Part 4, Saint Kitts and Nevis

Transcripción

0.50
2
0.25
Total area:
260 km2 (FAO 2007)
0
N/D
N/D
0
1990
2000the millenium
2007
Progress
toward
development goals
Population:
52 000 inhabitants (CEPAL 2009)
1.62
1
N/D
1990 of land surface
2000 covered by 2007
Proportion
forest
(Percentage)
Coral reef degradation
15
Saint Kitts and Nevis has maintained stable forest cover (14.7 per
Kitts
andOn
Nevis
has close12to
cent) and protected areas (0.8 perSaint
cent) since
1990.
the other
2
hand, annual emissions of CO160
capita
have
increased,
fromare some2 perkm
of
coral
reefs
that
9
Number of people affected by natural disasters, 1989-2009
1.62 metric tons in 1990 to 4.94
metric
in 2007,
what
lesstons
diverse
insurpassing
terms of species
6
10 000 and the
the average value for the whole of Latin America
10 000
than
similar
areas
regionally.
The
3
Caribbean of 3.3 metric tons. The proportion of the population
index
for
reefs
endangered by
with access to potable waterthreat
(99 per cent)
and
basic
sanitation
0
8 000
Chris(96
Corbin
per cent) remained unchanged
between
1990isand
2008.
human
activity
high
for 77 per cent
Saint Kitts and Nevis is made up of two of the Leeward
Islands of the Lesser Antilles, situated between Puerto
Rico and Trinidad and Tobago. It is the smallest country in the Ame-
(Metric tons of CO2 per capita)
4.94
2000
2007
0.25
0
Important Environmental
Issues
10 000
10 000
8 000
Vulnerability
to Natural Disasters
1990
2000
2007
Reefs at risk
Low
(Percentage)
Medium
High
100
80
Sedimentation
6 000
Saint Kitts and Nevis is susceptible to hurricanes, earthquakes,
60 floods, volcanic eruptions,
storms, and increasing coastal erosion. According to some recent studies, Saint Kitts and Nevis is
40
4 000
among the countries most at risk to natural disasters at the global level (CIEM 2004). Hurricanes are
20 to the severe economic and
considered
to be the primary problem the country faces, a perception due
2 000
1 800
1
300
1 180
social damage caused by hurricanes in recent decades.
The period from0 1995 to 1999 was especially
0
challenging;
the islands were hit by hurricane Luis and Marilyn in 1995 and Georges in 1998; by
1989
1995
1998
1999
Source: WRI 2005.
serious flooding in 1998; and by hurricanes José and Lenny in 1999. Hurricane
Georges damaged 85
per
cent
of
the
island`s
houses,
leaving
between
3
000
and
3
500
people
homeless,
and also negatively
Source: Prepared with data from EM DAT 2010.
impacted the agricultural sector, especially sugarcane production (FAO 1998).
0
100
80
60
40
20
0
N/D
1990
96
99
96
N/D
2008
2007
1
1.62
0
1990
Overfishing
Marine-based pollution
Sedimentation
Integrated threat
2004
2005
2006
2007
Source: Prepared with data from FAO 2010.
0.8
0.8
0.8
1990
2000
2008
0.2
0
2005
Proportion of population with access to
improved sources of drinking water and
sanitation facilities (Percentage)
Water
100
80
60
40
20
0
Nevis, Saint Kitts
and Nevis
2.24
2000
H
2003
0.4
4.94
2
N/D
1990
2000
0.8
0.6
2
3
2001
1
4
2002
1
0
Source: WRI 2005.
Carbon dioxide (CO ) emissions
Sanitation
2000
3
2
Proportion of protected terrestrial and marine
areas (Percentage)
1999
14.7
5
99
0
Fungicides and bacteriacides
5
Sanitation
99
96
1990
2007
99
96
2008
istorically, sugarcane has been the principal export
commodity of Saint Kitts and Nevis. Centuries of deforestation for the conversion of land to agricultural use, urban
Pesticide consumption (Tonnes)
growth, and tourism development have had various conseVery high
Insecticides
Herbicides
Pesticide consumption (Tonnes)
Reefs at risk (Percentage)
Number of people affected
by natural disasters,
1989-2009
quences. These include the loss of habitats and biodiversity;
Low
Medium
High
Very high
Insecticides
Herbicides
6
10 000
the depletion of aquifer reserves; reduction of water quality by
10 000
6
5
100
agrochemicals; erosion and landslides; and damage to coral
5
4
8 000
reefs, seagrass beds, and fish populations, among others. In
80
4
3
Nevis, there is still a remnant forest that occupies 20 per cent
6 000
60
3
2
of the territory. Most of this is found in the interior of the island,
2
1
40
4 000
towards the mountains, since the forest cover in the coastal
1
0
regions was almost completely eliminated for agricultural and
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005 202006
2007
2 000
0
1 800
livestock production, as can be observed in the accompanying
2000
2001
2002
2003
1 300
1 180
0
satellite image. Since 2005 the government has shut down
0
1989
1995
1998
1999
the sugar industry, after years of losses, and Source:
is looking
into
Prepared
with data from FAO 2010.
Source: WRI 2005.
the production of alternative crops and exploring the use of
sugarcane for biofuel, while stimulating tourism, construction,
and financial services.
Integrated threat
1990
1.62
0.50
Overfishing
N/D
2.24
N/D
Water
1
0.75
Coastal development
N/D
1
Number
of people affected
by natural disasters, 1989-2009
Important
Environmental
Issues
268
improved
sources
of drinking
and
Proportion
of urban
population
livingwater
in slums
(Percentage)
2
3
0.25
1 180
Integrated threat
2
1998
Overfishing
2000
(Percentage)
0.75
1995
0
5
1989
(Percentage)
Sedimentation
3
1990
1 800
14.7
6
4
0
1 300
Proportion of land surface covered by forest
15Prepared with data from EM DAT 2010.
Saint Kitts0.8
and Nevis has maintained stable forest cover (14.7 per Source:
0.8
0.8
0.8
14.7
14.7
12
cent) and 0.6
protected areas (0.8 per cent) since 1990. On the other
hand, annual emissions of CO2 per capita have increased, from
9
0.4
1.62 metric tons in 1990 to 4.94 metric tons in 2007, surpassing
6
0.2value for the whole of Latin America and the
the average
3
Caribbean of
0 3.3 metric tons. The proportion of the population
1990
2000
2008
water (99 per cent)
and basic sanitation
2005 with access to potable
0
(96 per cent) remained unchanged between 1990 and 2008.
1990
2000
14.7
9
1
0
14.7
Proportion of urban population living in slums
0.50
(Percentage)the millenium
areas
Progress
toward
20
(Tonnes)
Herbicides
4
Integrated threat
40
Insecticides
6
Overfishing
60
Very high
6 000
Sedimentation
80
Coastal development
100
8 000
2 000
Pesticide consumption
(Percentage)
Medium
High
Low
10 000
10 000
Coastal development
12
0.8
Reefs at risk
Number of people affected by natural disasters, 1989-2009
1
development
goals
15
14.7
0.6
4 000
Saint Kitts and Nevis has maintained stable forest cover (14.7 per
cent) and protected areas (0.8 per cent) since 1990. On the other
hand, annual emissions of CO2 per capita have increased, from
1.62 metric tons in 1990 to 4.94 metric tons in 2007, surpassing
the average value for the whole of Latin America and the
Caribbean of 3.3 metric tons. The proportion of the population
with access to potable water (99 per cent) and basic sanitation
(96 per cent) remained unchanged between 1990 and 2008.
14.7
Wikipedia
ricas, both in size and in population. Both islands are of volcanic origin, with steep
escarpments and hills in the interior and flat plains along the coasts. The climate is
tropical and the islands are especially vulnerable to hurricanes, whose season extends from early June
to the end of November. The economy of Saint Kitts and Nevis is based largely on tourism, which in the
last few decades has come to replace the sugarcane industry.
(Percentage)
Marine and Coastal Pollution
1
14.7
Coastal development
The threat index for reefs endangered by human activity is
high for 77 per cent of the reefs (Burke and Maiden 2004).
chapter 3
1990
Proportion
of protected terrestrial2008
and marine
The reality of environmental change
areas (Percentage)
The beaches of Saint Kitts and Nevis face serious problems in0.8
0.8
0.8
cluding
illegal
sand removal,
unplanned development, pollution, and
(Tonnes)
Pesticide
consumption
loss ofInsecticides
vegetation. A large
portion of marine
andand
coastal
pollution origiLow
Medium
High
Very high
Herbicides
Fungicides
bacteriacides
0.4
nates
6 from land-based sources, including: wastewater, leachates from
0.2
100
garbage
dumps, runoff from industrial and agricultural sources, both
5
0
801990
pesticides
and fertilizers,
and petroleum
derivatives. On the island of
2000
1990
2000
2008
2005
4
Saint
Kitts,
the
wastewater
from
Basseterre
discharges directly into
of the reefs, and very high for the re6 000
60
3
Basseterre
Bay, without
23living
per cent.
Human activi-Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Proportion
of population
withtreatment.
access to Similarly, the wetlands at Great
Proportion of urbanmaining
population
in slums
2
40
4 000
improved
sources
of
drinking
water
(Percentage)
Heeds
Pod
is
under
threat
from aand
nearby garbage dump and industrial
ties that increasingly place pressure(Metric tons of CO2 per capita)
1
(Percentage)
sanitation
facilities
20
plants,
putting
at
risk
a
great
number
of resident and migratory birds.
on
these
ecosystems
include
coastal
2 000 1
1 800
Sanitation
Water0
5
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
1 300
Meanwhile,
tourist
facilities
generate
large quantities
of solid2007
and liqdevelopment, pollution 1from
180 inland
0
4.94
4
0
0.75
100
uid waste, placing severe pressure on the littoral environment. In adsources, and pressure from fishing;
1989
1995
1998
1999
99 Prepared
99
3
96with data from FAO 2010.
96
80
Source: the
Source: WRI 2005.
dition,
large
number of fishing vessels,
freighters, oil tankers, and
these are exacerbated by the abrupt
0.50
60
2
2.24
cruise
ships
generate
a
great
deal
of
pollution
in the form of garbage,
topography
of
the
island,
which
also
40
0.25
1.62
1
20is
oil
spills,
and
wastewater.
In
fact,
it
has
been
estimated that, in the
contributes
to
erosion
and
the
washing
of
sediments
towards
coastal
areas.
This
situation
N/D
N/D
N/D
0
0
0
damaging to the tourism industry which ultimately affects the economy. Areas such as the Caribbean, cruise ships are responsible for 77 per cent of waste coming
1990
2008
1990
2000
2007
1990
2000
2007
southeastern peninsula, Frigate Bay, and Sandy Point have been notably affected by pollution, from marine traffic, compared with 20 per cent for cargo vessels.
disposal of wastewater, and sand removal.
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Progress toward the millenium
development goals
60
40
20
0
2.24
2004
2005
2006
2007
269
5
Development Indicators do
not show changes.
0
(Percentage)
development goals
0
areas (Percentage)
1990
2000
1990
2000
2008
2005
3
30
Saint Lucia has registered an increase in CO 2 emissions per
27.9
27.9
27.9
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
Proportion
of25
urban population
living in slums
capita, from 1.19 metric tons in 1990 to 2.26 metric tons
in
2.4
22 per capita)
20
(Metric
tons
of
CO
(Percentage)
2.2
2.2
Population:
2007. Forest cover has remained stable since 1990, mainly
15
due to forested areas being protected in state and private
12
Water
Sanitation
2.5
1
10
forest reserves. Apart from the increase in CO2 emissions,
11.9
2.26
and the proportion of protected areas, other Millennium
Preliminary studies carried
2.0 out between 1990 and 2000
5
100
2.1
Development Indicators do not show changes. 8
0 however
98
0
98
showed an improvement in coastal
water quality,
1.5
80
89
1990
2000
1990
2000
2008
2005transparency of marine
60
certain areas of concern persist.1.0The
1.19
4
40
waters is reduced by the quantity
0.5of particulate matter present
20
Proportion
Carbon
dioxide
(CO
Proportion of urban population living in slums N/D
2) emissions
N/D
N/D
in the
water
column,
especially 0in near-coastal areas.
Ports, of population with access to 0
0
improved
sources
of
drinking
water
and
(Percentage)
Ian Mckenzie - Flickr
marinas and cruise
systems for
the dis1995
2008
1990
2000
2005 liners lack appropriate1990
2000facilities (Percentage)
2007
sanitation
posal
of
wastes,
and
agrochemical
contamination
remains
a
12
Water
Sanitation
2.5
11.9
problem along the coasts. Further, 2.26
unorganized patterns of hu2.0
100
2.1
8
man settlement complicate
the establishment of 80
facilities for
98
98
1.5
89
Chris Corbin
collection,
treatment,
and
elimination
of
wastewater.
Wastewa60
1.0
1.19
4
40
ter
discharged
into
marine
environments
can
have
devastating
0.5
20
N/D
on them,insuch
as (Percentage)
biodiversity loss, degradation
ofcollected
reefs in Deglos and Vieux Fort, 2004-2006
N/D
N/D
Estimated economic damages casued by major
Solid waste
Reef
areas
affected
byimpacts
coral bleaching
2005
0
0
0
and
enhanced
reef
diseases,
reduction
in
fish
catch,
and
loss
storms (Thousands of U.S. dollars)
Deglos
Vieux
Fort
(Tonnes)
1995
2008
1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
2007
80
1 000 000
of aesthetic and recreational value of coasts,100000
among others.
