LIGHTING LIMES

Ranko Skansi, M.Sc.
LIGHTING LIMES
Summary
When we speak lighting, we usually mean technology. But, there’s a whole
world of emotions, feelings, ergonomics and other almost poetic stuff,
hidden behind lighting. If an architect is really good, and fruitful then a
light designer should follow his steps accurately. Light designer have to
understand basic and advanced ideas of an architect. Only if this occurs a
final result will be satisfying for everybody.
Architecture is copy of nature, and if it is really good copy, then an
atmosphere inside newly created space can be pleasant. But it is not enough
to have walls and furniture. The most important thing about emotions
(when we speak about architecture) is adequate lighting, But to be good
light designer, means understand premises of nature, needs of people and
possibilities of synergy between architecture and lighting technology.
1. Introduction
In order for the light to shine so brightly, the darkness must be present. (Francis Bacon)
What does it mean? It means that only where there's darkness we can be aware of light, because
from the contrast we will see the light.
To be able of creating good light design, one has to enter into the mind of architect (for whom we
presume already entered into the head of his customer). This technique will help us in our creation
procedure. Even if this seems very tricky, and somehow spooky, this is not as complicated and
delicate as it seems to be. The only thing we have to do is to understand nature in its beautiful form
and varieties, and at the same time, recognize client’s needs and expectations. If there are enough
information about our client, his space, architect’s vision and usable technology, we have all the
necessary tools for good light design.
2.
Basics
Light is invisible until it reflects from an object. Form of the object along with intensity, distance
and direction of the light creates new form: SHADOW! We can say that: SHADOW DEROGATES
LIGHT!
Meaning of this is that light as a media is completely invisible. We can see it only if there's
something on its way. It can be an object, so light will stop when it touches an object. In that very
moment, light will somehow become an object. If some part of the lighting rays missed the object,
they will continue to exist as the object's part, because they will form a new element, a new form: the
SHADOW! In a way, we can say that shadow derogates the light! Nature, creates by force and by
light, various stabile and unstable shapes, that can last forever, but also only for a fraction of the
second. Nature emphasizes details, making them marvellous and unique, so they will hardly be
overcome. And at the same time, nature highlights shapes she created, so one can understand all the
plastic details and perspective relations. And, at the end, nature reveals secret parts that will be
offered only to a persistent viewer and honest soul.
Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light.
Our eyes are made to see forms in light; light and shade reveal these forms. (Le Corbusier)
Famous architects become famous because they had ability to copy the nature in different but
accurate details. By means of architecture, we have a creation game done by the force of light, where
patterns change during the day and during the season, so we have continuous play of forms and
shapes. By highlighting particularities, designer or an architect build memories that will remain
incised in our mind, revealing only pleasant emotions.
As nature has been replicated in the architecture, we had to find a way how to replicate it by
lighting too, so we can remain compatible with a nature.
Natural lighting can create geometric shapes, can surprise by sudden impact of sunlight, can
provoke the religion by its ray, and can confuse our perception by creating forms that are not logical
on the certain object.
If we understand premises of natural light, we can imitate it by use of artificial light. However, to
do this, we have to study accurately what lies behind the scenes. Only in this way we will reach point
of understanding the concept of lighting in its basic nature. And only then, we will be able to perform
really good artificial lighting.
3.
Lighting creations
To create with light...
... means to understand unbreakable connection between light and shadow.
And when we meet the shadow and begin to understand it, we will find out how light and
shadows are connected forever and ever. Object will not exist if there's no light, but light will never
show as an object if the shadow will not appear.
To understand light...
... means to understand variables of the nature!
Means to enter into the mystic and secret world of nature's profound. When the nature lifts up the
skirt it means that she let us understand what lies beneath. Then we will be honoured by a knowledge
only few could see and touch. This knowledge will open us new horizons and will guide us to the
new frontiers. We will reach coast of the lost island where all the secrets are revealed. And when we
profoundly understand what nature showed us, we will be rich and wise. Only then we will be able to
perform pale copies of the natural phenomena and only then our work will be prised by the people
who will be close enough to see our work.
To live light...
... and in a subtle way to introduce it to our own space!
What does it mean? It means that when we conquer the lost island of truth, we will understand all
the various forms of light and shadow, so we will be able to improve our living by introducing
accurately studied lighting systems to our life and to our home.
