students and other potential consumers of
higher education. MEN collaborates with CNA and CNDM to convey information
about the quality of institutions through Previous Accreditation, High Quality
Accreditation, institutional, and graduate accreditation. By showing that these schools
have been evaluated and reviewed by respected institutions, MEN can convey to
consumers that schools adhere to certain quality standards. Although this information
still relies on inputs, accreditation and Previous Registration allows the government to
endorse schools as institutions of at least minimum levels of quality.
Other information tools, such as SNIES and ECAES, are still being developed by
government institutions. ECAES has the potential to convey useful information
regarding academic achievement and output of students within specific knowledge
areas. SNIES, as it is currently being designed, will contain more information regarding
outputs and outcomes of student educational experiences and can help ease the
weakness of information flow if effective.
The Labor Market Observatory, when completed, will increase information
available between future employers and the education community.
Currently,
employers still do not possess complete information regarding those they are hiring and
students are still unaware of the type of employment experienced by fellow graduates.
The level of asymmetric information directly between HEI’s and students is very
high. In addition to SNIES, students can access institution websites which sometimes
contain inaccurate information or are not functioning properly. Periodicals, such as El
Tiempo, also allow HEI’s to advertise educational offerings and accreditation status.
24
e. Higher Education Government Reform
In addition to developing specific quality control mechanisms, Colombia’s
government institutions responsible for higher education regulation and vigilance have
also undergone extensive reorganization and restructuring. These reforms, including a
large restructuring completed in 2003, have helped increase the efficiency of MEN,
ICFES, and CNA. Yet, despite the positive changes that have led to clearer governance
and assignment of responsibility, conflicts of interest in functions of certain institutions
may affect the sector’s ability to truly evaluate and improve the quality of Colombia’s
higher education institutions and policy.
Prior to reforms, the government sector was marked by MEN and CESU (Consejo
Nacional de Educación Superior) as two bodies that developed policies and evaluation
mechanisms. In addition, ICFES also created quality control policies and was
responsible for: policy-making; enforcing regulations in higher institution settings;
collecting data, designing, and maintaining SNIES; completing Previous Accreditation
for certain academic fields; and designing and implementing ICFES and ECAES exams.
CNA and CNDM maintained their role as the primary accrediting bodies for
undergraduate and graduate programs.49 ICETEX served as the primary student
financing organization while FODESEP (Fondo de Desarollo de la Educación Superior)
provided funding to institutions for projects and improvements.
Numerous institutions resulted in overlapping responsibilities and inefficiencies.
MEN, CESU, and ICFES were all responsible for policy creation and government
regulations do not specify areas in which they should concentrate their efforts. ICETEX
was noted for its inefficiency and both CNA and ICFES exhibited wastefulness when
each organization was responsible for Previous Accreditation of certain programs.50
The first years of President Álvaro Uribe Vélez’s administration were marked by
extensive restructuring of government institutions. To combat bureaucracy and
increasing government expenditures, reform addressed areas of government
inefficiency and ineffectiveness, including the higher education sector and MEN.
Following restructuring ordered by Decree 2230 of August 8, 2003, the concentration of
higher education control activities became more focused under the responsibility of
MEN. The Ministry was restructured to include a Vice-Ministry of Higher Education.
MEN now dominates sector policymaking and conducts and coordinates the majority of
49
50
25
its functions. MEN will restructure SNIES and work with CONACES to define
minimum conditions of quality necessary for the operation of programs and institutions.
The reforms also stripped ICFES of policymaking and registration power and has
designated it as the standardized test and evaluation center. Experts have stressed that
while ICFES’s functions were decreased, the organization has maintained financial
resources for conducting these activities.
3. International Systems of Higher Education: Models for Colombia?
Colombia’s higher education system possesses many similar characteristics of
other systems of both developing and developed countries. As countries such as Chile,
Brazil, and the United States, were faced with an growing higher education sector, their
governments’ also faced policy decisions affecting the level of autonomy and control in
the market. Although Colombia’s higher education sector is uniquely characterized by a
dominant supply of private education, the quality control policies of these systems can
provide valuable evidence and lessons. These international sectors may be more or less
developed than higher education institutions in Colombia, yet the success or failure of
specific policy mechanisms under somewhat similar conditions might be a valuable
impetus for Colombia to alter or retain current policies or adopt similar processes as
used in these nations.
a. Chile
Chile experienced a similar expansion of the higher education sector when the
government allowed private institutions to enter the market in 1981. Government
funding of higher education fell by 40 percent throughout the 1980s and institutions
funded by private sources and revenues gradually began to dominate the higher
education industry. As of 2003, higher education institutions enrolled 71 percent of
students.51 While 250,000 students attended higher education institutions in 1990, more
Andrés Bernasconi, “Private Higher Education with an Academic Focus: Chile’s New Exceptionalism,”
International Higher Education, Summer 2003, Center for International Higher Education-Boston College,
<http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News32/text010.htm.>
51
26
than 500,000 were enrolled in 2003, an average increase of more than 19,000 students per
year or an average annual increase of 7.7%.52
Chile’s government also maintains quality control mechanisms that have helped
to develop one of the most reputable higher education systems in Latin America. The
Higher Education Quality Improvement Program (MECESUP) focuses on improving
Chile’s higher education system in three areas: creating an accreditation system,
improving education services, and improving higher education administration. The still
developing accreditation system has established two commissions at the undergraduate
and graduate level to complete voluntary accreditation through auto-evaluation, peer
review, and academic audits. Accreditation is also tied to aid that higher education
institutions receive from the government.53 A market observatory and standardized test
(Academic Aptitude Test (PAA)) provide valuable information on the employment
capacity and skill base of program graduates.
While Colombia’s government provides most direct financial support to public
institutions, Chile’s funding system permits both public and private institutions to
compete for public financial resources. Although national support of higher education
equals approximately .6 percent of Chile’s GDP, the Chilean government has set aside
some programs focusing on performance-based funding.54 Direct public support,
known as AFD, is allocated to universities based on historical tradition and precedence,
inviting declarations of limited transparency and political favoritism. This 50 percent of
higher education funding is limited to public institutions and excludes private,
professional, and technical institutions. AFD budget dedicates 5 percent of its budget to
performance based funding, which the World Bank considers ineffective due to limited
grant amounts and imperfect awarding of resources limited by inaccurate information
regarding quality.55
Kristian Thorn, Lauritz Hom-Nielsen and Jette Samuel Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding
in Tertiary Education, Identifying Finance Reform Options for Chile, World Bank, October 2004, Working
paper, 1.
53 Ricardo Reich, “Chile’s New Program for Quality Improvement,” International Higher Education, Fall
2001, Center for International Higher Education, Boston College, < http://www.bc.edu/
bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/index.htm.>
54 Thorn, Hom-Nielsen and Jeppesen, 3. Lauritz B. Holm-Nielsen and Kristian Thorn report that the
governments of both Chile and Colombia contribute among the smallest percentage of public spending
relative to country GDP. Yet, large-scale private sectors make higher education spending in total in both
Colombia and Chile one of the highest in Latin America. Holm-Nielsen and Thorn, Higher Education in
Latin America – A Regional Overview, 4-5.
55 Thorn, Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding, 5.
52
27
MECESUP also established a “competitive fund” in 1999 that provides grants to
institutions that propose projects considered to be of social importance and within fields
where research is needed. In 2001, a new competition was created to allocate $52
million U.S. dollars to schools with relevant projects.56
Additional indirect public support (AFI) is dedicated to providing financial
incentives to both public and private universities to improve the quality of their
academic offerings. Chile’s funding program awards institutions that enroll the top
27,500 students receiving the highest scores on the PAA entrance exam.57 This program
assumes higher scoring students will choose to enroll in schools of high quality.
Furthermore, program logic assumes that higher education institutions, in order to
maintain enrollment levels and to receive the additional financial resources offered by
this specific AFI program, will improve the quality of their academic offerings to attract
these high-scoring students. Approximately 7 percent of Chile’s public higher
education budget is assigned to this program.58
A system of performance-based funding and incentive programs that indirectly
induce schools to address quality levels offers interesting options for Chile’s quality
control system. While the majority of AFD funding relies on historical universitygovernment relationships and is not contingent upon quality, results-based funding
allows the government to reward institutions which produce desired outcomes and
students prepared for employment and further academic investigation. Several experts
have suggested that performance-contingent funding will require institutions to present
more evidence of the effectiveness of their programs. The government could potentially
provide financial resources to institutions and programs that satisfy in varying ways
requirements necessary to further economic development or address academic and
employment shortfalls in the Chilean economy.59
Despite the potential of a strong performance-based funding system,
imperfections in Chile’s higher education market and the government’s restricted
expenditures have limited the effectiveness of such programs. Chile does not possess a
developed information system and potential consumers of higher education are
disadvantaged because they cannot access full information about the quality of
educational offerings. Although one can assume that public perception and reputation
Reich, Fall 2001.
Holm-Nielsen and Thorn, Higher Education in Latin America, 10.
58 Thorn, Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding and Dr. Andrés Bernasconi,
E-mail communication, August 3, 2005.
59 Thorn, Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding, 6-22.
56
57
28
do provide limited data, students in Chile still choose institutions under conditions of
asymmetric information. Without this information, students may attend schools that
have not made significant quality improvements. The Chilean government, thus, may
reward schools that have not improved but merely are more successful in attracting
high-scoring students.
Additionally, student performance-based funding continues to exacerbate social
class inequities. Often, students who obtain the highest exam scores originate from
families of higher economic means. Many of these students decide to attend schools
that already benefit from AFD funding, such as traditional public universities.60 Thus,
government financial resources are concentrated in schools with these higher-scoring,
yet wealthy students, placing schools with more students of lower economic means at
an even further disadvantage.61
b. Brazil
A main quality control mechanism utilized in Brazil is a large-scale, compulsory,
standardized test called Provão given the last semester before graduation. In 1995, these
exams were established to evaluate students performance from different undergraduate
programs, both private and public.62 Leading academics collaborate with exam writers
to prepare the tests for major academic areas. Institutions receive a normalized grade
based on the overall score of their students. Although individual scores are not
released, poor student performances can affect an institution’s ranking. Recent policy
changes will reduce Provão annual exam administration to once every three years and
will incorporate alternative methods of evaluation, such as school visits. Exams will test
more generalized information and institutional results will be based on samples of
students.63
Public and academic perception of Provão exams has been mixed. When the
exams were first proposed and even today, some groups and politicians were strongly
opposed to its implementation. Students sometimes protest by leaving the answers
blank and negatively affect their school’s score. Yet, Provão has enjoyed overall
Thorn, Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding, 5.
Thorn, Holm-Nielsen, and Jeppesen, Approaches to Results-Based Funding, 6.
