Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009 - New York State Horticultural Society

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NEW YORK
Fruit Quarterly
NON-PROFIT
STANDARD
New York State Horticultural Society
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
630 W. North Street
Geneva, New York 14456-0462
U.S. POSTAGE
Volume 17 Number 4
Winter 200
2009
PAID
GENEVA, NY
PERMIT NO. 75
Address Service Requested
Published by the
New York State
Horticultural
Society
www.NYSHS.org
Founded in 1855,
the mission of the
New York State
Horticultural Society
is to foster the growth,
development and
profitability of
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NEW YORK
Fruit Quarterly
Editorial
Managed New York Apple Varieties:
WINTER 2009
Are You Ready to Control Your Destiny?
H
opefully by now you are aware of Cornell University’s intent
to introduce two new apple varieties under a managed license
contract with an exclusive partner. Prior to this announcement
by Cornell, a group of apple growers representing all major production
regions in New York State met last Winter and Spring and subsequently
formed New York Apple Growers LLC (NYAG) whose primary focus
was to gain exclusive rights to new and exciting Cornell releases. All
apple growers in New York State, who pay AMO dues, were mailed
a notice in August regarding the formation of NYAG, which is a new
grower-owned corporation whose primary mission and objectives
are as follows:
NYAG Mission: To manage the release of new advanced apple
varieties and market these varieties at an accelerated pace that delivers
profit and long term sustainability to our members and licensing
partners and to overwhelm our fresh apple consumers with a positive
fresh apple eating experience.
Objectives
• To introduce outstanding ne w apple cultivars to the
marketplace
• To allow any NYS Apple Grower the opportunity to become a
member during the founding year
• To enhance New York State apple grower sustainability, growth,
and long term competitiveness
• To secure exclusive variety contracts that allow its members and
licensing partners to profit from the growing and selling of these
varieties
• To invest funding directly into the Cornell apple breeding
program
N loss (g/tree)
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
Currently NYAG and Cornell are undergoing negotiations for exclusive
rights contracts and it is our desire to have these contracts completed by
the end of January. After this we will begin the process of raising capital,
creating a defined corporate structure, creating variety evaluation and
quality programs, creating a nursery production plan, developing a
detailed marketing plan and working on all other necessary details
involved with the creation of a new entity. Additionally, NYAG wishes
to increase our grower board by at least five new growers. If you are
interested, please contact one of the current board members in your
district listed below.
What Action Should New York Apple Growers Take Now?
The initial grower response to the formation of NYAG has been
very positive and it is the current board’s goal to get as many quality
growers aboard to make NYAG a success. New York growers must now
begin to contemplate what their involvement will be with NYAG. All
growers from grower operations of all sizes will be invited to become
members of the grower-owned corporation during the founding year.
Capital investments will be acreage based and the minimum and
maximum amounts of acreage each grower can obtain are currently
being evaluated.
The question for growers to ponder is if and by how much should
they invest in NYAG? There has been a lot of interest in managed
varieties over the past few months and this topic has been reviewed
by many trade journals. Despite all of the opinions of how managed
varieties will perform in the marketplace, the one fact that cannot
be disputed is that the overall quality of the managed variety is the
number one deciding factor. Although there is a tremendous amount
of work to be completed in quality evaluation for the first two Cornell
releases, we are very pleased and excited by the potential of these
(Continued on p.2)
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
(B)
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
fertigation period
*
2.0
1.0
0
May
5
June
11
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
15
19
23
Contents
5 Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26
Apple Trees for High Yield and Quality
Lailiang Cheng and Richard Raba
11 Fertigation for Apple Trees
in the Pacific Northwest
Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen
19 Results of a New York Blueberry Survey
Juliet E. Carroll, Marc Fuchs and Kerik Cox
COVER: Blueberries with Phomopsis
Canker. Photos courtesy Cathy
Heidenreich and Kevin Iungerman.
23 Assessing Azinphos-methyl Resistance in
New York State Codling Moth Populations
Peter Jentsch, Frank Zeoli & Deborah Breth
15 Antioxidant contents and activity in
SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples
during air and controlled atmosphere storage
Fanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009
1
(Editorial, cont.)
NEW YORK
Fruit Quarterly
WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4
2008 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
President Walt Blackler, Apple Acres
4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084
PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143
[email protected]
Vice President Peter Barton
55 Apple Tree Lane, Paughquag, NY 12570
PH: 845-227-2306 (W); 845-227-7149 (H)
FX: 845-227-1466; CELL: 845-656-5217
[email protected]
Treasurer/Secretary Bruce Kirby, Little Lake Farm
3120 Densmore Road Albion , NY 14411
PH: 585-589-1922; FAX: 585-589-7872
[email protected]
Executive Director Paul Baker
90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174
FAX: (716) 219-4089
CELL: 716-807-6827; [email protected]
Admin Assistant Karen Wilson
630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456
PH: 315-787-2404; FX: 315) 787-2216
Cornell Director Dr. Terence Robinson, NYSAES
630 W. North Street
Hedrick Hall, Room 125, Geneva, NY 14456
PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216
Director Dan Sievert
Lakeview Orchards, Inc.
4941 Lake Road, Burt, NY 14028
PH: 716-778-7491 (W)
FX: 716-778-7466; CELL: 716-870-8968
[email protected]
Director
Director
Director
Director
Director
2
Roderick Dressel, Jr., Dressel Farms
271 Rt 208, New Paltz, NY 12561
PH: 845-255-0693 (W); 845-255-7717 (H)
FX: 845-255-1596; CELL: 845-399-6767
[email protected]
Robert DeBadts, Lake Breeze Fruit Farm
6272 Lake Road, Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-0910 (W), 315-483-9904 (H)
FX: 315-483-8863; CELL: 585-739-1590
[email protected]; (Summer – use FAX only)
Tom DeMarree, DeMarree Fruit Farm
7654 Townline Rd.
Williamson, NY 14589
PH: 315-589-9698; FX: 315-589-4965
Doug Fox, D&L Ventures LLC
4959 Fish Farm Rd., Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-4556; FX: 315-483-4342
[email protected]
William R. Gunnison
Gunnison Lakeshore Orchards
3196 NYS Rt. 9W & 22, Crown Point, NY 12928
PH: 518-597-3363 (W); 518-597-3817(H)
FAX: 518-597-3134; CELL: 518-572-4642
[email protected]
Director
John Ivison, Helena Chemical Co.
165 S. Platt St, Suite 100
Albion, NY 14411; PH: 585-589-4195 (W)
FX: 585-589-0257; CELL: 585-509-2262
[email protected]
Director
Chuck Mead, Mead Orchards LLC
15 Scism Rd., Tivoli, NY 12583
PH: 845-756-5641 (W); CELL: 845-389-0731
FAX: 845-756-4008
[email protected]
NYS BERRY GROWERS BOARD MEMBERS
Chair
Treasurer
Dale Riggs, Stonewall Hill Farm
15370 NY Rt 22, Stephentown, NY 12168
PH: 518-733-6772; [email protected]
Tony Emmi, Emmi Farms
1572 S. Ivy Trail, Baldwinsville, NY 13027
Executive Secretary Paul Baker
90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174
FAX: (716) 219-4089
Jim Bauman, Bauman Farms
1340 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster, NY 14580
PH: 585-671-5857
Bob Brown III, Brown’s Berry Patch
14264 Rooseveldt Highway, Waterport, NY 14571
PH: 585-682-5569
Bruce Carson, Carson’s Bloomin’ Berries
2328 Reed Rd.
Bergen, NY 14416
Jim Coulter, Coulter Farms
3871 N. Ridge Road, Lockport, NY 14094
John Hand, Hand Melon Farm
533 Wilber Ave., Greenwich, NY 12834
Craig Michaloski, Green Acres Farm
3480 Latta Road, Rochester, NY 14612
Terry Mosher, Mosher Farms
RD #1 Box 69, Bouckville, NY 13310
selections. In order to command shelf space
in an ever increasing competitive market, we
feel continued variety improvement will be
necessary. NYAG is offering an opportunity for
growers to get on board in the managed variety
system; our business plan ensures continued
investment into the long-term future to create
superior varieties. As a result, when conducting
your financial planning activities for 2010 and
beyond, we pose the question: How can you not
afford to get involved with NYAG?
More details will continue to evolve with
NYAG through the winter so stay tuned for the
communication of more information. If you
have any questions or ideas for consideration,
please feel free to contact a board member in
your district.
Sincerely,
New York Apple Growers,
LLC Executive Board:
Chairman:
Roger Lamont,
[email protected]
Vice Chairman:
Jeff Crist
jeff@cristapples.com
Treasurer:
Walt Blackler
[email protected]
Secretary:
Bob Norris,
[email protected]
Member Relations: Mason Forrence,
[email protected]
APPLE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ADVISORY BOARD 2008
Greg Spoth, Greg’s U-Pick
9270 Lapp Rd., Clarence Center, NY 14032
Chairman
Walt Blackler, Apple Acres
4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084
PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143
[email protected]
Alan Tomion, Tomion Farms
3024 Ferguson Corners Rd., Penn Yan, NY 14527
Alan Burr
7577 Slayton Settlement Road, Gasport, NY 14067
Tony Weis, Weiss Farms
7828 East Eden Road, Eden, NY 14057
Steve Clarke
40 Clarkes Lane, Milton, NY 12547
NEW YORK
Fruit Quarterly
WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4
This publication is a joint effort of the New York State Horticultural Society,
Cornell University’s New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at
Geneva, the New York State Apple Research and Development Program,
and the NYSBGA.
Editors Terence Robinson and Steve Hoying
Dept. of Horticultural Sciences
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
Geneva, New York 14456-0462
PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216
[email protected]
[email protected]
Subscriptions Karen Wilson
& Advertising NYSHS, 630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456
Design Elaine L. Gotham, Gotham City Design, Naples, NY
Production Communications Services, NYSAES, Geneva, NY
Rod Farrow
12786 Kendrick Road, Waterport, NY 14571
PH: 585-589-7022
Mason Forrence
2740 Route 22, Peru, NY 12972
Ted Furber, Cherry Lawn Farms
8099 GLover Rd., Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-8529
Dan McCarthy
NY State Dept. of Agriculture & Markets
10B Airline Drive, Albany, NY 12235
Peter Ten Eyck, Indian Ladder Farms
342 Altamont Road
Altamont, NY 12009
Robert Deemer, Dr. Pepper/Snapple Group
4363 Rte.104
Williamson, NY 14589
PH: 315-589-9695 ext. 713
NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
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Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26
Apple Trees for High Yield and Quality
Lailiang Cheng and Richard Raba
Departments of Horticulture,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.
N
utrient management plays a more important role in
ensuring good tree growth, cropping and fruit quality
for apple trees on dwarfing rootstocks in high-density
plantings than for
those on vigorShoots and leaves have a high demand
ous rootstocks as
dwarf apple trees
period for nutrients from bloom to end
crop earlier and
of shoot growth whereas fruits have
have higher yield
a high demand period from the end
and smaller root
of shoot growth to fruit harvest. Our
systems. With the
research has shown that at harvest,
de velopment of
fruit contain more K than any other
leaf nutrient analysis and its wide
nutrient followed by N, Ca, Mg, P, Fe,
adoption for diagS, Mn, B, Zn, and Cu. Understanding
nosis of tree nutritree nutrient requirements will help
ent status (Bould,
in developing improved fertilization
1966; Stiles and
programs in apple orchards.
Reid, 1991; Neilsen
and Neilsen, 2003),
fertilization practices in orchards
are now routinely adjusted by comparing leaf analysis results
against the optimal range of leaf nutrient concentrations. However, effective nutrient management to these dwarf trees still
requires a good understanding of their nutrient demand in terms
of amount and timing because optimal leaf nutrient concentrations do not reflect the actual amount and timing of tree nutrient
requirements.
Due to the difficulty of destructive sampling of entire trees
multiple times during the annual cycle of tree growth and development, the actual demand of dwarf apple trees for all the
macro- and micro-nutrients in terms of timing and amount has
not been examined in detail. In this study, we took an approach
of growing apple trees in sand culture to achieve optimal tree
nutrient status, high yield and good quality, and using sequential
excavation of entire trees to determine the magnitude and seasonal patterns of the accumulation of macro- and micro-nutrients
in apple trees on dwarfing rootstocks. The sand culture system
eliminates competition for nutrients between any adjacent trees
grown in the field in high-density plantings, and allows good
control of nutrient supply and better recovery of the entire root
system at excavation.