4. Light designer’s tools
Brightness
Brightness is the basic tool, and by understanding possibilities of brightness will permit us to
establish a correct level of illumination. As we already know, difference in brightness, present in the
same space, creates contrast. It is important to know that too much of brightness will create glare and
discomfort in the space. Too less of brightness can create other type of uncomfort, maybe even an
anxiety. That’s why we speak about brightness at the first place.
When no obstacle is on the way of light, brightness reaches its maximum values. Then nature
opens all the secrets to our mind, so we can be absolutely sure that what we see is what we'll get. In
the spaces where good orientation, and good task performance is needed, we have to create same
atmosphere.
Glare can occur if the intensity of light from the direction we are looking at is too high, or if the
contrast between light source we are looking at and its background is very high. In such a cases we
will find difficult to see beyond this glaring light source. Sometimes it is good to create such scenery
by use of artificial light, but those cases are rare. Nature, however, play with all the means she have,
so glare and blinding light can be found on the daily basis, specially where the air is clean and the
humidity low.
Brightness is in direct relation with illumination, so to have an idea of how it works in the nature,
we can show natural (and some artificial) light sources and relative illumination level that they
produce. Next table shows basic values:
Illumination
Example
0,0001 lux
Cloudy night without moonlight
0,001 lux
Clear night without moonlight
0,01 lux
Crescent moon
0,25 lux
Clear night – full moon
<1 lux
Moonlight
10 - 15 lux
Candle at 20 cm
3 - 50 lux
Street lighting
100 lux
Standard livingroom
400 lux
Sunrise or a sunset on a clear day
300 - 500 lux
Office lighting
750 lux
Halogen bulb
1.000 lux
Sunlight 1 hour before dawn
32.000 lux
Sunlight – overcast sky (min.)
100.000 lux
Sunlight – clear sky (max)
In the context of artificial lighting we do use intelligent electronic systems to dim the light, but in
the nature, clouds do this function. Thickness of the cloud layer will define final intensity of
sunlight, so we can have extremely subtle light in the middle of the day, as well as full clear
spectrum on its highest intensity in the next moment.
Colour
If the brightness alone is not enough, or we speak about illumination of pure forms, without
details, we can improve our project by use of colour. Colour can be performed singularly or
dynamically, what depends on our imagination and on space possibilities. This light designer’s tool
is delicate, because unlike the brightness, colour is subject to taste.
Clever use of colour can perform so called cromotherapy, that will help people feeling fine and
relaxed under such an atmosphere. There’s a list of relations between colour and emotions, and is
shown in the next table.
GREEN
BLUE-INDIGO
VIOLET
RED
ORANGE
YELLOW
Supports: Balance, Harmony, Love, Communication, Social, Nature, Acceptance
Increases: Peace, Love, Honesty, Peace, Kindness, Truth, Inner Peace, Emotional
Depth, Devotion, Trust
Stimulates: Intuition, Imagination, Universal Flow, Meditation, Artistic Qualities
Increases: Physical Energy, Vitality, Stamina, Grounding, Spontaneity, Stability,
Passion
Stimulates: Creativity, Productivity, Pleasure, Optimism, Enthusiasm, Emotional
Expression
Increases: Fun, Humour, Lightness, Personal Power, Intellect, Logic, Creativity
From the other point of view, we can give each colour psychological meaning of response, as
presented in the next table:
RED
BLUE
GREEN
YELLOW
PURPLE
ORANGE
BROWN
GREY
WHITE
BLACK
Power, Energy, Vanity, Passions, Love, Aggression, Danger
Trust, Conservative, Security, Technology, Cleanliness, Order
Nature, Healthy, Good luck, Jealousy, Renewal
Optimism, Hope, Philosophy, Dishonesty, Cowardice, Betrayal
Spirituality, Mystery, Royalty, Transformation, Cruelty, Arrogance
Energy, Balance, Warmth
Earth, Reliability, Comfort, Endurance
Intellect, Futurism, Modesty, Sadness, Decay
Purity, Cleanliness, Precision, Innocence, Sterility, Death
Power, Sexuality, Sophistication, Death, Mystery, Fear, Unhappiness, Elegance
Like other elements, colour has different dimensions. It can be bright and subtle, it can be mixed
or single, and it can be improved by texture. We talk about colour of light even if we talk about white
light. Conventionally we can distinguish warm white from cold white colour of light. And there’s a
whole palette of tones in between. Use of one particular tone depends on surrounding, basic purpose
of an ambient and our imagination. Hence, our imagination is not to be placed at the beginning of
decision process. It has to be strictly related to user’s needs and taste.