62 Brazilian higher education, as is the case in both Chile and Colombia, is dominated by the private
institutions. Claudio de Moura Castro, “Success and Perils in Evaluating Brazilian Undergraduate
Programs,” International Higher Education, Spring 2004, <http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/
avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News35/text010.htm.>
63 Claudio de Moura Castro, Spring 2004.
60
61
29
popularity with public and academic institutions. Institutions are committed to
receiving high grades on the examinations because dropping scores could affect public
opinion and enrollment levels. Although formal quantitative investigation is still being
conducted to measure the impact of Provão, qualitative and anecdotal information
suggests correlated school reforms, increasing professor academic qualification levels,
and use of results by students when choosing institutions.64
Despite the culture of accountability created by the publication of Provão results,
experts have noted several discrepancies originating from the evaluation system. The
constantly changing structure of the exams does not facilitate extensive annual or crossprogram comparison, and inhibits institutions and the Brazilian government from
conducting long-term analysis of overall national trends and gains. Additionally, a
study conducted by Claudio de Moura Castro noted that Provão exams may in fact
heavily capture academic ability and knowledge acquired prior to enrollment and do
not accurately measure the effect of higher education instruction.65
Provão exams are imperfect and do not precisely capture the effect of higher
education instruction upon a student’s achievement. Yet, considering the diversity of
institutions, varying levels of preparation in secondary schools, and the racial, ethnic,
and cultural makeup of Brazil’s student population, standardized exams may never
completely isolate the causal relationship between higher education enrollment and
increased achievement and skill acquisition. Provão and the rankings issued by the
government do increase the amount of information available to the general public
regarding the quality of schools and the performance of students. Although not
completely accurate, rankings and scores ease the condition of asymmetric information
and allow potential students to draw conclusions about the quality of institutions.
Public rankings compel schools to aim for high Provão grades and to institute reforms
or improvements that will result in higher scores. A culture of public accountability and
information awareness acts as a control mechanism and forces schools to maintain levels
of quality deemed significant by academics who design the exams.
These perceived improvements in Brazilian higher education and their association with the
implementation of Provão are still somewhat based on anecdotal evidence. Before proclaiming a certain
causal relationship between Provão implementation and increased teacher qualifications, more research
should determine whether this connection is statistically significant. Increased teacher preparedness
could in fact be associated with overall general increases in Brazilian professor academic training since
1995. World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, 105.
65 Claudio de Maura Castro, Spring 2004.
64
30
c. United States
Unlike Colombia, Brazil, and Chile, the United States does not have a central
Ministry of Education to exert strong control over the quality of higher education.
Although the U.S. Department of Education (USDE) monitors trends, quality control is
decentralized in the form of private, non-profit regional and program-specific
accrediting agencies. This voluntary accrediting process serves as the main quality
assurance mechanism and has facilitated the creation of a culture of self-evaluation and
evaluation. The accreditation status of an institution, in addition to informational
products and rankings compiled by private firms and periodicals, provides public
information regarding the quality of programs. Certain forms of federal student aid are
distributed contingent upon accreditation status. Accreditation also establishes a level
of quality that facilitates student transfers and provides employers with information
regarding the preparation of future employees.66 Although accreditation is not
mandatory, as of 2001, 6421 institutions and 18,713 programs had received accreditation
from a private agency.67
Judith S. Eaton, “An Overview of U.S. Accreditation,” Council for Higher Education Accreditation, 4,
<http://www.chea.org/>.
67 Council for Higher Education Accreditation, “Fact Sheet #1: Profile of Accreditation,” August 2003,
<http://www.chea.org/>.
66
31
Table 3. United States Accreditation Statistics
Accreditation Numbers
6421 institutions
18,713 programs
Type of Accredited Institution
4,196 (65.3%) grant degrees
2,225
(34.6%)
non-degree
granting
3,617 (56.3%) nonprofit
2,804 (43.6%) for-profit
Regionally Accredited Institutions
2,963 institutions
97.4% grant degrees and nonprofit
Nationally Accredited Institutions
3,458 institutions
35.9% grant degrees
64.0% non-degree granting
20.9% non-profit
79.0% for-profit
Specialized Accredited Single-Purpose Institutions 18,713
single-purpose
and Programs
institutions and programs
Table 4. United States Accrediting Agency Statistics
Agencies recognized by USDE
56
Agencies recognized/reviewed by CHEA
58
Agencies recognized by USDE and recognized/reviewed by 36
CHEA
Source for Tables 3 and 4: Council for Higher Education Accreditation, “Fact Sheet #1: Profile of
Accreditation,” August 2003, <http://www.chea.org/>.
32
The U.S. accrediting industry is composed of a diverse mixture of about 80
agencies. National and regional accrediting agencies are responsible for conducting an
evaluation of entire institutions and specific academic and technical programs are
accredited by specialized agencies. These accrediting agencies are in turn evaluated by
either the USDE or the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) to ensure
the legitimacy of the process and the standards. USDE and CHEA approve private
accrediting agencies and publicize lists of evaluated agencies. Each agency has full-time
employees, yet commissions of academic experts, administrators, practitioners, and
additional public citizens work together to grant accreditation status.
Both USDE and CHEA evaluate accrediting agencies according to similar
standards. CHEA, for recognition of an agency, evaluates according to certain core
values such as:
•
•
•
•
Advance academic quality: Agencies must evaluate according to a “clear definition
of quality”
Accountability: Standards must require reliable and up-to-date information
Appropriate and fair decision-making: Agencies must use fair and balanced
decision-making
Self-evaluation of accreditation process for improvements
USDE also requires agencies to demonstrate that they have fixed standards for
accreditation. Among these standards used to evaluate quality, USDE stipulates that
accreditors consider:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
“Success with respect to student achievement in relation to the institution’s
mission, including as appropriate, consideration of course completion, State
licensing examination, and job placement rates
Curricula
Faculty
Facilities, equipment, and supplies
Fiscal and administrative capacity as appropriate to the specified scale of
operation
Student support services
Recruiting and admission practices, academic calendars, catalogs, publications,
grading, and advertising
Measures of program length and the objectives of the degrees or credentials
offered
Record of student complaints received by, or available to, the agency
33
•
Record of compliance with the institution’s program responsibilities under Title
IV of the Act, based on the most recent student loan default rate data provided by
the Secretary, the results of financial or compliance audits, program reviews, and
any other information that the Secretary may provide to the agency.”68
Although slight variations exist in the procedure completed by the various
national, regional, and specialized accrediting agencies, the majority of programs are
evaluated according to a similar process. CHEA reports the various steps of
accreditation as:
•
•
•
•
•
Self study: Programs and institutions complete self-evaluation according to
accrediting agencies standards
Peer review:
Academics, administrators, and the general public conduct
evaluation
Site visit: A team of volunteers completes site visit
Judgment of accrediting agency: Commission decides to grant accreditation to
institutions or programs
Monitoring and oversight: Periodic review, including further site visits.69
Despite some public complaint regarding the transparency of the accreditation process
and limited information available to the public, accrediting agencies publicize lists of
accredited institutions and inform the public regarding aspects of the process to the
degree that it will not harm the integrity of academic accreditation.70
The heterogeneity of the U.S. accreditation process and the constant re-evaluation
of evaluating institutions by other evaluating institutions has contributed to a strong
emphasis on auto-evaluation and evaluation.71 Higher education institutions are subject
to review by regional, national, and specific accrediting agencies for the varying types of
academic, training, graduate and professional programs offered. For example, while the
University of New Hampshire receives an evaluation and accreditation from the New
England Association of Schools and Colleges, their business program is further
CHEA, Fact Sheet #1.
Council for Higher Education Accreditation, “The Fundamentals of Accreditation: What Do You Need
to Know?” September 2002,< http://www.chea.org/public_info/index.asp#how>, 2.
70 Robert B. Glidden, Positioning Accreditation for the Future: Change or Status Quo?, Presentation to the
CHEA Annual Conference, Marina del Rey, CA, January 28, 2004,
<http://www.chea.org/Research/position-accred/positioning_files/frame.htm.>
71 Micheala Martín and Paula Rouhiainen, Estudios de caso sobre acreditación en Colombia, Hungría,
India, Filipinas y Estados Unidos: tan similares pero tan diferentes, Specialists of the International
Institute for Education Planning-UNESCO.
68
69
34
evaluated by AACSB International - The Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of
Business, a non-profit corporation that is responsible for accrediting programs in
business administration and accounting.72 This duplicative accrediting system has
established a system of checks and balance and further minimizes the effect that poor
standards, political influence, or mistakes in reporting and procedure could have on the
accreditation process. The various experts from different accrediting agencies that visit
higher education institutions and their programs each bring individual and diverse
expertise and loyalty to various accreditors.
In addition to the evaluation of schools for potential accreditation, the evaluators
are further evaluated by the US Department of Education or CHEA. Both of these
organizations possess extensive academic knowledge and expertise regarding higher
education quality and can advise accrediting agencies as to the best manner to evaluate
quality. This creates a further atmosphere of accountability and quality control, for the
public is even further assured of the integrity of organizations responsible for evaluating
higher education institutions, and prevents the “commercialization of quality assurance
and accreditation” and the proliferation of “accreditation mills.”73
University of New Hampshire webpage, <http://www.unh.edu/welcome/aboutunh.html.> and
AASCB International website, <http://www.aacsb.edu/.>
73 Jane Knight, “The International Race for Accreditation,” International Higher Education, Number 40,
Summer 2005, The Boston College Center for International Higher Education, < http://www.bc.edu
bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/.>
72
35
4. A Developing System with Still Prevalent Weaknesses –
Conclusions and Recommendations for New and Revised Policies
The previously discussed systems of higher education control have experienced
years of development and trial and error. Although every system has its deficiencies,
specific and dominating thematic reforms were selected to illustrate how each country
addressed various weaknesses. Changes to Colombia’s quality control mechanisms
have permitted both government agencies and higher education institutions to address
similar flaws. Although these innovative programs have improved conditions and
allowed both the government and the public to demand and exert more quality control,
Colombia’s developing higher education system still faces the effects of these
deficiencies and could model further adjustments or new programs after the
international examples that were previously discussed. Further reforms are needed to
address the following weaknesses:
•
•
•
•
Asymmetric Information
Insufficient Incentives
Still Developing Culture of Evaluation
Lack of Internal and External Evaluation of Governmental Higher Education
Control Organizations.
The following section attempts to identify the major weaknesses still present in
Colombia’s higher education system and provides several policy recommendations for
addressing these areas. If these weaknesses are not soon addressed, Colombia will
continue to witness low-quality institutions, unemployment of graduates, loss of highquality scholars to other international institutions, and low public and employer
confidence in the quality of education being provided.
Asymmetric Information
Despite the reforms proposed by MEN, such as the Labor Market Observatory,
and the improvements added to information systems such as SNIES, Colombia’s higher
education market still experiences an inefficient condition of asymmetric information.