“
”
Experimental Procedures
Six-year-old Gala/M.26 trees were grown in 55-L plastic containers
in acid-washed sand (pH 6.2) at a spacing 3.5 by 11.0 feet (1129
trees/acre) at Cornell Orchards. These trees were trained as tall
spindles. They had produced regular crops over the previous three
years. Nutrient supply to these trees was based on a previous study
(Xia et al., 2009). Briefly, all trees were fertigated with four liters
of 15N-ammonium nitrate (210 ppm N) balanced with all other
nutrients in Hoagland’s #2 solution twice a week from May 2 to one
month before fruit harvest except during active shoot growth when
the trees were fertigated three times per week. Fertigation continued from one month before harvest to fruit harvest but nitrogen
was provided at half the concentration for the first two weeks and
then was completed omitted from the fertigation solution in the
two weeks immediately preceding fruit harvest. After fruit harvest,
each tree was fertigated with four liters of the Hoagland’s solution
at an N concentration of 210 ppm twice (September 22 and October 2). Each tree received a total of 30 grams of actual nitrogen
during the entire growing season (equivalent to 75 lbs actual N
per acre). The cropload of these trees was adjusted to 8.2 fruit per
cm2 trunk cross-sectional area via hand-thinning at 10mm king
fruit (104 fruit per tree), and this cropload was maintained to fruit
harvest. Irrigation was provided with two spray sticks per tree and
the trees were well watered throughout the growing season. No
foliar application of nutrients was applied to these trees. All the
trees received standard disease and insect control throughout the
growing season. A copper spray was put on at budbreak to control
fire blight, but the spray made it difficult to accurately determine
the accumulation patterns of total Cu in the new growth and the
whole tree during the early part of the season.
At each of the 7 key developmental stages throughout the
annual growth cycle (budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth,
end of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, fruit harvest,
and after leaf fall), a set of four trees was excavated. Each tree
was partitioned to spurs, shoots, spur leaves, shoot leaves, fruit,
one year-old stem, branches, trunk, upper shank, lower shank
and roots. All the samples were dried in a forced-air oven, and
the dry weight of each tissue was recorded. Each sample was
ground twice to pass a 40 mesh screen and measured for N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn using combustion analysis and
inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Total N, P,
K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn in each organ type and the
whole tree were calculated based on its concentration and dry
weight data.
Results
Fruit yield, size and quality at harvest. Fruit yield was 18.8 kg per
tree (equivalent to 1113 bushels/acre) with an average fruit size
of 181 g. Fruit soluble solids concentration was 14.5% and fruit
firmness was 16.8 lbs.
5
Table 1. Leaf and fruit nutrient status. Leaf nutrients were from samples
taken on August 9, 2006. Fruit nutrients were from the samples
taken at harvest (September 13, 2006). Macronutrients are
expressed as % dry weight whereas micronutrients are in ppm.
Macronutrients (%)
Tissue
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Leaves
Fruit
2.00
0.25
0.18
0.06
1.61
0.80
1.10
0.05
0.39
0.04
0.13
0.02
Micronutrients (ppm)
Figure 1. The concentration of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium (C),
calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron (I)
and manganese (J) in leaves and fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’
apple trees from bloom to fruit harvest. The five points in each
line correspond with bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end of
shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
respectively. Each point is mean ± SE of four replicates.
Leaf and fruit nutrient status. The concentration of N, P, K,
S, Zn and Fe in both leaves and fruit decreased from bloom to
fruit harvest, with concentrations being higher in leaves than in
fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1A,
B, C, F, H and I). The concentration of Ca, Mg, and Mn in leaves
decreased from bloom to the end of spur leaf growth, and then
increased thereafter, whereas fruit Ca, Mg, and Mn concentrations decreased from bloom to fruit harvest (Figure 1D, E, and J).
The B concentration was higher in fruit than in leaves at bloom,
but both had similar B concentrations from the end of spur leaf
growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1G).
Leaf samples taken at the regular time recommended for
nutrient analysis (90 days after bloom), and fruit samples taken
at harvest, showed that both leaf and fruit nutrient status were
in the satisfactory range for this cultivar (Table 1).
Dry matter accumulation and partitioning. Total dry matter
of the tree showed an expolinear increase from budbreak to fruit
harvest, with a net dry matter gain of 4.3 kg (Figure 2). Total dry
6
Tissue
B
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
Leaves
Fruit
27.3
21.8
27.3
3.5
8.3
3.8
143.8
7.8
83.5
25.3
matter of shoots and leaves increased rapidly from bloom to the
end of shoot growth in early July, and then remained unchanged
till fruit harvest. The total dry matter in shoots and leaves at fruit
harvest only accounted for about 17.3% of the net dry matter
gain of the whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. Total dry
matter of fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot
growth, then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. The total dry matter of fruit accounted for about 72.2% of the net dry
matter gain of the whole tree. At fruit harvest, approximately
10.5% of the net dry matter gain was found in the woody perennial parts (branches, central leader, shank and roots) of the tree.
No significant increase was observed in the dry matter of roots
between budbreak and fruit harvest.
Accumulation of nutrients in the whole tree. Total tree N
increased very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,
and then continued to increase, but at a slower rate to fruit harvest (Figure 3A). Total P, K, Ca, Mg, S and B in the tree increased
slightly from budbreak to bloom and then in a near linear manner
from bloom to fruit harvest, although accumulation of Ca, Mg,
and B slowed starting from one month before harvest (Figure
3B-G). Both total Zn and total Mn in the tree showed a gradual
increase from budbreak to the end of spur leaf growth, and then
a rapid increase till one month before fruit harvest, followed by
a slow increase to fruit harvest (Figure 3H, J). Total Fe in the
tree increased rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,
followed by a slower
increase till fruit harvest (Figure 3I).
The net gains of
total N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
and S from budbreak
to fruit harvest were
19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2,
4.4 and 1.6 g/tree, and
those for B, Zn, Cu,
Mn, and Fe were 93.6,
60.9, 46.5, 184.8 and
148.7 mg/tree, which Figure 2. Dry matter accumulation of the
whole tree, shoots and leaves, and
were equivalent to
fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ trees
49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4,
from budbreak to fruit harvest in
10.9 and 4.0 lbs/acre
the 2006 growing season. The six
points in each line correspond with
for N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf
and S, and 105.7, 68.8,
growth, end of shoot growth, rapid
52.5, 208.6 and 167.9
fruit expansion period, and fruit
grams/acre for B, Zn,
harvest, respectively. Each point is
mean ± SE of four replicates.
Cu, Mn, and Fe at a
Table 2.
Net accumulation of nutrients in the entire tree from budbreak
to harvest, and the total accumulation of nutrients in new
growth (shoots, leaves and fruit) at harvest at a fruit yield of
1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).
Macronutrients (lbs/acre)
Net gain
New growth
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
49.3
50.7
8.2
8.0
89.4
86.5
35.4
27.5
10.9
9.9
4.0
3.7
Micronutrients (grams/acre)
B
Net gain
105.7
New growth 98.6
Figure 3. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium
(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H),
iron (I) and manganese (J) in 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ apple trees
from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line
correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end
of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
tree density of 1129 trees/acre (Table 2).
Accumulation of nutrients in the new growth (fruit, shoots
and leaves) Because fruit and shoots and leaves are the most dynamic parts of the tree, determining their nutrient accumulation
patterns may help us understand their differential requirements
for nutrients.
Total N in shoots and leaves followed the same pattern as
dry matter (Figures 2, 4A). It increased slowly from budbreak to
bloom, very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and
then remained unchanged till fruit harvest. In contrast, total
N in fruit increased gradually from bloom to the end of shoot
growth, and then increased rapidly till fruit harvest. The increase
of total N in fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest
made up 65.4% of fruit N accumulation, and accounted for all of
the increase in total N in the new growth, because the total N
in shoots and leaves did not change during this period. At fruit
harvest, total N in fruit accounted for 37.6% of N in new growth.
Total N in new growth showed almost the same pattern as total N
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
68.8
40.0
52.5
23.0
208.6
152.6
167.9
146.5
in the whole tree (Figs. 3A, 4A), and total N in new growth at fruit
harvest accounted for 100% of net N accumulation in the whole
tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. The accumulation patterns
of total S in shoots and leaves and fruit were similar to those for
total N (Figure 4F). At fruit harvest, total S in fruit accounted for
42.6% of S in new growth, and total S in new growth accounted
for 91.8% of its net gain in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest.
Total P, K, B and Fe in shoots and leaves increased very rapidly
from bloom to the end of shoot growth, then remained unchanged
till fruit harvest (Figure 4B, C, G, I). In contrast, total P, K, B and
Fe in fruit increased gradually from budbreak to the end of shoot
growth, and then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. The
increase of P, K, B and Fe in fruit from the end of shoot growth
to fruit harvest made up 74.9%, 77.4%, 77.2%, and 61.0% of their
total amount at fruit harvest, respectively. Total P, K, B and Fe in
fruit at fruit harvest accounted for 60.7%, 71.3%, 77.7% and 60.4%
of their total amount in new growth, respectively. Total P, K, B,
and Fe in new growth showed a linear or near linear increase
from bloom to fruit harvest. Total P, K, B, and Fe in new growth
at fruit harvest accounted for 97.6%, 96.7%, 93.3%, and 87.2% of
their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, respectively.
Total Ca and Mn in new growth showed a slight increase from
budbreak to bloom, then a very rapid increase from bloom to one
month before harvest, followed by a slow increase to fruit harvest
(Figure 4D, J). Total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves accounted
for most of the total Ca and Mn in new growth. Total Ca and
Mn in fruit increased throughout the entire fruit growth period,
with 61.7% and 73.3% of their respective accumulation occurring
from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest. However, total Ca
and Mn in fruit at harvest, however, accounted for only 14.0%
and 17.8% of the total Ca and Mn in new growth, respectively.
At fruit harvest, total Ca and Mn in new growth accounted for
77.8% and 73.2% of their net accumulation in the whole tree from
budbreak to fruit harvest, respectively.
Both total Mg and total Zn in shoots and leaves increased rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and then increased
slowly till fruit harvest (Figure 4E, H). In contrast, total Mg and
total Zn in fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot
growth and then rapidly from the end of shoot growth to fruit
harvest, with 67.8% and 58.1% of the total accumulation taking
place during the latter period. Total Mg and total Zn in fruit at
fruit harvest accounted for 31.3% and 30.8% of the total Mg and
total Zn in new growth, respectively. Total Mg and total Zn in
new growth at fruit harvest accounted for 90.4% and 58.1% of
7
Table 3.
Comparison of total amounts of nutrients in ‘Gala’ fruit at harvest
obtained in this study with those obtained in the Nelson region
of New Zealand by Palmer and Dryden (2006) at a fruit yield of
1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).
Study
Palmer & Dryden (2006)
Cheng & Raba (2009)
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
18.7
19.1
4.6
4.9
57.8
61.6
3.0
3.9
2.7
3.1
N/A
1.5
Study
Palmer & Dryden (2006)
Cheng & Raba (2009)
Figure 4. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium
(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron
(I) and manganese (J) in shoots and leaves, fruit, and new growth
(fruit plus shoots and leaves) of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ apple
trees from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line
correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end
of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, respectively.
Discussion
Since the trees used in this study had optimal nutrient levels
in both leaves and fruit (Table 1, Figure 1) and they produced
a high fruit yield (equivalent to 52.45 metric tons per hectare)
with good fruit size and quality, the observed accumulation of
nutrients represents the nutrient requirements of these trees.
The net accumulation of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S in the whole tree
from budbreak to fruit harvest was 19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2, 4.4 and
1.6 g/tree and that for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe was 93.6, 60.9, 46.5,
184.8 and 148.7 mg/tree, which was equivalent to 49.3, 8.2, 89.4,
35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S and 105.7,
68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9 grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and
Fe at a tree density of 1129 trees per acre. This study, for the first
time, has generated a comprehensive nutrient accumulation data
8
B
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
54.5
76.5
10.3
12.3
30.7
13.3
9.1
27.2
31.0
88.5
set for ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ trees trained in tall spindle. It is interesting
to note that the accumulation of nutrients in new growth (fruit
plus shoots and leaves) accounted for over 90% of the net gain for
total N, P, K, Mg, S, and B in the entire tree and a large proportion of the net gain for Ca, Zn, Mn, and Fe (ranging from 58.1%
in Zn to 87.2% in Fe) from budbreak to fruit harvest in this study
(Table 2). Therefore, future studies of this type might gain most
of the information on tree nutrient needs by just focusing on new
growth (fruit, shoots and leaves).
Although the trees we used in this study were grown in sand
culture, our data on total nutrient accumulation in fruit (or fruit
nutrient removal at harvest) are very similar to those reported by
Palmer and Dryden (2006) on ‘Royal Gala’, ‘Fuji’ and ‘Braeburn’,
and Drahorad (1999) on several apple cultivars for commercial
apple orchards (Comparison of our data with the data from
Palmer and Dryden on Gala are shown in Table 3), when the fruit
yield was adjusted to the same level. This high similarity indicates
that the estimates of nutrient requirements obtained in this study
may be applicable to field-grown trees. If we assume the ratio
between net accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from
budbreak to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant
across the range of fruit yield encountered in commercial apple
production, one can readily calculate the total requirement for
each nutrient at any expected fruit yield by using the data generated in this study (See Table 4 for an example). It’s clear that the
requirement for each nutrient increases as fruit yield increases.