An experienced architect and interior designer knows that colour of walls, carpets, curtains and
ceiling is very important so they do not hazard by combining random colours or by forcing one
colour that is no appropriate. Maybe they don’t know about table presented before, but they have a
feeling for composition, and that includes colour, too. One should know that natural light changes a
tone of white during the day. This is a natural process and all living beings are adapted to this
interchange. In artificial environment, where we introduce artificial lighting, we should copy those
changes, to make environment pleasant and synthetically natural.
SOURCE
CCT
DUSK / SUNSET
1000
CANDLE
1500 K
HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM
2000 – 3000 K
40W INCANDESCENT BULB
2680 K
TUNGSTEN / HALOGEN BULB
2900 – 3200 K
MORNING / AFTERNOON
3200 K
LINEAR FLUO TUBE
3000 – 6500 K
METAL HALIDE LAMP
2800 – 6000 K
XENON LAMP / ARC
4500 – 5000 K
NOON SUNLIGHT (OVERCAST)
5500 K
DAYLIGHT
6500 – 7500 K
POLAR DAYLIGHT
9000 – 12000 K
Brightness and temperature of the white colour directly influence feeling of comfort even in
neutral and standard environment. This relation is described by Kruithof’s diagram. This diagram
shows a space of comfort and uncomforts combination of intensity and Correlated Colour
Temperature.
UNPLEASANT
PLEASANT
UNPLEASANT
Warm atmosphere, where everybody is relaxed, can be performed by reaching the point of
awareness that during the day, only in the evening, the natural atmosphere is warm enough to hug us
and to make us feel relaxed and in a friendly environment.
Relaxation is not the only emotion we have to have during our standard day. We have to be
concentrated and prepared to work. We have to be inventive and dedicated. We have to communicate
and have a focus on the important things. Only by use of cold white light this will be possible to
achieve.
Best performance in our space can be obtained by use of dynamic lighting that changes CCT
during the day, imitating natural phases of lighting.
Light in nature changes at the random rhythm. If at one moment we do have high intensity of
lighting from the clear sky, and next moment cloud covers the sun, we will have dramatic drop of the
lighting intensity. It also happens with colour, when we do find ourselves in the situation of various
colour objects around us. Every each of them reflects light and this light will be coloured. If the sun
becomes covered by a cloud, those colours will change, too.
In the nature we will not find a situation where colours are not compatible one with another.
Unfortunately, we can do the mistake by creating coloured atmosphere by our own, so again, we
have to impair from the nature, because only then we can hope not to do the mistakes in colour
relations.
Direction
Everything in the nature is in balance. Sky and
ground, night and day, sea and coast, left and right, up
and down. Balance is the moment when no wind blows
and when no sound changes the perception of the
space. If nature does that, we have to do that, because
we have to perform copies of the nature. One of the
reasons is that we as a species, have learned and
impaired to have those natural situations preprogrammed in our brain. If this kind of balance is what
we need, we also have to be able to do it in artificial
situations.
One of the most important light designer’s tools is
direction of lighting. Natural light always comes from
above, although, when we speak about artificial
lighting, it unusually comes from below. The reason is
pragmatic – we usually don’t have an opportunity to
place our luminaries high enough to simulate natural
lighting, especially sunlight!
However, lighting from low elevations is not
useless. There are a huge number of possibilities that
we can use in our exterior and interior ambient. Even
more, artificial lighting offers us some theatrical possibilities that can be used in special situations.
Also, unlike natural, artificial light can be modulated in various dimensions: brightness, colour,
direction, contrast and time!
Contrast
Contrast is the difference in colour and/or brightness between an object and the background.
Nature shows its beauty by use of accent light. If the air is polluted by aerosols or mist, natural
accent light will be more than obvious. Good architects during the history understood that effect so
they used it for different purposes. One of
the most important situations where they
used accents were in sacral architecture,
where light and shadow are most important
elements of liturgy, because they create
final atmosphere, and with this, special
emotions and states of mind.
Sometimes we have to pull out an object
from the background, to make it more
visible or more important. We have to do it
by use of contrast, if we are speaking about
light. Contrast in brightness or contrast in
colour will do almost the same effect.