Although perfect information may never be attainable in the education market,
asymmetric conditions must be relaxed to decrease deficiencies. As explained in
previous sections, information flow between major agents of the market, such as
students, employers, institutions and government bodies, is impeded by inaccurate and
incomplete reporting or insufficient financial and staff resources to be used for
concentration on information collection. This imperfect information has resulted in
36
some students choosing schools that do not provide them with the quality or focus of
education that they desired, or left them without a location to study when institutions
are forced to close. This lack of information makes it difficult for MEN to exert
meaningful quality control and complicates employer hiring decisions when they are
unsure of the skill-level of employee that they are receiving.
Recommendations:
Colombia’s higher education government institutions have made immense
strides in relaxing the condition of asymmetric information that is present in the higher
education market. Although still not completely active, the new SNIES claims to solicit
information from institutions and provide them in an easy to interpret and complete
manner. AKADEMIA, the electronic information reporting system, will stream-line the
process for institutions and will facilitate the information flow between MEN and higher
education institutions. MEN should continue to develop SNIES and AKADEMIA and
release them for use as soon as possible.
The Labor Market Observatory, as planned, will prove to be an immense source
of information for students, future employers, national policymakers, and higher
education institutions.
Although the information currently possessed by the
Observatory requires intense collaboration with other national databases, information
regarding the post-graduation employment and education experience of Colombia’s
students will provide effective ammunition for further analysis of deficiencies in
pedagogical and curricular techniques of higher education institutions. The results of
this project will be widely available and should continue to be reported and financially
supported in the future, past the current funded timeline for the observatory.
Although MEN requires all higher education institutions to submit required
information for SNIES and the Labor Market Observatory, sanctions or punishments for
those who do not submit information are not very clear. Interviews have suggested that
some schools are limited by staff and financial resources to hand in accurate
information, yet these mostly smaller schools do not face extreme punishments for their
failure. Closing these schools would negatively effect students enrolled in these
programs and may not be the best threat for obtaining information. A more graduated
system of sanctions, including monetary penalties, temporary removal from SNIES,
prevention from beginning accreditation, and further monitoring, should be widely
publicized to ensure that information is reported.
Further reforms or improvements are necessary to strengthen the information
link directly between students and higher education institutions. Although MEN can
37
serve as an intermediary, MEN is restricted by government resources and is ultimately
able to provide a limited amount of information and exchange. Given today’s reliance
on the internet, institution web pages should require mandatory updates with current
information. Government assistance can be offered to institutions that lack the
resources to develop an initial website. In addition to newspaper advertisements and
some information available in magazines, the government should encourage the further
development of a private sector of information exchange. Although there exists the
danger that larger, well-resourced higher education institution might attempt to enter
this sector and jeopardize its integrity, private firm production of information in the
United States has proven to be extremely successful. Magazines such as U.S. News and
World Reports and private services such as Peterson’s and The Princeton Review are
well-respected and looked to as sources of quality information.
Despite the wide-range of data that is being collected and will soon be reported,
the information provided still relies heavily on input indicators. Although indicators
such as number of students admitted and student/professor ratio can imply quality of
educational experiences, MEN and higher education institutions should more heavily
emphasize output and outcome quality measures. These indicators, such as quality of
graduate employment experience, gained academic knowledge measured by exam
results, level of innovation of graduates, or further successful academic publications
may more accurately represent quality of institutions.
In addition, MEN presents much of the information to the public as it is
submitted by higher education institutions. Little technical analysis is provided to the
public regarding the significance of quality indicators or comparison among all
institutions and programs. Although government institutions might face opposition to
the prospect of completing rankings or interpreting data, these exercises may in fact
increase the amount of available information in the market. Other ways of conveying
levels of quality could be completed by compiling a “Top 20” ranking, normalizing
ECAES scores and grading performance based on grades of 1 through 5, or granting 10
academic programs high quality and improvement awards or recognition.
38
Insufficient Incentives
Colombia’s ability to offer financial incentives is constrained by limited financial
resources. In 2003, the World Bank estimated that spending on higher education equals
approximately 4% of GNP or 15% of the total education budget.74 Public universities
receive the bulk of financial assistance and only a limited amount of funds are available
for private institution use. This additional financial leverage over public institutions
may offer additional instruments for quality control, but limited financial contribution
to private institutions limit the leverage that can be used to influence their practices.
Colciencias, (Colombian Institute for the Development of Science and Technology
(Insituto Colombiano para el Desarollo de la Ciencia y la Tecnología)), a government
agency committed to science and technology development, provides some grants for
projects deemed important to the national interest.75
Recommendations:
Despite limited financial resources, the use of financial incentives has proven
useful in Chile’s higher education system. Although a system which awards schools
that enrolls higher-scoring students could continue to exacerbate the economic class
educational gap in Colombia, government institutions could offer incentives to students
who decide to attend quality schools. For example, additional grants or student credit
provided by ICETEX could be contingent upon attending accredited schools or schools
that have committed to seeking accreditation within the future.76 In the United States,
federal financial aid is reliant upon institution accreditation. Although most American
schools are accredited, threatening to take away a primary source of funding might
cause more schools with limited resources to being the process of quality improvement
required by formal accreditation. A variation upon the funding program in Chile could
simultaneously address MEN’s goal to increase higher education coverage. To avoid
widening educational gaps, ICETEX credit or government financial grants could be
contingent upon quality institutions that enroll high-scoring ICFES students originating
from underrepresented economic classes.
Additional financial incentives can be offered to more institutions that propose
research projects or studies that will benefit the public interest. These funds should be
available to both public and private academic programs and should be distributed on a
World Bank, Tertiary Education in Colombia, xxi.
Website of Colciencias, < http://www.colciencias.gov.co/index.html>.
76 The student aid offered by the World Bank to Colombia will be directed towards students with less
financial resources and will be prioritized for accredited programs. World Bank, Project AppraisalImproving Access Project, 12.
74
75
39
basis that weighs both the quality of the proposal, the institution where the research
would take place, and the regional location of the institution.
Given the limited financial incentives that can be assigned by the government,
Colombia’s government education institutions should develop further non-financial
incentives that can still serve to improve the academic standing and public opinion of an
academic program or institution. Given the information possessed by MEN, MEN
could interpret indicators to award distinguished institutions in certain knowledge
areas. In addition, to capture the achievement of academic programs that are limited by
financial, staff, and regional resources, government institutions could publicize
programs and institutions that have made the most improvement in certain key areas
such as ECAES results or research publications. Focusing on improvements will offer
schools that may not have a reputation as a top university an incentive to improve
services. By publicizing this information, the public will be more aware of the quality of
the program and institutions will want to obtain these improvements to remain
competitive for enrollments.
Further incentives can be specifically tied to desired outputs and outcomes.
Either financial incentives or opportunities for collaboration with private sector
companies could be offered to schools that produce students who further innovation or
obtain quality employment.
Still-Developing Culture of Evaluation:
At certain points during the operation of a higher education institution,
administrators must conduct auto-evaluations and submit information to MEN and
CNA for review. ECAES results provide further data on the performance of certain
academic programs and allow programs to address why their students haven’t achieved
more. Yet, despite these tools facilitating the use of self-evaluation, many Colombian
institutions treat the tasks required by the accreditation process as a checklist and many
have still not chosen to begin the process of accreditation. A culture of evaluation, in
which schools, both private and public, recognize their role as a provider of a public
good and freely conduct auto-evaluations, is still developing in Colombia.
Recommendations:
Graded Registration, Previous Accreditation, High Quality Accreditation, and
Accreditation of Graduate Programs create a system of evaluation and auto-evaluation
in Colombia. Graded Registration ensures a minimum level of quality and does not
allow for schools to operate with certain basic standards. Yet, if schools so desire, they
40
do not have to conduct the more rigorous auto-evaluation required by High Quality
Accreditation. Graded Registration allows a basic level of quality, with little variation
depending on the characteristics of the program, to become the norm.
To persuade programs to complete the more complete evaluation required by
High Quality Accreditation, MEN and CNA should offer incentives for those who
undergo evaluation. Although increased competition and increased awareness of the
public regarding accreditation status has forced more programs to complete the process,
many programs still will not complete accreditation and accompanying auto-evaluation
unless the process of doing so is less costly than the enrollment or the financial and staff
resources they will loose if they do not do so. Participation in certain public projects or
the ability to bid for research opportunities could become contingent upon the
obtainment of High Quality Accreditation.
If higher education institutions cannot be persuaded to complete High Quality
accreditation as a form of self-evaluation, mandatory ECAES administration may
provide additional tools for self-evaluation at little or no extra cost. Although the
improvements in teacher quality and the creation of a culture of accountability in Brazil
could be attributed to the negative publicity associated with poor Provão scores,
Brazilian higher education institutions have seen results because of an increased sense
of evaluation and auto-evaluation.
One of the strengths of the American system of accreditation is the multiple
variations of accreditation agencies specializing in areas of knowledge. Although the
multiple accreditations that can be obtained by a university may result in some
confusion, the multiple evaluations that each school completes serves to inform the
institution itself and the public of the quality of the offerings. Although the Colombian
accrediting system offers both program and institution accreditation, CNA is the only
accrediting agency and is overwhelmed by accrediting duties. The creation of a
“private” sector of accrediting, one that is also monitored by the government and one
that begins to gain the public trust, could serve to foster a more complete culture of
evaluation and accountability. CNA, with additional financial and staff resources, could
also diversify their accrediting process by further specifying different types of
accreditation for the four official types of institutions, for different knowledge areas or
areas of Basic Nuclear Knowledge, or based on career paths.
Additional opportunities for evaluation could be created by offering mid-level
accreditation or accreditation for schools that have witnessed extensive improvement in
recent years. Although Previous Accreditation offers this chance for programs deemed
41
to be of social importance, a mid-level or quality improvement accreditation will
address institutions that in reality could never obtain High Quality Accreditation.
Although this type of endorsement may not raise all higher education institutions to top
levels of quality, it will induce more institutions to commit resources and future policies
to a level of education that is above the legally acceptable minimum.
Additional evaluation will be met with resistance as it may be perceived as an
infringement upon the institutional autonomy guaranteed by the Constitution. Along
with a developing culture of evaluation, higher education institutions should more
strongly recognize their role as a supplier of a public good. Education adds value to
human capital and results in positive externalities such as increased science and
technology development or increased cultural activities.
Despite a historical
commitment to autonomy, possession of a public good also requires careful observation
and evaluation.77
Lack of Internal and External Evaluation of Higher Education Control Organizations
The restructuring of government institutions in 2003 concentrated many
policymaking and evaluation mechanisms within MEN and accreditation activities
within CNA. Although this has increased efficiency, the reform has also reduced the
opportunity for checks and balances within the education system. MEN, as both the
center of policymaking and the organization responsible for ensuring that these policies
are carried out, faces very little internal and external pressure for evaluation of the
quality of these policies. Although the National Planning Department (DNP –
Departamento Nacional de Planeación), ASCUN (Asociación Colombiana de
Universidades), and higher education universities serve as checks and balances, the
policies of MEN and its fellow higher education organizations face little serious
criticism.