70
10000
60
Natural disasters, above all
1000
tropical storms and hurricanes, play
50
100
a significant role in the destruction of
40
10
maritime and coastal resources. Such
30
1
Estimated
economic
damages
casued by major
Solid
waste
collected
in
Deglos
and
Vieux
Fort,
2004-2006
Reef areas affected by coral bleaching in 2005
(Percentage)
It
disasters
increase
rates of
sedimenta20
(Thousands
of
U.S.often
dollars)
storms
Deglos
Vieux Fort
(Tonnes)
tion
in
coastal
waters
and
cause
80
is found on the edge of the Caribbean and South American tectonic plates. Saint Lucia is an
10
1 000 000
100000
87 990
damage in coastal habitats and infra70
40 000
island of volcanic origin, which has a very mountainous terrain and several fertile valleys. The
0
3 465 3 000
1 290
500
Le Sport
Turtle Reef 10000
Anse Chastanet
Coral Gardens
structure. Storms produce flooding and
60
country’s highest point is Mount Gamier at 959 m. The forests of Saint Lucia are found at the centre of the island,
1000
1963 1967 1980 1983 1988 2004 2007
landslides that cause environmental
50
Source: UNEP and Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and
while the population is concentrated along the coasts. Saint Lucia has a tropical humid climate. The majority of the
Source: Prepared with data from UNEP and Ministry
of Physical Development,
100
Housing of Saint Lucia 2006.
degradation
and
contaminate
water
Environment and Housing of Saint Lucia 2006.
40
10
Source: Prepared with data from EM-DAT 2010.
population is employed in business and agriculture; although it is actually tourism that is the major contributor
sources. The impact of natural disas30
1
Total area:
620 km2 (FAO 2007)
Coastal and marine pollution
Saint Lucia
In the year 2005 a coral bleaching event in 2005 affected
Vulnerability
to natural
disasters
between 50 and 80 per cent of the corals of Saint Lucia (UNEP and
Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and Housing of Saint Lucia 2006).
Saint Lucia is an island located in the Caribbean to the north
20
development goals
Saint Lucia has registered an increase in CO 2 emissions per
capita, from 1.19 metric tons in 1990 to 2.26 metric tons in
2007. Forest cover has remained stable since 1990, mainly
forest reserves. Apart from the increase in CO2 emissions,
Development Indicators do not show changes.
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
27.9
27.9
1990
2000
(Percentage)
8
12
2.5
2.0
2.1
1.5
1.0
4
N/D
N/D
1990
2000
0.5
2.26
8
4
1.19
0
0
2005
1990
2005
1990
2000
2007
2000
2.4
100
80
60
40
N/D
20
0
1990
Sanitation
98
89
2000
1995
2000
1990
2005
Water
2.1
1.5
1.0
1.19
0.5
0
1990
2008
2000
2008
2.5
N/D
2.4
2.2
0
1990
98
2.2
1
2.0
2005
27.9
11.9
N/D
27.9
2
2008
(Percentage)
Water
27.9
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
11.9
Saint Lucia has3registered an increase in CO 2 emissions per
27.9
capita, from 1.19 metric tons in 1990 to 2.26 metric tons in
2007. Forest cover
stable since 1990, mainly
2 has remained
2.2
2.2
forest reserves. 1Apart from the increase in CO2 emissions,
Development Indicators do not show changes.
12
0
ters are, in turn, aggravated by poor
land use practices that encourage erosion and landslides. In 1994, tropical storm Debbie hit Saint
10
Lucia with prolonged
rains, wiping out crops40with
flooding and causing massive landslides and
87 990
000
0
3
465 in
3
000
1
290
Proportion
of
protected
terrestrial
and
marine
500
Proportion
of
land
surface
covered
by
forest
Le
Sport
Turtle
Reef
Anse
Chastanet
Coral
Gardens
slips,
which
turn
caused
serious
damage
to
the
island’s
banana industry and resulted in the
Progress Proportion
towardofthe
millenium
protected
terrestrial and marine (Percentage)
areas (Percentage)
loss of 1963
human1967
life. In
2007,1983
hurricane
1980
1988 Dean
2004 also
2007caused severe damages to the agricultural and
(Percentage)
areas (Percentage)
development
goals
Source: Prepared with data from UNEP and Ministry of Physical Development,
housing
sectors.
3
30
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s n
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ac e
eu ta
Platical
Re stic l
s/I s
n
Sh st
i
S p
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e
Ti et
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he
r
to the nation’s gross domestic product.
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of Saint Vincent and Grenadines, and to the south of the island
of Martinique. It is the second largest of the Windward Isles.
2.26
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sanitation
Castries Water Works
Forest Reserve, Saint Lucia
2000
T
98
2007
98
89
N/D
1995
2008
he growing population of Saint Lucia is concentrated
primarily in the capital city of Castries, with 61 341 inhabitants
in 2001, and in coastal areas. The Castries Water Works Forest
Reserve was established in 1916 with 1 393 ha. This was the first
form of environmental protection in Saint Lucia. The reserve is
Important
Environmental
Issues
found in
between
Piton
Flore
and
La Sourciere, and Estimated
protects the
Important Environmental Issues
economic damages casued by major
Solid waste collected
Deglos and
Vieux
Fort,
2004-2006
Reef areas affected by coral bleaching in 2005 (Percentage)
Estimated economic damages casued by major
Solid waste collected in Deglos and Vieux Fort, 2004-2006
Reef areas affected by coral bleaching in 2005 (Percentage)
water
resources
that
supply
the
needs
of
the
island’s
capital (Thousands
city.
of U.S. dollars)
storms
Deglos
Vieux Fort
(Tonnes)
80
storms (Thousands of U.S. dollars)
Deglos
Vieux Fort
(Tonnes)
80
At
present,
forest
reserves
in
Saint
Lucia
include
14
distinct
areas
1 000 000
70
1 000 000 100000
100000
and
cover
nearly
7
500
ha,
located
mainly
in
the
centre
of
the
is70
10000
60
10000 of these reefs exhibit an
land. The pace and patterns of population growth place increasing
In Saint
Lucia, coral reefs cover an area of nearly 160 km2. The majority
60
1000
50
pressure on forested areas. This is compounded by the growing
increase50
in seaweed growth, related to high concentrations of nutrients in1000
coastal waters, which affect
100
100
40
need for land for agriculture, increases in deforestation in recent
optimal 40
growth and establishment of corals. On the northwest coast of the island, approximately 82 per
10
10
30
years, and the development of access roads into areas of primary
cent of reefs
have
died
or
are
extremely
deteriorated.
The
year
2005
was
the
hottest
registered
to
date
in
the
1
30
1
20
forest that were previously inaccessible. In the satellite image, the
Northern
20Hemisphere. This was reflected in elevated water temperatures, which caused bleaching events
10
growth of populated areas and crops near the edge of the reserve
in corals10
around the Caribbean, and affected between 50 and 80 per cent of the corals along the west coast
87 990
40 000
0
are visible, putting at risk one of the primary sources of3water
of Saint Lucia. The presence of these conditions affecting the corals, and the loss of species like the long87 990
465 3for
000
40 000
1 290
500
0
Le Sport
Turtle Reef
Anse
Chastanet
Coral Gardens
3
465
3 000
1 290
500
Le Sport
Turtleantillarium
Reef
Anse)Chastanet
Gardens and disease, including the most diverse
the most populous city on Saint Lucia.
spined sea urchin
(Diadema
favour reefCoral
degradation
Ai
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Bi Asb raft
om es
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i
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an ne
i d
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Fi ere als
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eg t
l
In Gr ass
e
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Ph
u
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ar
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ac e
eu ta
Platical
Re stic l
s/I s
n
Sh st
i
S p
Str oil
e
Ti et
Ot res
he
r
Ai
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om es
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i
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m on d
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c
C
De ond C &ial
ad em D
an ne
i d
D m
Fi ere als
br lic
eg t
l
In Gr ass
du ee
Ph
s n
ar
m Mtrial
ac e
eu ta
Pl tical
Reastic l
s/I s
n
Sh st
i
S p
Str oil
e
Ti et
Ot res
he
r
Reef degradation
1963 1967 1980
and visited reefs in Saint Lucia. The degradation of these reefs also results in the loss of habitat of numerous
species of
commercial
value,
and
diminishes
the
value
of
coastal
areas
for
tourism.
1983
1988
270
UNEP and Ministry of Physical Development, Environment and
2004Source:
2007
1963
1967
1980
1983
1988
2004
2007
Progresstoward
towardthe
themillenium
millenium
Progress
developmentgoals
goals
development
SaintVincent
Vincentand
andthe
theGrenadines
Grenadineshas
hasincreased
increased
Saint
itsforest
forestcover
coverfrom
from24.2
24.2per
percent
centof
ofthe
the
its
nation’stotal
totalarea
areain
in1990
1990to
to27.4
27.4per
percent
centin
in
nation’s
2005,although
althoughthe
theextent
extentconserved
conservedin
in
2005,
protectedareas
areas(0.3
(0.3per
percent)
cent)has
hasnot
notvaried
varied
protected
between1990
1990and
and2008.
2008.Emissions
Emissionsof
ofCO
CO2 2 per
per
between
capita
have
increased
from
0.75
metric
tons
in
capita have increased from 0.75 metric tons in
1990to
to1.85
1.85metric
metrictons
tonsin
in2007.
2007.
1990
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Proportionof
ofurban
urbanpopulation
populationliving
livingininslums
slums
Proportion
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
11
0.75
0.75
0.50
0.50
00
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is located in the Eas-
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
1990
1990
2000
2000
2007
2007
tern Caribbean, at the southern extreme of the Windward Isles,
between Grenada and Saint Lucia. It is an archipelago, with Saint Vincent being
Reefsatatrisk
risk
Reefs
80
80
60
60
40
40
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
1
2
0.75
1.5
1.46
1.0
0.50
0.75
0.5
0.25
N/D
N/D
N/D
1990
2000
2007
0
1990
2000
2007
100
1
80
60 0.75
40
20 0.50
0
0.25
0
High
15
Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines is an island state of volcanic origin, located in the Caribbean hurricane
40
zone.
10It is susceptible to a whole series of natural disasters, such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes,
tropical storms, landslides, flooding, and coastal erosion. The
20 Soufrière Volcano is active and, over the course
5
of its history, has erupted multiple times, causing thousands of deaths and extensive material losses. Saint
0
0
Vincent
and
the Grenadines
has also experienced
1971
1979
1980
1987
2004the destructive effects of tropical storms and hurricanes, the
most recent being Lenny (1999), Lili (2002) and Ivan (2004), all of which caused loss of lives, homes, and crops.
Source: WRI 2005.
Moreover,
the with
archipelago
is highly
vulnerable to periods of drought. The last drought, in 2009-2010, severely
Source: Prepared
data from EM-DAT
2010.
affected the larger Grenadines, such that a total of 224 000 gallons of water had to be shipped to Union Island,
Mayreau, Canouan, and Bequia (CWSA 2010b).
272
1990
N/D
N/D
1990
2000
2008
2007
1,5
1,5
11
0,5
0,5
00
19611964
19641967
19671970
19701973
19731976
19761979
19791982
19821985
19851988
19881991
19911994
19941997
19972000
2000
1961
0.3
0.3
0.3
1990
2000
2008
0.1
0
1990
2000
2005
2
Union Island,
Saint Vincent and
the Grenadines
1.85
1.46
0.75
0.5
N/D
33
2,5
2,5
22
0.3
0.2
1.0
N/D
27.4
26.4
24.2
0
1990
T
2000
Water
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sanitation
N/D
N/D
1990
2007
N/D
N/D
2008
he Bay of Ashton, on the southern coast of Union Island, is
the largest wetland of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and
possesses
a wide variety of habitats: mangroves, coral reefs, and seFertilizer consumption (Thousands of tonnes)
agrass beds. Despite its status as a protected area since 1987, and the
Nitrogenous
Phosphates
Potassium
Low
Medium
High
Very high
People affected by natural disasters
possible negative effects identified by environmental impact studies,
3
(Thousands of people)
100
in 1994 the construction of a megaproject was approved in the bay. It
2,5
25
included the construction of a marina for 300 boats, condominiums,
80
2
a golf course, and a causeway from Union Island out to Frigate Island.
20
1,5
60
In 1995, after dredging the lagoon, and building the causeway, marina,
15
1
and a roadway cutting through the bay’s mangroves, the project was
40
0,5
10
abandoned. The ecological impact was catastrophic, causing eutro0
20 1976 1979 1982phication
5
the
lagoon,
reducing oxygen content, increasing water
1961 1964 1967 1970 1973
1985 1988 of
1991
1994
1997 2000
turbidity and algae growth, and severely reducing other marine life,
0
0
1971
1979
1980
1987
2004with data from FAO 2010.
Source: Prepared
including lobsters and fish species of economic importance. In the
2004 satellite image, the abandoned marina is visible at the lower left,
Source: WRI 2005.
as is a central area of darker green water, showing the concentration of
marine algae and seaweed that have proliferated due to the marina’s
obstruction of water flow in the bay.