When we do have high intensities of light, it is almost impossible to perform contrast in
brightness. But as the nature can do it, we can do it. We can create contrast in colour; so again, we
will have good understanding of the particularities and important parts of the scenery.
Time
Nature knows when its' time to stop with high power lighting that shines during the day. Then the
nature starts to dim her's natural lights. The atmosphere becomes subtle and gentle, shadows become
longer and deeper, and the day goes to rest. This moment of the day, we have to remember, because
at the same time we, human, and our body will start to prepare for the rest. Artificial lighting has to
be in grade to perform identical atmosphere in our space.
Variations in brightness, as usually exist in the nature, is almost impossible to create in our
artificial spaces. Hence, if we study natural variations of the average brightness during the day, we
could create a copy of those variations in the interior space. This can be performed by introducing so
called Dynamic lighting.
5. LIGHTING TASKS
Basic lighting tasks are presented by the circular diagram, and it is obvious that we have to
comply different premises for having the light accurately planned. We have to create mood,
atmosphere and emphasize an emotions (together with an architect), by combining architectural
space and professional lighting systems. We have to reach good visual comfort to let people perform
their tasks without any visual obstacles. Of course, illuminating system has to have adequate
aesthetical impact, so it will be compatible with the rest of the space. Health and security are maybe
most important tasks to perform, and we will try to fulfil those requirements by usage of adequate
colour temperature and good dynamic lighting systems. To perform good social communication, in
the working and public environment we will combine artificial lighting with the daylight, and in this
manner be at the course of compatible cooperation of them both. To create better working
environment, we will study lighting systems for every particular situation.
Lighting quality depends
on function and aesthetics.
Functional lighting system has
to perform good visibility,
clarity and as low glare as
possible. From the other hand,
however, aesthetics of lighting
depends on creation of the
atmosphere,
highlighting
particularities and revelation of
the paths and directions. This
combination will guarantee
good and quality lighting.
Other way to describe
lighting quality is differentiation of performance, ambient and pleasure. Performance means that we
have to obtain uniformity, glare reduction as much
as possible and appropriate intensity. For the model,
we do have to understand the space, to adapt CCT
to it, and to study carefully direction of every each
luminaries beam. At the end, pleasure has to be
fulfilled. This will be done by careful choose of
good colour rendering sources and finding an
optimal contrast relation.
Diagram shows relation between sharpness of
the view and lighting intensity. By increasing of the
light intensity, we will have better and better visual
performance. (Elderly people can read newspaper
on the sunlight).
Next diagram shows relation
when 20 year old person have
full satisfaction with visual
performance at 100 lux, for
person of 60 yrs. It has to be
more than 200 times higher to
have same satisfaction. Diagram
has been created to show various
age relations.
In the ambient where illuminance increases
from 90 to 500 lux, we have 15,9 % of better
detail notification, 9,4% of improvement in
logical thinking and 5% of improving in fast
and accurate calculation.
Those parameters are important to know
when we want to create correct atmosphere for
demanding spaces such as office and school.
Next diagram was made as a result of
various interviews among children and their parents, but also among teachers and their families. It
was discovered that more accurate answers were given by family than by direct user of the space.
By implementing the dynamic lighting in
the schools, we had following results:
Kids and teachers are 76% less tired!!!
Level of concentration increases for 45% and
speed of accurate reading increases for 35%!
That information was implemented in all of
our next projects, when we talk about
educational institutions. Combination of correct
brightness, glare control, uniformity, CCT as dynamic lighting system guarantees us good creation of
educational institutions.
6. DESIGNING THE LIGHT
Lighting has to be made for people, same as
places are made for the people. Only if those
extremes are in balance, result will be satisfied.
Quality of lighting is context of knowledge and
possibilities. We divided all the possibilities in only
three main and three secondary categories, that in
total covers all the lighting extremes.
AESTHETICS
We have to know that lighting is the most
important part of the site equipment. It is better to
have empty space with good lighting that perfect
interior with poor lighting. Lighting has to be in
line with the rest of interior, so luminaries had to be
compatible in design sense, with the rest of the
space.
FUNCTION
As mentioned before, lighting has to obtain functional dimension of the space. A part of this we
have various scenarios at our disposal, and modern technology offers us simple controlling systems.
EMOTIONS
Emotions are what we are talking about and all of the previous talk was performed for! Careful
variations in lighting levels in combination with different CCT's and luminaries positions will guide
emotions in desired direction.
ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
Studying an artificial lighting means careful choose the number of luminaries, types of light
sources and optimization of energy consumption.
DAYLIGHT
More daylight we use, more efficient our installation will be, and more satisfied client will be!
To find an optimal balance between daylight and artificial lighting, will ensure good finalization of a
project. Our intelligent control systems have to be able to decide whether to switch off some
luminaries close to window or not, depending on intensity of outer lighting.
CONTROL
To save money is the basic idea of every investor. If we equip our lighting system with presence
and daylight sensor we can obtain up to 60% of savings! Further savings can be done by combination
of our lighting control system and other automated systems on the site (shades, ...)
In general we can say that different tasks ask for different lighting. In the relaxation context, we
have to offer warm light in medium intensity provided by various small luminaries. Communication
is best performed under the cold light of medium intensity with combination of sources.
Concentration demands for cold light of high intensity from the few, usually hidden or neutral
luminaries.
RULES FOR GOOD LIGHTING
Adequate illuminance
The performance of the human eye largely
depends on the level of illuminance in the visual
field.
As illuminance increases, motivation and
overall performance are also enhanced, while the
tendency to make mistakes declines.
Harmonious distribution of luminance
A balanced distribution of luminance on the
various surfaces makes an interior visually
interesting.
Inadequate or excessive contrast, on the other
hand, causes visual strain and fatigue..
Adequate glare control
Glare in an interior is rarely so severe that
visual performance is significantly reduced, but it
can be irritating and cause eye strain.
When we do have glaring surfaces (glass outer
wall, reflection from the pavement), we do have to
balance it to make ambient in balance.
Good contrast rendition
Contrast is necessary for the human eye to be
able to discriminate between objects and their
background.
A lighting system with good contrast rendition
does not cause reflected glare even on shiny
surfaces and documents, so that text is easy to read
even on glossy paper.
Dark surfaces in our mind seems more distant,
and picture like this can somehow disturb our
perception of the space, because even if the object is close to us it has brightness much lower than
more distant surfaces. We understand that kind of composition as illogical. We can improve this
situation by adding some spot light that will illuminate dark surface of the metal sculpture.
The right direction of incidence
The direction of incidence of light is important
for Contrast Rendition, as it determines the angle
at which any reflections can be seen.
It influences the distribution of light and
shadow, which is the key to three-dimensional
vision on the one hand, and can be irritating or
even dangerous in the case of heavy shadows, on
the other.
Pleasant shadow conditions
Shadows reinforce three-dimensional vision
and facilitate orientation. Good shadow conditions
are the product of an effective combination of
diffuse light and directed light.
It is of essential importance to have constant
perception of the surrounding space, even in the
moments of complete relaxation. By use of gentle
shadows, we can provide good surrounding for
people enjoying this wellness centre.
Suitable colour appearance
In the course of the day the light appearance of
natural daylight changes. Artificial light can also
be produced with different light appearances or
colours so as to support various lighting functions
and moods.
Our desire is to create an atmosphere as close
as it can be to the natural environment. Only then,
objects in the room will have their natural outlook,
and will be understandable to our mind.
Natural colour rendition
Only the spectral colours that are contained in
the incident light can be reflected by an object and
perceived by the human eye.
Colour Rendition is a measure of the ability of
an artificial light source to show the natural colors
of an object.
Effective lighting atmosphere
Light affects our mood and feeling of
wellbeing. The result is a subjective, more or less
unconscious impression of an interior and its light.
This aspect of good lighting planning also requires
a degree of experience with the interplay of the
various factors and a fine feeling for good light.
Sometimes light will be created as personalised
lighting object, so it will fit perfectly in our
ambient. By use of this we will help in creating
particular atmosphere.
Efficient energy consumption
A basic requirement for modern lighting
planning is the careful and economical use of
energy. The various solutions now available relate
not only to new installations, however, but also to
retrofitting and refurbishing old and inefficient
systems.
In certain occasions we can use really simple
lighting system to perform all the lighting needed
in our ambient. At the same time, we will save
energy, and have our ambient energy efficient.
REFERENCES
LIGHTING
Lindsey, Jack L. (1991). Applied Illumination Engineering. Lilburn, Georgia: The Fairmont
Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-88173-060-2.
Fetters, John L (1997). The Handbook of Lighting Surveys & Audits. CRC Press. ISBN 0-84939972-6.
Guo, Xin; Houser, Kevin W. (2004). "A review of colour rendering indices and their application
to commercial light sources". Lighting Research and Technology 36 (3): 183–199.
doi:10.1191/1365782804li112oa
Burchett, K. E. (2002). Color harmony. Color Research and Application, 27 (1), pp28-31.
O'Connor, Z. (2010). Color harmony revisited. Color Research and Application, 35 (4), pp267273.
Pointer, M. R. & Attridge, G.G. (1998). The number of discernible colors. Color Research and
Application, 23 (1), pp52-54.
Hard, A. & Sivik, L. (2001). A theory of colors in combination - A descriptive model related to
the NCS color-order system. Color Research and Application, 26 (1), pp4-28.
Feisner, E. A. (2000). Colour: How to use colour in art and design. London: Laurence King.
Mahnke, F. (1996). Color, environment and human response. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Bellantoni, Patti (2005). If it's Purple, Someone's Gonna Die. Elsevier, Focal Press. ISBN 0-24080688-3.
O'Connor, Z. (2010). Colour psychology and colour therapy: Caveat emptor. Color Research and
Application, (Published online in 'EarlyView' in advance of print).
Albers, Josef (2006). Interaction of Color. Revised and Expanded Edition. Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-11595-4.
COLOUR
Goethe, Theory of Colours, trans. Charles Lock Eastlake, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The M.I.T.
Press, 1982 ISBN 0-262-57021-1
Bockemuhl, M. 1991. Turner. Koln: Taschen. ISBN 3-8228-6325-4.
Duck, Michael, Newton and Goethe on colour: Physical and physiological considerations,
Annals of Science, Volume 45, Number 5, September 1988 , pp. 507–519(13). Taylor and
Francis Ltd.
Gleick, James Chaos, pp. 165–7; William Heinemann Publishers, London, 1988.
Proskauer, The Rediscovery of Color, Steiner Books, 1986.
Ribe, Neil; Steinle, Friedrich, Physics Today, Exploratory Experimentation: Goethe, Land, and
Color Theory', Volume 55, Issue 7, July 2002.
Schopenhauer, On Vision and Colors, Providence: Berg, 1994 ISBN 0-85496-988-8
Sepper, Dennis L., Goethe contra Newton: Polemics and the Project for a New Science of Color,
Cambridge University Press, 2007 ISBN 0521531322
Steiner, Rudolf, First Scientific Lecture-Course, Third Lecture, Stuttgart, 25 December 1919;
GA320.
Steiner, Rudolf, Goethe's World View, Chapter III The Phenomena of the World of Colors, 1897.
Wittgenstein, Remarks on Colour, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1978 ISBN 0-520-03727-8
ERGONOMICS
Jan Dul and Bernard Weerdmeester, Ergonomics for Beginners - - A classic introduction on
ergonomics - Original title: Vademecum Ergonomie (Dutch) -published and updated since 1960's
Stephen Pheasant, Bodyspace - - A classic exploration of ergonomics
Kim Vicente, The Human Factor Full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between
existing technology and the human mind, with suggestions to narrow it
Donald Norman, The Design of Everyday Things - - An entertaining user-centered critique of
nearly every gadget out there (at the time it was published)
Liu, Y (2007). IOE 333. Course pack. Industrial and Operations Engineering 333 (Introduction to
Ergonomics), University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI. Winter 2007
Wilson & Corlett, Evaluation of Human Work A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning:
very technical and not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics
Wickens and Hollands (200). Engineering Psychology and Human Performance. Discusses
memory, attention, decision making, stress and human error, among other topics
Alvin R. Tilley & Henry Dreyfuss Associates (1993, 2002), The Measure of Man & Woman:
Human Factors in Design A human factors design manual.
Valerie J Gawron (2000), Human Performance Measures Handbook Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates - A useful summary of human performance measures.
Peter Opsvik (2009), "Re-Thinking Sitting" Interesting insights on the history of the chair and
how we sit from an ergonomic pioneer
Authors’ address
Ranko Skansi, MSc.
Intra lighting
Ulica grada Vukovara 269D, 10000 ZAGREB
Hrvatska (Croatia)
Tel.: +385 1 66389135
Fax: +385 1 66389139
Email: [email protected]