Simon Schwartzman, “Prospects for Higher Education in Latin America,” International Higher
Education, Fall 1999, <http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News17/text5.html> and
Daniel C. Levy, “Public Policy and Private Higher Education,” International Higher Education, Summer
1998, < http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News12/text5.htm>.
77
42
Recommendations:
MEN has recently begun conducting roundtable conversations with ASCUN,
their member institutions, ICFES, ICETEX and other organizations to encourage an open
exchange of ideas and critiques of government policies. These conversations should be
continued and expanded to allow academic experts and administrators the opportunity
to share personal experiences with those making the policies.
In addition, as is prevalent in the U.S. higher education system, constant review
of accreditation tactics should be conducted. Although current CNA policies withhold
public release of evaluation results, the accreditation process requires more
transparency to prevent political influence and accreditation based on reputation of
universities instead of true statistics and observations. CNA, along with current lists of
accredited programs and institutions, can release evaluation observations as a way to
even further educate the public regarding quality offerings.
An additional method for ensuring the integrity of the accreditation process and
educational policy can involve a more highly developed system of nonprofit
organizations working in the interest of the public.78 Current organizations place heavy
emphasis on ensuring basic and secondary educational attainment, and nonprofit efforts
in higher education are very limited in Colombia. Although this sector might require
many years and resources to develop, an additional system of “checks and balances”
outside of the government sector offers an opportunity for more evaluation and
collaboration.
In conclusion, Colombia’s higher education system has experienced drastic
changes over the last 25 years and government policy and institutional practices are
continuing to adjust. Many of the policies currently utilized by MEN and additional
government organizations offer innovative and appealing opportunities for higher
education improvement. As Colombia itself continues to develop both economically
and socially, further reforms, including those proposed above and those that are
currently being undertaken, can help strengthen both the higher education quality
control system and the quality of education offered by institutions. By addressing
problems of information exchange, offering more incentives for improvement, creating a
strong sense of accountability and evaluation, and strengthening government programs
and institutions, Colombia can more quickly continue on its path to becoming a leader
in higher education in Latin America.
Ángel Díaz Barriga, Riesgos de los Sistemas de Evaluación y Acreditación de la Educación Superior,
Document for Seminario Regional: Las nuevas tendencias de la evaluación y acreditación en América
Latina y el Caribe, Buenos Aires, June 2005, 15-16.
78
43
References
AASCB International website. <http://www.aacsb.edu/>.
Ariza Ramírez, Natalia. Asesora, Subdirección de Educación, Interview.
Ayala Oramas, Ulpiano. “La Regulación de la Educación Superior en Colombia,” Obra
Escogida. Fedesarrollo, 2004.
Bernasconi, Andrés. E-mail communication. August 3, 2005.
Bernasconi, Andrés. “Private Higher Education with an Academic Focus: Chile’s New
Exceptionalism.” International Higher Education, Summer 2003, Center for
International Higher Education-Boston College,<http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/
avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News32/text010.htm>.
Colciencias, < http://www.colciencias.gov.co/index.html>.
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación, <http://www.cna.gov.co>.
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación. <http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/legislacion/
index.htm>.
Consejo Nacional de Acreditación. Lineamientos para la Acreditación.
<http://www.cna.gov.co/cont/acr_alt_cal/index.htm>.
Council for Higher Education Accreditation. “Fact Sheet #1: Profile of Accreditation.”
August 2003, <http://www.chea.org/>.
De Moura Castro, Claudio. “Success and Perils in Evaluating Brazilian Undergraduate
Programs.” International Higher Education, Spring 2004,
<http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News35/text010.htm>.
Díaz Barriga, Ángel. Riesgos de los Sistemas de Evaluación y Acreditación de la
Educación Superior, Document for Seminario Regional: Las nuevas tendencias de
la evaluación y acreditación en América Latina y el Caribe, Buenos Aires, June
2005.
44
Eaton, Judith S. “An Overview of U.S. Accreditation.” Council for Higher Education
Accreditation, <http://www.chea.org/>.
Holm-Nielsen, Lauritz B. and Kristian Thorn. Higher Education in Latin America – A
Regional Overview. World Bank, Nov. 2002.
Instituto Colombiano para el Fomento de la Educación Superior. ICFES,
<http://www.icfes.gov.co/>.
Jaramillo Salazar, Hernán (et al). Hacia un Sistema Nacional de Información de la
Educación Superior. Bogota: Centro Editorial Universidad del Rosario, 2005.
Knight, Jane. “The International Race for Accreditation.” International Higher
Education, Number 40, Summer 2005, The Boston College Center for
International Higher Education, <http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/>.
Levy, Daniel C. “Public Policy and Private Higher Education,” International Higher
Education, Summer 1998, < http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/
newsletter/News12/text5.htm>.
Martín, Micheala and Paula Rouhiainen. Estudios de caso sobre acreditación en
Colombia, Hungría, India, Filipinas y Estados Unidos: tan similares pero tan
diferentes. Specialists of the International Institute for Education PlanningUNESCO.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. <http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/>.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Capacitación Captura de Información SNIES – 2005,
Subdirección de Análisis. Presentación, Dirección de Apoyo y Seguimiento a la
Educación Superior Viceministerio de la Educación Superior, Marzo-Abril 2005,
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/TALLERCRES%20SUR_1_04_
05.PPT?it=241&s=29Z>.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Decreto 916 de 22 Mayo 2001.
<www.mineducacion.gov.co/ normas/descarga/Decreto_0916_2001.pdf>.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. Decree 2230. August 8, 2003,
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/docs.asp?s=14&id=4>.
45
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. “Ministerio de Educación Presenta Informe de
Registros Calificados para Programas de Educación Superior .”
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/prensa/detallenoticias.asp?s=6&id=206>.
Ministerio de Educación Nacional. “El Sistema de Aseguramiento de la Calidad-Un
proceso en permanente construcción.” March 11, 2004,
<http://www.ascun.org.co/vicerrectores/document1.htm>.
Reich, Ricardo. “Chile’s New Program for Quality Improvement.” International Higher
Education, Fall 2001, Center for International Higher Education, Boston College,
< http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/index.htm>.
Revelo Revelo, José and Carlos Augusto Hernández. The National Accreditation
System in Colombia: experiences from the National Council of Accreditation
(CNA). International Institute for Educational Planning, 2003.
Rincón, Luz Emilse, Ministry of Education, Interview, July 27, 2005.
Roa Varelo, Alberto. Acreditación y Evaluación de la Calidad en la Educación Superior
Colombiana. Estudio realizado para IESALC-UNESCO, May 2003, 15. La
Revolución Educativa, Plan Sectorial 2002-2006,
<http://www.mineducacion.gov.co/documentos/docs.asp?s=9&id=27>.
Roa Varelo, Alberto. Hacia Un Modelo de Aseguramiento de la Calidad en la Educación
Superior en Colombia: Estandares Básicos y Acreditacion de Excelencia. May
2003.
Schwartzman, Simon. “Prospects for Higher Education in Latin America.”
International Higher Education, Fall 1999, <http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/
avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/News17/text5.html>.
Thorn, Kristian, Lauritz Hom-Nielsen and Jette Samuel Jeppesen. Approaches to
Results-Based Funding in Tertiary Education, Identifying Finance Reform
Options for Chile. World Bank, Working paper, October 2004.
University of New Hampshire webpage.
<http://www.unh.edu/welcome/aboutunh.html>.
46
Wolff, Laurence and Claudio de Moura Castro. Public or Private Education for Latin
America? That is the (False) Question. Inter-American Development Bank,
Washington, D.C., August 2001.
World Bank. Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience. Washington, D.C., 1994.
World Bank. Policy Workshop on Private Higher Education, Presentation. Damascus,
December 8, 2004, < http://www1.worldbank.org/education/tertiary/ppt/
Private%20Higher%20Education%20-%20Syria%20Dec%2004.ppt>.
World Bank. Project Appraisal Document on a Proposed Loan in the Amount of $200
million to the Republic of Colombia for a Higher Education-Improving Access
Project. 2002.
World Bank. Tertiary Education in Colombia: Paving the Way for Reform. April 2003.
Zarur Miranda, Xiomara. Coordinadora de Programas Académicos, ASCUN, Interview.
47
ARCHIVOS DE ECONOMIA
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
1
La coyuntura económica en Colombia y Venezuela
Andrés LANGEBAEK
Patricia DELGADO
Fernando MESA PARRA
Octubre 1992
2
La tasa de cambio y el comercio colombo-venezolano
Fernando MESA PARRA
Andrés LANGEBAEK
Noviembre 1992
3
¿Las mayores exportaciones colombianas de café redujeron
el precio externo?
Carlos Esteban POSADA
Andrés LANGEBAEK
Noviembre 1992
4
El déficit público: una perspectiva macroeconómica.
Jorge Enrique RESTREPO
Juan Pablo ZÁRATE
Noviembre 1992
5
El costo de uso del capital en Colombia.
Mauricio OLIVERA
Diciembre 1992
6
Colombia y los flujos de capital privado a América Latina
Andrés LANGEBAEK
Febrero 1993
7
Infraestructura física. “Clubs de convergencia” y crecimiento
económico.
José Dario URIBE
Febrero 1993
8
El costo de uso del capital: una nueva estimación (Revisión)
Mauricio OLIVERA
Marzo 1993
9
Dos modelos de transporte de carga por carretera.
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Alvaro CONCHA
Juan Carlos ELORZA
Marzo 1993
10
La determinación del precio interno del café en un modelo
de optimización intertemporal.
Carlos Felipe JARAMILLO
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Abril 1993
11
El encaje óptimo
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Mayo 1993
12
Crecimiento económico, “Capital
humano” y educación: la teoría y el
caso colombiano posterior a 1945
Junio 1993
13
Estimación del PIB trimestral según los componentes del gasto.
Rafael CUBILLOS
Junio 1993
Fanny Mercedes VALDERRAMA
14
Diferencial de tasas de interés y flujos de capital en Colombia
(1980-1993)
Andrés LANGEBAEK
15
Empleo y capital en Colombia: nuevas
estimaciones (1950-1992)
Adriana BARRIOS
Septiembre 1993
Marta Luz HENAO
Fanny Mercedes VALDERRAMA
Diego Mauricio VÁSQUEZ
16
Productividad, crecimiento y ciclos en la economía
colombiana (1967-1992)
Septiembre 1993
17
Crecimiento económico y apertura en Chile y México y
perspectivas para Colombia.
Fernando MESA PARRA
Septiembre 1993
18
El papel del capital público en la producción, inversión y
el crecimiento económico en Colombia.
Fabio SÁNCHEZ TORRES
Octubre 1993
19
Tasa de cambio real y tasa de cambio de equilibrio.
Andrés LANGEBAEK
Octubre 1993
20
La evolución económica reciente: dos interpretaciones
alternativas.
Noviembre 1993
21
El papel de gasto público y su financiación en la coyuntura
actual: algunas implicaciones complementarias.