Very high
Overfishing
Vulnerability to natural disasters60
20
Medium
80
(Percentage)
Sedimentation
25
Coastal develompent
People
affected by natural
disasters
Important
Environmental
IssuesReefs at risk
Important
Environmental
Issues
(Thousands of people)
100
Low
N/D
Potassium
Potassium
0.4
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1.5
N/D
Phosphates
Phosphates
areas (Percentage)
(Percentage)
2
N/D
(Thousandsofoftonnes)
tonnes)
Fertilizerconsumption
consumption(Thousands
Fertilizer
Veryhigh
high
Very
Source:Prepared
Preparedwith
withdata
datafrom
fromFAO
FAO2010.
2010.
Source:
(Percentage)
Sanitation
Water
1.85
High
High
Source:WRI
WRI2005.
2005.
Source:
Proportion
of urban
population living in slums
sanitation
facilities
(Percentage)
2
Medium
Medium
Integrated threat
2005
Low
Low
Overfishing
2000
2004
2004
development goals
0.3
0.3
0.3
Saint Vincent
and the Grenadines
has increased
0.2 its forest cover from 24.2 per cent of the
nation’s total area in 1990 to 27.4 per cent in
0.1
2005, although the extent conserved in
0 protected areas (0.3 per cent) has not varied
between
1990 and 2008.
Emissions of 2008
CO2 per
1990
2000
1990 to 1.85 metric tons in 2007.
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
1990
0.3
Pollution
0.3
0.3
Nitrogenous
Nitrogenous
Sedimentation
27.4
26.4
24.2
00
Coastal develompent
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines has increased
its forest cover from 24.2 per cent of the
nation’s total area in 1990 to 27.4 per cent in
2005, although the extent conserved in
protected areas (0.3 per cent) has not varied
between 1990 and 2008. Emissions of CO2 per
1990 to 1.85 metric tons in 2007.
0
0.4
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
00
Source:Prepared
Preparedwith
withdata
datafrom
fromEM-DAT
EM-DAT2010.
2010.
areas (Percentage)Source:
Integrated threat
development goals
20
20
1987
1987
0.3
0.3
100
100
55
1980
1980
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
Coral reef degradation
10
1979
1979
3
In Saint Vincent and the Grenadines the main sources of water
pollution
are agrochemicals and wastewater. Freshwater resources
0.1
0.1
are very limited on the islands, and the growing tourist industry
00
increases
1990
2000
1990
2000
2008 both water demand and waste production. The majority of
2005
1990
2000
1990
2000
2008
2005
Dra. Carmen Schloeder
rural and suburban areas employ septic tanks, however sometimes
wastes
Proportionof
ofpopulation
populationwith
withaccess
access
to are not adequately contained or processed by these systems,
Carbondioxide
dioxide(CO
(CO2)2)emissions
emissions
Proportion
to
Carbon
contributing
to contamination of water sources. The pollution pro(Metrictons
tonsofofCO
CO
per capita)
improvedsources
sourcesof
ofdrinking
drinkingwater
water
and
and
2 2per capita)
Saint (Metric
Vincent
and the
Grenadines has few coral reefs along itsimproved
northern and eastern
coasts,
sanitationfacilities
facilities (Percentage)
(Percentage) duced by yachts, in terms of both oil and wastewater, has seriously
sanitation
while 2these
are more abundant on the western and southern coasts,
especially
off the island
Sanitation
Water
2
Sanitation
Water
affected the eastern coasts of the islands of the Grenadines. There are
2
chain of the Grenadines. Studies have found that 1.85
all of the 140 km of coral reefs in the country
1.85
places like the Bay of Bequia where the pollution is so severe that it
1.5
100
1.5
100
are under
threat from human activity. Overfishing is the most common
threat, followed by coastal
80
80
is considered dangerous to swim in its waters. In 2002, Saint Vincent
1.46
1.46
1.0
development,
marine pollution, and
sedimentation. In the last 15
1.0
60years, a series of reports have
60
and the Grenadines reported 42 500 metric tonnes of waste, of which
40
0.75
documented
the0.75
deterioration
of the reefs around Tobago Cays as40
a result of tropical storms, coral
0.5
0.5
2 500 tonnes corresponded to industrial activity, 37 800 tonnes to
20
reef diseases, damages from fishing practices and ship anchors, as20well as localized
pollution
fromN/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
0
municipal
wastes, and the rest to other activities. Of these, 85 per
0
0
boats. 0The coral 1990
bleaching events2000
of 2005 affected2007
75 per cent of the corals in1990
Saint Vincent and
2008
1990
2008
1990
2000
2007
cent of the waste from urban areas was disposed of in landfills, while
the Grenadines.
only 15 per cent was recycled.
the largest island, followed by the smaller Grenadines, which include the islands of Bequia, Musti- People affected by natural disasters
People affected by natural disasters
(Thousandsofofpeople)
people)
que, Canouan, Mayreau, Union Island, Palm Island, Petit Saint Vincent and a series of small islets. (Thousands
25
The highest elevation in the country is the Soufriere volcano on the northern portion of the island of Saint Vincent, at 25
1 234 m. It is an active volcano, which erupted violently in 1821, 1902, and 1979. The island of Saint Vincent is very 20
20
mountainous, while the Grenadines are low-lying and surrounded by coral reefs. The climate of the archipelago is humid1515
tropical, and it is frequently
affected by hurricanes that originate in the Atlantic. Its economy is based on banana production and tourism.
10
1971
1971
0.3
0.3
Integrated
Integratedthreat
threat
0.25
0.25
26.4
26.4
24.2
24.2
chapter
0.4
0.4
27.4
27.4
Overfishing
Overfishing
nation’s total area in 1990 to 27.4 per cent in 2005 (UN 2010).
30
30
25
25
20
20
1515
1010
55
00
Marine-based
Marine-basedpollution
pollution
Forest cover has increased its from 24.2 per cent of the
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
Sedimentation
Sedimentation
Population:
Proportionof
ofprotected
protectedterrestrial
terrestrialand
andmarine
marine
Proportion
(Percentage)
areas(Percentage)
areas
Proportionof
ofland
landsurface
surfacecovered
coveredby
byforest
forest
Proportion
Coastal
Coastaldevelompent
develompent
Total area:
390 km2 (FAO 2007)
Fertilizer consumption (Thousands of tonnes)
Nitrogenous
Phosphates
Potassium
3
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
1961 1964 1967 1970 1973 1976 1979 1982 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000
Total area:
163 820 km2 (FAO 2007)
chapter
Population:
development goals
Suriname
(Percentage)
100
Suriname maintains the highest forest cover of
countries in the region, with 94.7 per cent
cover, which has remained stable from 1990 to
2005. Nevertheless, the pressure of extractive
industries, such as mining and selective
logging, constitute a latent threat to its
resources. Insofar as its progress towards the
seventh of the Millennium Development Goals,
Suriname has increased its percentage of
protected areas from 3.9 per cent in 1990 to
13.2 per cent in 2000, which it has maintained
to 2008. On the other hand, CO 2 emissions per
(CIA 2009).
capita have increased slightly, from 4.45 metric
tons in 1990 to 4.78 metric tons in 2007.
15
94.7
94.7
60
6
20
3
1990
2000
toward
the
millenium
Carbon
dioxide
(CO ) emissions
development goals
2
2
Suriname maintains the
5 highest forest cover of
cover, which has remained stable
4.45from 1990 to4.55
4
4
3.9
logging, constitute a latent
threat to its
3
3
seventh
of the is
Millennium Development Goals,
The majority of
the population and agricultural
activity
2
2
Suriname has increased
its percentage of
concentrated in the coastal area, in the north of Suriname. The southern
portion,
meanwhile, consists of a dense tropical rainforest and is sparsely
populated. The topography
consists
13.2 per
cent in 2000,1 which it has maintained
1
On the other hand, CO 2 emissions per
of a narrow coastal plain that extends from east to the west, made up primarily of a belttoof2008.
savannah,
N/D
N/D
and tropical jungle in the mountainous region. The climate
0 of Suriname is tropical and temperatures
0
tons in 1990 to 4.78 metric
tons in 2007.
5
Suriname is the smallest country in South America,
1990
4.78
94.7
Suriname maintains the highest forest cover of
100
94.7
94.7
294.7
80
1
60
0
40
20
0
1990
2000
2005
20
0
4
4
4.45
4.55
4.78
3.9
2007
3
93
843.9
82
60
3
2
2
1
0
N/D
1990
2000
0
2005
1990
2000
2007
0
Floods
1995
2008
1990
4
1
1990
2000
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
5
3.9
0
1990
Higher
plants
Mammals Breeding
birds
2008
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Source: Prepared with data from USGS 2010.
Reptiles Amphibians Fish
Threatened species, 2002-2003
2000Earth Trends 2003. 2008
Fuente:
Wildlife trade
30
20 000
2
20
Water
4.55
4.45
15
4.78
0
Sanitation
93
0
84
82
2005
1990
2008
5
20
Fuente: Earth Trends 2003.
2006
Source: Prepared with data from ED-DAT 2010.
40
Mammals Breeding
birds
15
1969
10
60
Higher
plants
25
20
5 000
91
30
10 000
100
80
10
0
N/D
8 000
13.2
Proportion of population with access to Ian Mckenzie - Flickr
improved sources of drinking water and 15 000
2
N/D1995
10 000
10
Carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions
25
5
20
1
0
4.45
3
40
2
1
2005
Gold (Kg)
12 000
0
2000
Petroleum (Thousands of barrels)
Suriname is among theimproved
first tiersources
of
At the global level, the illegal or excessive commerce in
of drinking water and
2
25
countries on earth in terms
of access
wild species, together with the loss of their habitat, continue
sanitation
Number of people affected by flooding
Sanitation
Water
to water, but this hydrologic abundance
to be a very important impediment to the survival of many
20
30 000
4.78the country susceptible to
also
makes
species and the conservation of biodiversity. For Suriname,
100
4.55
Mining outputs
floods. The greater part of the coastal
wildlife is a basic source of survival, not only for the indig25 000
15
93
91
Bauxite (Metric
tons)
Petroleum
(Thousands
of
barrels)
Gold
(Kg)
Mining
outputs but also for the economy of the country
plain of Suriname, which
enous
communities,
80holds the maProportion
84terrestrial and marine
Proportion
of
land
surface
covered
by
forest
20 000 of protected
82
Bauxite
(Metric
tons) of income,
Petroleum
(Thousands
of barrels)
Gold (Kg)
12 000
jority of the population, is between 0.5as an important
source
taxes,
and employment.
(Percentage)
10
areas (Percentage)
60 necessitat1.5 meters above sea level,
Suriname
12 000 legally trades wildlife with its neighbors, French
15 000
10 000
100
ing the construction of levees to protect 15
Guiana
and Guyana, and at the international level, especially
5
10 000
10 000
8 000
40
against flooding.
On some
with Europe. The majority of species that are sold commer94.7
94.7
94.7 occasions
8 000
these barriers are over-topped, and 12
cially
are taken directly from the forest. The routes of the
13.2
13.2 0
5 000
80 6 000
20
Higher
Mammals
Breeding
Reptilesare
Amphibians
6
000
salt
water
floods
the
surrounding
land,
trade
in
exotic species
complex,Fish
making it difficult to
4 000
plants
birds
0
damaging
crops,
roads,
and
dwellings.
distinguish
between
legal
and
illegal
product
origins. Some
1969
2006
2008
4 000
60 2 000
9
0
In the coastal zone, which includes
of2003.
the most heavily extracted species are the Psittacines (parFuente: Earth Trends
1995
2008
2000
2007
2 000
Source: Prepared with data from ED-DAT 2010.
0
Paramaribo, stormwater drainage berots, macaws, parakeets), reptiles (iguanas and tortoises),
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
40
6
0
comes a serious problem during the
amphibians
(exotic frogs) and primates (for medical studies).
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Source: Prepared with
data from
USGS 2010.
rainy
season
since these are very flat low-lying regions, giving rise to frequent flooding. When Additionally, the trade in medicinal plants is poorly docuNumber
of
people
affected
by
flooding
3.9
20
3 from septic
Source:and
Prepared
with data from USGS 2010.
such flooding occurs, some of the effluent
systems is dispersed into the environ- mented
controlled.
30
000
ment, increasing the incidence of water-borne illness. In May of 2006 close to 25 000 people
Threatened species,
2002-2003
0
0
were affected by floods that took place after
the beginning of the rains (EM-DAT 2010).
25 000
30
1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
2008
5
5
100
4
80
3
Sanitation
3
Bauxite (Metric tons)
2 of
Suriname maintains the highest forest cover
13.294.7 per cent 13.2
12
countries
in the region, with
1
9
industries, such
as mining and selective
N/D
N/D
0
1990 resources.
2000
2005
Insofar as its progress
towards the
6
3.9
3
1990
2000 from 4.45 metric
2008
capita have
increased slightly,
91
9 84
82
0
1990
3
15
development goals
Water
Mining outputs
15
93
91
20
4
5
5
20
13.2
40
Proportion of protected terrestrial
and marine
3.9
areas (Percentage)
2
94.7
6
5
2
2008
60
improved
sources
of population
drinking water
and
Proportion
of urban
living
in slums
sanitation
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
systems are worsening due to the dumping of garbage by the population.