Of the macronutrients required by ‘Gala’ apple trees, K is the
one whose amount in the fruit at harvest accounted for the largest
proportion of its net gain in the entire tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, i.e. more than two thirds of the total tree K requirement
was found in fruit although fruit K concentration was only about
half of that in leaves on a dry weight basis (Table 1, Figure 4C).
Because of this large demand for K by fruit, apple trees on dwarfing rootstocks need adequate K supply to achieve high yield and
good quality. However, it is possible that too much K can negatively
affect fruit quality as K may compete with the uptake of Ca and
Mg. It should be noted that the widely cited work of Haynes and
Goh (1980) on nutrient budget of apple orchards significantly overestimated the amount of K in fruit. Based on the amount of K in
fruit and fruit dry matter reported in Haynes and Goh (1980), the
calculated fruit K concentration would be over 2% on a dry weight
basis. Either the trees used in their experiment were in luxury
consumption of K, or an error was made by the authors (Haynes
and Goh, 1980) in measuring or calculating the total amount of K
in fruit. However, the former does not seem to be the case as leaf
K concentration was only 1.2% at the end of the season.
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Fruits, shoots and leaves have differential nutrient accumulation patterns (Figure 4). Our data indicate that the most rapid accumulation of all nutrients in shoots and leaves took place during
active shoot growth, from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and
the accumulation pattern of most nutrients corresponded well
with the accumulation of dry matter, with continued accumulation observed only in total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves after
Table 4.
Calculated requirement for each nutrient as a function of fruit
yield (bushels/acre) based on the nutrient requirement data
obtained in this study, assuming that the ratio between net
accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from budbreak
to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant across
the range of fruit yield.
Fruit yield (b/a)
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1750
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
22.1
33.2
44.3
55.4
66.4
77.5
3.7
5.5
7.4
9.2
11.1
12.9
40.2
60.2
80.3
100.4
120.5
140.6
15.9
23.9
31.8
39.8
47.7
55.7
4.9
7.3
9.8
12.2
14.7
17.1
1.8
2.7
3.6
4.5
5.4
6.3
Fruit yield (b/a)
500
750
1000
1250
1500
1750
B
Zn
Cu
Mn
Fe
47.5
71.2
95.0
118.7
142.5
166.2
30.9
46.4
61.8
77.3
92.7
108.2
23.6
35.4
47.2
59.0
70.8
82.5
93.7
140.6
187.4
234.3
281.1
328.0
75.4
113.1
150.9
188.6
226.3
264.0
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the end of shoot growth. Nutrient accumulation in fruit largely
followed its dry matter accumulation, and a large proportion of
the nutrient accumulation (ranging from 58.1% of Zn to 77.4 %
of K) occurred from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest.
The differential patterns of nutrient accumulation between fruit
and shoots and leaves, and the similarity between dry matter accumulation and accumulation patterns of most nutrients within
each organ (Figures 2B, 4), indicate that nutrient accumulation is
demand-driven. The linear increase in both P and K in the whole
tree, and in new growth from bloom to harvest (Figures 3B, C,
4B, C) indicates a constant demand for both nutrients during this
period. The demand by shoots and leaves before the end of shoot
growth accounted for a larger proportion of the total demand
for both P and K, whereas the demand by fruit from the end of
shoot growth to fruit harvest made up nearly the entire demand
for new growth and for the whole tree. At fruit harvest, shoots
and leaves had more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, and Mn, whereas fruit
had more P, K, B, and Fe. It should be noted that B had the highest proportion (77.7%) partitioned to fruit among all nutrients
(Figure 4G) and was the only nutrient that had a much higher
concentration in fruit (flowers) than in leaves at bloom (Figure
1G), which clearly indicates the importance of B to fruit growth
and development.
Although the Ca concentration in leaf samples taken in early
August was at the lower end of the optimal range, fruit had a
good Ca level with a Ca to Mg ratio at 16 in this study. However,
it should be pointed out that the net accumulation of Ca for the
whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest obtained in this study
might be an underestimate of Ca requirements for apple cultivars
9
that are more susceptible to Ca-deficiency induced disorders relative to ‘Gala’.
Ca accumulation in ‘Gala’ fruit was found to continue throughout its entire growth period from bloom to harvest, with 61.7%
of total accumulation occurring from the end of shoot growth to
harvest in this study (Figure 4D). This contrasts with some of the
earlier studies suggesting that Ca accumulation primarily takes
place in the first few weeks after bloom (Faust, 1989; Wilkinson,
1968). The lack of continued increase in fruit Ca content previously observed in New York (Faust, 1989) may have been related
to drought conditions during the summer, as most orchards were
not irrigated then. The continued accumulation of Ca throughout
fruit growth observed in central Washington under irrigated conditions (Rogers and Batjer, 1954) is also consistent with the idea
that soil moisture may play an important role in determining Ca
accumulation patterns in apple fruit. Wilkinson (1968) observed
that more Ca was accumulated during the cell expansion stage of
fruit development in wet years or under irrigation than in dry years
without irrigation. The fact that Ca accumulation occurs during the
entire fruit growth period suggests a wide window for enhancing
fruit Ca levels via irrigation and foliar applications of Ca.
56:445-457.
Neilsen, G. H. and D. Neilsen. 2003. Nutritional requirements of
apple, p267-302. In: Ferree D. C. and I. J. Warrington (eds.).
Apples: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI Publishing,
Cambridge, MA, USA.
Palmer J.W. and G. Dryden. 2006. Fruit mineral removal rates from
New Zealand apple (Malus domestica) orchards in the Nelson
region. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science
34:27-32.
Rogers, B.L. and L.P. Batjer. 1954. Seasonal trends of six nutrient
elements in the flesh of Winesap and Delicious apple fruits.
Proceedings of American Society for Horticultural Science
63:67-73.
Stiles W. C. and W. S. Reid 1991. Orchard nutrition management.
Cornell Cooperative Extension Bulletin 219.
Wilkinson, B.G. 1968. Mineral composition of apples IX. Uptake
of calcium by the fruit. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 19:646-647.
Xia, G., L. Cheng, A. N. Lakso, and M. Goffinet. 2009. Effects of
nitrogen supply on source-sink balance and fruit size of ‘Gala’
apple trees. Journal of American Society for Horticultural
Science.
Conclusions
Nutrient requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26 trees from budbreak to fruit
harvest are estimated to be 49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per
acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S, and 105.7, 68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9
grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe at a density of 1129 trees/
acre to achieve high yield and good fruit size and quality. Shoots
and leaves and fruit have differential patterns of nutrient requirements: the high demand period for shoots and leaves is from bloom
to end of shoot growth whereas that for fruit is from the end of
shoot growth to fruit harvest. At harvest, fruit contains more P, K,
B, and Fe whereas shoots and leaves have more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn,
and Mn. When developing fertilization programs in apple orchards,
soil nutrient availability and tree nutrient status must be taken into
consideration along with tree nutrient requirements.
Lailiang Cheng is a research and extension professor of
Horticulture at Cornell University’s Ithaca Campus. He
leads Cornell’s research and extension program in mineral
nutrition. Rich Raba is a research technician who works with
Dr. Cheng.
Since 1932
Acknowledgments
This work was primarily supported by a generous gift from Dr. David Zimerman, Cornell Pomology Ph.D. 1954. Additional support
was provided by the New York Apple Research and Development
Program. The ‘Gala’ trees used in this study were generously donated by Van Well Nursery in Wenatchee, WA. We thank Andrea
Mason, Louise Gray, Scott Henning, and Cornell Orchard crew for
technical assistance
YEARS
References
Bould, C. 1966. Leaf analysis of deciduous fruits, p. 651-684. In:
N.F. Childers (ed.). Temperate to tropical fruit nutrition. Hort.
Publ., Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
Cheng, L. and R. Raba. 2009. Accumulation of macro- and
micronutrients and nitrogen demand-supply relationship of
‘Gala’/M.26 trees grown in sand culture. Journal of American
Society for Horticultural Science 134(1): 3-13.
Drahorad, W. 1999. Modern guidelines on fruit tree nutrition.
Compact Fruit Tree 32:66-72.
Faust, M. 1989. Physiology of temperate zone fruit trees. John Wiley
& Sons Inc., New York.
Haynes, R.J. and K.M. Goh. 1980. Distribution and budget of
nutrients in a commercial apple orchard. Plant and Soil
10
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Fertigation for Apple Trees
in the Pacific Northwest
Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre,
Summerland, BC, Canada
This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.
F
ertigation is the application of nutrients through irrigation lines, during watering. In general, it is more readily adapted for use in micro-irrigation systems such as
micro-sprinkler, microjet and drip than to more
Fertigation has the advantage of
extensive systems such as
allowing flexibility in the timing
sprinkler or furrow. It has
of nutrient additions, and under
the advantage of allowing
micro-irrigation, targeting the
flexibility in the timing of
nutrients into the tree root zone
nutrient additions, and
under micro-irrigation,
with higher precision than possible
targeting the nutrients
with sprinkler or rain fed watering.
into the tree root zone
It is particularly well suited to
with higher precision
high-density production systems.
than possible with highpressure irrigation or
rain-fed watering. It is particularly well suited to high-density
production systems. Injection of nutrients into the irrigation line
can be either passive (Venturi-type) or through pumps, which
can proportion the amount of nutrient added to the flow. This
paper will emphasize nutrient management with fertigation, not
the design of fertigation systems.
Nutrient uptake by trees is determined by the availability of
nutrients in the soil, interception of nutrients by the roots and by
tree demand. Nutrient availability in the soil is related to native soil
fertility. Soils with a coarse texture (sandy and gravelly) or with low
organic matter content tend to be less fertile than soils that are fine
textured (loamy, silty, clayey) or have high organic matter content.
Delivery of nutrients to the tree is affected by nutrient mobility.
Mobile nutrients such as nitrogen and boron are dissolved in soil
solution and move easily to roots. Less mobile nutrients such as
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium are somewhat soluble
but are also easily detached from soil particles. In some soils, potassium also falls into the class of immobile nutrients, which includes,
phosphorus and zinc. The immobile nutrients are fixed onto soil
particles, have low soil solution concentrations and tend to move
slowly to the root by diffusion. Apple trees also have sparse roots
and so cannot easily intercept immobile nutrients. A final factor
is retention in the root zone. For mobile nutrients, movement of
nutrients out of the root zone with water prevents interception; for
immobile nutrients the issue is retaining the nutrient in solution
long enough for root interception and uptake to occur.
“
zone is shown in Figure 1 and shows how fertigation might help
N fertilizer use efficiency. Soil solution concentrations of nitrate
nitrogen quickly declined when the fertilizer was broadcast and
sprinkler irrigation was used (Figure 1a). In contrast, an almost
constant concentration in the root zone was maintained when
nitrogen was supplied daily through fertigation at different times
(Figure 1b) allowing nitrogen supply to be managed with more
precision than when broadcast.
In irrigated production systems the supply of nitrogen and
water are closely linked. As nitrate is highly mobile, irrigation
100
Mobile Nutrients
Nitrogen (N). Careful management of water and nitrogen is
important because fruit trees are very inefficient in their use of
nitrogen. A comparison of retention of applied nitrogen in the root
-1
Nitrate-N (mg.l )
”
(A)
Fertilizer
broadcast
80
60
40
20
0
140
-1
Nitrate-N (mg.l )
200
160
180
200
Day of the year
220
240
(B)
(N1
(N3
160
120
80
40
0
110
130
150
170
190
210
230
Day of the year
Figure 1. Soil solution nitrate-N concentration measured throughout
the growing season at 30cm depth in (A) plot receiving a single
application of broadcast N fertilizer and weekly high impact
sprinkler irrigation and (B) plot receiving daily N fertigation
and drip irrigation at different times N1(triangle) and N3
(square).
11
Water loss (L/tree)
200
(A)
**
100
*
*
0
May
N loss (g/tree)
6.0
3.0
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
(B)
5.0
4.0
June
fertigation period
*
2.0
1.0
0
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Figure 2. Water drainage (A) and N flux (B) beneath the root zone in
response to drip irrigation applied at either maximum rate or
scheduled to meet evaporative demand using an atmometer
either maximum rate or scheduled to meet evaporative demand
using an atmometer.
18
16
Soil solution K (mg.l-1)
management is key to the retention of nitrate in the root zone
and hence to nitrate availability to the tree. Several strategies can
be employed to reduce the over application of water which leads
to losses of both water and nitrogen beneath the tree root zone.
These include the use of conservative micro-irrigation systems
to reduce total water inputs (Figure 1), the use of irrigation
scheduling techniques to match water supply to demand and
mulching to reduce water losses from the soil surface through
evaporation. The effect of scheduling irrigation to meet crop
water demand and thereby reducing nitrate losses beneath the
root zone illustrates the relationship between water and nitrogen
management (Figure 2). In this example an automated system,
which is based on estimates of evaporative demand using a
commercially available electronic atmometer (Etgage Co.,
Loveland Colorado) was used to control irrigation. Water (Figure
2a) and nitrate-nitrogen (Figure 2b) losses were greater beneath
the root zone of trees receiving a fixed irrigation rate than for
those receiving irrigation scheduled to meet evaporative demand
as described above. There were no differences in tree growth
between the sets of trees receiving the two types of irrigation.