Alvaro ZARTA AVILA
Diciembre 1993
22
Inversión extranjera y crecimiento económico.
Alejandro GAVIRIA
Diciembre 1993
Agosto 1993
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
Javier Alberto GUTIÉRREZ
23
Inflación y crecimiento en Colombia
Alejandro GAVIRIA
Febrero 1994
24
Exportaciones y crecimiento en Colombia
Fernando MESA PARRA
Febrero 1994
25
Experimento con la vieja y la nueva teoría del crecimiento
económico (¿porqué crece tan rápido China?)
Febrero 1994
26
Modelos económicos de criminalidad y la
una dinámica prolongada.
Abril 1994
27
Regímenes cambiarios, política macroeconómica y flujos
de capital en Colombia.
Abril 1994
28
Comercio intraindustrial: el caso colombiano
Carlos POMBO
Abril 1994
29
Efectos de una bonanza petrolera a la luz de un modelo
de optimización intertemporal.
Hernando ZULETA
Juan Pablo ARANGO
Mayo 1994
30
.
Crecimiento económico y productividad en Colombia:
una perspectiva de largo plazo (1957-1994)
Sergio CLAVIJO
Junio 1994
31
Inflación o desempleo: ¿Acaso hay escogencia en Colombia?
Sergio CLAVIJO
Agosto 1994
32
La distribución del ingreso y el sistema financiero
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Agosto 1994
33
La trinidad económica imposible en Colombia: estabilidad
cambiaria, independencia monetaria y flujos de capital libres
Sergio CLAVIJO
Agosto 1994
34
¿’Déjà vu?: tasa de cambio, deuda externa y esfuerzo
exportador en Colombia.
Sergio CLAVIJO
Mayo 1995
35
La crítica de Lucas y la inversión en Colombia:
nueva evidencia
Mauricio CÁRDENAS
Mauricio OLIVERA
Septiembre 1995
36
Tasa de Cambio y ajuste del sector externo en Colombia.
Fernando MESA PARRA
Dairo ESTRADA
Septiembre 1995
37
Análisis de la evolución y composición del Sector Público.
Mauricio Olivera G.
Septiembre 1995
Manuel Fernando CASTRO Q.
Fabio Sánchez T.
38
Incidencia distributiva del IVA en un modelo del ciclo de vida.
Juan Carlos PARRA OSORIO
Fabio José SÁNCHEZ T.
Octubre 1995
39
¿Por qué los niños pobres no van a la escuela?
(Determinantes de la asistencia escolar en Colombia)
Jairo Augusto NÚÑEZ M.
Noviembre 1995
40
Matriz de Contabilidad Social 1992.
Fanny M. VALDERRAMA
Diciembre 1995
41
Multiplicadores de Contabilidad derivados de la Matriz
de Contabilidad Social
Enero 1996
Fanny M. VALDERRAMA G.
42
El ciclo de referencia de la economía colombiana.
Martin MAURER
María Camila URIBE S.
Febrero 1996
43
Impacto de las transferencias intergubernamentales en la
distribución interpersonal del ingreso en Colombia.
Marzo 1996
44
Auge y colapso del ahorro empresarial en Colombia:
1983-1994
Abril 1996
Guillermo MURCIA GUZMÁN
Carlos OLIVA NEIRA
45
Evolución y comportamiento del gasto público en Colombia:
1950-1994
Cielo María NUMPAQUE
Mayo 1996
Ligia RODRÍGUEZ CUESTAS
posibilidad de
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
46
Los efectos no considerados de la apertura económica en el
mercado laboral industrial.
Fernando MESA PARRA
Mayo 1996
47
Un modelo de Financiamiento óptimo de un aumento
permanente en el gasto público:
Una ilustración con el caso colombiano.
Alvaro ZARTA AVILA
Junio 1996
48
Estadísticas descriptivas del mercado laboral masculino y
femenino en Colombia: 1976 -1995
Rocío RIBERO M.
Carmen Juliana GARCÍA B.
Agosto 1996
49
Un sistema de indicadores líderes para Colombia
Martín MAURER
María Camila URIBE
Javier BIRCHENALL
Agosto 1996
50
Evolución y determinantes de la productividad en Colombia:
Un análisis global y sectorial
Jorge Iván RODRÍGUEZ
Jairo NÚÑEZ MÉNDEZ
Agosto 1996
51
Gobernabilidad y Finanzas Públicas en Colombia.
César A. CABALLERO R
Noviembre 1996
52
Tasas Marginales Efectivas de Tributación en Colombia.
Mauricio OLIVERA G.
Noviembre 1996
53
Un modelo keynesiano para la economía colombiana
Fabio José SÁNCHEZ T.
Clara Elena PARRA
Febrero 1997
54
Trimestralización del Producto Interno Bruto por el lado
de la oferta.
Fanny M. VALDERRAMA
Febrero 1997
55
Poder de mercado, economías de escala, complementariedades
intersectoriales y crecimiento de la productividad en la
industria colombiana.
Juán Mauricio RAMÍREZ
Marzo 1997
56
Estimación y calibración de sistemas flexibles de gasto.
Jesús Orlando GRACIA
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Abril 1997
57
Mecanismos de ahorro e Inversión en las Empresas Públicas
Colombianas: 1985-1994
Guilllermo MURCIA G.
Mayo 1997
58
Capital Flows, Savings and investment in Colombia: 1990-1996
José Antonio OCAMPO G.
Camilo Ernesto TOVAR M.
Mayo 1997
59
Un Modelo de Equilibrio General Computable con
Competencia imperfecta para Colombia.
Juan Pablo ARANGO
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Juan Mauricio RAMÍREZ
Junio 1997
Javier A. BIRCHENALL J.
Julio 1997
Alberto CASTAÑEDA C.
Gabriel PIRAQUIVE G.
Julio 1997
60
El cálculo del PIB Potencial en Colombia.
61
Determinantes del Ahorro de los hogares.
de su caída en los noventa.
62
Los ingresos laborales de hombres y
mujeres en Colombia: 1976-1995
Rocío RIBERO
Claudia MEZA
Agosto 1997
63
Determinantes de la participación laboral de hombres y
mujeres en Colombia: 1976-1995
Rocío RIBERO
Claudia MEZA
Agosto 1997
64
Inversión bajo incertidumbre en la Industria Colombiana:
1985-1995
Javier A. BIRCHENALL
Agosto 1997
65
Modelo IS-LM para Colombia. Relaciones de largo plazo y
fluctuaciones económicas.
Agosto 1997
66
Correcciones a los Ingresos de las Encuestas de hogares y
distribución del Ingreso Urbano en Colombia.
Jairo A. NÚÑEZ MÉNDEZ
Jaime A. JIMÉNEZ CASTRO
Septiembre 1997
67
Ahorro, Inversión y Transferencias en las Entidades
Territoriales Colombianas
Mauricio OLIVERA G.
Giovanni CORTÉS S.
Octubre 1997
Explicación
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
68
Efectos de la Tasa de cambio real sobre la Inversión
industrial en un Modelo de transferencia de precios.
Fernando MESA PARRA
Leyla Marcela SALGUERO
Octubre 1997
69
Convergencia Regional: Una revisión del caso
Colombiano.
Guillermo E. MURCIA G.
Octubre 1997
70
Income distribution, human capital and economic
growth in Colombia.
Octubre 1997
71
Evolución y determinantes del Ahorro del Gobierno Central.
Ma. Victoria ANGULO
Noviembre 1997
72
Macroeconomic Performance and Inequality in Colombia:
1976-1996
Raquel BERNAL
Mauricio CÁRDENAS
Diciembre 1997
73
Liberación comercial y salarios en Colombia: 1976-1994
Donald ROBBINS
Enero 1998
74
Educación y salarios relativos en Colombia: 1976-1995
Determinantes, evolución e implicaciones para
la distribución del Ingreso
Enero 1998
75
La tasa de interés “óptima”
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Febrero 1998
76
Los costos económicos de la criminalidad y la violencia en
Colombia: 1991-1996
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Martha Elena BADEL
Marzo 1998
77
Elasticidades Precio y Sustitución para la Industria
Colombiana.
Juán Pablo ARANGO
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Marzo 1998
78
Flujos Internacionales de Capital en Colombia:
Un enfoque de Portafolio
Ricardo ROCHA GARCÍA
Fernando MESA PARRA
Marzo 1998
79
Macroeconomía, ajuste estructural y equidad en Colombia:
1978-1996
José Antonio OCAMPO
María José PÉREZ
Camilo Ernesto TOVAR
Francisco Javier LASSO
Marzo 1998
80
La Curva de Salarios para Colombia. Una Estimación de las
Relaciones entre el Desempleo, la Inflación y los Ingresos
Laborales: 1984- 1996.
Marzo 1998
81
Participación, Desempleo y Mercados Laborales en Colombia.
Jaime TENJO G.
Rocio RIBERO M.
Abril 1998
82
Reformas comerciales, márgenes de beneficio y
productividad en la industria colombiana
Juán Pablo ARANGO
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Juán Mauricio RAMÍREZ
Abril 1998
83
Capital y Crecimiento Económico en un Modelo
Dinámico: Una presentación de la dinámica
Transicional para los casos de EEUU y Colombia
Alvaro ZARTA AVILA
Mayo 1998.
84
Determinantes de la Inversión en Colombia: E videncia sobre
el capital humano y la violencia.
Clara Helena PARRA
Junio 1998.
85
Mujeres en sus casas: Un recuento de la población
Femenina económicamente activa
Piedad URDINOLA C.
Junio 1998.
86
Descomposición de la desigualdad del Ingreso laboral
Urbano en Colombia: 1976-1997
Junio 1998.
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
87
El tamaño del Estado Colombiano Indicadores y tendencias:
1976-1997
Angela CORDI GALAT
Junio 1998.
88
Elasticidades de sustitución de las importaciones para la
economía colombiana.
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Junio 1998.
89
La tasa natural de desempleo en Colombia
Martha Luz HENAO
Norberto ROJAS
Junio 1998.
90
The role of shocks in the colombian economy
Ana María MENÉNDEZ
Julio 1998.
91
The determinants of Human Capital Accumulation in
Colombia, with implications for Trade and Growth Theory
Donald J. ROBBINS
Julio 1998.
92
Estimaciones de funciones de demanda de trabajo dinámicas
para la economía colombiana, 1980-1996
Alejandro VIVAS BENÍTEZ
Stefano FARNÉ
Dagoberto URBANO
Julio 1998.
93
Análisis de las relaciones entre violencia y equidad.
Alfredo SARMIENTO
Lida Marina BECERRA
Agosto 1998.
94
Evaluación teórica y empírica de las exportaciones
no tradicionales en Colombia
Fernando MESA PARRA
María Isabel COCK
Angela Patricia JIMÉNEZ
Agosto 1998.
95
Valoración económica del empleo doméstico femenino
no remunerado, en Colombia, 1978-1993
Piedad URDINOLA C.
Agosto 1998.
96
Eficiencia en el Gasto Público de Educación.
María Camila URIBE
Agosto 1998.
97
El desempleo en Colombia: tasa natural, desempleo cíclico
y estructural y la duración del desempleo: 1976-1998.
Jairo NÚÑEZ M.
Raquel BERNAL S.
Septiembre 1998.
98
Productividad y retornos sociales del Capital humano:
Microfundamentos y evidencia para Colombia.
Francisco A. GONZÁLEZ R.
Carolina GUZMÁN RUIZ
Angela L. PACHÓN G.
Noviembre 1998.
99
Reglas monetarias en Colombia y Chile
Jorge E. RESTREPO L.
Enero 1999.
100
Inflation Target Zone: The Case of Colombia: 1973-1994
Febrero 1999.
101
¿ Es creíble la Política Cambiaria en Colombia?
Carolina HOYOS V.
Marzo 1999.
102
La Curva de Phillips, la Crítica de Lucas y la persistencia
de la inflación en Colombia.
Abril 1999.
103
Un modelo macroeconométrico para la economía
Colombiana
Juan Daniel OVIEDO
Abril 1999.
104
Una revisión de la literatura teórica y la experiencia
Internacional en regulación
Marcela ESLAVA MEJÍA
Abril 1999.
105
El transporte terrestre de carga en Colombia
Documento para el Taller de Regulación.
Abril 1999.
Eleonora LOZANO RODRÍGUEZ
106
Notas de Economía Monetaria. (Primera Parte)
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRY G.
Abril 1999.
107
Ejercicios de Causalidad y Exogeneidad para Ingresos
salariales nominales públicos y privados Colombianos
(1976-1997).
Mauricio BUSSOLO
Camilo ZEA
Mayo 1999.
108
Real Exchange Rate Swings and Export Behavior:
Explaining the Robustness of Chilean Exports.
Felipe ILLANES
Mayo 1999.
109
Segregación laboral en las 7 principales ciudades del país.
Piedad URDINOLA
Mayo 1999.
110
Estimaciones trimestrales de la línea de pobreza y sus relaciones Jairo NÚÑEZ MÉNDEZ
con el desempeño macroeconómico Colombiano: (1977-1997) Fabio José SÁNCHEZ T.
Mayo 1999
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
111
Costos de la corrupción en Colombia.
Marta Elena BADEL
Mayo 1999
112
Relevancia de la dinámica transicional para el
crecimiento de largo plazo: Efectos sobre las tasas de
interés real, la productividad marginal y la estructura
de la producción para los casos de EEUU y Colombia..
Alvaro ZARTA AVILA
Junio 1999
113
La recesión actual en Colombia: Flujos, Balances y
Política anticíclica
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRY
Junio 1999
114
Monetary Rules in a Small Open Economy
Junio 1999
115
El Balance del Sector Público y la Sostenibilidad
Fiscal en Colombia
Gabriel PIRAQUIVE
Natalia SALAZAR FERRO
Ma. Victoria ANGULO
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Cielo Ma. NUMPAQUE
Israel FAINBOIM
Carlos Jorge RODRIGUEZ
Junio 1999
116
Crisis y recuperación de las Finanzas Públicas lecciones
de América Latina para el caso colombiano.
Julio 1999
117
Complementariedades Factoriales y Cambio Técnico
en la Industria Colombiana.
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Julio 1999
118
¿Hay un estancamiento en la oferta de crédito?
Julio 1999
119
Income distribution and macroeconomics in Colombia.
Javier A. BIRCHENALL J.
Julio 1999.
120
Transporte carretero de carga. Taller de regulación.
DNP-UMACRO. Informe final.
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRY G. Agosto 1999.
Eleonora LOZANO RODRIGUEZ
121
¿ Se cumplen las verdades nacionales a nivel regional?
Primera aproximación a la construcción de matrices de
contabilidad social regionales en Colombia.
Nelly.Angela CORDI GALAT Agosto 1999.
122
El capital social en Colombia.
La medición nacional con el BARCAS
Separata N° 1 de 5
John SUDARSKY
Octubre 1999.
123
Separata N° 2 de 5
John SUDARSKY
Octubre 1999.
124
Separata N° 3 de 5
John SUDARSKY
Octubre 1999.
125
Separata N° 4 de 5
John SUDARSKY
Octubre 1999.
126
Separata N° 5 de 5
John SUDARSKY
Octubre 1999.
127
The Liquidity Effect in Colombia
Noviembre 1999.
128
Upac: Evolución y crisis de un modelo de desarrollo.
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRI G.
B. Piedad URDINOLA
Diciembre 1999.
129
Confronting fiscal imbalances via intertemporal
Economics, politics and justice: the case of Colombia
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRY G. Diciembre 1999.
Verónica NAVAS-OSPINA
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
130
La tasa de interés en la coyuntura reciente en Colombia.
Edgar TRUJILLO CIRO
Diciembre 1999.
131
Los ciclos económicos en Colombia. Evidencia empírica:
(1977-1998)
José Daniel REYES PEñA
Enero 2000.
132
Colombia's natural trade partners and its bilateral trade
performance: Evidence from 1960 to 1996
Hernán Eduardo VALLEJO
Enero 2000.
133
Los derechos constitucionales de prestación y sus
implicaciones económico- políticas. Los casos del
derecho a la salud y de los derechos de los reclusos
Luis Carlos SOTELO
Febrero 2000.
134
La reactivación productiva del sector privado colombiano
(Documento elaborado para el BID).
Luis Alberto ZULETA
Marzo 2000.
135
Geography and Economic Development:
A Municipal Approach for Colombia.
Fabio JOSÉ SÁNCHEZ T.
Marzo 2000.
136
La evaluación de resultados en la modernización
del Estado en América Latina. Restricciones y
Estrategia para su desarrollo.
Eduardo WIESNER DURÁN
Abril 2000.
137
La regulación de precios del transporte de carga por
carretera en Colombia.
Abril 2000.
138
El conflicto armado en Colombia.
Una aproximación a la teoría de juegos.
Yuri GORBANEFF
Flavio JÁCOME
Julio 2000.
139
Determinación del consumo básico de agua potable
subsidiable en Colombia.
Juan Carlos JUNCA SALAS
Noviembre 2000.
Incidencia fiscal de los incentivos tributarios
Juan Ricardo ORTEGA
Noviembre 2000.
Gabriel Armando PIRAQUIVE
Gustavo Adolfo HERNÁNDEZ
Carolina SOTO LOSADA
Sergio Iván PRADA
Juan Mauricio RAMIREZ
141
Exenciones tributarias:
Costo fiscal y análisis de incidencia
Gustavo A. HERNÁNDEZ
Carolina SOTO LOSADA
Sergio Iván PRADA
Diciembre 2000
142
La contabilidad del crecimiento, las dinámicas transicionales y
el largo plazo: Una comparación internacional de 46 países y
una presentación de casos de economías tipo:
EEUU, Corea del Sur y Colombia.
Alvaro ZARTA AVILA
Febrero 2001
143
¿Nos parecemos al resto del mundo?
El Conflicto colombiano en el contexto internacional.
Verónica NAVAS OSPINA
Febrero 2001
144
Inconstitucionalidad del Plan Nacional de Desarrollo:
causas, efectos y alternativas.
Luis Edmundo SUÁREZ S.
Diego Mauricio AVILA A.
Marzo 2001
145
La afiliación a la salud y los efectos redistributivos
de los subsidios a la demanda.
Hernando MORENO G.
Abril 2001
146
La participación laboral: ¿qué ha pasado y qué
podemos esperar?
Mauricio SANTA MARÍA S. Abril 2001
Norberto ROJAS DELGADILLO
147
Análisis de las importaciones agropecuarias en la
década de los Noventa.
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Juan Ricardo PERILLA
Mayo 2001
148
Impacto económico del programa de Desarrollo
alternativo del Plan Colombia
Gustavo A. HERNÁNDEZ
Sergio Iván PRADA
Mayo 2001
.
140
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
149
Análisis de la presupuestación de la inversión de la Nación.
Ulpiano AYALA ORAMAS
Mayo 2001
150
DNPENSION: Un modelo de simulación para estimar
el costo fiscal del sistema pensional colombiano.
Mayo 2001
151
La oferta de combustible de Venezuela en la frontera
con Colombia: una aproximación a su cuantificación
Hernando MORENO G.
Junio 2001
152
Shocks fiscales y términos de intercambio en el caso
colombiano.
Ómer ÖZAK MUñOZ.
Julio 2001
153
Demanda por importaciones en Colombia:
Una estimación.
Igor Esteban ZUCCARDI
Julio 2001
154
Elementos para mejorar la adaptabilidad del
mercado laboral colombiano.
Mauricio SANTA MARÍA S. Agosto 2001
Norberto ROJAS DELGADILLO
155
¿Qué tan poderosas son las aerolíneas colombianas?
Estimación de poder de mercado de las rutas colombianas.
Ximena PEÑA PARGA
156
Elementos para el debate sobre una nueva reforma
pensional en Colombia.
Septiembre 2001
Andrés ESCOBAR ARANGO
César MERCHÁN HERNÁNDEZ
Gabriel PIRAQUIVE GALEANO
Mauricio SANTA MARÍA S.
157
Agregando votos en un sistema altamente
desistitucionalizado.
Francisco GUTIÉRREZ S.
Octubre
158
Eficiencia -X en el Sector Bancario Colombiano
Carlos Alberto CASTRO I
Noviembre 2001
159
Determinantes de la calidad de la educación en Colombia.
Alejandro GAVIRIA
Jorge Hugo BARRIENTOS
Noviembre 2001
160
Evaluación de la descentralización municipal.
Descentralización y macroeconomía
Noviembre 2001
161
Impuestos a las transacciones: Implicaciones sobre el bienestar
y el crecimiento.
Rodrigo SUESCÚN
Noviembre 2001
162
Strategic Trade Policy and Exchange Rate Uncertainty
Fernando MESA PARRA
Noviembre 2001
163
Evaluación de la descentralización municipal en Colombia.
Avances y resultados de la descentralización
Política en Colombia
Alberto MALDONADO C.
Noviembre 2001
164
Choques financieros, precios de activos y recesión
en Colombia.
Alejandro BADEL FLÓREZ
Noviembre 2001
165
Evaluación de la descentralización municipal en
Colombia. ¿Se consolidó la sostenibilidad fiscal de los
municipios colombianos durante los años noventa.
Juan Gonzalo ZAPATA
Olga Lucía ACOSTA
Adriana GONZÁLEZ
Noviembre 2001
166
Colombia. La descentralización en el Sector de
Agua potable y Saneamiento básico.
Ma. Mercedes MALDONADO Noviembre 2001
Gonzalo VARGAS FORERO
167
Colombia. La relación entre corrupción y proceso
de descentralización en Colombia.
Edgar GONZÁLEZ SALAS
Diciembre 2001
168
Colombia. Estudio general sobre antecedentes,
diseño, avances y resultados generales del proceso de
descentralización territorial en el Sector Educativo.
Carmen Helena VERGARA
Mary SIMPSON
Diciembre 2001
169
Colombia. Componente de capacidad institucional.
Edgar GONZÁLEZ SALAS
Diciembre 2001
Agosto 2001
2001
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
170
Colombia. Evaluación de la descentralización en
Salud en Colombia.
Iván JARAMILLO PÉREZ
Diciembre 2001
171
External Trade, Skill, Technology and the recent
increase of income inequality in Colombia
Diciembre 2001
172
Seguimiento y evaluación de la participación de los
resguardos indígenas en los ingresos corrientes de la
Nación para el período 1998 y 1999.
Dirección de Desarrollo
Territorial
Diciembre 2001
173
Exposición de Motivos de la Reforma de la Ley 60 de
1993. Sector Educación y Sector Salud
Dirección de Desarrollo
Social
Diciembre 2001
174
Transferencias, incentivos y la endogenidad del gasto
Territorial. Seminario internacional sobre Federalismo
fiscal - Secretaría de Hacienda de México, CEPAL,
ILPES, CAF - Cancún, México. 18-20 de Mayo de 2000
Enero 2002.
175
Cualificación laboral y grado de sindicalización
Flavio JÁCOME LIÉVANO
Enero 2002.
176
OFFSETS: Aproximación teórica y experiencia
Internacional.
Nohora Eugenia POSADA
Febrero 2002.
Yaneth Cristina GIHA TOVAR
Paola BUENDÍA GARCÍA
Alvaro José CHÁVEZ G.
177
Pensiones: conceptos y esquemas de financiación
César Augusto MERCHÁN H. Febrero 2002.
178
La erradicación de las minas antipersonal sembradas
en Colombia - Implicaciones y costos-
Yilberto LAHUERTA P.
Ivette María ALTAMAR
Marzo 2002.
179
Economic growth in Colombia: A reversal of "Fortune"?
Mauricio CÁRDENAS S.
Marzo 2002.
180
El siglo del modelo de desarrollo.
Juan Carlos ECHEVERRY G
Abril 2002.
181
Metodología de un Modelo ARIMA condicionado
para el pronóstico del PIB.
Juan Pablo HERRERA S.
Gustavo A. HERNÁNDEZ D.
Abril 2002.
182
¿Cuáles son los colombianos con pensiones
privilegiadas?
César Augusto MERCHÁN H. Abril 2002.
183
Garantías en carreteras de primera generación.
Impacto económico.
José Daniel REYES PEñA.
Abril 2002
184
Impacto económico de las garantías de la Nación
en proyectos de infraestructura.
José Daniel REYES PEñA.
Abril 2002
185
Aproximación metodológica y cuantitativa
de los costos económicos generados por el
problema de las drogas ilícitas en Colombia
(1995 - 2000)
Ricardo PÉREZ SANDOVAL
Andrés VERGARA BALLÉN
Yilberto LAHUERTA P
Abril 2002
186
Tendencia, ciclos y distribución del ingreso
en Colombia: una crítica al concepto de
"modelo de desarrollo"
Andrés ESCOBAR ARANGO
Abril 2002.
187
Crecimiento y ciclos económicos. Efectos de los choques
de oferta y demanda en el crecimiento colombiano
Igor Esteban ZUCCARDI H.
Mayo 2002.
188
A general equilibrium model for tax policy
analysis in Colombia. The MEGATAX model.
Thomas Fox RUTHERFORD.
Miles Kenneth. LIGHT
Mayo 2002.
189
A dynamic general equilibrium model for tax
policy analysis in Colombia.
Thomas Fox RUTHERFORD.
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Mayo 2002.
190
Sistema Bancario Colombiano:
¿Somos eficientes a nivel internacional?
Alejandro BADEL FLÓREZ.
Junio 2002.
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
191
Política para mejorar el servicio de transporte público
urbano de pasajeros.
DNP: DIE- GEINF
Junio 2002.
192
Two decades of economic and social development
in urban Colombia: a mixed outcome
Carlos Eduardo VÉLEZ
Mauricio SANTA MARÍA,
Natalia MILLAN
Bénédicte DE LA BRIERE
World Bank (LAC/PREM)
Junio 2002.
Roberto STEINER
Ximena CADENA
Renata PARDO
CEDE, U. de los Andes
Junio 2002.
193
¿Cuáles colegios ofrecen mejor educación en Colombia?
194
Nuevos enfoques de política regional en América Latina:
El caso de Colombia en perspectiva histórica.
Las nuevas teorías y enfoques conceptuales sobre el
desarrollo regional. ¿Hacia un nuevo paradigma?
Separata 1 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
195
Las políticas regionales: Un enfoque por generaciones
Separata 2 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
196
Un mundo de geometría variable:
Los territorios que ganan y los que pierden.
Separata 3 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
197
Enfoques teóricos y evidencias empíricas sobre
el desarrollo regional en Colombia.
Separata 4 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
198
Las políticas regionales en Colombia.
Separata 5 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
199
Tendencias del desarrollo regional en Colombia.
-Polarización, apertura y conflictoSeparata 6 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
200
Marco conceptual y metodológico para el diseño
de una nueva generación de políticas de desarrollo
regional en Colombia.
Separata 7 de 7
Edgard MONCAYO J.
Julio 2002.
201
Viabilidad de los servicios públicos domiciliarios
en la ciudad de Santiago de Cali.
Mauricio SANTA MARÍA
Francisco BERNAL
Carlos David BELTRÁN
David VILLALBA
Agosto 2002
202
Optimal enforcement: Finding the right balance
Jaime Andrés ESTRADA
Agosto 2002
203
Does corporate governance matter for developing
countries?
An overview of the Mexican case.
Paula ACOSTA MÁRQUEZ
Agosto 2002
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
204
Reflexiones sobre el proceso de paz del gobierno de Andrés
PASTRANA y las FARC-Ep: (1998-2002)
Camilo LEGUÍZAMO
Agosto 2002
205
Contratación pública en Colombia y teoría Económica.
Yuri GORBANEFF
Septiembre 2002.
206
Does planning pay to perform in infrastructure?
Deconstructing the babylon tower on the planning/
performance relationships in energy, telecommunications
and transport sectors – colombian case.
Daniel TORRES GRACIA
Septiembre 2002.
207
A dynamic analysis of household decision making in urban
Colombia, 1976-1998
Changes in household structure, human capital
and its returns, and female labor force participation .
Octubre 2002.
208
Inversión pública sectorial
y crecimiento
Económico: Una aproximación desde la
Metodología VAR.
Alvaro A. PERDOMO S.
Octubre 2002.
209
Impacto macroeconómico y distributivo del Impuesto de
seguridad democrática.
Ömer ÖZAK MUÑOZ.
Oscar Mauricio VALENCIA
Octubre 2002.
210
Empleo informal y evasión fiscal en Colombia.
Octubre 2002.
211
Diagnóstico del programa de reinserción en Colombia:
mecanismos para incentivar la desmovilización voluntaria
individual.
Maria Eugenia PINTO B.
Noviembre 2002.
212
Economías de escala en los hogares y pobreza.
Tesis para optar el título de Magíster en Teoría y
Política Económica de la Universidad Nacional
de Colombia.
Francisco Javier LASSO V.
Noviembre 2002.
213
Nueva metodología de Encuesta de hogares.
¿Más o menos desempleados?
Francisco Javier LASSO V.
Noviembre 2002.
214
Una aproximación de la Política Comercial Estratégica
para el ingreso de Colombia al ALCA.
Ricardo E. ROCHA G..
Juan Ricardo PERILLA
Ramiro LÓPEZ SOLER
Diciembre 2002.
215
The political business cycle in Colombia
on the National and Regional level.
Allan DRAZEN
Marcela ESLAVA
University of Maryland
Enero 2003.
216
Balance macroeconómico de 2002 y
Perspectivas para 2003.
Dirección de Estudios
Económicos
Enero 2003.
217
Women workers in Bogotà ‘s Informal sector:
Gendered impact of structural adjustment
Policies in the 1990s.
Tesis para optar el título de Magíster en
Estudios de Desarrollo del Instituto de Estudios
Sociales de The Hague- Holanda.
Jairo G. ISAZA CASTRO
Febrero 2003.
218
Determinantes de la duración del desempleo en
el área metropolitana de Cali 1988-1998.
(Documento elaborado por profesores del Departamento de Economía de la Universidad del Valle)
Carlos E. CASTELLAR P.
José Ignacio URIBE G.
Marzo 2003.
219
Conflicto, violencia y actividad criminal en Colombia:
Un análisis espacial.
Ana María DÍAZ
Michel FORMISANO
Marzo 2003.
220
Evaluating the impact of SENA on earnings and
Employment.
Alejandro GAVIRIA URIBE
Abril 2003.
221
Un análisis de la relación entre inversión extranjera y
Comercio exterior en la economía colombiana.
Erika Bibiana PEDRAZA
Abril 2003.
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
Abril 2003.
222
Free Trade Area of the Americas. An impact
Assessment for Colombia.
Thomas Fox RUTHERFORD
223
Construcción de una Matriz de Contabilidad Social
Financiera para Colombia.
Gustavo Adolfo HERNÁNDEZ Mayo 2003.
224
Elementos para el análisis de Incidencia tributaria.
Andrés ESCOBAR
Gustavo HERNÁNDEZ
Gabriel PIRAQUIVE
Mayo 2003.
225
Desempeño económico por tipo de4 firma:
Empresas nacionales vs. Grandes y pequeñas receptoras
De inversión extranjera.
Erika Bibiana PEDRAZA
Mayo 2003.
226
El balance estructural del Gobierno Central en Colombia.
Natalia SALAZAR
Diego PRADA
Junio 2003.
227
Descentralización y Equidad en América Latina:
Enlaces Institucionales y de Política
Eduardo WIESNER
Junio 2003.
228
Ciclos económicos y mercado laboral en Colombia:
¿quién gana más, quién pierde más? 1984-2000.
Luz Magdalena SALAS
Oskar NUPIA
Julio 2003.
229
Efectos de un acuerdo bilateral de libre comercio con
Estados Unidos
Direcciones de Estudios
Económicos y de
Desarrollo Empresarial
del DNP
Julio 2003.
230
Pobreza, crimen y crecimiento regional en Colombia.
(Versión para comentarios)
Ricardo Ernesto ROCHA G.
Agosto 2003.
Hermes Fernando MARTÍNEZ
231
Contracciones leves y profundas:
Efectos asimétricos sobre la pobreza
El caso colombiano 1984-2000.
Jorge E. SÁENZ CASTRO
Juan Pablo HERRERA S.
Oscar E. GUZMÁN SILVA
Agosto 2003.
232
Sistema de modelos multivariados para la proyección
del Producto Interno Bruto
Carlos Alberto CASTRO I.
Septiembre 2003.
233
Yet another lagging, coincident and leading index for
The Colombian economy.
Carlos Alberto CASTRO I.
Septiembre 2003.
234
Posibles implicaciones de la legalización del consumo,
Producción y comercialización de las drogas en Colombia.
Sandra Patricia CORREA
Septiembre 2003.
235
Impactos económicos generados por el uso de minas
antipersonal en Colombia.
Septiembre 2003.
236
¿Cuánto duran los colombianos en el desempleo y en el
Empleo?: Un análisis de supervivencia.
Hermes Fernando MARTÍNEZ Septiembre 2003.
237
Barreras a la entrada en el mercado de compras del
Sector público.
Un análisis de estructura de mercado en la perspectiva
De la negociación del Area de Libre Comercio de las
Américas.
Fernando J. ESTUPIÑAN
238
Relative labor supply and the gender wage Gap:
Evidence for Colombia and the United States.
Diego F. ANGEL-URDINOLA Octubre 2003.
Quentin WODON
239
The gender wage Gap and poverty in Colombia.
.
Quentin WODON
240
The impact on inequality of raising the minimum wage:
Gap- narrowing and reranking effects.
Quentin WODON
Octubre 2003.
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
241
Inversión y restricciones crediticias en la década de
los 90 en Colombia.
Catalina DELGADO G.
Octubre 2003.
242
Metodologías de estimación del balance estructural:
Una aplicación al caso colombiano.
Luis Edgar BASTO M..
Noviembre-03.
243
The cost of disinflation in Colombia
-A sacrifice Ratio Approach-
José Daniel REYES P..
Noviembre -03.
244
Evaluación de la Eficiencia en Instituciones
Hospitalarias públicas y privadas con Data
Envelopment Analysis (DEA)
Ma. Cristina PEÑALOZA R.
Diciembre-03.
245
Medición de eficiencia técnica relativa en hospitales
Públicos de baja complejidad, mediante la metodología
Data envelopment analysis – DEA
Tesis para optar al título de Magíster en Economía, de la
Pontificia Universidad Javeriana.
Maureen Jennifer PINZON M.
Diciembre -03.
246
Child labour and the Economic recession of 1999
In Colombia.
Claudia Marcela UMAÑA A.
Enero 2004.
247
A Minimum Wage Increase Can Have an Adverse
Distributional Impact:
The case of Colombia
Diego F. ANGEL-URDINOLA
Marzo 2004.
248
Una mirada económica a los acuerdos de offsets en el
Sector Defensa y Seguridad en Colombia.
Mauricio VARGAS V.
Marzo 2004.
249
El gasto en Defensa y Seguridad: caracterización del
Caso colombiano en el contexto internacional.
Nicolás URRUTIA IRIARTE.
Marzo 2004.
250
Modelo Insumo – Producto dinámico .
Alvaro A. PERDOMO S.
Abril 2004.
251.
El origen político del déficit fiscal en Colombia:
El contexto institucional 20 años después.
Abril 2004.
252.
Del romanticismo al realismo social:
Lecciones de la década de 1990
Alejandro GAVIRIA URIBE
Abril 2004.
253.
Endeudamiento privado externo y régimen cambiario:
Un modelo para países en desarrollo
Trabajo para optar al título de Economista en la Escuela
De Economía de la Universidad Nacional de Colombia.
Juan Carlos CASTRO F.
Mayo 2004.
254.
¿Qué es el sector de servicios, cómo se regula, cómo se
comercia y cuál es su impacto en la economía?
Paula JARAMILLO V.
Mayo 2004.
255.
Una aproximación de los efectos del ALCA sobre las
Importaciones de Colombia.
Ricardo ROCHA-GARCIA
Juan Ricardo PERILLA J.
Ramiro LOPEZ-SOLER
Mayo 2004.
256.
2000 Social Accounting Matrix for Colombia
Claudio René KARL E.
Mayo 2004.
257.
El secuestro en Colombia:
Caracterización y costos económicos
María Eugenia PINTO B.
Ivette María ALTAMAR C
Junio 2004.
:
Luis Fernando CEPEDA Z
Adriana Victoria MERA S.
258.
Privatización de centros de reclusión en Colombia
Jhonn Fredy REY BARBOSA.
Junio 2004.
259.
Anatomía de la cadena de prestación de salud en
Colombia en el régimen contributivo.
Documento elaborado por la Pontificia Universidad
Javeriana- Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y
Administrativas – Dirección de postgrados en Salud.
Yuri GORBANEFF- Profesor.
Sergio TORRES, Ph.D
Nelson CONTRERAS, M.D.
Junio 2004.
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
260.
Balanza de Pagos de Colombia.
Metodología y resultados 1994-2002
Angela P. JIMENEZ SIERRA
Julio 2004.
261.
Cálculo del PIB Potencial en Colombia.:
1970-2003
Jorge Iván RODRIGUEZ-M. - DNP
Juan Ricardo PERILLA-J. - DNP
José Daniel REYES PËÑA – BID
Julio 2004.
262.
Liberalización de los servicios de Telecomunicaciones.:
en Colombia.
Zenaida ACOSTA DE VALENCIA
Julio 2004.
263.
Movilidad intergeneracional en Colombia.:
Tesis para optar al título de Magíster en Teoría y
Política Económica de la Universidad Nacional de
Colombia – Bogotá, D. C.
Katherine CARTAGENA PIZARRO
Agosto 2004.
264.
A real Financial Social Accounting Matrix for Colombia
Henning Tarp Jensen
Institute of Economics –
University of Copenhagen
Claudio René KARL ESTUPIÑAN-DNP
Agosto 2004.
265.
Regulación de los servicios de transporte en Colombia
y Comercio Internacional.
Agosto 2004.
266.
Proceso de internacionalización de los servicios de
enseñanza en Colombia
Agosto 2004.
267.
Restricciones al comercio de servicios de salud
Alejandra Ma. RANGEL PALOMINO
Septiembre -04.
268.
Disability and Social Policy: An Evaluation of the
Colombian Legislation on Disability.
THESIS: Submitted as partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of Master of Science
in Disability and Human Development in the Graduate
College of the University of Illinois at Chicago
Adriana GONZALEZ SANTANDER
Septiembre -04.
269.
Modelos de pronóstico de la producción bovina
Constanza MARTINEZ VENTURA
Septiembre -04.
270.
Esquemas de incentivos para la Carrera Docente
Claudia Marcela UMAñA APONTE
Octubre 2004.
271.
Elasticidades de sustitución Armington para Colombia
Carolina LOZANO KARANAUSKAS
Octubre 2004.
272.
Monografía del sector de electricidad y gas colombiano:
Condiciones actuales y retos futuros.
Ana María SANDOVAL
Noviembre-04.
273.
Pronósticos de la Producción industrial.
Índice de producción real.
Constanza MARTINEZ VENTURA
Noviembre 04.
274.
Modelos de Pronóstico para el PIB de los Establecimientos
Financieros, seguros, inmuebles y servicios a las empresas.
Victor Germán HERNANDEZ RUIZ
Diciembre 04.
275.
Economic Growth and the Household Optimal Income Tax
Evasion.
Oscar Mauricio VALENCIA ARANA
Diciembre-04
276.
Costo de Uso del capital en Colombia: 1997-2003
Leonardo RHENALS ROJAS
Enero 2005
277.
Costos generados por la violencia armada en
Colombia: 1999-2003
Maria Eugenia PINTO BORREGO
Andrés VERGARA BALLEN
Yilberto LAHUERTA PERCIPIANO
Enero 2005
278.
¿Se ha liberalizado el comercio de servicios en los
acuerdos comerciales de EEUU?
El caso de NAFTA y los TLC con Chile y Singapur
Alejandra RANGEL
Zenaida ACOSTA
Jorge CEPEDA
Germán MUÑOZ
Catalina DELGADO
Paula JARAMILLO
Enero 2005
279.
Una propuesta de subsidio al salario para Colombia.
(Versión preliminar)
Letty Margarita BOHORQUEZ
César Augusto MERCHAN
Febrero 2005
No
Título
Autores
Fecha
280.
Colombia en los próximos veinte años.
El país que queremos.
Rudolf HOMMES RODRIGUEZ
Claudia Marcela UMAÑA APONTE
Marzo 2005
281.
Tratado de Libre Comercio y Barreras No .
Arancelarias: Un análisis crítico
Daniel VAUGHAN CARO
Abril 2005
282.
Educación y pensiones en Colombia:.
Una perspectiva intergeneracional.
Catalina DELGADO GONZALEZ
Abril 2005
283.
Crecimiento pro-poor en Colombia:.
1996-2004
Alfredo SARMIENTO
Jorge Iván GONZÁLEZ
Carlos Eduardo ALONSO
Roberto ANGULO
Francisco ESPINOSA
Mayo 2005
284.
Evaluación del desempeño de las instituciones
aseguradoras (EPS y ARS) en términos de su
contribución al logro de uno de los fundamentos
de la Ley 100 de 1993: la equidad en la prestación
de servicios de salud del SGSSS
Ma. Cristina PEÑALOZA RAMOS
Mayo 2005
285.
El modelo DNPensión V 4.0
Parte I
Javier-Hernando OSORIO GONZALEZ
Juliana MARTINEZ CUELLAR
Tomás RODRÍGUEZ BARRAQUER
Junio 2005
286.
Evolución de los resultados de la educación en
Colombia (1997-2003)
Estudio realizado por el Programa Nacional de
Desarrollo Humano DDS-DNP
Darwin MARCELO GORDILLO
Natalia ARIZA RAMÍREZ
Julio 2005
287.
Laberinto de recursos en el sistema de salud ,
según proyecto 052
Estudio realizado para la Facultad de Ciencias
Económicas y Administrativas de la Pontificia
Universidad Javeriana.
Profesores: -Yuri GORBANEFF
- Sergio TORRES
- Conrado GOMES
- José Fernando CARDONA
Director de los postgrados en Salud:
- Nelson CONTRERAS
Julio 2005
288.
Crecimiento económico, empleo formal y
Carlos Arturo MEZA CARVAJALINO
y acceso al servicio de salud:
Investigador principal
algunas escenarios de corto y largo plazo de la
Jairo Guillermo ISAZA CASTRO
cobertura en salud para Colombia
Coinvestigador
(Estudio realizado para la Universidad de la SalleDepartamento de investigacionesCentro de Investigaciones de Economía Social-CIDES)
Julio 2005
289.
Colombia y el TLC: Efectos sobre la Distribución
del Ingreso y la Pobreza.
Oliver Enrique PARDO REINOSO
Alvaro Andrés PERDOMO STRAUCH
Catalina DELGADO GONZALEZ
Carolina LOZANO KARANAUSKAS
Agosto 2005
290.
Colombia’s Higher Education Quality Control
System and Potential for Further Development
Maria Otilia OROZCO
Agosto 2005

Educación Superior” en Colombia: Un País y un Sistema en

Transcripción

Documentos relacionados

Dr. Angelino Garzon Former Vice President of Colombia Promoter of