In the interior of the country a large part of the population lacks sanitary
facilities, dumping their waste directly in to the rivers (USACE 2001). Gold
mining industries in the interior of Suriname contaminate the water with
mercury. Also, coastal areas, including the city of Paramaribo, are located
at only 0.5-1.5 meters above sea level, which during the rainy season pro2006 the salinization
2007
2008 and the infiltration of wastewater from
motes
of aquifers
latrines (USACE 2001).
Sanitation
40
5
3
2000
12
80
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
Water
94.7
100
60
Gold (Kg)
12 000
30 terrestrial and marine
Proportion of protected
Proportion of population with access toareas (Percentage)
(Percentage)
25
100
15
1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
do not vary much during the year. The economy is based on the
mining industry,
with aluminium,
Proportion
of
urban
population
living
in
slums
gold, and crude oil exports accounting for close to 85 per cent of all exports (CIA 2009).
development goals
Petroleum (Thousands of barrels)
2005
80
bounded on the east by French Guyana, to the west by
Guyana, to the south by Brazil, and to the north by the
Atlantic Ocean.
Bauxite (Metric tons)
Issues
10 000
0
0
4
9
40
Mining outputs
8 000
Water 13.2
resources are13.2
abundant in Suriname,
but their quality is
gravely threatened. The urban areas largely6 000
rely on groundwater, while
those in the rural areas use surface waters (USACE 2001). In both cases
4 000
the population and their economic activities place a great pressure on
2 000
the resource due to insufficient sanitary practices,
poor disposal of solid
waste, and pollution from industrial and mining
0 activities. Wastewaters
2004 without any
2005
from septic tanks are discharged directly into rivers
type of
3.9 treatment (USACE 2001). High rates of obstruction
of sewers
drainage
Source: Prepared
with data and
from USGS
2010.
12
Progress
Proportion of urban population living
in slums
Water Pollution
94.7
80
accounting for close to 85 per cent of all exports
(Percentage)
areas (Percentage)
The economy is based on the mining industry
N/D
3
0
Higher
plants
Mammals Breeding
birds
0
2000
2007
1995
2008
Fuente: Earth Trends 2003.
274
30 000
25 000
30 000
25 000
275
Moengo,
Suriname
S
uriname has a long mining history. For more than 90 years it has been one of
the major world producers of bauxite and aluminium oxide (from which aluminium
is obtained). Moengo is found in the north of Suriname and has large reserves of
bauxite. It was here that in 1916 a US company began the mineral exploitation of
Suriname, along the Cottica River. In 1958, this company entered into partnership
with the government of Suriname to build a hydroelectric plant that would supply
energy to its aluminium refineries. The outcome was the construction of a dam that
flooded 1 560 km2 of forest (Butler 2006). Today, production operations include
four bauxite mines, an aluminium refinery, and a hydroelectric plant that produces
2.2 million metric tons of aluminium annually. Pollution due to inadequate waste
management and deforestation are among the impacts associated with mining in
this area. The satellite images presented show the mining areas of Moengo and the
expansion of mining exploration, which has ceased operations, inside the Wane
Creek nature reserve.
277
Paramaribo,
Suriname
P
aramaribo, located on the banks of the Suriname River, is the capital and
the largest city in the country; it is also the major coastal port and the centre of
commerce and manufacturing. Paramaribo has an area of 183 km 2 and a population
of 242 946 (PNUMA and others 2009). The city, whose historic centre is considered a UNESCO world heritage site, currently faces serious drainage problems as a
result of its expansion. Domestic wastewater, with little treatment, is discharged into
the Suriname River or the Saramacca Canal. The population frequently disposes
of their solid waste in storm drainage canals, which causes severe blockages in the
system, creating contaminated zones with bad odours and canals with decaying
material and eutrophied water, causing an unhygienic situation that worsens during
severe rainfall events. The flow rate of domestic wastewater in the coastal region is
estimated at 0.7 m3 /s (PNUMA and others 2009). Eighty-six per cent of the extent
of sanitation is achieved via the use of septic tanks, and 8 per cent via use of latrines, effluent from which enters the Suriname River via its tributaries (PNUMA and
others 2009). In the image from 2005, the expansion of the city is visible, as well
as an increase in agricultural parcels, and a difference in the quantity of sediment
at the mouth of the Suriname River, relative to the 1987 image.
279
0
Total area:
340 km2 (FAO 2007)
development goals
Population:
(Percentage)
Trinidad and Tobago
45.8
40
44.4
20
3
0
0
1990
2000
1990
2005
Nolana Lynch
2
2
27.88
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
18.93
10
N/D
N/D
1990
2000
0
Sanitation
Water
30
Petroleum and natural gas make up 40 per cent of GDP and 80
10
13.92
0
The country of Trinidad and Tobago, in the southern
2005
1990
2008
24.7
2000
2000
94
93
88
1990
2007
92
2008
Caribbean Sea, is an archipelago made up of two main islands,
Trinidad (4 828 km2) and Tobago (300 km2), along with 21 smaller islands. The island of Trinidad, separated from Venezuela by the narrow Gulf of Paria that spans 11 km, is the larger of
the two in size and population. The highest
pointproduction
on the island,
the Cerro del Aripo, is locatedWastes originating from organic solvents, by sector
Petroleum
and exports
of barrels)
Production
Exports
in the north. In the central portion of the island there are (Thousands
plains, largely
farmland,
and in the
south rolling hills;(Percentage)
Tourism 28
60
the island also contains numerous rivers. Tobago, to the northeast
of Trinidad, is of volcanic origin, with hills and
wooded areas. The country has a tropical climate. It is one of the most industrialized countries in the Caribbean,Chemical
with an economy based
Administration and
50
products
49
public health 9
on the petrochemical industry and tourism. Petroleum and natural gas make up 40 per cent of GDP and 80 per cent of exports
(CIA 2009).
40
Annual economic contribution of coral reefs in Tobago
(Millions of U.S. dollars)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Manufacturing
and services 2
Tourism and recreation
High estimate
Fisheries
Low estimate
Shoreline protection
30
of land surface covered by forest
Progress Proportion
toward
the millenium
(Percentage)
20
development goals
development goals
Proportion
of protected
terrestrial
and marine
Proportion
of land surface
covered
by forest
areas
(Percentage)
(Percentage)
50 10
50
Trinidad and Tobago is the leader in petroleum and natural
gasand Tobago
Trinidad
is the
leader in petroleum and natural gas
45.8
44.4
production in the Caribbean, a fact that has caused itsproduction
CO2
40
44.1
in the Caribbean, a fact that has caused its CO2
40
emissions to grow in recent decades. Currently it has the
emissions to grow
30 in0recent decades. Currently it has the
highest average rate of emissions per capita in the Latin America
1999 2000 per
2001capita
2002 in
2003
2005
2006 200730
2008
highest average
rate of emissions
the2004
Latin
America
20
and the Caribbean, 27.88 metric tons in 2007. There has been
20
and
the
Caribbean,
27.88
metric
tons
in
2007.
There
has
been
little variation in the extent of its forest cover, 45.8 per cent in
littlethat
variation 10
in the extent of its forest cover, 45.8 per cent in
1990 and 44.1 per cent in 2005. In 2005, it was calculated
10
Source: Prepared with data from OLADE 2009.
1990
and
44.1
per
0 cent in 2005. In 2005, it was calculated that
24.7 per cent of the urban population lived in slums.
0
24.7 per cent of the urban
population lived2000
in slums.
1990
Eighty-eight per cent of the population had access to potable
2005
Eighty-eight
per
cent
of
the
population
had
access
to
potable
water in 1990, this increased to 94 per cent in 2008.
2
30
24.7
20
10
0
N/D
N/D
1990
2000
27.88
20
20
10
10
2005
0
N/D
0
1990
44.1
8.5
9
3
18.93 24.7
20
13.92
1990
10
N/D
2000
2000
2007
2005
1990
1990
Water
100
80
60
40
20
13.92
0
0
2000
2000
2005
2008
1990
2000
8.5
0
93
88
Water
27.88
94
18.93
2000
2008
2007
92
2008
Sanitation
1990
1990
8.5
3
0
30
8.4
6
2
30
30
44.4
8.5
2
2
(Percentage)
Source: Prepared with data from EMA 2006.
8.4
45.8
6
Burke and
others
2008.
Proportion of protectedSource:
terrestrial
and
marine
Construction 12
areas (Percentage)
Carbon dioxide
(CO
) emissions
improved
sources
of drinking water and
(Percentage)
9
100
80
60
40
20
0
Sanitation
93
88
1990
Point Lisas,
Trinidad and Tobago
94
P
92
2008
oint Lisas is located on the Gulf of Paria on the
island of Trinidad, and is the second largest port
in the country, after Port-of-Spain. It is the industrial
zone where the majority of the country’s petrochemiWastes
originating
from
organic
solvents,
by
sector
Annual
economic
contribution
of
coral
reefs
in
T
obago
cal facilities are found, including factories producing
Important
Issues
Petroleum
productionEnvironmental
and exports
Important
Environmental
Issues
Low estimate Annual economic
(Millions
of U.S. dollars)
Wastes originating
from organic
solvents,High
by estimate
sector
(Percentage)
(Thousands of barrels)
Production
Exports Petroleum production
contribution
of coral
reefs
in T
obago
steel, methanol,
ammonia,
and
urea,
as
well as elecand exports
Tourism 28
High estimate
Low
estimate
(Millions of trical
U.S. dollars)
(Percentage)
Production
Exports
plants,
desalinization
plants,
and
petroleum
and
140
Tourism 28
60
120
natural
gas
installations.
Owing
to
the
concentration
140
100
60
Chemical
Administration and
120
80
of industrial activity related to petroleum, gas, and
50
100
products 49
public health 9
60
Chemical
Administration
and
80
chemicals, Point Lisas is one of the areas that produce
Polluting agents in Trinidad and Tobago are50closely related to effluents from industrial sources,
40
products 49
public health 9
60
20
40
a significant quantity of Trinidad’s waste (EMA 2006).
municipal
sewers, and agricultural runoff. The large volume of garbage generated by urban areas and
40
0
Manufacturing
20
Tourism
and
recreation
Fisheries
Shoreline
protection
and
services
2
Studies have demonstrated that sediments found in
tourism as well as the petrochemical waste products,
pesticides
and
fertilizers,
and
the
lack
of
sewage
40
0
Manufacturing
30
to theFisheries
industriesShoreline
locatedprotection
in the Gulf of Paria
treatment all affect both inland fresh water resources, as well as the littoral region (beaches, wetlands,
Tourismproximity
and recreation
and services 2
Source: Burke and others 2008.
30 causes a proliferation of algae, which in turn kills Construction 12
contain high levels of metals and petroleum and cheand coral reefs). The eutrophication of coastal waters
20
mical
industry
by-products (Ragbirsingh and Norville
fish, sea grasses, coral reefs, and even seabirds. Moreover, solid waste generated by the use of packaged
Source: Burke and
others
2008.
Construction 12
20 and beaches during the rainy season, where they
2005). The high-resolution image shows the extent
and 10
disposable goods are washed down to the coasts
of the industrial zone of Point Lisas and the adjacent
negatively affect marine life and the appearance of beaches.
10
residential areas, with housing and services for the
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
population working in these industries.
0
280
Marine and coastal pollution
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Impacts of petrochemical
production
Trinidad and Tobago is the largest producer of
petroleum and natural gas in the Caribbean. Portof-Spain, located on the Gulf of Paria, is considered
a high-risk zone because of the frequent transit of
oil tankers, exemplified by a major spill, in 1979,
caused by a collision of an oil tanker during a tropical storm. Trinidad and Tobago has the highest
average per capita CO2 emissions in Latin America
and the Caribbean: 27.88 metric tons (2006). In
2003, 85.7 per cent of the country’s toxic wastes
were produced by the petroleum, gas, and chemical industries (EMA 2006). The impacts of petrochemical production cause significant damage to
fragile ecosystems, biodiversity loss, reduced fish
catches, water contamination and deterioration of
areas that are valuable for tourism.
10
(Percentage)
20
8.5
6
30
30
8.5
1990
2000
2005
chapter
Nolana Lynch
8.4
44.1
N/D
3
9
50
Trinidad and Tobago is the leader in petroleum and natural gas
production in the Caribbean, a fact that has caused its CO2
emissions to grow in recent decades. Currently it has the
highest average rate of emissions per capita in the Latin America
and the Caribbean, 27.88 metric tons in 2007. There has been
little variation in the extent of its forest cover, 45.8 per cent in
1990 and 44.1 per cent in 2005. In 2005, it was calculated that
24.7 per cent of the urban population lived in slums.
Eighty-eight per cent of the population had access to potable
per cent of exports (CIA 2009).
areas (Percentage)
N/D
Petroleum production and exports
Production
Exports
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Poorly organized coastal development
The inappropriate uses of lands for settlements (planned and unplanned), indiscriminate mining,
undesirable farming practices, and excess timber cutting have caused environmental problems in various
parts of the country. Deforestation on steep slopes has contributed to landslides, erosion, and flooding; in
addition the resulting sedimentation causes turbidity in the water, reaching coral reefs, which in many
cases proves fatal for them. The deterioration of coastal areas has affected various ecosystems, diminishing the number of fish, increasing biodiversity loss; mangrove forests, coastal wetlands, beaches, and
coral reefs have been affected in the same way. Development has placed great demand on wetland areas
through their conversion to residential and industrial uses, and use as waste disposal sites. Wetland
removal has reduced the services that these ecosystems provide, such as the provision of nursery areas
for fish species, water purification, flood control, and protection against storm surges.
Uruguay
0.4
8
8.6
8.1
0.8
Uruguay
0
1.0
Progress toward the
the larger Uruguayan region, or Banda Oriental, which extends from the Argentine province
millenium
goals
N/D development
N/D
N/D
of Entre Ríos, through Uruguay, and into the state of Rio Grande do Sul, in Brazil. The landscape
is characterized
0
0.3
0.5
Plantation forest establishment in Uruguay was strongly promoted by
0
a 1987 law, creating lucrative
tax benefits for planted tree crops. This cre1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
2008
ated major expansion of the nation’s forestry sector. In consequence, the law
pre-existing
landscape,
which was
Proportionof
of the
population
with access
to
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced an ongoing substitution
improved
sources
of
drinking
water
and
essentially dedicated to cattle production, by industrial forest plantations,
sanitation
facilities
(Percentage)
mostly Eucalyptus and Pinus
species
(CLAES
and others 2008). The planting
Water
Sanitation
of extensive areas with one or two species of non-native woodlands in areas
1.86
that were previously 100
grasslands has a strong effect on native prairie ecosys100
100
tems and the services that they
96provide,
94 such as maintenance of grassland
1.6
80
biodiversity and its associated
fauna, and the regulation of nutrient cycles
and
the
region’s
hydrology
(UDELAR
2006). The substitution of the herba1.28
ceous land cover of a 60
grassland ecosystem with forestry plantations affects
the water cycle due to the increase in water demand needed to support tree
40
growth, relative to the requirements of grassland vegetation (CLAES and
others
2008).
Proportion of land surface covered
by forest
20
(Percentage)
010
2000
2007
8.6
8.1
areas
(Percentage)
0.40
0.3
1990
0.3
2008
0.3
0.3
12
Herbicides
10
0.1
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Thousands of ha
Soybeans
Kg herbicide/ha
areas (Percentage)
Proportion of protected terrestrial and
2 marine
0.4
areas (Percentage)
8
Thousands of ha
Kg herbicide/ha
12
Land Use Change
0.2
0
282
0
N/D
N/D
N/D
1990
N/D
2000
N/D
1990
2000
2007
0.5
N/D
0
2007
0
1990
1990
2000
2000
2007
40
20
20
0
and ultimately of water pollution, both of surface waters (rivers, lakes)
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998In addition,
2000
2002
2004
and
subterranean
the substitution
of native vegetaSource:
CLAES and
othersaquifers.
2008.
tion by forest plantations or cropland, as well as the introduction of exotic
Source: CLAES and others 2008.
species, contributes to the loss of native biodiversity.
0
1981-88
1990
2007
0
1990
2008
2008
2000
2001
2002
2003
Cumulative increases in forest cover
Annual forestation
2004
2005
2006
(Thousands of ha)
Forest cover (cumulative)
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1981-88 1990 1992
1996
1998
2000
Herbicides
imported by1994
cultivated
hectare
and
area2002
planted2004
in soybeans
Soybeans
Herbicides
Fish catch of the Uruguayan fleet, 1975-2003
10
(Thousands of tonnes)
Other species
Total
Fish catch of160
the Uruguayan fleet, 1975-2003 (Thousands of tonnes)
Hake-Sea140
bass-Whiting
Other species
Total
120
160
100
140
80
120
60
100
40
80
20
60
0
400
350
300
250
(Thousands of tonnes) 200
150
Total
100
50
0
2004 2005 2006
Miguel Benchín - Flickr
8
Fish16catch of the Uruguayan fleet, 1975-2003
400
350
10
0
16
300
10
0
0.4
In Uruguay, between
1990
2005 wooded
land
due in part
to and
forestation
via plantations.
Emissions
8.6
8
8
1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
2008
250
4
8.1
0.3
cover increased
from
5.2 per cent to 8.6 per cent
of CO
200
2 have been increasing since 1990 from 1.28
16
0.3
0.3
0.3
2
due in part tometric
forestation
via capita
plantations.
Emissions
150
Proportion
of urban population living in slums
8.6
8 in
Proportion of population with access
to
tons per
in 2007
to 1.86 metric tons
4
8.1
6
0.3
100 and
of CO2 have been
increasing
since
1990
from
1.28
0
(Metric
tons
of
CO
per
capita)
(Percentage)
improved
sources
of
drinking
water
2007, of which 89 per cent are derived from fossil
2
0.3
0.3
0.3
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
2006
2
metric tons per
capita
2007 to
1.86Finally,
metric tons
sanitation facilities (Percentage) 50
0.2
fuel
use ininurban
areas.
as of in
2008, access
5.2
0
6
2
1
0
Water
Sanitation
2007, of which
perpotable
cent are
derived
to 89
both
water
andfrom
basicfossil
sanitation extends
4
Source: CLAES
others 2008.
1998 1999
2000and 2001
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1.86
0.2
fuel use in urban
areas.
Finally,
as of
2008, access
to 100
per cent
of the
population.
5.2
100
to both potable water and basic sanitation extends
4
0.1
0.8
100
100
96
1.5
2
94
1.6
to 100 per cent of the population.
80
0.1
(Thousands of ha)
Cumulative
increases
in forest is
cover
Land
use change
in Uruguay
having
increasing effects on ecosystems;
0.6
2
1.28
0
Annual forestation
0
60
primary
among
these
are(Thousands
erosion and
1.0
of ha)soil degradation, the loss of native
Cumulative
increases
in forest
cover
1990
2000
2005
1990
2000
2008
species,
and
water
pollution.
In
2002,
the nation began a process of agri800
0.4
0
Annual forestation
0
40 intensification in which soy cultivation has been
Proportion
of population 2008
with access to
Carbon dioxide
cultural
expansion
and
1990
2000 (CO2) emissions
2005
1990
2000
700
800
(Percentage)
improved sources of0.5
drinking water and
one of the most significant developments. Currently, 30 per cent of the
600
Proportion of sanitation
populationfacilities
with access
to
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions 0.2
(Percentage)
20 some degree of erosion due to the intensification
700
nation’s land area shows
(Metric tons2of CO2 per capita)
(Percentage) 1
improved sources
of drinking
water and
Water
Sanitation
500
of production systems from the use of agrochemicals (fertilizers and her600
N/D
N/D
N/D
1.86 sanitation
0
0
0
2
1
400 and intense soil use by crop production (accounting for 87 per cent
bicides)
Water 100
Sanitation
500
0.8
100
100
1990
2008
1990
2000
2007
1990
2000
2007
96
1.5
of the
94
1.61.86
300 eroded area) and ranching (accounting for 12 per cent of the eroded
100
400
80
area)
(CLAES and others 2008). Of the total affected area of 52 362 km 2, 18
0.8
100
100
200
96
0.6
1.5
94
1.6
300
1.28
per cent shows a minor degree of erosion, 10 per cent exhibits moderate
80
60
100
1.0
200
impacts, and 2 per cent is severely or very severely eroded. The use of pes0.6
1.28
0 and fertilizers in agriculture can be a source of soil contamination
0.4
ticides
60
100
1981-88
1990 1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
1.0
40
0.5
1999
12
0.2by cultivated hectare and area planted in soybeans
fuel use in urban areas. Finally, as of 2008, access
Herbicides imported
5.2
4
Soybeans
Herbicides
Proportion of protected terrestrial and marine Herbicides imported
Proportion of land surface
covered
bythe
forest
to 100 per
cent of
population.
by cultivated hectare and area planted in soybeans
0.2
1998
0.1
2
0.4
4
Plantation forestry
In The
Uruguay,
between
1990 and 2005 wooded land
by a matrix of subtropical grasslands heavily modified by agroforestry and ranching activities.
most1990
important
2000
2007
1990
cover increased from 5.2 per cent to 8.6 per cent
watershed is the Uruguay River, which at its confluence with the Paraná, forms the La Platadue
River.
The
climate
is
in part to forestation via plantations. Emissions
8
temperate. Uruguay’s export economy is based on agriculture production, with beef as the principle
source
of export revenue.
The
majority
of CO have
been increasing
since 1990
from
1.28 of the country`s ecotons
per capita
in 2007
to 1.86ofmetric
in
nomic activity in carried out in the coastal region where 77 per cent of the GDP is generated,metric
tourism
being
the most
profitable
thesetons
activities
for the
country.
6
Progress toward the
(Percentage)
millenium
development goals Proportion of land surface covered by forest
Progress
toward the
10
In Uruguay, between 1990 and 2005 wooded land(Percentage)
millenium
development
goals
8
16
2
0.2
Issues
5.2
4
1.5
is located in the southeastern part of South
0.6
America, bordered to the north and northeast by Brazil, to the
west by Argentina, to the south by the La Plata0.4River, and to
Uruguay is part of
the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean. The territory of
0.2
0.3
10
0
Miguel Benchín - Flickr
2
1
0.3
6
2
Between 1990 and 2004, the industrial forest plantation
area increased by about 1600 percent, with an annual average
of 46 000 ha (CLAES and others 2008).
(Percentage)
0.3
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
12
Thousands of ha
10
Herbicides
Thousands of ha
In Uruguay, between 1990 and 2005 wooded land
due in part to forestation via plantations. Emissions
of CO2 have been increasing since 1990 from 1.28
metric tons per capita in 2007 to 1.86 metric tons in
fuel use in urban areas. Finally, as of 2008, access
to 100 per cent of the population.
(Percentage)
Soybeans
Kg herbicide/ha
Population:
3 372 000 inhabitants (CEPAL 2009)
areas (Percentage)
Herbicides imported by cultivated hectare and area planted in soybeans
Kg herbicide/ha
Progress toward the
millenium development goals
Miguel Benchín
Total area:
176 220 km2 (FAO 2007)
Hake-Sea bass-Whiting
4
160
2
140
0
120
1998 1999 2000
100
80
60
40
20
0
1972
1976
1980
Other species
2001
2002
1984
2003
1988
1992
1996
Cumulative increases in forest cover (Thousands of ha)
Overfishing
Annual forestation
2000
2004
All the Uruguayan fishery resources were unexploited or underutilized at
the 800
beginning of the 1970s, while at present almost 90 per cent of them can be
considered
fully exploited or overfished, and only 10 per cent are still untapped
700
or underutilized. The Fisheries Development Plan began in Uruguay in the mid600
1970s, and brought about the substantial increase in the fishing fleet (an increment
500
of about
600 per cent) between 1975 and 1981. The increase in harvests during
400
these
years were an obvious consequence of fleet development, and infrastructure
development
in harbours and industrial parks, which jointly created jobs in the
300
fishing
200 sector (CLAES and others 2008). Growing pressure from fishing has put the
target resources at risk, along with species captured as by-products, and marine
100
and coastal biodiversity in general. Some of the species captured accidentally in0 turtle species Caretta caretta, the loggerhead and Dermochelys coriacea,
clude 1981-88
the
1990 1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
the leatherback; the dolphin species Pontoporia blainvillei and Tursiops truncates,
andSource:
the orca,
orca (CLAES and others 2008).
CLAES Orcinus
and others 2008.
Fish catch of the Uruguayan fleet, 1975-2003
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1972
1976
1980
Other species
1984
1988
(Thousands of tonnes)
Total
1992
1996
2000
2004
283
Ana Inés Izquierdo
Tacuarembó,
Uruguay
284
I
n Uruguay, plantation forestry using exotic species was strongly promoted
as a new form of production by laws establishing tax benefits for priority areas
with the aim of supplying a shortage of forest products, and conserving native woodlands. A significant proportion of the departments of Tacuarembó and Rivera,
located in the north-central region of the country, are included in the prioritized area
for forestry. The widespread expansion of agroforestry, especially with Eucalyptus
and Pinus species, is of such magnitude that Uruguay’s total forested area has
grown from 45 000 ha in 1990 to approximately 900 000 ha in 2009. These
changes in land use carry certain foreseeable environmental impacts, among
them biodiversity loss (plant and animal), changes in the hydrologic cycle, and soil
degradation (acidification, salinization, and nutrient loss). In the satellite image of
Tacuarembó from 2009, forest plantations (areas in dark green) are visible, which
have replaced areas of native vegetation, primarily grasslands, evident in the image
from 1975. Additionally, at the upper left corner of the 2009 image evidence of the
severe drought that affected Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil from the second half
of 2008 through the first half of 2009 is visible.
285
development goals
(Percentage)
59
5 000 000
(Percentage)
5.99
80
60
59
55.7
90
65.7
60
20
0
2000
6 000 000
1999 2000 2001
5 000 000
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
1 000 000
Annual iron production
(Millions of tonnes)
15
0
0
0
25
20
2005
15
1970
1980
1990
2000
10
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
1 400 000
Exports
92
Production
19
Oil reserves, production and export
20
5
2008
0
90
2000
19
1990
88
(Percentage)
2005
19
2000
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
20
98
19
96
19
94
19
92
19
90
19
88
19
86
08
20
06
20
04
20
02
20
00
Nidesca Suarez
2 000 000
30
5
Source: Developed with data from CEPAL 2010.
4 000 000
45
12
1990
80
Roundwood
3 000 000
1990
2007
Firewood
Source: Prepared with data by OLADE 2009.
41.6
10
7 000 000
65.7
40
24
Sawtimber
60 54.1
48
36
Production of sawtimber, roundwood, and firewood (m³)
86
The Venezuelan economy, based heavily on the
4
petroleum industry, is responsible for the majority
of the nation’s CO2 emissions, but even so,3these
values have diminished slightly, from 6.19 metric
tons per capita in 1990 to 5.99 metric tons2in
2007. Forest cover has also diminished, from 59
per cent in 1990 to 54.1 per cent in 2005. 1
N/D Protected areas
N/D increased notably in extent in the
1990s, from 41.6 per cent to 65.7 per cent 0by 2000,
1990
2000
2005
1990
where it remained until 2008. On the other hand,
almost a third of the country’s urban population
lives in slums, according to figures reported in
2005.
100
Proportion
forest
6.24 of land surface covered by
15
0
19
6
Progress toward32the millenium
6.19
5
development goals
Water
20
20
7
1 400 000
1 200 000
1
000 000
Sanitation
800 000
600 000
400 000
areas (Percentage)
93
91
200 000
0
7582
(Millions of tonnes)
25
98
Annual iron production
19
2008
96
2000
91
19
1990
2005
93
90
94
2000
100
5.99
Deforestation
19
1990
Sanitation
Water
92
1990
0
0
Roundwood
19
2005
2008
1970
1980 in minerals
1990(iron, bauxite,
2000 gold, coal,2008
Venezuela is
a country rich
diamonds, and
20
magnesium) and petroleum. Mineral exploitation is associated with soil and air polSource: Prepared with data from FAO 2010.
lution,
15 landscape degradation due to soil removal, soil loss, and deforestation, both
directly
10 in mined areas and in areas where tailings are impounded. All this leads to the
increase of suspended solids, heavy metals and other toxins in surface and subsurface
Oil
5 reserves, production and export (Thousands of barrels)
waters Production
as well as the bioaccumulation
of toxic substances in the higher trophic levels
Exports
of the0food chain the elimination and degradation of wildlife habitat, deforestation, and
1 400 000
forest degradation. Gold extraction activities in the region of Venezuelan Guyana have
1 200 000
caused
environmental damage, via deforestation, erosion, biodiversity loss,
1Source:
000 significant
000
Developed with data from CEPAL 2010.
and 800
mercury
contamination. Petróleos Venezuela and the Corporación Venezolana de
000
600 000
Guayana
report their waste emissions annually, estimating them at 600 000 tonnes/
000petroleum and petrochemical industries, and gold and aluminium mining
year.400
The
200 000
are responsible
for 50 per cent of this total. Additionally, in 2005 Petróleos Venezuela
0
reported a total
of 102000
269 storage
pits holding
120 000
m3 of2006
hazardous
and
1999
2001 2002
2003 2004
2005
2007 waste,
2008
3
533 000 m of mud; as well as 2 353 abandoned installations.
90
0
2000
2008
1 000 000
19
15
1990
2007
Annual iron production (Millions of tonnes)
Impacts
of mining
0
25
88
0
2006
4 000 000
19
12
N/D
1 400 000
1 200 000
1 000 000
Production
of sawtimber, roundwood, and firewood (m³)
800 000
Sawtimber
Firewood
Roundwood
600 000
400
000
7 000 000
200 000
6 000 000
0
5 000 000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
86
1
N/D
2000
Venezuela is one of the80most biologically82diverse countries in the region.
4 000 000
This diversity is threatened, however, primarily by deforestation and habitat
3 000 000
60
destruction. The main driving forces of forest loss are the advancement agri2 000 000
cultural and ranching frontiers, illegal timber extraction, the occupation of
40
1 000 000
lands intended for permanent forest production, unplanned mining activity,
0
fires. Between
1981 and 1989,
had the highest defores1970and forest1980
1990
2000 Venezuela
2008
20
tation rate in Latin America, with an annual rate of 1.2 per cent. In recent
Source: Prepared with
data from FAO
2010.
decades
the
situation has 0improved considerably; in the 1990s it decreased
0.4 per cent annually, and1990
later, in the 2000-2005
period, fell to
2005
2000 to less than
2007
0.3 per cent annually. Regardless, deforestation continues to be an important
Oil reserves, production
and export
(Thousands
of barrels)
environmental
issue in
Venezuela,
contributing to erosion and soil degradaProduction tion, Exports
biodiversity loss, and reduced water availability.
2
30
7
6 000 000 6.24
6.19
3
41.6
2005
1990
1990
7 000 000
5
65.7
4
65.7
0
15
Firewood
2008
Exports
19
45
Sawtimber
Production
80
14
6
32
41.6
improved
sources of drinking water and
(m³)
Production of sawtimber, roundwood, and firewood
7
areas (Percentage)
Oil reserves, production and export
19
2005
2000
84
2000
84
286
1990
1990
2 000 000
Dra. Lianette Yepez
0
0
19
0
2007
82
7
2000
19
14
1990
80
21
12
36
24
30
19
28
1
24
0
1980
45
20
60
(Percentage)
35
2
36
1970
3 000 000
40
21
0
Water bodies occupy approximately 20 per cent of the Venezuelan territory, and a great number of them are polluted, largely by untreated domestic
15
and industrial runoff. The country’s economy continues to depend on highly
polluting productive activities: petroleum extraction, food processing, the
0
textile industry, and mining,
especially that of iron, aluminium, and gold.
1990
2000
1990
2000
2008
2005
Mining causes deforestation, which causes sediment build-up in rivers, and
of as
population
access
to treatment
ore processing also releases Proportion
toxins such
mercury.with
Toxic
waste
improved
sources
of
drinking
water
and
(Metric tons of CO2 per capita) systems have been only partially
implemented. The disposal of waste withsanitation facilities (Percentage)
out treatment to control leachates
andSanitation
the improper use of agrochemicals
Water
also contribute to the pollution of water bodies. Some rivers have very poor
100Guaire, Tuy, Unare, Neverí, Manzanares, Caura,
6.24 water quality: the Chama,
6.19
(Percentage)
areas (Percentage)
5.99
93watersheds
Paragua, Parguaza, Cuchivero, and90
Suapure, and the upper
of the
91
80
75
Apure, Caroní and Cuyuní
Rivers. Lake Valencia
and Lake Maracaibo are also
82
59
55.7 heavily polluted,
54.1
due to industrial waste and the extraction and transport
60
65.7
65.7
of petroleum.
60
(Percentage)
48
55.7
Water pollution
30
19
48
3
2
1 000 000
41.6
84
4
2 000 000
45
19
5
60
Sea, to the east by Guyana and in part by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by Braof the nation’s CO emissions, but even so, these
zil, and to the southwest by Colombia. It has three extensive lowlands
of importance:
14
values
have diminished slightly, from 6.19 metric
tons
perthe
capita
in 1990 to 5.99 metric tons in
that of Lake Maracaibo, the largest in South America, the Unare Valley,
and
region
7
of the Orinoco Delta. The Venezuelan territory is composed of three major
geographic
per cent in 1990 to 54.1 per cent in 2005.
units, which proceed from west to east: the northern Andean and coastal cordilleras,Protected
the Venezuelan
areas increased notably in extent in the
N/D
N/D
0
1990s,
from 41.6
per cent to 65.7 per cent by 2000,
llanos, or plains, and the massifs and tablelands of Venezuelan Guyana to the south of the
Orinoco
River.
1990
2000
2005
where it remained
It is counted among the world’s megadiverse countries and has a tropical climate. It is the
fourth largestuntil 2008. On the other hand,
economy in Latin America, after Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, by GDP, with an economylives
based
primarily
in slums,
according to figures reported in
2005.
on petroleum extraction and refinement.
75
4 000 000
82
6
Thethe
Venezuelan
economy, based heavily on the
Caribbean
in northern South America. It is bordered to the north by
21
28
54.1
65.7
19
7
32
28
The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
is
located
development goals
59
65.7
82
12
0
35
60
7 000 000
19
24
of the nation’s CO2 emissions, but even so, these
tons per capita in 1990 to 5.99 metric tons in
Protected areas increased notably in extent in the
1990s, from 41.6 per cent to 65.7 per cent by 2000,
2005.
Roundwood
5 000 000
60
36
(Percentage)
35
Firewood
6 000 000
54.1
Dr. Arthur Anker - Flickr
for the period between 1981-1989, 0.4 between 1990 and 2000
and 0.3 per cent between 2000 and 2005 (UNEP and others 2010).
Sawtimber
3 000 000
The annual deforestation rate was measured at 1.2 per cent
(Percentage)
55.7
48
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
development goals
75
Issues
60
Production of sawtimber, roundwood, and firewood (m³)
19
of the nation’s CO2 emissions, but even so, these
tons per capita in 1990 to 5.99 metric tons in
Protected areas increased notably in extent in the
1990s, from 41.6 per cent to 65.7 per cent by 2000,
2005.
areas (Percentage)
19
Population:
29 043 000 inhabitants (CEPAL 2009)
Ileana Goitia
Total area:
912 050 km2 (FAO 2007)
2008
Wikipedia
Maracaibo
Lake,
Venezuela
L
ake Maracaibo, in the west of Venezuela, is the largest in South America,
with a surface area of some 12 000 km 2 and a volume of 245 000 million m 3 .
It contains a confluence of fresh and salt water, promoting great biodiversity. The
drainage basin contains a population of 5 million, a strong petroleum industry and
important agricultural development, all factors that put the quality and quantity of
the lake’s waters at risk. Eutrophication and salinization encouraged the prolifera-
tion of a species of duckweed ( Lemna obscura) that by the end of April 2004 had
covered as much of 15 per cent of the lake surface (ICLAM 2004). These blooms
are visible as green stains in the 2006 image, in contrast to 2008. The behaviour
of the duckweed has been unpredictable; it continues to bloom at different times
of the year, causing the obstruction of irrigation canals, affecting navigation,
reducing the fishing catch, and producing foul odours and sanitary problems.
289
capítulo
3
capítulo
La realidad del cambio ambiental
3
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org/pubs/Techreports/tr36en/countries/stlucia.html. (Last accessed 17 April 2010)
U.S. Department of State (2009). Background note Saint Kitts and Nevis. http://
www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2341.htm (Last accessed 16 March 2010).
Cox, C. (2002). Perspective on Rural Land Management and Soil and Water Conservation in St. Lucia. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands, Forestry and Fisheries. http://www.
Butler, R. A. (2006). Suriname environmental profile. http://rainforests.mongabay.
com/20suriname.htm. (Last accessed 4 March 2010)
Goodland, R. (2006). Suriname. Environmental and Social Reconnaissance The
Bakhuys Bauxite Mine Project. The Association of Indigenous Village Leaders in
Suriname (VIDS) and The North-South Institute (NSI). http://198.170.85.29/SurinameBakhuis-bauxite-mine-impact-assessment-Sep-2009.pdf. (Last accessed 11 April 2010)
Rafael Caminos
CLAES, DINAMA and PNUMA (2008). GEO Uruguay. Informe del estado del ambiente. 352 pp. http://www.pnuma.org/deat1/pdf/GEOUruguay2008.pdf (Last accessed
22 September 2010)
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capítulo
3
PNUD, PNUMA and Programa de Desarrollo Local ART Uruguay (2009). Uruguay
2009: Medio ambiente: desafíos y políticas públicas. Uruguay
PNUMA, Ministerio del Poder Popular para el Ambiente, Instituto Forestal Latinoamericano (2010). GEO Venezuela
UDELAR (2006). Síntesis de los Efectos Ambientales de las Plantas de Celulosa y
del Modelo Forestal en Uruguay. Facultad de Ciencias
Reyes, R., Alexis, O., Alvarado, J. and Domínguez, J. (2006). Metales Pesados en
Plantas Provenientes de Áreas Afectadas por La Minería Aurífera en la Reserva
Forestal Imataca, Venezuela. Universidad, Ciencia y Tecnología. 10(41): 259-262,
December 2006
Tacuarembó
FAO (2004). Estudio de tendencias y perspectivas del sector forestal en América
Latina Documento de Trabajo. Informe Nacional Uruguay, Situación actual del
sector forestal. Roma
Geary, T.F. (1999). Environmental Impact of Afforestation in Uruguay
PNUMA, DINAMA and CLAES (2008). GEO Uruguay. Informe del estado del ambiente. 352 pp. http://www.pnuma.org/deat1/pdf/GEOUruguay2008.pdf (Last accessed
22 September 2010)
Maracaibo Lake
Brugnoli, E. and Boccardi, L. (2005). Especies acuáticas invasoras en Latinoamérica:
¿Nuevos indicadores de viejos problemas? Revista Ambientales, Nº 29. Escuela de
Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad de Costa Rica. Heredia, Costa Rica
Country
Herrera, L. (2004). Investigación científica: Inversión para conservar. Revista Interciencia, 29(9): 482. Caracas, Venezuela
ICLAM (Instituto para el Control y la Conservación del Lago Maracaibo) (2004). Antecedentes Lemna 2004. http://www.iclam.gov.ve/2004.pdf. (Last accessed 2 March 2010)
Venezuela
Annex 1
Antigua and Barbuda
40 738
Bahamas
13 880
346
Barbados
430
257
22 970
313
Plurinational State of Bolivia
1 098 580
10 031
Brazil
8 514 880
195 498
756 090
17 133
1 141 750
46 299
51 100
4 639
110 860
11 203
750
67
48 670
13 773
283 560
6 192
21 040
104
340
14 376
Guatemala
108 890
761
Guyana
214 970
10 089
27 750
7 621
112 090
2 730
10 990
110 675
1 964 380
5 822
130 370
3 508
75 420
6 460
406 750
29 495
1 285 220
9 899
260
52
Saint Lucia
620
109
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
390
174
163 820
524
5 130
1 344
Uruguay
176 220
3 372
Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
912 050
29 043
CEPAL (2010). CEPALSTAT. Estadísticas de minería y manufactura. http://websie.
eclac.cl/infest/ajax/ cepalstat.asp?carpeta=estadisticas. (Last accessed 25 May 2010)
Cuba
Colombia
Costa Rica
Dominica
Dominican Republic Ecuador
El Salvador
(thousands of people)
2 780 400
Argentina
Chile
Graterol, B. (2006). Procesos Relevantes de Degradación de Ecosistemas en la Guayana Venezolana. Revista Digital CENIAP HOY Nº 12 September-December, 2006
(km²)
89
Baldizán, A., Virguez, G. and Chacón, E. (2006). Agroforestería en Venezuela. Situación Actual y Perspectivas. II Simposio en Recursos y Tecnologías Alimentarias
para la Producción Bovina a Pastoreo en Condiciones Tropicales. San Cristóbal, 21 al
23 de Febrero 2006. Venezuela. http://avpa.ula.ve/eventos /ii_simposio_pastca2006/
contenido.htm. (Last accessed 25 May 2010)
FAO (2010). FAOSTAT. http://faostat.fao.org/. (Last accessed 17 September 2010)
Total population
440
Belize
Dr. Lianette Yepez
Country area Grenada
Haii
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Trinidad and Tobago
Source: FAO (2007). FAOSTAT. ResourceSTAT. Land. Country Area. http://faostat.fao.org/site/377/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=377#ancor. Last accessed 11 May 2010; United Nations (2010). Statistical Yearbook for Latin America and
the Caribbean 2009. ECLAC. Santiago, Chile. 316 pp. http://websie.eclac.cl/anuario_estadistico/anuario_2009/pdf/Anuario_2009.pdf. Last accessed 8 July 2010
Richard Molina
304
Idoia Aurrecoetchea
305
chapter
3
Annex 2
Values of indicators monitoring the VII Milenium Development Goal:
Environmental Sustainability
Proportion of land
area covered by forest
(percentage)
Terrestrial and marine areas
protected to total territorial
area (percentage)
Carbon dioxide
emissions (CO2)
(metric tons of CO2 per capita)
Proportion of population using an improved
drinking water source
(percentage)
Slum population as percentage
of urban
(percentage)
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008
1990
2000
2005
2007
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008
N/D
91
91
N/D
N/D
6.90
N/D
4.80 N/D
N/D
91
91
N/D
N/D
94
95
96
96
97
30.50
32.90
26.20
94
95
96
96
97
Proportion of population using an
improved sanitation facility
(percentage)
Year
Country
1990
2000
2005
Antigua and Barbuda
21.4
21.4
21.4
Argentina
12.9
12.3
Bahamas
51.5
Barbados
1990
2000
2006
2007
1990
2000
2008
2009
4.861
4.4727
5.0229
5.091
0.7
0.8
1
1
12.1
3.4653
3.8192
4.3881
4.6525
4.4
5.2
5.2
5.2
51.5
51.5
7.6329
5.8954
6.4876
6.4417
0.5
0.5
1
1
N/D
96
96
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
96
96
N/D
N/D
4
4
4
4.1361
4.7207
5.27
5.2879
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
100
100
100
100
100
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
100
100
100
100
100
Belize
72.5
72.5
72.5
1.6436
2.7394
1.4112
1.443
8.5
18.4
20.6
20.6
75
82
89
96
99
N/D
N/D
47.30
N/D
75
82
89
96
99
Plurinational State
of Bolivia
57.9
55.4
54.2
0.8251
1.1446
1.2196
1.3849
8.5
17.9
18.2
18.2
70
75
79
84
86
62.20
54.30
N/D
50.40
70
75
79
84
86
Brazil
62.2
59
57.2
1.3966
1.8954
1.8736
1.9373
10.8
18.7
27.8
27.8
88
91
93
95
97
36.70
31.50
N/D
29.00
88
91
93
95
97
Chile
20.4
21.1
21.5
2.6461
3.8975
4.1284
4.3102
12.8
13.2
13.2
13.2
90
92
94
96
96
N/D
N/D
9.00
N/D
90
92
94
96
96
Colombia
59.1
58.7
58.5
1.7268
1.4564
1.4086
1.4301
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.5
88
90
91
92
92
31.20
22.30
17.90
16.10
88
90
91
92
92
Costa Rica
50.2
46.5
46.8
0.9603
1.3928
1.6919
1.8209
16.2
17.6
17.7
17.7
93
94
95
96
97
N/D
N/D
10.90
N/D
93
94
95
96
97
Cuba
18.7
22.2
24.7
3.1491
2.3486
2.3241
2.4147
2.7
2.7
4.4
4.4
82
86
90
92
94
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
82
86
90
92
94
Dominica
66.7
63.1
61.3
0.8573
1.5132
1.7395
1.8049
3.6
3.7
3.7
3.7
N/D
95
95
95
N/D
16.60
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
95
95
95
N/D
Republic 28.4
28.4
28.4
1.298
2.2783
2.1046
2.1153
Ecuador
49.9
42.8
39.2
1.6379
1.7012
2.2183
2.2477
El Salvador
18.1
15.6
14.4
0.4912
0.966
1.0624
Grenada
12.2
12.2
12.2
1.2581
2.0255
Guatemala
43.8
38.8
36.3
0.5708
Guyana
76.7
76.7
76.7
4.2
4
Dominican
Haiti
24
24
24
24
88
88
87
87
86
27.90
21.00
17.60
16.20
88
88
87
87
86
4.2
15.3
15.3
15.3
72
79
86
92
94
N/D
N/D
21.50
N/D
72
79
86
92
94
1.0971
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.4
74
78
82
86
87
N/D
N/D
28.90
N/D
74
78
82
86
87
2.3536
2.3457
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
N/D
94
94
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
6.00
N/D
N/D
94
94
N/D
N/D
0.8829
0.9437
0.9683
24.4
27.3
29.5
29.5
82
86
89
92
94
58.60
48.10
42.90
40.80
82
86
89
92
94
1.5216
2.0892
1.9718
1.9723
2.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
N/D
87
89
92
94
N/D
N/D
33.70
N/D
N/D
87
89
92
94
3.8
0.1398
0.1582
0.2217
0.2467
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
47
52
55
60
63
93.40
93.40
70.10
70.10
47
52
55
60
63
13.5
13.9
13.9
72
76
80
84
86
N/D
N/D
34.90
N/D
72
76
80
84
86
Honduras
66
48.5
41.5
0.5291
0.8075
1.0107
1.2314
10
Jamaica
31.9
31.5
31.3
3.3693
4.019
4.5295
5.1796
2.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
93
93
93
93
94
N/D
N/D
60.50
N/D
93
93
93
93
94
Mexico
36.2
34.3
33.7
4.2865
3.9193
4.2077
4.3862
2.4
8.4
11.8
11.8
85
88
90
93
94
23.10
19.90
14.40
14.40
85
88
90
93
94
Nicaragua
53.9
45.6
42.7
0.639
0.7534
0.7805
0.8205
12.5
33.5
33.5
33.5
74
77
80
83
85
89.10
60.00
45.50
45.50
74
77
80
83
85
Panama
58.8
57.9
57.7
1.2995
1.9622
2.0803
2.1685
10.3
11
11.5
11.5
84
87
90
93
93
N/D
N/D
23.00
N/D
84
87
90
93
93
Paraguay
53.3
48.7
46.5
0.5325
0.6895
0.6626
0.6746
2.9
4.4
5.4
5.4
52
64
74
83
86
N/D
N/D
17.60
N/D
52
64
74
83
86
Peru
54.8
54.1
53.7
0.972
1.1659
1.2424
1.5079
4.6
7.5
13.1
13.1
75
77
79
81
82
66.40
46.20
36.10
36.10
75
77
79
81
82
14.7
14.7
14.7
1.6211
2.2366
4.7213
4.9388
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
99
99
99
99
99
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
99
99
99
99
99
Saint Lucia
27.9
27.9
27.9
1.1922
2.0998
2.1092
2.2594
2
2
2
2
98
98
98
98
98
N/D
N/D
11.90
N/D
98
98
98
98
98
the Grenadines
24.2
26.4
27.4
0.754
1.4649
1.8554
1.8531
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
Suriname
94.7
94.7
94.7
4.4525
4.553
4.827
4.7789
4.6
12.1
12.1
12.1
N/D
91
91
92
93
N/D
N/D
3.90
N/D
91
91
92
93
Trinidad and Tobago
45.8
44.4
44.1
13.9155
18.9283
26.0594
27.8848
7.4
9.6
9.6
9.6
88
90
91
93
94
N/D
N/D
24.70
N/D
88
90
91
93
94
5.2
8.1
8.6
1.2839
1.5977
2.0613
1.8627
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
96
96
98
100
100
N/D
N/D
N/D
N/D
96
96
98
100
100
55.7
54.1
6.1883
6.2445
5.9045
5.986
36.3
50.2
50.2
50.2
90
91
92
93
N/D
N/D
N/D
32.00
N/D
90
91
92
93
N/D
Saint Vincent and
Uruguay
Bolivarian Republic
of Venezuela
306
59
Source: United Nations (2010). MIllenium Development Goals Indicators. Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability. United Nations Statistics Division. http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx.
Site accessed on 8 July 2010
307
chapter
3
Annex 3
Images and bands
308
Country
Case Date
Bands
Satellite/Sensor
Path
Antigua and Barbuda
Saint John’s
23 September 2007
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Quickbird
Argentina
Upsala Glacier
8 March 1979
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Upsala Glacier
3 October 2005
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Argentina
Aimogasta
18 June 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
248
Aimogasta
15 March 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
Argentina
Salta
28 June 1972
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Salta
22 January 2009
Argentina
Pico Truncado
Row
Country
Case Date
Bands
Satellite/Sensor
Path
Row
Chile
Santiago Chile
22 March 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
250
83
Santiago Chile
13 March 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
ASTER
233
83
Chile
O’Higgins Glacier
9 November 1973
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
247
94
80
O’Higgins Glacier
8 October 2007
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
231
80
Chile
La Escondida
22 August 1975
R(4) G(3) B(2)
Landsat MSS
250
77
Landsat MSS
230
77
La Escondida
14 April 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
233
77
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
246
77
Chile
Atacama
23 November 1987
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
233
76
17 March 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
245
92
Atacama
25 June 2009
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Pico Truncado
15 May 2010
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Colombia
Armero
6 November 1981
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
8
57
Bahamas
New Providence
15 December 1973
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Armero
3 December 1985
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsar ETM+
8
57
New Providence
19 September 2006
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Colombia
Colombian Amazon
12 October 1977
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
8
59
Barbados
Saint lucy
13 August 2007
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Quickbird
Colombian Amazon
14 October 2002
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat TM
9
60
Belize
Belize City
14 November 1980
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
19
48
Colombia
La Guajira
31 July 1986
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
8
52
Belize City
27 December 1989
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
19
48
La Guajira
11 September 2007
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Belize City
25 March 2010
R(2) G(3) B(1)
ASTER
Costa Rica
Great Metropolitan Area 3 March 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Bolivia
Trinidad
29 April 2004
R(2) G(4) B(3)
CBERS
Great Metropolitan Area 15 January 2010
R(5) G(4) B(3)
ASTER
Trinidad
17 March 2008
R(2) G(4) B(3)
CBERS
Cuba
Moa
7 February 1985
R(2) G(4) B(1)
ASTER
Bolivia
Pando
9 June 1985
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
1
67
Moa
22 March 2006
R(1) G(2) B(3)
Landsat MSS
11
46
Pando
21 July 1984
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
2
67
Dominica
Roseau
13 enero 2010
R(1) G(2) B(3)
Landsat TM
1
49
Pando
1 July 1984
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
233
67
Dominican Republic
Jimaní
26 October 2003
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Pando
31 July 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
1
67
Jimaní
30 May 2004
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER Pando
2 August 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
233
67
Ecuador
Amazonía
23 October 1977
R(4) G(3) B(2)
Landsat MSS
9
60
Pando
25 August 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
1
67
Amazonía
14 October 2002
R(7) G(5) B(3)
Landsat ETM+
9
60
Bolivia
Santa Cruz
31 August 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat TM
247
72
Ecuador
Cotopaxi Glacier
23 March 1986
R(2) G(4) B(3)
Landsat MSS
10
60
Bolivia
Santa Cruz
31 August 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
230
72
Cotopaxi Glacier
5 February 2007
R(2) G(4) B(1)
ASTER
Brazil
Rio Grande do Sul
21 March 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
240
81
Ecuador
Guyaquil Gulf
29 May 1980
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat TM
Rio Grande do Sul
30 March 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
224
81
Guyaquil Gulf
6 July 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
ASTER
Brazil
Rondônia
28 June 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
249
67
El Salvador
Cerrón Grande
2 February 1984
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Rondônia
8 July 1989
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
232
67
Cerrón Grande
20 October 2002
Landsat ETM+
ASTER
Rondônia
9 August 2009
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
232
67
El Salvador
San Salvador
2 November 1972
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Brazil
Balbina
1 June 1984
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
231
61
San Salvador
18 February 2009
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Balbina
1 September 1985
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
230
61
Grenada
Point Salines
26 December 2005
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Landsat TM
1
52
Balbina
4 August 2007
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
231
61
Guatemala
Guatemala- Belize border
25 May 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
20
49
Balbina
18 February 2007
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
230
61
Guatemala- Belize border
11 May 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
19
49
Brazil
Manaos
7 July 1973
R(2) G(3) B(1)
Landsat MSS
231
64
Guatemala
Atitlán Lake
9 January 2001
R(2) G(3) B(1)
ASTER
Manaos
24 August 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
249
62
Atitlán Lake
22 November 2009
R(2) G(3) B(1)
ASTER
Guatemala
Laguna Lachuá
13 March 1986
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
20
49
Laguna Lachuá
23 January 2000
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat ETM+
20
49
248
14
95
43
16
11
19
20
53
62
50
50
309
3
chapter
310
Country
Case Date
Bands
Satellite/Sensor
Path
Row
Guyana
Omai
11October 1977
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
248
Omai
1 January 2005
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
231
Haití
Haití-Dominican Republic
border
Haití-Dominican Republic
border
22January 2010
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
Haiti
Port-au-Prince
29September 2009
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Port-au-Prince
13January 2010
Haiti
Lac Peligre
28December 1973
Lac Peligre
2 February 1985
Lac Peligre
22January 2010
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
8
Honduras
Fonseca Gulf
23January 1976
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
18
Fonseca Gulf
15April 2006
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Jamaica
Portland Bight Protected Area 29January 1985
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Landsat TM
11
Portland Bight Protected Area 19January 2010
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Landsat TM
11
Mexico
Mexico City
Metropolitan Area
Mexico City
Metropolitan Area
Mexico City
Metropolitan Area
Mexico City
Metropolitan Area
2 February 2009
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
26
Mexico
Chapala Lake
11February 1973
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
Chapala Lake
13December 1973
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Chapala Lake
29 February 2008
Chapala Lake
Mexico
Path
Row
Landsat MSS
241
77
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
225
77
10 November 1973
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
224
78
Ciudad del Este
10 January 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
224
78
Paraguay
El Chaco
4 March 1977
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
244
75
El Chaco
6 March 1977
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
244
76
Ikonos
El Chaco
12 November 1977
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
244
76
R(3) G(2) B(1)
GeoEye
El Chaco
4 April 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
245
75
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
El Chaco
18 February 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
225
77
El Chaco
11 April 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
228
76
47
El Chaco
11 April 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
228
75
51
El Chaco
19 March 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
227
75
Paraguay
Yacyretá
48
Hidroelectric Plant
10 January 1988
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
225
79
48
Yacyretá
Hidroelectric Plant
6 April 2008
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
225
79
Peru
Pucallpa
6 October 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
6
66
Pucallpa
25 August 2006
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
6
66
Pucallpa
29 September 2007
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
6
66
Peru
Cerro Pasco
26 September 1976
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
119
177
Cerro Pasco
19 June 2005
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
7
77
Peru
Lima
30 November 1978
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
7
68
47
Lima
11 February 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
7
68
31
46
Peru
Madre Dios
16 July 1986
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
3
69
Landsat MSS
30
46
Madre Dios
23 August 2007
R(7) G(5) B(2)
Landsat TM
3
69
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
29
46
Madre Dios
11 November 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
7
68
27 May 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
29
46
Nevis
26 July 2006
R(4) G(3) B(2)
EO1
Cancún
5 February 1979
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
20
45
Saint Lucia
Castries
23 September 2007
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Quickbird
Cancún
24 January 2009
R(1) G(2) B(3)
ASTER
Mexico
Selva Maya México-Guatemala
15 February 1974
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
22
48
the Grenadines
Union Island
24 August 2004
R(4) G(3) B(2)
EO1
Selva Maya México-Guatemala
15 February 2006
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
20
48
Suriname
Paramaribo
18 October 1987
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
229
56
Nicaragua
Tipitapa
3 April 1978
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
17
51
Paramaribo
19 October 2005
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
229
56
Tipitapa
23 May 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat ETM+
17
51
Suriname
Moengo
31 October 1976
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
245
56
Nicaragua
Nueva Guinea
1 April 1978
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
16
51
Moengo
29 September 2006
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
228
56
Nueva Guinea
25 November 2001
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat ETM+
15
52
Trinidad and Tobago
Point Lisas
21 December 2005
R(3) G(2) B(1)
Ikonos
Panama
Darién
9 January 2010
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
11
54
Uruguay
Tacuarembo
21 March 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
240
81
Darién
28 March 2000
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
12
54
Tacuarembo
23 October 1975
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
240
82
Panama
Parita Bay
20 January 1979
R(2) G(4) B(1)
Landsat MSS
13
54
Tacuarembo
13 February 2009
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
224
81
Parita Bay
8 December 2006
R(2) G(4) B(1)
ASTER
Tacuarembo
13 February 2009
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
224
82
Venezuela
Maracaibo Lake
20 May 2006
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat TM
7
53
Maracaibo Lake
3 February 2008
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat ETM+
7
53
28December 1973
21Apr 1973
23February 1973
2 February 2009
R(2) G(4) B(1)
R(2) G(4) B(1)
R(2) G(4) B(1)
R(5) G(4) B(3)
Landsat MSS
Landsat MSS
Landsat MSS
Landsat TM
9
8
9
28
21
26
Country
Case
Date
Bands
Satellite/Sensor
56
Paraguay
San Pedro
19 January 1980
R(2) G(4) B(1)
56
San Pedro
18 February 2008
Paraguay
Ciudad del Este
47
46
47
47
48
46
Saint Vincent and
311
chapter
3
Acronyms and abbreviations
ABDES
Alianza Boliviana de la Sociedad Civil para el Desarrollo
ENOS
El Niño/Southern Oscillation
IUCN
International Union for Conservation of Nature
SASI
Social and Spatial Inequalities Research Group; Sheffield
Sostenible
FAO
United Nations Organization for Food and Agriculture
IWCAM
Integrating Watershed and Coastal Areas Management
University
ACTO
The Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization
FIDA
Fondo Internacional para el Desarrollo Agrícola
IWGIA
International Working Group on Indigenous Affairs
SAyDS
Secretaría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de la Argentina
AECI
Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional
FLACSO
Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales/Ecuador
JPAT
Jamaica Protected Areas Trust
SIDS
Small Island Development States
AMA
Agencia del Medio Ambiente /Cuba
GBS
Guyana Bureau of Statistics
LAC
Latin America and the Caribbean
SECTUR
Secretaría de Turismo/Mexico
ANAM
Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente/Panama
GBT
Grenada Board of Tourism
LIDEMA
Liga de Defensa del Medio Ambiente/Bolivia
SEDESOL
Secretaría de Desarrollo Social/Mexico
BEST
Bahamas Environment, Science and Technology Commission
GEF
Global Environment Facility
MAE
Ministerio de Ambiente de Ecuador
SEGOB
Secretaria de la Gobernación/Mexico
CAN
Comunidad Andina de Naciones
GEO Global Environment Outlook
MAGFOR
Ministerio Agropecuario Forestal/Nicaragua
SEMARNAT Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales/Mexico
CARICOM
Caribbean Community Secretariat
GDP
Gross Domestic Product
MARENA
Ministerio del Ambiente y los Recursos Naturales/Nicaragua
SERNA
Secretaría de Recursos Naturales y Ambiente/Honduras
CATHALAC Water Center for the Humid Tropics of Latin America and
GNF
Global Nature Fund
MARN
Ministerio de Ambiente y Recursos naturales/Guatemala
SERVIR
Regional Visualization and Monitoring System
the Caribbean
GPA
Global Programme of Action
MARN
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales/El Salvador
SICA
Sistema de Integración Centroamericana
CCAD
Comisión Centroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo
GTZ
German Cooperation Agency
MICI
Ministerio de Comercio e Industrias/Panama
SIGAP
Sistema Guatemalteco de Areas Protegidas/Guatemala
CCISD
Canadian Consortium for International Social Development
HDR
Human Development Report
MILAGRO
Megacity Initiative Local and Global Research Observation
SINCHI
Instituto Amazónico de Investigaciones Científicas/Colombia
CDB Convention on Biological Diversity
IARNA
Instituto de Agricultura, Recursos Naturales y Ambiente/
MINAE Ministerio de Ambiente y Energía/Costa Rica
TNC
The Nature Conservancy
CEA
Comisión Estatal del Agua de Jalisco/Mexico
Guatemala
MINAG
Ministerio de Agricultura/Peru
UASD
Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo/Rep. Dominicana
CEDAF
Centro para el Desarrollo Agropecuario y Forestal/Republica
Ministerio de Ambiente de Peru
UDELAR
Universidad de la República Uruguaya
Dominicana
Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis
MINAM
IBAMA
MINEM
Ministerio de Energía y Minas/Peu
UICN
Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza
CEL
Comisión Ejecutiva Hidroeléctrica del Rio Lempa
IBGE
Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística
MIVAH
Ministerio de Vivienda y Asentamientos Humanos/Costa Rica
UN HABITATUnited Nations Human Settlements Programme
IDEAM
Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales/
MMA
Ministério do Meio Ambiente/Brazil
UNA
Universidad Nacional Agraria/Nicaragua
Colombia
MODIS
Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
UNCCD
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
IG-EPN Instituto Geofisico-Escuela Politécnica Nacional/Ecuador
MRF
Minerals Resources Forum
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
IIA
Instituto de Incidencia Ambiental/Guatemala
NASA
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
IIRSA
Iniciativa para la Integración de la Infraestructura Regional
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
UNEP - GRIDGlobal and Regional Integrated Data Centres
Suramericana
NSWMA
National Solid Waste Management Authority/Jamaica
UNEP-CEP
United Nations Environment Programme - Caribbean
INAMHI
Instituto Nacional de Meteorología e Hidrología del Ecuador
OECS
Organization of Eastern Caribbean States
Environment Programme
INAP
Instituto Nacional de Administracion Publica/Guatemala
OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database (Base de datos internacional
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
INDE
Instituto Nacional de Información de Desarrollo/Nicaragua
de desastres)
UNFPA
United Nations Population Fund
INDEC
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo/Argentina
OIRSA
Organismo Internacional Regional de Sanidad Agropecuaria
URL
Universidad Rafael Landivar/Guatemala
INE
Instituto Nacional de Estadística/Guatemala
OJA
Organización Juvenil Ambiental/Colombia.
USAID
United States Agency for International Development
INE
Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Bolivia
OLADE
Organización Latinoamericana de Energía
USGS
US Geological Survey
INEC
Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos/Costa Rica
OPAMSS
Oficina de Planificación del Área Metropolitana de San Salvador
WAFLA
Integrated Water resource management by the
INEC
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos/Panama
OTCA
Organización del tratado de Cooperación Amazónica
implementation of improved Agro-Forestry concepts in arid and
INEGI
Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía/Mexico
PAN
Programa de Acción Nacional de Lucha contra la Desertificación
semi-arid areas in Latin America
INEI
Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática/ Peru
en la Argentina
WCMC
World Conservation Monitoring Centre
INPE
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais/Brazil
PAHO
Pan American Health Organization
WDPA
World Database of Protected Areas
INRH
Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hídricos/Cuba
PIS
Portal Informativo de Salta, Argentina
WHO
World Health Organization
INTA
Instituto Nicaragüense de Tecnología Agropecuaria
PMRC
Programa de manejo de los Recursos Costeros de Ecuador
WRM
World Rainforest Movement
IPCC
International Panel on Climate Change
PNUMA
Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Medio Ambiente
WWF
World Wildlife Fund
IRD
Institut de recherche pour le développement/France
PRODES
Monitoramento da Floresta Amazônica Brasileira por Satélite
IRGA
Instituto Rio Grandense do Arroz/Brazil
RIDES
Recursos e Investigación para el Desarrollo Sustentable/Chile
ITOPF
The International Tanker Owner Pollution Federation Limited
CIA
CIEM
CIFOR
CITMA
CLAES
Centro de Investigaciones de la Economía Mundial/Cuba
International Centre for Forestry Research
Ministerio de Ciencia Tecnologia y Medio Ambiente/Cuba
Centro Latino Americano de Ecología Social
CLIRSEN
Centro de Levantamientos Integrados de Recursos Naturales
por Sensores Remotos
CONAGUA
Comision Nacional del Agua/Mexico
CONAM
CONAP
CONAPO
CVC
Consejo Nacional de Ambiente/Peru
Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas Guatemala
Consejo Nacional de Población
Corporación del Valle del Cauca/Colombia
CWSA
Central Water and Sewerage Authority/Saint Vincent and
the Granadines
DINAMA
Dirección Nacional de Medio Ambiente/Uruguay
DPN
Defensor del Pueblo de la Nación Argentina
DHF
ECLAC
EEZ
EIA
EM DAT
EMA
312
Central Intelligence Agency
Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever
Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
Exclusive Economic Zone
Energy Information Administration
The International Disaster Data Base
Environmental Management Authority/Trinidad and Tobago
313

Part 4, Saint Kitts and Nevis

Transcripción

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