Efficient use of nitrogen requires an estimate of the size and
timing of tree N demand. We have used a variety of measurements
to determine the nitrogen demand of dwarf apple tree including
total tree excavation and partitioning, the use of labeled nitrogen
fertilizer and assessment of annual removal in leaves and fruit.
During the first few years after planting, these values ranged
from 8 lb/acre to 38 lb/acre of nitrogen for trees grown on M.9
rootstock that were newly planted to six year-olds respectively.
Recommended rates of fertilizer are often higher ranging from
40 to 100 lb N/acre.
It has been well documented for apple and other fruit trees
that N is withdrawn from foliage prior to leaf fall, stored in woody
tissues and roots and that in spring N is remobilised from storage to support new growth. For apple trees, development of the
spur leaf canopy is largely dependent on remobilised N. Both
remobilisation and current season uptake supply N for shoot leaf
canopy growth and high root uptake commences around bloom.
Fruit N requirements are met mainly by remobilisation during
cell division, but mainly by root uptake during cell expansion.
Thus application of fertilizer N can be timed to match maximum
demand for shoot leaf canopy development, that is, during the six
weeks after bloom, without necessarily having a potential negative
impact on fruit quality by elevating fruit N concentration.
0K
15g K
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
Year 4
Figure 3. Soil solution K concentration at 30cm beneath drip emitters in
response to K applications of 0 and 15 g.year-1 per tree.
Less Mobile Nutrients
12
100
Irrigation applied (cm)
Potassium (K). The mobility of K in soil is generally reduced
compared to N but greater than P. The mobility of surfaceapplied K is highest in sandy soils, reduced for soils with high
exchange capacity (higher clay and organic matter content) and
very limited for soils known to fix K. Potassium deficiency can
be increased in drip-irrigated orchards on sandy soils where root
distribution can be restricted by poor lateral spread of applied
water. Deficiency symptoms appear first in spur leaves adjacent
to fruit. These leaves develop an irregular chlorotic leaf surface
during midsummer which progresses into interveinal browning
and marginal leaf scorch by fruit harvest.
However, soil K status at the main rooting depth can be easily altered. Daily fertigation of K from mid-June to mid-August
at a rate of 15 g (0.83 oz) /tree/year increased the concentration
of K in the soil solution (Figure 3). These application rates were
Fertigated
Broadcast
(17.5g P/tree
(60 kg/ha)
80
~58kg/ha)
60
Daily
dose
40 Single 30
Calc.
72.5
Non-calc.
35
36
dose
20
0
1.3
Skaha loamy
sand
Quincy
sand
Warden
silt loam
Figure 4. Fertilizer phosphorus mobility in the soil in response to irrigation.
Amount of water required to move the same amount of fertilizer
6 inches into the root zone.
sufficient to prevent the development of deficient leaf K concentrations during the first five years for four apple cultivars on
M.9 rootstock.
There appears to be little effect of the form of K fertilizer on
tree response as demonstrated in a three year experiment with
‘Jonagold’ on M.9 rootstock in which K in different forms was fertigated daily over a six week period from late June to mid-August
(Table 1). There were no major differences in leaf K concentration
among K forms which was generally above leaf deficiency levels
(1.3%) regardless of treatment.
Immobile Nutrients
Phosphorus (P). Poor downward movement of surface applied
P-fertilizer into the root zone of many orchard soils has long
been recognized. The mobility of P through soil can be further
reduced in finer-textured and other soils with a high P-sorption
capacity.
This is illustrated from field studies in Washington State
and British Columbia which measured changes in soil P values
with depth after surface fertilizer application (Figure 4). To move
P-fertilizers distances as short as six inches requires the application of large quantities of water, particularly for calcareous fine
textured soils such as the Warden silt loam (Figure 4). Around
30 times the amount of water was required to move P using daily
fertigation or a broadcast application compared with a single
fertigated dose. The single fertigated application temporarily
saturates the P fixing sites in the soil allowing more downward
movement of P. Similar responses occur with high rates of monoammonium phosphate-fertilizer mixed in the planting hole,
especially on fumigated, replanted orchard sites or in orchards
with low available P.
Few responses to broadcast fertilizer P have been reported.
However, fertigation of P in first year results in the same beneficial effects associated with planting hole P applications, namely
increased leaf P concentration and improved tree establishment
and initial fruiting. A single annual pulse application of fertilizer
P to five different apple cultivars (Gala, Fuji, Cameo, Ambrosia,
Silken) planted on M.9 rootstock at high densities (3 foot by 10
foot spacing) improved cumulative yield performance of these
cultivars during the first five growing seasons. The experiment
tested a range of fertigation treatments including low (28 ppm
N in irrigation water) and high (168 ppm) nitrogen applications,
each applied for four weeks at three different times after bloom
including early (first 4 weeks postbloom), mid season (four-eight
weeks postbloom) and late applications (8-12 weeks postbloom).
The treatment involving high early N plus a pulse of P (4.6 oz/
tree of ammonium polyphosphate (10-34-0)) in the week immediately following bloom has produced the most fruit over all
cultivars (Table 2).
Zinc (Zn). Zinc deficiency is a common problem in apple.
Symptoms of Zn deficiency are most usually observed in the
spring and include chorosis (yellowing) of the youngest shoot
leaves that are often somewhat undersized and narrower than
normal (referred to as little leaf ). The deficiency may also result in
blind bud and rosetting (small basal leaves which form on shortened terminals and lateral shoots of current year’s growth).
Zinc occurs in the soil in relatively insoluble forms and is
easily precipitated on solid surfaces of carbonates and iron and
manganese oxides. As a result, it is considered relatively immobile in the soil and a large fraction of Zn applied to the soil
Table 1.
Effect of K-fertilizer form on K-nutrition of >Jonagold= on M.9
rootstock grown on sandy loam soil, 2000-2002.
Fertigation treatment (Kg/tree) y Mid-July leaf K concentration (% DW)
Control (0g)
KCI (15 g )
KCI (30 g )
KMag (15 g)
KMag (30 g)
K2SO4 (30 g)
K thiosulfate (30 g )
Significance
2000
2001
2002
1.38c
1.60b
1.67ab
1.66ab
1.72a
1.66ab
1.76a
****
1.58c
1.81b
1.96b
1.89ab
1.98a
2.00a
2.01a
****
1.46c
1.73b
1.83ab
1.74b
1.85ab
1.91a
1.94a
****
y
15g = 0.83 oz; 30g = 1.66 oz
*,**,***,**** significantly different at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
Within columns different values followed by different letters are significantly
different
Table 2. Cumulative yield per tree of apples from 2nd - 5th leaf for selected
treatments averaged over all cultivars (Silken, Cameo, Fuji, Gala
and Ambrosia).
Fertigation Treatment
High early N + P pulse
High N (all times)
Cultivar
Cumulative yield (pounds/tree)
All
All
86.5a
73.5b
Within columns different values followed by different letters are significantly
different
Table 3.
Soil chemical changes at 30 cm depth directly beneath the
emitter, in 20 orchards (3-5 years old) receiving drip irrigation
and fertigation with NH4–based fertilizers
Between rows
Beneath emitter
Significance
pHz
Ca (ppm)
Mg (ppm)
K (ppm)
B (ppm)
7.0
6.2
***
1235
911
**
144
114
**
211
88
**
0.97
0.19
****
z pH (1:2 soil:water); Ca, Mg, K extracted in 0.25M acetic acid + 0.015M NH4F; B
(hot water extractable).
*,**,***,**** significantly different at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
is absorbed by soil particles unless extremely high application
rates are made. There are some differences among soils with less
adsorption on noncalcareous sandy soils, which have reduced
capacity to fix Zn.
There have been limited studies investigating fertigation of
Zn. Zn fertigation research has been undertaken in an experimental block of four different apple cultivars on M.9 rootstock at the
Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre at Summerland, BC (Figure
5). If no Zn was applied (1992 and 1993) all trees, regardless of
cultivar, had leaf Zn concentrations below the 14 ppm deficiency
threshold. In 1994, application of dormant zinc sulphate and
foliar Zn chelates, postbloom in early summer, resulted in very
high leaf Zn concentrations across cultivars, probably through
contamination from surface residues from the foliar Zn sprays.
Commencing in 1995, efforts were made to fertigate Zn as zinc
sulphate (36% Zn) dissolved in the irrigation water and applied
for four weeks during the growing season. The application rate
ranged from 0.34 oz liquid zinc sulphate (36% Zn) per tree (3.5 g
Zn per tree) in 1995 and 1996 to double these rates in 1997 and
to 1.7 oz liquid zinc sulphate per tree (17.5 g Zn per tree) in 1998.
Regardless of the fertigated Zn application rate, leaf Zn concentration did not generally increase above deficiency thresholds for any
13
cultivar. Since the site was a sandy soil, these results imply
that correction of inadequate Zn nutrition via fertigation
of mineral zinc sulphate will be difficult. Fertigation of
more expensive chelated Zn forms may be more effective
but have not undergone extensive testing.
Effects Of Fertigation On Soil Properties
Fertigating ammoniacal forms of N and P can affect the
base status of soils as transformation of ammonium to
nitrate is an acidifying process, which may also accelerate leaching. The widespread nature of this problem was
indicated in a survey of 20 commercial orchards on coarsetextured soils which had undergone three to five yrs. of
NP-fertigation in British Columbia. Soil pH, extractable
soil bases and soil B measured at 0 to 15 cm depth directly
beneath the drip emitter, were all reduced (Table 3). In response to this survey, a soil test was designed to determine
the susceptibility of soils to acidification An acidification
resistance index (ARI) was developed from analysis of
buffer curves for 50 soils of differing composition and was
defined as the amount of acid required to reduce soil pH
from initial status to pH 5.0. These values were then compared to common soil test analysis data and a relationship
defined between the acidification resistance index, soil pH
and soil extractable bases. It was recommended that soils
with a low acidification resistance index be fertigated with
NO3 –based rather than NH4 –based fertilizers.
Denise Neilsen is a research scientist at the
Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre of Ag Canada in
Summerland British Columbia who specializes in
orchard nutrient management.
14
Sodus, NY
(315) 483-9146
Florida, NY
(845) 651-5303
Fancher, NY
(585) 589-6330
Addison, VT
(802) 759-2022
Milton, NY
(845) 795-2177
Cohocton, NY
(585) 384-5221
Antioxidant contents and activity in
SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples
during air and controlled atmosphere storage
Fanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins
Department of Horticulture,
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research and Development Program.
M
any consumers think that vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is
the major antioxidant in fruits and vegetables, but in
fact it is increasingly recognized that phenolic compounds often represent the majority
Our results show that 1-MCP has little
of health-related
effect on the concentrations of ascorbic
antioxidant activacid, total phenolics, flavonoids and
ity in plant products. The phenolic
anthocyanins of Empire apples in either
compounds also
air or CA storage. Total antioxidant
contribute to apactivity in peel tissues of fruit stored in
pearance, as well
air was sometimes higher in Smartfreshas taste and flavor.
treated fruit than untreated fruit.
Apples are one of
However, the health benefits of apples
the best sources
of antioxidant and
are realized primarily through phenolic
phenolic comconcentrations and these compounds
pounds of all fruit,
are stable after harvest. The bottom line
and are especially
is that ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor
beneficial to our
away,’ regardless of storage technology.
diet because they
are available yearround. Research
from the Cornell laboratories of Drs. Cy Lee and Rui Hai Liu,
as well as elsewhere, has shown that apples provide protection
against cardiovascular disease and various cancers. Of the top 25
fruits consumed in the United States, apples are the number one
source of phenolics in the American diet and provide Americans
with 33% of the phenolics they consume (Boyer and Liu, 2004).
For apples, the major focus on health-related properties
has been on phenolic compounds, including flavonoids such as
the anthocyanins that are responsible for red color of the fruit.
Apple varieties vary greatly in antioxidant components and individual phenolic compounds have different antioxidant potential.
Interestingly, reactions among individual compounds may be
synergistic, and therefore, total antioxidant activities potentially
provide a better estimate of the overall contributions of antioxidant components than individual components alone. Phenolic
and flavonoid contents are consistently higher in the skin than
in the flesh, and peel tissues have the highest antioxidant activity
and anti-proliferation activity.
In general, the total phenolic concentrations in both peel
and flesh tissues of apples remain relatively stable during storage, although individual components may vary. The advent of
“
”
SmartFresh storage technology based on 1-methylcyclopropene
(1-MCP), an inhibitor of ethylene perception, has raised the
question about its effects on the nutritional quality of apple fruit.
Knowledge about responses of fruit in both air and controlled
atmosphere (CA) storage is important. CA can prolong the impact of 1-MCP on both physical and sensory responses of apple
and the two technologies generally are most effective when used
in combination.
To date, studies on the effects of 1-MCP on antioxidant
components are limited. MacLean et al. (2006) found that 1-MCP
treatment inhibited an increase in chlorogenic acid in peel tissues
of Red Delicious apples during storage, and resulted in higher
flavonoid concentrations. MacLean et al. (2003) also found that
total antioxidant activity was higher in peels of 1-MCP-treated
than untreated Empire and Red Delicious apples during storage.
The total antioxidant activity (DPPH) of Golden Smoothee flesh
was unaffected by 1-MCP treatment, but total ascorbic acid concentrations were slightly lower after 30 and 90 days of air storage
(Vilaplana et al., 2006).
The objective of the current study was to investigate the
effects of 1-MCP treatment during air and CA storage on antioxidant components and antioxidant activity of peel and flesh
tissues of the Empire apple. This research was carried out as part
of a PhD program and has been published in full (Fawbush et al.,
2009). Here, we highlight the main findings of importance to the
New York apple industry.
Materials and Methods
The Empire apple fruit used in these experiments were all harvested on the same day from mature trees growing at the Cornell
University orchards at Lansing. The IEC, flesh firmness, SSC and
starch index of the fruit at harvest were 2.7 ppm, 16.6 lb-f, 12.5%
and 5.7 units, respectively. Fruit were randomly sorted into experimental units for either air or CA storage experiments.
For air storage, four replicates of 100 fruit were pre-cooled
overnight at 33oF and then they were either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP (SmartFresh powder) for 24 hours. Fruit
were stored for up to five months. For CA storage, replicates of
55-60 fruits were cooled overnight at 36oF, and either untreated
or treated with 1ppm 1-MCP. Four replicates of fruit for each
treatment and temperature were stored in steel chambers, with
2 or 3% O2 (with 2% CO2). Final atmosphere regimes were established within 48 hours and were maintained within 0.2% of target
atmospheres. CA storage was carried out for 9 months.
15
Ten fruit per treatment replicates were taken at harvest
for assessment of internal ethylene concentration (IEC), flesh
firmness, soluble solids concentration (SSC) and starch pattern
indices. IEC and firmness were measured on 10 fruit replicates
after 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 months for the air-stored fruit, and after 4.5
and 9 months for the CA stored fruit, plus 1 day at 68oF. At the
last removal from storage, all remaining fruit were kept at 68oF
for 7 days and then assessed for disorders.
For extraction of phenolic and other compounds, 10 fruit per
treatment replicate were taken on the day of removal of fruit from
air and CA storage. Total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins,
total antioxidant activity and total ascorbic acid were measured
on apple peel and flesh using standard procedures as described
by Fawbush et al. (2009).
concentrations in peel tissues were also unaffected by 1-MCP
treatment (data not shown).
The total antioxidant activity in peel tissues was not affected
by 1-MCP (Table 5), but the total antioxidant activity was higher in
flesh tissues of 1-MCP treated than untreated fruit, being 1.40 and
1.25 mmol kg-1, respectively. Interactions among all storage factors
were detected, however, and overall trends were inconsistent.
Results
Air storage. 1-MCP prevented any increase in the internal
ethylene concentrations (IEC) during storage, while the IEC
in untreated fruit reached 43.9 ppm after 5 months of storage
(Figure 1). Untreated fruit softened during this time to 11.4 lb-f,
compared with 14.0 lb-f in 1-MCP treated fruit (Figure 1). No
storage disorders were observed in air stored fruit.
At harvest, the phenolic concentrations in peel and flesh tissues were 2.82 and 1.24 g kg-1, respectively (Figure. 2). Overall,
the phenolic concentration was significantly higher (2.56 g kg-1)
in peel tissues of 1-MCP treated fruit than in those of untreated
fruit (2.16 g kg-1). In the flesh, total phenolic concentrations of
untreated fruit were significantly higher at 0.90 g kg-1 than the
0.84 g kg-1 of 1-MCP treated fruit. No effect of storage time was
detected for either tissue type.
Total flavonoid and anthocyanin concentrations in the peel
were affected only by storage time, but the patterns of change were
inconsistent (results not shown). In flesh tissues, total flavonoids
were not affected by either 1-MCP treatment or storage time.
At harvest, the total ascorbic acid concentrations in the
peel and flesh were 0.55 and 0.11 g kg-1, respectively, and these
concentrations declined in both untreated and 1-MCP-treated
fruit during storage (Figure 3). There was no significant effect of
1-MCP treatment on peel concentrations, although in the flesh
tissues, the total ascorbic acid concentrations were slightly lower
in 1-MCP-treated tissues than untreated tissues, averaging 0.07
and 0.06 g kg-1, respectively. However, effects were evident at
only some time points.
The total antioxidant activity in the peel was 2.82 mmol kg-1
at harvest, and overall, the activity in peel tissue from 1-MCP
treated fruit was 2.64 mmol kg-1, compared with 2.12 mmol
kg-1 in untreated fruit. However, differences between treatments
were evident only at months 1 to 3 (Figure 3). Total antioxidant
activity in flesh tissues was also significantly higher in 1-MCP
treated fruit than untreated fruit, averaging 1.14 and 0.95 mmol
kg-1, respectively. Total antioxidant activity was not affected by
storage time.
CA storage. The IEC was much lower, and firmness higher,
in 1-MCP treated fruit than in untreated fruit (Table 1). No external or internal disorders were detected after 4.5 months of CA
storage, but a high incidence of flesh browning was observed in
fruit after 9 months of storage.
The total phenolics, total flavonoid and ascorbic acid concentrations in peel and flesh tissues were not consistently affected
by 1-MCP treatment (Tables 2, 3 and 4). Total anthocyanin
16
Figure 1. Internal ethylene concentrations (A) and flesh firmness (B) of
Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and
stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
Figure 2. Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, mg kg−1) in
peel and flesh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
Table 2.
Discussion
The effects of storage conditions on antioxidants in the absence
of 1-MCP treatment have been well studied, and in general,
total phenolics, total antioxidant activity and radical scavenging
capacity are stable or increase during storage. The results of our
study also largely indicate that concentrations of total phenolics, flavonoids, anthocyanins and total antioxidant activity are
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP
Peel
4.5
+
2% O2
2.56a
2.47b
3% O2
1.81g
2.27d
2% O2
0.96bc
0.90c
3% O2
1.01abc
1.12a
9
+
2.37c
1.90f
2.12e
2.15e
1.08ab
0.98bc
0.66d
1.01abc
Table 3.
Figure. 3. Total ascorbic acid concentrations (mg kg−1) in peel and flesh
tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm
1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
Table 1.
Internal ethylene concentrations (IEC), flesh firmness and flesh
browning of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1
ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3%
oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 a nd 9 months.
Different letters associated with means indicate that there are
differences between treatments.
Storage
time
(months)
1-MCP
IEC (ppm)
Firmness (lb-f)
Flesh
browning (%)
4.5
+
2% O2
167a
2.3c
3% O2
216a
1.5c
2% O2
13.0c
15.3a
3% O2
11.7d
15.4a
2% O2
0
0
3% O2
0
0
9
+
234a
32b
170a
56b
11.9d
14.3b
9.0e
14.4b
84a
84a
60b
87a
Flesh
Total flavonoid concentrations (catechin equivalents, g kg-1) in
peel and flesh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or
3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.
differences between treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP
Peel
4.5
+
2% O2
0.91a
1.01a
3% O2
0.88a
1.14a
2% O2
0.39b
0.56a
3% O2
0.49ab
0.42b
9
+
1.12a
0.92a
1.17a
1.19a
0.49ab
0.54a
0.44b
0.49ab
Table 4.
Figure 4. Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg−1)
in peel and flesh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or
treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5
months.
Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, g kg-1)
in peel and flesh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or
treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres
of 2% or 3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and
9 months. Different letters associated with means indicate that
there are differences between treatments for a tissue type.
Flesh
Total ascorbic acid concentrations (g kg-1) in peel and flesh tissues
of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP,
and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3% oxygen with
2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months. Different letters
associated with means indicate that there are differences between
treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP
Peel
4.5
+
2% O2
0.37a
0.35a
3% O2
0.35a
0.31a
2% O2
0.11a
0.10ab
3% O2
0.09bc
0.09bc
9
+
0.38a
0.36a
0.33a
0.33a
0.10ab
0.09bc
0.09bc
0.08c
Table 5.
Flesh
Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg-1) in
peel and flesh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or
3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.
differences between treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP
Peel
Flesh
4.5
+
2% O2
3.04a
2.55abcd
3% O2
2.66abc
2.72abc
2% O2
1.32bc
1.86a
3% O2
1.52b
1.03d
9
+
2.07cd
1.91d
2.84ab
2.37bcd
1.28bcd
1.19cd
1.32bc
1.16cd
17
relatively stable during air and CA storage. However, the effects
of 1-MCP on individual phytochemical groups were variable.
In air-stored fruit, total phenolic concentrations were higher in
peel tissues, but lower in flesh tissues, of 1-MCP treated fruit
compared with untreated fruit. No effects of 1-MCP were found
for total flavonoid or anthocyanin concentrations, except that
flavonoid concentrations were higher in 1-MCP treated fruit
than untreated fruit during CA storage.
Total antioxidant activity, assayed using a recently developed
method (Adom and Liu, 2005), was higher in both peel and flesh
tissues of 1-MCP-treated fruit compared with untreated fruit,
although higher only in flesh tissues of CA-stored fruit. Higher
total antioxidant activity in 1-MCP treated peel tissues of airstored Empire and Delicious apples was also found by MacLean
et al. (2003). The reasons for higher antioxidant activity in airstored 1-MCP-treated fruit are uncertain. Both total phenolic
concentrations and total antioxidant activity were higher in peel
tissues, and these two factors have been strongly correlated with
each other in other studies.
Ascorbic acid concentrations declined in both peel and flesh
tissues during air storage, while in CA storage, patterns of change
over time were inconsistent, depending on the O2 concentration.
Surprisingly little information is available concerning changes in
ascorbic acid concentrations in apple fruits during storage, especially in CA, and even less is known about the effects of 1-MCP.
The significance of decreased ascorbic acid concentrations during
storage with and without 1-MCP-treated fruit in this study and
others is uncertain. Although ascorbic acid is generally considered
to be important in nutrition, it represents a minor component of
the total antioxidant activity of apples. Ascorbic acid, however,
is a critical component of antioxidative processes in plant cells,
interacting enzymatically and non-enzymatically with damaging
oxygen radical and reactive oxygen species.
Fawbush, F., Nock J.F., Watkins, C.B., 2009. Antioxidant contents
and activity of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)-treated
‘Empire’ apples in air and controlled atmosphere storage.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 52, 30-37.
MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., 2003. A modified total
oxyradical scavenging capacity assay for antioxidants in plant
tissues. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 29, 183-194.
MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., Horvath, C.R., 2006.
Postharvest variation in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.)
flavonoids following harvest, storage, and 1-MCP treatment.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 870-878.
Fanjaniaina Fawbush was a graduate student working
with Chris Watkins. Jackie Nock is a research support
specialist who works with Chris Watkins. Chris Watkins
is a research and extension professor in the Department
of Horticulture at Cornell’s Ithaca Campus who leads
Cornell’s program in postharvest biology of fruit crops.
LOCAL FARMS,
L OCAL F OOD .
F arm Bureau ® is driving
customers to farm stands.
Why not yours?
Conclusion
1-MCP delays fruit ripening of Empire apples, but the effects
of treatment on phytochemical groups are relatively small. The
results show that eating apples, regardless of storage technology,
is the right thing to do to keep the doctor away!
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the New York Apple Research
and Development Program, AgroFresh, Inc., and the Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, federal formula
funds, Project NE-1018, received from the Cooperative State
Research, Education and Extension Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture. We thank Dr. Adom and Dr. Liu for advice on the
total antioxidant assay.
References
Adom, K.K., Liu, R.H., 2005. Rapid peroxyl radical scavenging
capacity (PSC) assay for assessing both hydrophilic and lipophilic antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53, 6572-6580.
Boyer, J., Liu, R., 2004. Apple phytochemicals and their health
benefits. Nutr. J. 3, 5.
18
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Results of a New York Blueberry
Survey
Juliet E. Carroll1,2, Marc Fuchs2 and Kerik Cox2
1 New York State IPM Program
2 Dept. of Plant Pathology and Plant Microbe-Biology
New York State Ag. Exp. Station, Cornell University
Geneva, NY
W
ell-managed blueberry plantings can remain
productive for 25 years or more. Canker and dieback
diseases rob plants of fruiting wood and reduce
planting longevity.
The two most
Our blueberry survey found that
common canker
diseases identified
Phomopsis canker was most frequent
by J. Carroll
in NY. Tobacco ringspot viruses were
in specimens
associated with serious decline of
submitted to the
blueberry in NY. Our results have
plant pathology
prompted us to consider research on
diagnostic lab in
fungicide treatments for Phomopsis
the 1980’s were
Phomopsis canker
canker and to undertake a survey for viral
and Fusicoccum
diseases in blueberry.
(Godronia) canker,
prompting her to
undertake a survey
for these diseases.
While cultural practices to manage these two canker diseases are
similar, intensive management to bring the cankers under control
in severely affected plantings may need to rely on pathogenspecific fungicide programs over a two to three year period, rather
than a one-size-fits-all approach.
Infection by canker fungi causes leaves to turn reddishbrown, wilt and remain attached to shoots. Typically, symptoms
first occur when fruit is present and temperatures are warm.
Cankers are often found near the base of the affected canes, but
can occur higher in the canopy on branches. When pruning
out affected canes, look for tan, pink, or brown discoloration in
the wood in cross-section. Fungal spores, produced on infected
wood, spread the diseases within and among the plants so it is
very important to rid the planting of this inoculum.
Fusicoccum spore release occurs during rain events essentially all season long, from bud break to leaf drop, with peak spore
production and release during bloom (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995).
Phomopsis spore release occurs during rain events from blossom
bud swell (pink bud) through late August. As little as 0.15 inch of
rain can trigger spore release. Infections occur within 48 hours
in the presence of free water, warm temperatures (50F-80F), and
susceptible tissues.
Fusicoccum cankers on one-to-two-yr-old canes typically
develop from infections that occurred the previous year, while
those from Phomopsis canker can develop in the same year of
infection. Wounds are not required for infection by Fusicoccum.
Although this is also true for Phomopsis, mechanically wounded
Figure 1. Highbush blueberry plant with high incidence
of Phomopsis canker.
“
”
or freeze-damaged stems are more prone to Phomopsis infection.
Phomopsis cankers are brownish with a lighter brown center, while Fusicoccum cankers are redder and may have a target
pattern of alternating bands of light and dark reddish-brown. As
infected stems age, Phomopsis cankers turn gray and the canes
become flattened because the infected side of the stem fails to
put down new wood.
Management relies principally on proper site selection and
maintaining vigorous plants: proper soil pH, plant nutrition, irrigation, avoiding frost pockets and winter injury. IPM principals
of sanitation and canopy management are paramount. Prune out
diseased and dead canes. Remove prunings from the planting and
destroy them by chopping or burning. Be mindful of restrictions
against burning, but do not neglect the importance of removing
prunings from the planting. Manage the planting to allow for
rapid drying of the plant canopy after rain: manage weeds, prune
out old canes, orient rows with prevailing winds, and select sites
with good air drainage.
Survey Methods
Extension educators in each of the growing regions assisted with
the surveys and received reports on the results found. Their cooperation is gratefully acknowledged; they included:
• Deborah Breth, Cornell Cooperative Extension Lake Ontario
Fruit Program
• Cathy Heidenreich, Department of Horticulture, Cornell
University
• Kevin Iungerman, Cornell Cooperative Extension Northeastern New York Fruit Program
• Laura McDermott, Department of Horticulture, Cornell
University
• Steven McKay, Cornell Cooperative Extension Hudson Valley
Fruit Program
• Molly Shaw, Southern Tier Ag Team, Tioga County Cornell
Cooperative Extension
During June and July, 33 farms were visited, seven in 2007
(Tioga, Orleans, and Niagara counties) (Carroll 2007b), 12 in 2008
(Essex, Washington, Saratoga, Albany, Columbia, and Dutchess
counties), and 14 in 2009 (Oswego, Onondaga, and Yates coun-
19
ties). Plantings were traversed randomly, unless specific areas
were identified by the grower as having problems, and plants
examined.
Suspicious canes were removed and brought back to the
laboratory for analysis. Subsamples of the canes and branches
were incubated in a moist chamber to encourage sporulation
of fungi which were identified microscopically. Identity of fungi
was based on characteristic size, shape and color of the fungal
fruiting bodies and spores (stroma, pycnidia, acervuli, conidiophores, cirrhi, and conidia) (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995, Farr et al.
1989). Samples with suspected virus infection were tested with
virus-specific antisera and via indicator plants.
Results
The farms surveyed ranged in size from under one to over 20
acres, with plantings from one to over 25 yrs old. One farm had
long-established plantings still producing well that were pushing
100 years old. The majority of the plantings had irrigation. Those
with good weed management used sawdust or wood chip mulch
within the plant row. Plantings with vigorous, high-yielding plants
were pruned primarily to remove old canes, allowing canes to
achieve their natural height of five to eight ft (Pritts & Hancock
1992), had drip irrigation, were mulched, and had excellent weed
control.
Phomopsis was the most prevalent canker disease in the
New York blueberry plantings surveyed, especially in Eastern NY
where Fusicoccum was not found. By contrast, in Western NY
farms Fusicoccum canker was more frequently found (Table 1).
Phomopsis canker was associated with the most severely affected
plantings with 10-50% infected plants. Typically, incidence of
cankers within a planting was low, ranging from 2-5% infected
plants. When canker incidence was ~10% infected plants, growers became concerned. Most often only one infected cane was
found per plant, and therefore, the disease would go unnoticed.
But, when incidence in the planting exceeded 10%, several canes
per plant were infected (Figure 1). Severe Phomopsis canker
incidence approaching 50% infected plants was found in three
plantings in NY. On four of the 33 farms surveyed, no canker
diseases were found.
Canker incidence varied among cultivars. It is known
that certain cultivars are very susceptible to Phomopsis canker
(Weymouth, Earliblue, and Berkeley) and to Fusicoccum canker
(Jersey, Earliblue, and Bluecrop) (Pritts et al. 2009). While only
some growers had good records of which cultivars were found
in their plantings, this information can be fundamental to IPM
and to advancing blueberry production in NY.
Botryosphaeria stem blight (Figure 2) was tentatively identified from four farms in NY (Table 1). This disease on blueberry
had not been previously described from NY. This fungus has a
broad host range, attacking deciduous trees and shrubs including maple, birch, sumac, elm, viburnum, apple, buckthorn, etc.)
Management practices for this disease would be similar to those
for the other canker diseases. Twig blights were found associated with infection by Colletotrichum spp. and Botrytis cinerea,
anthracnose ripe rot and Botrytis blight, respectively, were also
found. A Pestalotia-like fungus was found on a small number
of samples collected in 2007 and 2008 and may be the same as
one reported from blueberry plantings in Chile Pestalotiopsis
clavispora (Espinoza et al 2008).
Mummy berry primary infections can also cause small
20
Table 1.
Prevalence of canker and dieback diseases found in 33 blueberry
farms surveyed during the summers of 2007, 2008, and 2009.
Canker / Dieback
W NY
Farms
E NY
Farms
C NY
Farms
Total of
Disease
Phomopsis a
Fusicoccum b
Anthracnose c
3
5
2
12
0
0
8
4
3
23
9
5
Botryosphaeria d
1
3
0
4
Botrytis e
Number of Farms
0
7
2
12
1
14
3
a Phomopsis canker, Phomopsis vaccinii Shear.
b Fusicoccum canker or Godronia canker, anamorph (conidial stage) Fusicoccum
putrefaciens Shear and teleomorph (ascospore stage) Godronia cassandrae Peck.
Ascospore infections are relatively unimportant in the disease cycle.
c Twig blight caused by the anthracnose fruit rot or ripe rot pathogens, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. or C. acutatum J.H. Simmonds.
d Botryosphaeria stem blight, putative identification of Fusicoccum aesculi Corda
(conidial stage) of Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & De Not.
e Botrytis blight, Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.
Figure 2. Microscopic view of squashed fruiting body and spores of asexual
state of Botryosphaeria dothidea (400X magnification).
Figure 3. Cross-section of mummy-berry-infected immature blueberry
fruit.
twig blight symptoms in the
absence of fruit infections.
Lack of fruit infection may
result from dry, hot conditions
following a wet spring, from
flowering time not coinciding
well with production of spores
on blighted leaves and twigs,
perhaps from early abscission of infected fruit, or from
well-timed fungicide sprays
protecting blossoms. In 2009,
likely favored by the wet growing season, mummy berry on
fruit (Figure 3) was found in
half of the plantings visited
and affected up to 70% of the
fruit in two of the 14 surveyed
plantings. In prior years it was
found only in one planting in
2007.
Weed management problems were most frequently
encountered in plantings that
had recently changed hands,
where time allotted to farm
management was insufficient,
and where herbicide applications were poorly timed or
inadequate. Instances where
perennial weeds had encroached on plantings, serious economic impact on yield
resulted. One interesting weed
was found in two Eastern NY
plantings. It was groundnut,
Apios americana, a perennial
vine which grows from edible
tubers (Iungerman 2008) (Figure 4 ABCD).
Symptoms of viral disease were found on 12 farms
surveyed and samples brought
Figure 4. A, B. Groundnut vines overgrowing blueberry plants. C. Close-up of groundnut vine on blueberry plant.
back for analysis (Carroll
D. Entire plant showing length of vine and tubers. E. Close-up of inflorescence in leaf axil. F. Groundnut
2007a). Of these, samples from
flowers. G, H. Edible groundnut tubers.
four farms tested positive for
the presence of tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV) (Figure 5) and ad- antioxidants. This survey was undertaken primarily to determine
ditional samples from one of these four farms tested positive for the prevalence of canker pathogens in blueberry plantings, but
tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) which causes the disease known also to survey for other problems impacting blueberry production
as necrotic ringspot of blueberry (Converse 1987) (Figure 6). in NY. It will benefit our blueberry industry to gain knowledge
The prevalence of virus symptoms in plantings and the concern about factors that limit production.
This survey uncovered Phomopsis canker as a principal
expressed by the growers and extension specialists has prompted
the authors to embark next spring on a statewide survey of viral canker disease in NY, being found more often than other canker
diseases and, on three farms, causing severe disease. Canker
diseases in blueberries.
management relies almost exclusively on proper pruning and
plant health maintenance. Although Phomopsis canker can be
Discussion
th
New York ranked 10 in the nation in blueberry production, with associated with winter injury, occurring on weakened branches, it
700 acres producing 2.3 million pounds valued at $3.37 million can be a serious primary causes of plant damage, as was found on
in 2007 (Anonymous 2006). The demand for blueberry and blue- three farms. Intensive management to bring cankers under conberry products has increased given the interest in foods high in trol in severely affected plantings may need to be supplemented
21
by aggressive fungicide programs
over a two to three year period,
spanning the disease cycle. Research on specific treatments for
managing this disease under NY
conditions is needed.
Botryosphaeria stem blight,
previously unreported from NY,
was uncovered by this survey.
The importance of mummy berry
as a limiting factor in blueberry
production was also underlined
by the survey. Interestingly, while
the ringspot viruses are soil born
an IPM practice for mummy berry, which is to bury the mummies,
could contribute to spreading
the nematode vector of ToRSV
and TRSV within and among
plantings. Here is an example Figure 5. Symptoms on cv. Patriot
infection.
of why it is crucial to know the
pest complex in your blueberry
plantings in order to best apply IPM practices. Virus diseases
can be propagated with infected, symptomless blueberry cuttings
and lead to serious decline of plantings. Research on the extent
and impact of viral diseases in blueberry will be addressed in an
upcoming survey in the spring of 2010.
Literature Cited
Anonymous. 2008. New York Agricultural Statistics 2007-2008
Annual Bulletin. 88 pp.
Carroll, J. 2007a. Blueberry survey is uncovering viruses in New
York. New York Berry News 6(9):6.
Carroll, J. 2007b. Preliminary survey of blueberry cankers. New
York Berry News 6(8):11-12.
Caruso, F.L. and Ramsdell, D.C., eds. 1995. Compendium of Blueberry and Cranberry Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul. 87 pp.
Converse, R.H. 1987. Virus Diseases of Small Fruits. Agriculture
Handbook No. 631. USDA ARS, Washington, DC. 277
pp.
Espinoza, J.G., Briceno, E.X., and Latorre, B.A. 2008. Identification of species of Botryoshaeria, Pestalotiopsis and Phomopsis in blueberry in Chile. Phytopathology 98:S51.
Farr, D.F., Bills, G.F., Chamuris, G.P., and Rossman, A.Y. 1989.
Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States.
APS Press, St. Paul. 1252 pp.
Iungerman, K. 2008. Apios Americana (the groundnut): a major
weed of blueberries. i, NE NY Area Fruit Program, Cornell,
Vol 12, No 7, 2 pp.
Pritts, M.P. and Hancock, J.F. (eds) 1992. Highbush Blueberry Production Guide. NRAES-55. NRAES, Ithaca, NY. 200 pp.
Pritts, M., Heidenreich, C., Gardner, R., Helms, M., Smith, W.,
Loeb, G., McDermott, L., Weber, C., McKay, S., Carroll,
J.E., Cox, K., and Bellinder, R. 2009. 2009 Pest Management
Guidelines for Berry Crops. Cornell Cooperative Extension,
Ithaca. 102 pp.
22
associated with tomato ringspot virus
Figure 6. Symptoms of necrotic
ringspot on cv. Bluecrop
associated with tobacco
ringspot virus infection.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported with base funding for the Fruit IPM
Coordinator provided by the NYS Department of Agriculture and
Markets. Support from Cornell Cooperative Extension County
Associations and Regional Programs is gratefully acknowledged.
Assistance with virus confirmation provided by Robert Martin,
USDA-ARS, Corvallis, OR is appreciated.
Photo Credits
Figures 1, 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4D - Kevin Iungerman. Figures 2 and
6 - Juliet Carroll. Figures 3 and 5 - Molly Shaw
Juliet E. Carroll is the Fruit IPM coordinator for the NYS
IPM Program in Cornell Cooperative Extension. Marc
Fuchs is a research and extension assistant professor
in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva
Experiment Station who specializes in virus diseases.
Kerik Cox is a research and extension assistant professor
in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva
Experiment Station who specializes in the diseases of
tree fruit and berries.
Assessing Azinphos-methyl
Resistance in New York State
Codling Moth Populations
Peter Jentsch1, Frank Zeoli1 & Deborah Breth2
1Cornell University’s Hudson Valley Laboratory, Highland, NY
2Cornell Cooperative Extension, Albion, NY
This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research
and Development Program.
T
he codling moth (CM) Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus),
a European native, is a principal insect pest of pome
fruit throughout much of the world. A member of the
lepidopteran family Tortricidae, it
is a bivoltine moth,
Codling moth populations throughout the
having two genEastern tree fruit-producing region have
erations in most of
become increasingly tolerant to insect
the U.S. including
pest management practices. We have
New York State. A
observed in this study greater tolerance
partial third gento azinphos-methyl in adult codling
eration exists in
the Pacific Northmoth populations trapped in commercial
west. Introduced
processing blocks when compared to
to the New World
Eastern NY commercial fresh market
during the earliorchards.
est years of pome
fruit production
the codling moth
has historically been a very difficult insect to control. It was
not until the development of the synthetic insecticides, broadspectrum materials with extended residual, contact and feeding
efficacy, that economic damage imposed by this insect was, for
a period, curtailed.
The larvae overwinter in cocoons on the trunk and limbs,
emerging as adults during the tight cluster through bloom period
of apple. Shortly after mating, the female deposits her eggs onto
foliage and fruit, giving rise to larva that cause significant feeding
damage to the surface, flesh, core and seed of the fruit if unmanaged. A mechanism of survival contributing to the codling moth
persistent success are the well-developed feeding habits of the
larva. Larva emerging from eggs laid onto the fruit often begins
burrowing through the egg covering, directly into the fruit, with
little to no surface activity. To evade toxins present on the surface
or skin of the fruit, the newly emerged larva will chew and excrete
the skin prior to entry, only then proceeding into the fruit to feed.
This tactic of fruit skin disposal reduces the amount of toxin the
larva consumes while feeding.
Emergence of the CM first generation larva coincides with
the immigration of adult plum curculio (PC) Conotrachelus
nenuphar (Herbst) into commercial orchards. For more than 50
years, the CM has been effectively managed through the use of
the organophosphate class of insecticides against the PC. Later
“
”
Figure 1. Effect of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) on mortality of adult
codling populations trapped from Western NY orchards, a
laboratory strain (Benzon) and study group baseline (Barnes/
Moffit).
in the season the second generation of CM larval emergence
overlaps, at least in part, with other principle fruit pests, including
the obliquebanded leafroller (OBLR) Choristoneura rosaceana
(Harris), apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), oriental
fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, and the lesser apple worm Grapholita Prunivora Walsh. Management of these insects provides
fair to excellent levels of CM control depending on a number of
management and biotic factors. Recent restrictions placed on the
organophosphate class of insecticides, such as worker re-entry
intervals, lengthened days to harvest and limits on total applications per season, have substantially reduced late season OP
use. This shift in insecticide use may require the control of these
insects through the use of multiple and more species-specific
classes of insecticides, and incorporation of mating disruption
to achieve comparable control yet increasing the cost of pome
fruit production.
Insects with multiple generations, which maintain a constant
presence in commercial orchards, are exposed to the selection
pressure insect pest management tool impose. This constant
exposure provides the mechanism for insecticide resistance development. Over the last two decades codling moth populations
throughout North America have become increasingly tolerant of
pest management practices, with increasing levels of insecticide
resistance to the organophosphate class of chemistries used in
pome fruit pest management. Insecticide resistance to azinphosmethyl (Guthion) has been well documented in codling moth
populations throughout the western Unites States fruit growing
regions for the past 20 years (Varela, et al., 1993; Reidhl et al.,
1986, Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). Ohio, Michigan and Pennsylvania have seen increasingly high internal lepidopteran damage
levels in harvested fruit. Over the past nine years western New
York processing blocks of apple have seen increasing numbers of
damaged fruit due to internal worm infestations. Infested fruit
sampled from these orchards contained larvae from a complex
of internal worm, consisting of the codling moth, the oriental
fruit moth and the lesser apple worm. In 2002 infestations were
found to contain predominately oriental fruit moth larvae, yet
in 2005, a year in which 100 loads from 60 farms were ticketed
23
24
Azinphos-methyl LD90 Levels of Adult Codling Moth Populations
in NY Orchards, 2009
2.0
More Susceptible
Less Susceptible
1.8
Azinphos-methyl (µg/µl )
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
br
id
ge
2
1
er
V
Y
W
N
W
N
Y
Y
N
W
W
ol
co
tt
W
W
ol
co
tt
ill
ia
m
so
n
ti
ep
EN
Y
sc
u
S
W
N
Y
e
M
or
el
lo
bl
ts
ig
h
n
B
EN
en
Y
zo
In
EN
EN
Y
Y
Tr
K
u
n
n
La
dd
e
di
an
D
re
Y
EN
ca
li
r
ss
el
0.0
NY Orchard
Figure 2. The concentration of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) required to
produce morality in 90% of the adult codling population trapped
from Eastern (ENY) and Western (WNY) orchards.
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony),
NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments at Highest Labeled Field Rate
Percent Mortality After 2hrs.1
d
Percent Mortality After 24hrs.2
c
d
d
0
c
c
c
b
c
100
b
b
0
90
c
08
80
70
0
b
06
b
a
b
0
60
50
a
04
40
a
0
a
0
0
30
20
10
a
r
rio
us
W
ar
Pl
im
oc
XL
n
vi
Se
Lo
G
R
la
W
75
Pr
n
ba
rs
Im
hi
ut
G
W
P
W
id
on
an
50
W
e
at
eg
D
70
G
4F
SC
so
el
C
al
Be
yp
lt
30
il
sa
As
vi
Se
rs
Lo
SG
r
rio
W
ar
us
Pl
la
R
n
ba
n
Pr
XL
oc
75
an
id
Im
im
G
W
70
P
W
G
W
e
50
ut
G
D
el
hi
eg
on
at
yp
so
SC
C
al
Be
lt
SG
30
il
W
0
4F
00
As
sa
from processing centers by USDA inspectors, the predominate
species was and continues to be the codling moth.
Given the dramatic increase in the presence of the internal
worm complex in processing fruit, we were hard-pressed to
ask to the question; ‘Has there been an increase in tolerance
or resistance of the internal worm population in western NY’
or is this simply related to a shift in specific practices used in
managing processing apple blocks? Historically, insecticide
resistance development in CM populations has been a
reoccurring and economically devastating event, and as such,
it seemed prudent to investigate state wide CM populations
for levels of susceptibility to commonly used insecticides. In
collaboration with the Lake Ontario Fruit Team (LOFT) and
the Hudson Valley Laboratory, a study was initiated to establish
the insecticidal tolerance of azinphos-methyl in regional adult
codling moth populations given its seasonal use patterns.
A concurrent evaluation was also made of currently used
insecticides to determine the efficacy of these materials against
susceptible CM adult and 1st instar larva.
To determine insect population levels of resistance to a
specific chemical or insecticide class, comparison bioassay
studies to both field collected and susceptible populations to
the specific insecticide in question are conducted. In a classic
case study, shortly after azinphos-methyl was released for
use in commercial orchards, Barnes and Moffit (1963) at the
University of California-Riverside conducted a resistance study
on codling moth populations obtained in commercial and
abandoned orchards. They determined that field populations
of codling moth had a lethal dose or LD90 level of 0.158 μg/μl
of azinphos-methyl, considered to be the standard susceptible
level of mortality to this insecticide. Helmut Riedl conducted a
follow-up study in 1985 to confirm that New York orchards still
had susceptible populations of codling moth with adults taken
from a site in Geneva, NY exhibiting LD90 levels of 0.350 μg/μl
of azinphos-methyl. Although this concentration was two fold
higher than the Barnes and Moffit study population, it was not
considered to be resistant.
Treatment
Figure 3. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible
codling moth larva topically exposed to highest labeled field rate
insecticides.
Results: Adult Bioassay
1
100
d
d
90
b
80.8
80
.8
70
70
60.6
.6
50
a
60
c
50
abc
.4
bc
40
abc
30
20.2
10
ab
.2
a
00
0
0
90
90
e
80
80
cd
c
60
c
50
50
bc
bc
40
40
ab
30
ab
ab
20
a
a
a
a
a
10
30
ab
ab
20
a
a
a
2h
d
60
3
70
70
0
10
r
rio
W
ar
us
im
Pl
la
R
oc
XL
vi
n
Pr
Se
rs
ba
n
75
W
70
G
W
P
50
an
id
Im
on
Trt
Lo
hi
ut
G
W
G
W
at
e
4F
el
eg
so
yp
al
D
G
SC
0S
lt
Be
l3
sa
i
C
r
rio
As
Pl
R
XL
W
ar
us
G
im
W
la
oc
75
n
Pr
n
vi
Se
P
W
W
70
ba
rs
Im
id
an
Trt
Lo
G
50
W
G
ut
hi
on
4F
so
at
e
yp
C
al
D
el
eg
lt
Be
il
30
SG
SC
0
sa
As
30
20
10
Aft
After 24hrs.2
cde
bcd
bc
40.4
Percent Mortality
e
bcde
bc
4
e
24h
de
90
Aft
e
100 1
After 2hrs.1
In our first series of tests conducted in 2008-09 on adult codling
moths, we collected adults from four western NY processing
orchards in Williamson and Wolcott and five Hudson Valley
fresh market orchards in Marlboro, Milton, Highland,
Altamont, Burnt Hills to compare levels of susceptibility to
azinphos-methyl. Approximately 20-100 CM traps were set at
each site to collect adults from the 1st generation flight. Moths
flying between dawn and dusk were captured on pheromone
trap cards and returned to the laboratory within 24 hours.
Adults were then treated using 1 μl (micro liter) droplets of
laboratory grade acetone, applied to our control population,
and serial dilutions of 98.9% concentration of azinphosmethyl (Pestanal; Sigma-Aldrich, Atlanta, GA), dissolved in
acetone to achieve rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 part per million
concentrations, equivalent to μg/μl (microgram per micro
liter) doses. Applications of these concentrations were made
to the dorsal thoratic plate of the moth with mortality assessed
using two evaluations at 24 and 48 hours after treatment.
Moths were scored as live or dead based on antenna-stimulated
and or probed movement response of the adult. In order to
establish differences in levels of insecticide tolerance, mortality
Treatment
Figure 4. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible codling
moth larva exposed to apple4residue using the highest labeled
field rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which CM larva
had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.
25
against 1st instar larva than other insecticides after 2 hours but
not statistically different from Calypso 4F, Delegate WG, Imidan
70WP or Sevin XLR after 24 hours. The least amount of feeding
after 24 hours was observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F,
Delegate WG, Imidan 70WP, Sevin XLR and Warrior treatments.
However, after 3 days, the organophosphates Guthion 50WP,
Imidan 70WP, Lorsban 75WG and the pyrethroid Warrior
demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount
of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate
WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After seven days,
Delegate WG, Guthion 50WP, Imidan 70WP, and Warrior
demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount
Efficacy of Treatments 3 Days After Application
26
70
bc
c
60
bc
60
50
abc
50
4
After 24hrs.4
80
b
70
40
ab
a
Percent Burrowing
80
90
b
b
30
a
20
a
a
10
0
0
90
90
Trt
80
Trt
80
70
70
60
60
d
50
cd
40
c
c
c
bc
50
cd
bcd
cd
40
abc
30
30
abc
abc
20
abc abc
ab
ab
10
20
ab
a
a
After 2hrs.3
After 24hrs.2
b
100
d
d
20
10
10
a
0
Lo
r
us
rio
Pl
R
XL
Se
vi
rs
n
W
ar
G
im
W
la
75
oc
Pr
P
W
70
an
ba
n
G
W
50
id
ut
hi
Im
4F
W
e
on
Trt
G
SC
so
at
yp
al
D
el
C
eg
lt
Be
30
il
sa
As
n
Lo
Se
vi
rs
SG
r
us
rio
Pl
R
W
ar
G
im
W
la
XL
75
oc
Pr
P
W
70
n
an
id
Im
ba
G
W
50
W
e
at
on
hi
G
ut
SC
so
yp
D
el
eg
SG
lt
al
C
30
Be
il
As
sa
4F
0
Trt
Treatment
Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF.
(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 1.693, P-value = 0.0896]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 10.561, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.328, P-value = 0.0007]; 4.[df = 3, F-value =
9.874, P-value = 0.0001]).
Figure 5. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible
codling moth larva exposed to apple residue using the highest
labeled field rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.
100
def
ef
90
d
cde
90
80
bc bcd
80
cd
bcd
b
70
70
bc
60
abc
60
50
ab
50
4
a
40
40
a
a
a
a
30
10
0
0
90
90
Trt
Trt
80
80
70
70
60
60
d
50
b
ab
50
cd
b
b
abc
ab
20
ab
a
a
40
abc
bc
ab
30
10
30
20
20
10
40 4
Percent Burrowing
f
After 24hrs.4
ef
cde
a
ab
ab
ab
a
a
30
After 2hrs.3
After 24hrs.2
100
Percent Mortality
Residue and feeding studies to ‘Benzon’
instar larvae were
conducted to evaluate 10 commercial insecticides on susceptible
strains of larva. Treated ‘Delicious’ apple were submersed in a
dilute insecticide solution using the highest labeled field rate
of each insecticide for three seconds and held indoors at 70oF,
offering no exposure to rain or sunlight for 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21-day
periods. Ten (10) 2.5 cm apple discs were removed from two
treated fruit and secured onto the lid of plastic cups, onto which
were placed CM larvae. The larvae were evaluated for mortality
and feeding damage 2 and 24 hour intervals (Figures 4-8). Results
demonstrated that larva exposed to azinphos-methyl treated
apple exhibited lower levels of mortality at both the 2 hr and 24
hour evaluation intervals compared to most other insecticides.
Assail 30SG (Acetamiprid), a recently developed neonicotinoid
insecticide, had significantly higher levels of fruit residual activity
90
30
After 2hrs.1
1st
cd
20
10
0
0
As
sa
il
30
SG
Be
lt
SC
C
al
yp
D
s
el
eg o 4F
at
e
G
W
ut
hi
G
on
50
W
Im
P
id
an
Lo
70
rs
W
ba
n
75
W
G
Pr
Se
oc
vi
l
ai
n
XL m
R
Pl
us
W
ar
rio
r
As
sa
il
30
SG
Be
lt
SC
C
al
yp
D
s
el
eg o 4
at F
e
G
W
ut
hi
G
on
50
W
Im
P
id
an
Lo
70
rs
W
ba
n
75
W
G
Pr
Se
oc
vi
la
n
i
XL m
R
Pl
us
W
ar
rio
r
Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Residual and
Feeding Activity
d
cd
bc
40 4
Percent Mortality
Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Contact
Activity
Additional studies were conducted using topical bioassays
on susceptible strains of larva using conventional and new
insecticide chemistries. ‘Benzon’ 1st instar larva were evaluated
for susceptibility to 10 commercial insecticides, in which larva
were placed onto moistened filter paper affixed to the lid of
25 ml plastic cups. Applications to the larvae were then made
using the highest labeled field rate for each product using a
micro-applicator and 1 ml syringe employing 1 μl applications.
Larvae were rated for mortality and evaluated at 2 and 24-hour
intervals. Larva exposed to Guthion 50WP (azinphos-methyl)
exhibited 100% mortality at 2 and 24-hour evaluation intervals,
statistically equivalent to Warrior (lambda-cyhalothrin), Sevin
XLR (carbaryl) and Calypso (thiacloprid), which provided 92.5%
& 100%, 85.0% & 97.5 % and 60.0% & 100.0% mortality levels
respectively (Figure 3).
cd
100
After 2hrs.1
curves were used to determine degrees of CM susceptibility
to azinphos-methyl (Figure 1).
From the data generated in this portion of the study we
observed lower levels of susceptibility in all study groups
compared to the previous studies mentioned. Levels of reduced
susceptibility were evident in western NY orchards, primarily
in Verbridge and Williamson (Figure 2). Laboratory reared
populations (‘Benzon susceptible strain’), and populations
collected from most eastern NY orchards exhibited an LD90
of < 0.85 μg/μl for azinphos-methyl with the exception of the
‘Morello’ orchard. The western NY strains in Verbridge displayed
an LD90 of 1.86 μg/μl for azinphos-methl, approximately 2.2 fold
less susceptible than the Benzon strain. Given the findings that all
NY strains demonstrated a higher tolerance to azinphos-methyl
compared to that of the Riedl and Barnes/Moffit studies implies
reduced susceptibility levels across the state, with lower levels
of susceptibility in WNY processing orchards. The overall low
levels of azinphos-methyl susceptibility of NYS codling moth
populations coupled with reduced levels of susceptibility in
these processing blocks, may have contributed, at least in part, to
insecticide failure resulting in infested loads observed during the
past seven years. Further evaluations in 2010 will help determine
the degree to which these populations are comprised of tolerant
or resistant population levels of susceptibility.
Trt
Trt
Treatment
(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 2.592, P-value = 0.0068]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 7.176, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.716, P-value = 0.0002]; 4.[df = 3, F-value = 5.134,
P-value = 0.0001]).
Figure 6. Results of a 2 and 24 hour evaluation of 1st instar, laboratory
reared susceptible codling moth larva showing percent mortality
of larvae exposed to apple residue using the highest labeled field
rate insecticide after 7 days, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed.
100
d
c
90
c
80
bc
b
80 8
70
70
a
60 6
b
ab
ab
50
50
ab
ab
a
60
ab
a
a
40
30
30
20
2
20
10
After 24hrs.4
After 24hrs.2
d
cd
90
40 4
Percent Mortality
d
Percent Burrowing
d
cd
100
10
0 0
0
90
90
Trt
80
80
Trt
After 2hrs.1
60
60
d
50
50
cd
40
abc
30
b
b
20
ab
ab
abc
ab
30
20
ab
a
a
a
abc
ab
ab
a
10
40
bc
After 2hrs.3
70
70
a
a
10
r
us
G
rio
Pl
R
W
ar
XL
n
Se
vi
rs
Lo
G
im
W
la
75
oc
Pr
P
W
70
an
ba
id
n
G
W
50
ut
Trt
Im
4F
W
e
on
hi
SC
so
at
el
As
C
al
yp
Be
lt
30
sa
il
R
XL
eg
SG
r
us
Pl
rio
D
Lo
Se
vi
rs
n
ba
W
ar
G
im
W
la
75
oc
Pr
P
70
an
id
Trt
Im
ut
G
D
n
G
W
W
e
50
on
hi
SC
so
at
yp
el
C
al
eg
SG
lt
30
il
Be
sa
As
W
0
4F
0
Treatment
4.570, P-value = 0.0001]).
cd
80
bc
80
b
d
cd
bc
70
bcd
b
70
bcd
60
abcd
60
ab
50
ab abc
ab
50
40
a
30
30
20
a
20
10
Percent Burrowing
After 24hrs.2
90
90
40
Percent Mortality
100
e
cd
After 24hrs.4
de
de
100
10
0
0
90
90
Trt
80
80
Trt
60
60
50
50
b
40
30
a
40
a
ab
ab
20
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
30
a
20
a
a
10
a
a
After 2hrs.3
70
70
After 2hrs.1
a
a
a
10
0
r
us
rio
Pl
R
XL
W
ar
W
la
75
oc
Pr
n
vi
Se
70
Lo
rs
ba
id
n
an
Trt
Im
im
G
W
P
W
G
W
G
ut
hi
on
e
50
4F
so
at
yp
D
el
eg
SC
SG
lt
Be
al
30
il
sa
As
C
r
us
rio
Pl
R
XL
W
ar
G
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W
la
oc
Pr
n
vi
Se
75
70
Lo
rs
ba
Trt
n
an
id
Im
on
hi
ut
W
P
W
G
W
50
4F
so
e
at
yp
eg
el
C
al
D
G
lt
Be
30
SG
SC
0
il
In this study we’ve observed a 2.2 fold greater tolerance to
azinphos-methyl in adult codling moth populations trapped in
commercial processing blocks when compared to the majority of
Eastern NY commercial fresh market orchards and a susceptible
control group of adult codling moths. Yet, a number of factors
may contribute to the failure of azinpho-methyl to manage the
internal worm complex in other parts of the state. These also
include the loss of insecticides used successively in the past to
manage this insect. One in particular, Lorsban 75WG, a very effective material when used at petal fall, is no longer available for
use as a foliar insecticide beyond the pre-bloom stage of apple,
thus removing it from use against the 1st generation flight of
codling moth. Lorsban has been found by researchers to have
excellent efficacy against the adult CM, and demonstrates a
negative cross-resistance to azinphos-methyl, allowing it to
maintain effectiveness even when resistance to Guthion fails to
control CM (Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). The movement of
azinphos-methyl resistant CM individuals from western states
such as Washingtom State and California, to the east by way of
storage bin transport, has also been implicated as the cause of
resistant population build-up, especially in and around processing centers. Another facet of discussion regarding the loss of
CM control includes a possible shift in the emergence pattern of
codling moth later into the season for both generations (Boivin,
1999). Pheromone trapping peaks, often called the ‘B Peaks’, imply
adult emergence delays, and have been observed in trap graphs of
Western and Eastern orchards. A delay in adult and subsequent
larval emergence would prolong the presence of newly hatching
larva beyond prediction models and insecticide residual activity,
allowing for increasing levels of damage.
Another important factor in New York appears to be the
differences in fresh market and processing production methods between regions with regards to application techniques. In
general, apples grown in Western NY sites for processing are
produced in larger acreages often bordering contiguous orchards
of neighboring processing blocks. Large blocks have a tendency
to ‘promote’ endemic populations. These orchards have for many
years exclusively used azinphos-methyl in season long management programs. In processing blocks of apple, fruit can be acceptably sold at reduced visual standards when compared to retail
fresh fruit market standards with regards to color, size and overall
appearance. In some orchards this may have led to reductions in
insecticide rates, alternate row application methods, stretched
intervals, reductions in horticultural practices such as summer
pruning, all of which hinder effective insecticide coverage and
subsequent insect control. These practices promote greater insect survival, higher levels of selection pressure with regards to
insecticide resistance development and ultimately less susceptible
strains of insects as we have observed in this study.
Comparatively, apples grown in the Eastern part of the state
are primarily produced for fresh market or pick-your-own sales,
produced in smaller acreages often isolated from other orchards,
sa
Discussion
surrounded by woodlands and or abandoned orchards. In most
Hudson Valley orchards, the presence of these woodlots or
abandoned orchards lead to higher insect pressure, increasing
insecticide rate requirements. However, the pest complex migrating in from ‘the edge’ typically has greater levels of genetic
diversity leading to greater insecticide susceptibility. Fruit quality, size and color requirements for fresh market demands methodical management including intensive crop load reductions,
as sales depend on visually appealing large fruit. Intensive crop
load management in fresh market fruit fosters king fruit to set
As
of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate
WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After 21 days, the
highest level of residual efficacy was observed with Assail 30SG,
Lorsban 75WG and Proclaim with the least amount of feeding
observed in the Delegate WG treatment, followed by Assail 30SG,
Proclaim, Sevin XLR, Warrior and Calypso 4F treatments.
Treatment
2.242, P-value = 0.0194]).
27
and remain, while eliciting clustered fruit to drop, significantly
reduces insect harborage that would typically occur in and around
the fruit cluster, offering insects less protection from insecticide
applications and residue.
Conclusions
This study has demonstrated new insecticide chemistries to
exhibit effective control of the early instar stages of the codling
moth larva with regards to both mortality and feeding inhibition. Through the rotation of these insecticides, a different class
of pest management tools can target each generation. This will
effectively reduce the selection pressure exerted by any one active ingredient or insecticide class, thus reducing the resistance
potential and prolonging the efficacy of these new materials for
years to come.
References
Barnes, M.M and H.R. Moffit. 1963. Resistance to DDT in the
adult codling moth and references curves to Guthion and
Carbaryl. Journal of Economic Entomology 56:722-725.
Boivin, T., J.C. Bouvier, D. Beslay and B. Sauphanor. 1999. Phenological segregation of insecticide resistance alleles in the
codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae):
a case study of ecological divergences associated with adaptive changes in populations. Umr Ecologie Des Invertébrés,
Inra Site Agroparc, 84 914 Avignon Cedex 09, France.
Riedl, H. L. A. Hanson and A. Seaman. 1986. Toxicological response of codling moth (lepidoptera: Tortricidae) populations from California and New York to azinphosmethyl Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 16 (3-4): 189-201.
Steenwyk, R.A., S.C. Welter. 1998. Evaluation of Codling Moth
Resistance to Guthion and Lorsban. Proceedings of the
72nd Annual Western Orchard Pest & Disease Management
Conference. Proc. WOPDMC 72:93-94.
Varela, L. G.; Welter, S. C.; Jones, V. P.; Brunner, J. F.; Riedl, H.
1993. