Cash crops, smallholder decision

Transcripción

Cash crops, smallholder decision-making and institutional interactions in a closing-frontier:
Calakmul, Campeche, Mexico
Author(s): Eric Keys and Rinku Roy Chowdhury
Source: Journal of Latin American Geography, Vol. 5, No. 2 (2006), pp. 75-90
Published by: University of Texas Press
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Cash
crops, smallholder decision-making
and institutional interactions in a closing
frontier: Calakmul,
Campeche,
Mexico
Eric Keys
DepartmentofGeography
UniversityofFlorida
Rinku Roy Chowdhury
DepartmentofGeographyand RegionalStudies
UniversityofMiami
Abstract
In Mexico,
of 1910, agricultural development
for subsistence
and
of
diverse
stakeholder
farmers.
Within
the
groups,
priority
particularly
to an enter
last ten years, Mexican
federal agricultural policy shifted from a paternalistic
since
the revolution
a
market has been
This shift resulted in benefits for a few farmers while placing most produc
prise model.
ers at risk of economic
failure. In addition to the impacts on the household
economy,
these policies
influence land use and land cover. This paper explores the dynamics of
chili production
and policy factors
and how these dynamics are influenced by household
in Campeche,
in the municipality
of Calakmul
Mexico.
chili
is the foremost
Jalapeno
until recently a development
frontier forMexico,
and now the
market crop in Calakmul,
reserve in that country and a landscape where
site of the largest biosphere
priorities for
An integration of qualita
forest conservation meet those for agricultural development.
tive and quantitative methods
enables a more complete understanding
of this important
and expanding
land use in the region.
Keywords:
Mexico,
agricultural decision-making, land use, market crops
Resumen
ha
En Mexico,
desde la revolution, el desarrollo agricola para la subsistencia y el mercado
la ultima
los agricultores. Durante
sido una prioridad para diversos grupos, especialmente
en relation a la
de uno mar
la poh'tica federal mexicana
decada
agricultura ha cambiado
a un grupo
hacia un modelo
de paternalismo
empresarial. Este cambio beneficio
un fracaso economico.
Por
al
de
la
de
pequeno
mayoria
riesgo
agricultores, pero exponia
en
uso
esas
el
encima de los impactos en la economia
domestica,
poMticas impactaron
de la production
del suelo y la cobertura de la tierra. Este estudio explora los dinamicos
cado
de chili y como ellos
nicipio de Calakmul,
del mercado
ahora
son influidos por los factores y
dentro el mu
poh'ticas domesticos
es el
en
El
chili
Mexico.
producto principal
jalapeno
Campeche,
desde hace poco en la frontera de desarrollo de Mexico,
pero
de la reserva bioesferica mas grande de Mexico,
y un paisaje en el cual
confrontan aquellas del desarrollo. Una
de conservation
integration de
de Calakmul,
la ubicacion
las prioridades
metodos
cuantitativos
de este
entendimiento
y cualitativos permiten un mejor
uso de suelo de la
tante y ampliando
region.
toma de decisiones agricolas, uso de suelo, cosechas del mercado
Palabras clave: Mexico,
American Geography,5 (2), 2006
journal of LMtin
impor
76
Journal of Latin American
Introduction: changing expectations
the affirmation
With
of
the North
Geography
of communal
American
lands inMexico
Free Trade
(NAFTA)
Agreement
land
of the e/ido, the country's foremost communal
fully altered its expectations
tenure institution (Dejanvry, Sadoulet, and Gordillo
1997; Randall
1996; Liverman
1992).
to support
or desirable
for the federal government
It was no longer fiscally possible
on
of theMexican
27
Article
and
farmers
semi-subsistence
ejidos,
generally low-yielding
to own
other changes, this reform allowed peasants
constitution was reformed. Among
itwas hoped, would
The possibility of privatization,
land previously held in common.
incentives
allow ejidatarios to access private credit or to use land as collateral, generating
Mexico
The
and intensify agricultural and/or forest production.
impacts of the
now
27 reform have been varied but they signal that the Mexican
government
to
to do more than survive; rural people are expected
desires rural people
profit.
in the
land use and structural forces have long been explored
Rural smallholder
to modernize
Article
fields of cultural and political ecology. A rich body of empirical and theo
geographic
in peasant
societies
retical work
investigates agricultural change and decision-making
(RoyChowdhuryandTurner 2006; Laney 2002; Turner andAli 1996;Turner and Brush
1987;Brookfield 1972, 1964, 1962;Brookfieldand Brown 1963). In addition,the role
institutions
of exogenous
political-economic
in human-environment
is analyzed
households
that enable
and/or
research
(Robbins
constrain
2004;
smallholder
Zimmerer
and
Bassett 2003; Brookfield,Potter and Byron 1995;Blaikie and Brookfield 1987;Hewitt
are among some of the most important institu
frontier settings (Keys 2005; Keys and McConnell
2005;
1999; Finan 1998; Barlett 1980; Gudeman
1978).
Batterbury and Bebbington
the interaction between farm
In the southern Yucatan
peninsular region (SYPR),
1983; Watts
tions
1983). Commodity
to arise in and transform
markets
and (supra) regional institutions influences land use in ejidos and shapes
ing households
in the 1990s saw the
liberalization of the Mexican
future land cover. The
economy
of agricultural policy instruments that focused on market agriculture in
implementation
subsistence yields. For smallholders
residing in the southern Yuca
chili {Capsicum annuum) is the most significant agricultural crop that
on smallholder
specifically for the market. The cultivation of chili depends
turn linked to neoliberal
in
the
of
and
agricultural policies
expansion
decision-making,
addition
to increasing
tan's ejidos,
is cultivated
jalapeno
an
1990s also witnessed
the commodity's market in the region. The
increasing interna
of conservation
interests in theMexican
tionalization
forests, following the designation
in 1989 of Calakmul,
the country's largest biosphere
reserve, in southeastern Campeche
of the
and Boege,
(Miller, Chang and Johnson 2001; Acopa
1998). The establishment
state and non
Reserve
Calakmul Biosphere
with concomitant
(CBR) was accompanied
efforts to promote
sustainable and/or intensive agri
(NGO)
organization
governmental
the reserve. The confluence of structural reform, agricultural
culture in areas bordering
in this region hold important implications
and environmental movements
for
policies
land use
allocation
attention
in the CBR
This paper analyzes the spatial
region, including chili cultivation.
and dynamics of chili cultivation in ejidos adjacent to the CBR, with particular
to farmer
land use in the context
decision-making
regarding this commercial
of prevailing
environmental
and institutional transformations.
Such analysis integrates
a land
and provides valuable
quantitative and qualitative research methods,
insights into
use that is
most economically
the
for
local
farmers
arguably
profitable agricultural option
in a region beset by biophysical
and economic
limitations to improving livelihoods.
A
closing
frontier: Calakmul,
Campeche,
study area: land change in the southern Yucatan
The
77
Mexico
peninsular
region
and Quintana
the SYPR
Roo,
parts of the states of Campeche
through various periods of land use, including intensive occupation
by
civilization
that declined after 900 AD
(Haenn 2002; Turner, Klepeis
Encompassing
(Figure 1) passed
the ancient Maya
state extract
and Turner 2001). The post-colonial Mexican
2002; Klepeis
ed chicle and tropical hardwoods
from the SYPR's
in the 1800s, and in
forests beginning
the twentieth century settled this forested "frontier" through ejidal land grants, initiating
and Schneider
in the region through tropical deforestation
the recent agricultural expansion
(Klepeis
in a handful of
2001; Snook
1998). Left with few options for participation
failed, large-scale state agricultural projects, the region's new colonists began to use lands
and Turner
to cultivate
subsistence and cash crops that generally allowed them only an economically
land pressures
led to high rates of deforestation,
existence.
impoverished
Increasing
on international lists of 'hot
and led to
placing the region
spots' of tropical deforestation,
thecreationof the723,128 ha CalakmulBiosphereReserve (CBR) in 1989 (FAO 1999;
et al. 1998; Primack
Achard
forestation
continued,
et al. 1998; Roy Chowdhury
and Turner 2006). Regional de
and Schneider
(2004) calculate a 0.61%
Roy Chowdhury
however.
rate (0.29% after adjusting for successional
regrowth) in 1987-1997
on satellite
a
area of 15,900
in
land-cover
detection
imagery-derived
change
study
a
km2. The highest annual rates of this deforestation
(up to 1.58%) pertain to 3,300 km2
annual deforestation
based
sub-region,
the %ona chilera,where
ejidos practicing market-oriented
chili cultivation
dominate (Turner,
Geoghegan and Foster 2004:133; Keys 2004a;Keys 2004b).
In the zona
pre
in the SYPR, milpa (swidden or slash-and-burn
ac
subsistence
squash) remains the main
agricultural
et al. 2001).
In more recent years, Mexico
has
2003; Turner
tivity (Klepeis and Vance
one group
agricultural sectors, consigning
emphasized
outward-looking,
export-based
and beans) for the
of cultivators to produce
relatively low value crops (generally maize
agriculture
chilera and elsewhere
for maize,
beans
and
fruits and beef for a
and another group to cultivate winter vegetables,
to
Calakmul
The
farmers
market
(Sanderson
1986).
migrating
largely repre
high-paying
sented the former group, yet, they devised ways to earn money on their own, incorporat
as
state
source communities
in
large-scale
projects
ing agricultural practices from their
national market
from Veracruz, where
failed. In 1975, three farmers reached Calakmul
they
these farmers began to culti
settled in the SYPR,
had practiced chili cultivation. Once
at firstmodest
a market crop that earned them
vate chili, hoping to develop
regular, if
current obstacles,
and
chili
cultivation
initial
expanded
rapidly. In the
profits. Despite
zona chilera, 85% of the farmers currendy cultivate chili, while ninety-two percent of
Calakmul
farmers have
attempted
farmers enlisted market
chili cultivation
intermediaries
at least once
(locally known
To sell the chili,
(Keys 2004b).
as coyotes) for their connections
to
the national market.
After the signingof theNAFTA andGATT, Mexico's ejidos experiencedtheef
for agricultural
policy institutions, including those designed
have analyzed the ef
and intensification. Researchers
reform and its attendant
fects of neoliberal
commercialization
fectof policies such as thePROCAMPO agricultural
subsidyin theSYPR (e.g.Abizaid
such
There
remains a need to examine
and Vance
2004; Klepeis
2003).
the role
(chili) sector, while explicidy considering
specifically for the commercial
environmental
conservation.
played by other local policies and projects: those targeting
state and
in
1990s
and
the
international,
non-governmental
continuing today,
Beginning
and Coomes
policies
(NGOs)
organizations
and other non-timber
tion
for agricultural
with
agricultural
such as apiculture, allspice
alternatives
conservation
promoted
forest product economies,
"green" fertilizers and/or mechaniza
sedentarization,
Along
agroforestry and reforestation programs.
policies,
such conservation
initiatives also
influence
smallholder
parcel
-s^~?^.
l(T}boundary
^
-National
^ N.Mendozai
vg
jjf
Field
awork
sites
_
zone_|
Buffer
j j89?W
|?Nucjearzone
. ,,v;:
Cy
V]K
iA
fl
5.
/|ElChralito
/FEMALA
Caiukmul
80R0ER
Biosphere
Reserve
020km
1Q
/ \_)
J \jrS~^%^
-State
/"^y^ft
J*Q
boundary
Cl^"CCdon
#>|.^
/
J
?g
Settlements
\c^^^^^^f
^ /R?ads
*****
WV/
S^>^?(
U-'jC*
MUNICIPALITY
^#
/JL_f
f^W
?|5
/T"'
CALAKMUL
\LJ
I(//
OaPoloNorte
Figure
The
1:(source:
study
Turner,
Geoghegan
2004:
Foster
6)
and
area
A closing
frontier: Calakmul,
79
Mexico
Campeche,
to chili
allocations
by providing livelihood alternatives and potentially altering household
local producer relationships or networks of socio-political
decision-making,
capital.
It is within
that we
this context
instruments emerg
investigate how policy
sectors
of the agricultural and environmental
ing from the liberalization
along with
household
socioeconomic
factors
influence
smallholder
chili cultivation
in CalakmuTs
first present a qualitative
ejidos. We
and biophysical
factors that influence
institutional
analysis of the various household,
farmers' chili-related decisions,
and detail the ex
zona chilera. This
in five ejidos in CalakmuTs
and practice of chili cultivation
pansion
with quantitative
qualitative
study is then complemented
analysis to link statistically the
specific
areal
extent of
and
mographic
litical structures,
to the households'
de
by farming households
and
with
characteristics,
engagement
larger socio-po
combination
programs. The
agricultural and conservation
chili cultivated
socio-economic
including
of qualitative and quantitative methods
allows for an in-depth and more complete pic
ture of the
of
chili
cultivation, and reveal which of the factors identified by
dynamics
meet
test for statistical
in explaining
the qualitative
the
aspects of
study
significance
were col
chili cultivation. The data for both the
and qualitative
analyses
quantitative
lected
in collaboration
sity (see Turner,
The decision
with
Geoghegan
the LCLUC-SYPR
and Foster
research
2004),
between
based
project
August
at Clark Univer
1999
and May
2002.
to cultivate chili: a qualitative approach
or dis
qualitative data to understand what factors either encouraged
to cultivate chili. These data included
farmers
other
land
variables,
couraged
biophysical
uses and crops, household
social and human capital, tenancy, and relation
demography,
We
collected
to and
of marketing
structures.
In addition to comparing different
understanding
vs.
of
chili
and
slash
types
burn) these data allowed the comparison
farming (mechanized
of chili farmers to non-chili farmers. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and
to the relative
then grouped
factors, based
according
importance of particular decision
ships
on
the percentage
of farmers citing those factors. This qualitative model
identifies the
at
factors
that
farmers
interact
with
all
of
the
chili-to-market
network.
stages
multiple
Figure 2 illustrates the percentage of farmers who
at least once
along the southern road of Calakmul.
"
Figure
^ >
<P>
2. Percentage
^ fV
have attempted
/ / ^
chili cultivation
S / /
Year
of farmers attempting
chili cultivation
at least once,
1972-1999.
80
Geography
of chili in southern Calakmul
represents a major change in land
in the region. While
92% of zona chilera farmers have attempted chili
cultivation, it is important to note that once introduced, chili seems to remain as a crop
the group of farmers who attempted chili cultivation at
of choice among farmers. Of
least once, 93% cultivated chili in the 1999-2000 growing season. Although
beset by bio
and cultural barriers to success, chili cultivation seems in some cases
physical, economic,
to be the
only viable commercial
agricultural activity in Calakmul.
introduction
The
use and land cover
to cultivate
farmers report that multiple
factors drove their initial decision
Most
chili (Table 1). Only two farmers reported government
programs as key in their decision
to the efforts of a
to
experiment with chili, illustrating how chili cultivation began due
As the
handful of risk-taking farmers rather than as a result of structural programs.
success with chili cultivation, others followed. Of
the
first farmers began to experience
top nine reasons farmers gave for entering chili cultivation, five indicate the influence of
Once
chili becomes
another's success or experimentation.
part of a farmer's
witnessing
and subsidies may play an important role in
government
policies
as the
how
its production,
much
in
land
is
allocated
influencing
quantitative analysis will
demonstrate.
portfolio,
however,
Reason
Rank
Number
%
responding
"yes"
responding
"yes"
Most
of community
engaged
130
81.3
125
78.1
108
67.5
Experiment
77
48.1
Unnamed
67
41.9
34
21.3
Neighbor
in practice
engaged
in family engaged
Someone
person
encouraged
them
Household
cultivated
in source
community
Government
1. Reason
Table
Factors
credit
1.3
Other
1.3
Coyote
0.6
credit/urging
for Engaging
Commercial
Chili Cultivation
(N=160)
influencing continued chili cultivation
initial reasons for cultivating chili tended not to represent institutional fac
other than the pull of themarket?continued
cultivation is intimately tied
tors?perhaps
to
and structural forces. The
summarize
actor-based,
biophysical,
following paragraphs
factors described by farmers as important in chili cultivation in Calakmul.
This distilla
While
tion of farmer responses
in surveys demonstrates
that the success of the chili-to-market
mar
network in a given year depends on multiple factors. For
example, while estimated
ket prices proved especially
important in 1999 and 2000, other forces weighed
heavily
as well on farmers. We find the
and other
availability of subsidies from PROCAMPO
sources
government
especially relevant. While
spending is rarely directed toward chili
most
farmers claim to use these funds to pay for labor and material
inputs
specifically,
A
closing
frontier: Calakmul,
Campeche,
81
Mexico
to cultivation.
Biophysicalfactors
These
factors influence farmer decision-making
and chili success in primarily three
indicate to the farmer estimated
First, soil condition and the quality of vegetation
to swidden farmers who tend
of
for
is
cultivation.
fertility
Fertility
primary importance
to have less available
to
than
mechanized
farmers
and water.
capital
apply agrochemicals
the incidence of chili pests and diseases
Second,
presents a cost to farmers, either as
ways.
the capital required to purchase pesticides, or ifmoney
is unavailable
for their purchase,
some
from
lessened
infested
fields.
years witness ex
through
profits
low-yield,
Finally,
treme events such as hurricanes,
or fires that can
destroy chili fields wholly.
drought,
While none of these events occurred during the 1999 growing season, farmers did report
that some previous
Householdfactors
Household
household
seasons
had been
total failures in terms of chili cultivation.
factors
influence
the chili farming cycle by setting the numbers of
on chili fields, the
emer
possibility of household
available
members
to work
thatmay influence chili resource allocations, and the house
gencies (e. g. hospitalization)
hold's expertise in chili farming. In addition, households
demonstrate
different aspira
tions and goals for participating in themarket as a seller of chili, as a seller of labor, or by
not
in the agricultural cash economy, opting for other livelihood strategies.
participating
in the agricultural cycle
Finally, the amount of cash available to farmers at key moments
the ability to combat pests and diseases,
and hire labor at harvest times.
influence
vation,
Local
hire labor/water
delivery during culti
Social Factors
factors influence the chili cycle by limiting the amount and qual
in or nearby the community and the quality and availability of other
in the
farmers' advice when difficulties arise in chili cultivation. Rumors also abounded
Local
ity of hired
social
labor
field in terms of what
prices
farmers should
expect
and
influenced
harvest
and seeding
decisions.
Extra-Local
Factors
Extra-local
of
trust and
social relationships were derived primarily in established
relationships
98.5%
of chili from
with market
intermediaries who marketed
coercion
it
future cultivation because
the region. Farmer-intermediary
relationships conditioned
showed farmers either the continued ability to receive reasonable prices from chili or that
the chili market was an unreliable source of income.
Marketfactors
This institution may be ultimately themost important factor in farmers' decisions
to cultivate chili and how much chili to cultivate. It is also the factor about which farmers
The prices set by the distant market inMexico
the least knowledge.
City condi
possess
and ultimately set the farm gate price.
tion the prices offered by market intermediaries
Farmers plan for the market by estimating expected prices based on the previous year's
from intermediaries who arrive early
prices, advice from farmers, and from early reports
to the region from other parts of Mexico.
82
Politicalfactors
Geography
policies influence farmers in two ways. First, the payout
for chili or not, provides cash to farmers during critical
these payouts many farmers reported that they would
times of the chili cycle. Without
to continue chili cultivation.
have been unable
in
and NGOs
Secondly, government
Government
and NGO
subsidies, whether
of
intended
troduce
to serve as alternatives
to chemical
intensive, and sometimes
can
designed
provide farmers with
mechanized
land, organic fertilizer, or other inputs that enhance cultivation.
reliance on these government
Farmer's
for continued
chili farming
programs
policies designed
swidden, chili cultivation.
to sedentarize
Programs
stems from the high costs associated with cultivation (Table 2).
severe pest
Frequent and
at
with
combined
labor
times
(Keys 2004a)
shortages
key
(felling trees, fumiga
that farmers possess cash to pay for material and service.
tion and harvest) demand
outbreaks
All Farmers
$Mean
$Median
Mechanized
$Mean
farmers
$Median
Milpa
$Mean
Farmers
$Median
Material
1,739
1,089
1,764
1,419
961
1,625
Labor cost
2,371
1,538
2,444
1,909
2,185
1,379
638
379
806
504
519
347
4,749
3,421
4,986
4,084
4,305
3,267
Transportation
Total cost
Table 2. Cash expendedon chiliplot by farmers,1999-2000 (N$/ha.)
most Calakmul
use government
farmers lack?farmers
savings?which
to support chili cultivation until after the harvest. While
the market
programs
rewards it does not provide cash advances,
in part due to the unstable nature
promises
of commodity
intermedi
futures, and in part due to the unreliable nature of market
Absent
payout
farmers who possess mechanized
land tend to
Furthermore,
ary-farmer relationships.
incur greater costs than swidden-only
farmers, because of the higher costs of initial land
(e. g. disking), as well as higher costs associated with agro-chemical
preparation
inputs.
a desire for mechanized
While
chili and
nearly all farmers interviewed expressed
other agricultural plots, 31% had these fields in the southern zone of Calakmul
in 1999
a combination
2000. Farmers attained mechanization
of government programs
through
and private ventures. Notably,
innovative farmers in one of the
ejidos studied parlayed
on
future PROCAMPO
a
into
the
tractor
down
that they used to pre
payment
earnings
pare their own fields and rented out to other farmers in the region. Thus, with the aid of
a program aimed at
to
ensuring staple crops, farmers gained access to the means
produce
Chili
cultivation relies in part on structural factors,
terms
landesque capital.
especially in
of predicted market performance
and in terms of the provision of cash for
ex
farming
At the same time farmers relied on household
factors, such as labor availability,
relationships with intermediaries, and experience with cultivation.
penses.
The
regression model:
The
quantitative analysis of chili cultivation area
in the Calakmul
preceding section explicated the dynamics of chili production
that invest in this market crop.
region, detailing the various factors facing smallholders
In order to further analyze the decision to allocate land in this
crop, we now undertake a
A closing
frontier: Calakmul,
83
Mexico
Campeche,
and structural factors
regression analysis to quantify the role of household
in chili parcel allocations, and test for statistical significance. The data used in the regres
sion model were derived from 29 in-depth household
surveys in two case study ejidos,
for some (institutional) variables by state and NGO
records. Both com
supplemented
munities were established by 1980 adjacent to the CBR's buffer zone along the reserve's
multivariate
southeastern
and northeastern
borders, respectively, however they reflect different levels
in recent
respect to state-funded village development
projects
to the north
A dummy variable differentiates households
pertaining
of marginalization
with
years (1990-1999).
ern, more marginalized
ejido (dummy=0)
zona chilera
The
southern
(dummy=l).
from those in the southern
ejido located in the
(mixed
ejido
largely by mestizo
Indian and Spanish ancestry) immigrants from the state of Tabasco,
and the northern
are
in terms
ejido by Choi (Indian) immigrants from Chiapas. The two ejidos
comparable
of their total land area (the northern, ca. 4,340 ha and the southern, 3,979 ha), but vary
was
colonized
in their assigned household
entitlements (northern, 60 ha and southern, 20 ha).
The dependent variable of primary interest is hectares of household
land parcels
in chili. Household
land use, however, are made within
decisions about this commercial
uses such as subsistence
(summer or
regarding other
production
forest), improved
cycle milpa), pasture, traditional fallows ("natural" successional
fallows such as agroforestry/reforestation,
swiddens enabled
and/or semi-sedentarized
or
as
fertilizers
Mucuna
Canavalia
such
by "green"
ensiformis.
pruriens (locally, "Nescafe")
A seemingly unrelated
(SUR) technique allows for correlation of residuals
regression
the context of decisions
winter
among
we re
land use decisions
interdependent
(dependent variables), however,
in this paper. Roy Chowdhury
and Turner
the results for chili land allocation
agency and structural forces for a typical
report on the implications of household
these
port only
(2006)
land uses.
portfolio of multiple
The
importance of the explanatory variables
our fieldwork and in the
on household
larger literature
used
in the model
is suggested
agricultural decision-making
by
and/
or spatiallyexplicit land cover change (RoyChowdhury2006a, 2006b; Robbins 2004;
Zimmerer
and Bassett
and Brookfield
1988; Blaikie
Laney 2002; Turner and Ali 1996; Bassett
variables capture
and Brush
1987). Several independent
en
including land tenure (years with ejidatario rights and land
2003;
1987; Turner
household
characteristics,
ratio), quality of life (a com
titiements), demographics
(family size and labor-consumer
local
vehicles
and
variable
infrastructure/services),
posite
capturing housing, appliances,
as
and household
economic
strategies, such
participa
ethnicity (indigenous/mestizo),
on forest extraction
tion in farm labor markets and off-farm wage
jobs, dependence
variable capturing nature and frequency of forest use), and the previous
(a composite
household
independent variables used in the regres
year's
earnings from chili. Other
sion model
include subsidies for agricultural crops (e.g., subsidized ha in PROCAMPO),
land uses (e. g., subsidized ha in green fertilizers through the state Ro%a-Pica
"green"
or for
Siembra program or NGO
(e.
quality-of-life improvements
agroforestry projects),
educational
grants or Alian^a
para el Campo)\
g., through PROGRESA/Oportunidades
loans tapped in past
and credit (e.g., total PRONASOL
and aspects of sociopolitical
(e. g., links
capital of the household
or
its
to
alliances
and
ejido (e.g.
regional "green" cooperatives)
ejidal societies, inter-ejido
over 1991-1999).
state
spending
ejido-level
development/conservation
access
to extension
decade
by household),
Results:
services
role of household
and institutional factors in chili allocations
(about 95%)
captures a high level of explained variance
regression model
in land area under chili in the two ejidos studied.
Summary statistics of variables used
The
are detailed
inTable
3, along with
their parameter
estimates
derived
from the regression
84
Geography
Standard
Coefficients
Mean
S t d
Min.
Max.
Dev..
Model
R2=0.5997,
x2=626.12
Chili
Variable:
Dependent
hectares
0.75
0.71
2.5
-0.33
Constant
household
Explanatory
institutional
and
factors
0.59
0.50
ejidatario
15.00
6.02
(ha)
59.31
13.61
6.34
2.44
0.33
.23
0.14
0.35
-3.322*
0.24
0.44
-0.036
Only buy labor (dummy)
0.24
0.44
Net worth
8153.28
24090.33
from chili in past year
6566.90
Sources
of off-farm wage
income
(qualitative
Native
speaker of Spanish
-4.88**
(mestizo) (dummy)
(yrswith
Tenancy
25
0.636
rights)_
Land
entitlement
Family
Size
(no.)
Labor/consumer
Neither
buy
ratio
nor sell labor
(dummy)
Only sell labor (dummy)
of livestock hold
40
(N$)
Total
PROCAMPO
tion (ha)
Roza-pica-siembra
-1.452
! -0.003
1
175
1.855*
130595
2.52*
8399.34
32400
5.589*
2.93
3.17
12
2.189*
3.79
1.99
index)
use
Intensity of forest
tive index)
1.353
11
0.13
ings (N$)_
Income
80
(qualita
inscrip
inscription
4.36
2.03
1.62
1.05
2.979*
1.5
2.063*
2.783***
(ha)
Table
ables
Cells
3. Summary statistics, estimated parameters
and significance of independent
in regression model
to chili (N=29, Parameters=21)
of land allocation
**
***
list standardized
coefficients. *p=0.10,
p=0.05,
p=0.01
vari
A
frontier: Calakmul,
closing
Campeche,
85
Mexico
Standard
Coeffcients
Mean
Std. Dev.
Min.
Model
Max.
R2=0.5997,
x2=626.12
Inscriptions
provement
for assisted
of fallows
im
1.61
-0.624
4588.97
3508.93
8190
2.946*
1051.72
646.21
2500
-1.625
3.93
1.60
-5.183**
1.79
1.02
1.324
3.21
1.67
2.039*
through
agroforestry/reforestation
Quality
0.69
(ha)
of life improvement
subsidies(N$)
Total PRONASOL loans
received(N$ 1990-9)
to extension
Access
services
(qualitativeindex)
to intra/inter ejidal
Links
unions, municipality
to NTFP
Links
cooperatives
(qualitativeindex)
0.45
Ejido (dummy)
Table
0.51
-1.62
3 continued.
of the results focuses primarily on those variables
discussion
statistically
at the five percent level or better. In analyzing the implications of agricultural
significant
in Calakmul,
role of
the mediating
and environmental
institutions on chili cultivation
The following sections
characteristics must be taken into account.
internal household
model.
The
and chili
socioeconomics
focus first on the quantitative relationship between household
area, and then assess the relevance of the institutional factors of interest in this paper.
tend to have larger areas
Model
results indicate that indigenous (Choi) households
results are counter-intui
of chili on their land parcels. These
are in the zona chilera, where mestizo
of chili-producing
ejidos
in and prevails in the
chili cultivation may have originated
families predominate.
While
and ethnici
mestizo-dominated
%ona chilera, these results indicate that other communities
devoted
to the cultivation
tive, since
the majority
or exceed household
in the chili-pioneering mestizo
chili allocations
labor strategies are a strong predictor of chili area. As noted in the
cultivation in the region almost invariably involves hir
preceding qualitative section, chili
to assist with different
of the crop cultivation cycle. The results of
laborers
phases
ing
that neither sell
reflect this local reality, showing that households
the regression model
to smaller areas under chili. Model
results also sug
nor hire labor are
strongly linked
ties may often match
ejidos.
Household
that have higher net
livestock and market cultivation: households
gest synergies between
worth of livestock holdings are strongly linked to greater areas under chili. As expected,
to chili-derived earnings in the previous
area under chili is
strongly and positively related
that plant greater areas in chili also appear to tap more
year. Interestingly, households
of income diversification be
sources of off-farm wage income, reflecting other methods
yond the cultivation
of milpa.
Forest
extraction
is another method
by which
chili-farm
86
Geography
of the results focuses primarily on those variables
The discussion
statistically
at the five percent level or better. In analyzing the implications of agricultural
significant
in Calakmul,
the mediating
role of
institutions on chili cultivation
and environmental
The following sections
characteristics must be taken into account.
internal household
socioeconomics
and chili
focus firston the quantitative relationship between household
model.
socioeconomic
factors are accounted
the above household
for, the remain
results paint a picture of how the region's emerging institutions influence area
in chili cultivation on ejidatario land parcels. The regression model
shows that area under
chili increases significantiy with increasing inscriptions in PROCAMPO,
larger quality of
Once
ing model
subsidies, and inscriptions in the state RPS agricultural sedentarization
to chili-related expenses
and/or
indicating that such funds may be diverted
life improvement
program,
activities, or that chili farmers in the region diversify their livelihoods
PRONASOL
projects and subsidies.
Interestingly, household
by tapping environ
loans do not sig
most chili farmers tap
the
fact
that
reflecting
rather than as a mechanism
for
(e.g. medical)
mental
nificantiy influence chili allocations, perhaps
the credit program for unexpected
expenses
appears
financing market cultivation. Extension
to be
negatively linked to chili area, likely
index also captures a wide variety of extension services that target
environmental
rather than chili cultivation. Interestingly, intra- and inter ejido
programs
unions are not significant in determining household
chili allocations, but a household's
this qualitative
because
to have a
for non-timber
links to local cooperatives
forest products
appears
(NTFPs)
to chili area, a
and
will be
that
statistically significant relationship
positive
relationship
once all the above household
in
The
studies.
also
that
future
results
show
investigated
and
structural factors are accounted
dummy)
has no
significant
impact
for, the ejido to which
on chili allocations.
a household
(ejido
belongs
Summary and conclusions
on the neo
in both scholarly and popular publications
economy and its implications for the ejido sector. We have pre
sented a study of market cultivation in the ejidos of the southern Yucatan
since Mexico's
structural shift. In the SYPR, market chili cultivation came to span 7,500 ha in 1999.
Much
has been written
liberal shift inMexican
cultivation was initiated by individuals, but continues with the help of government
on the market for economic
success.
and depends
In particular, we
programs
entirely
examine how agricultural and environmental
market
structures, and household
policies,
socioeconomics
influence smallholder chili cultivation in local ejidos. We
mar
explicate
ket chili cultivation through qualitative
interactions be
research, detailing the complex
This
tween
biophysical,
to cultivate a cash
on
individual,
crop?one
and
of
social
factors and demonstrating
how the decisions
of liberalization
of the ejido sector?rely
soils can influence farmers' choice of what
the goals
quality of
multiple relationships. While
and how much land to use that year, factors such as the availability of labor and institu
tional programs
A quantitative analysis identifies the domi
sway cultivation decisions.
nant household
and institutional factors influencing the hectares of
parcel land allocated
to chili in smallholder
land parcels.
The
results of a regression model
indicate that
household
structures account
overall
factors and regional institutional
in land allocated
explained variance
of
household
labor strategies,
importance
to chili. The
for a large proportion
results
of
specifically identify the
diversification
through
ethnicity, livelihood
livestock holdings, forest extraction and wage
jobs, agricultural subsidies and even green
to chili on
environmental
institutions in driving larger areal allocations
land
ejidatario
to
These
data
add
detail
the
of
in
market
Calakmul.
story
parcels.
farming
By combining
and qualitative assessments,
this research furthers explanation
hypothesis-testing
inwhich human-environmental
interactions occur at the local level.
ways
of
the
A
frontier: Calakmul,
closing
Campeche,
87
Mexico
in this paper illustrate one aspect of the economic
The results discussed
transition
a transition
underway in the southern Yucatan,
originating in the region's ejidal sector and
focused on market cultivation. As the region's ejidatarios
experiment with the market
chili
in
this
subsistence
also
for
economy,
crop
tap multiple opportunities
they
formerly
in part by emerging agricultural and environmen
possible
and projects. Our findings and those of the larger project with which we have
reveal the importance of understanding
collaborated
the dynamics of decision-making
use: smallholder
farmers. In a landscape
such as the SYPR
by the local agents of land
livelihood
diversification made
tal policies
where
goals compete with the need for local and regional economic
smallholder decisions must be further contextualized
within prevailing
in
both
the
institutions
agricultural and conservation
conflicting) policy
environmental
velopment,
sometimes
de
(and
sec
tors.
Acknowledgements
This
ect. The
research
project
has
represents efforts in the Southern Yucatan
core
from NASA's
LCLUC
sponsorship
Peninsular
(Land-Cover
Region Proj
and Land
Use Change) program (NAG 56406) and theCenter for IntegratedStudies on Global
as well as spon
NSF-SBR
95-21914),
(CIS-CMU;
Carnegie Mellon University
sources for
SYPR
is a collabora
from
of
various
elements
sorship
specific
project study.
tion of El Colegio
Harvard
Forest?Harvard
de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR),
University,
Perkins Marsh
the George
Institute?Clark
(See http://earth.
University, and CIS-CMU
Change,
clarku.edu/lcluc).
Funding
specific
to the authors'
research has
come
from the NASA
(NAG 5-11134,NAG 5-0656 andNAG 56046),NSF Geography andRegional Science
two Clark
the Fulbright Foundation,
the Inter-American
Foundation,
(BCS-0004236),
and INT-Americas
Pruser-Holzhauer
NSF
(BCS
Fellowships,
Geography
and a Horton-Hallowell
9911911),
College.
fellowship fromWellesley
University
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Cash crops, smallholder decision

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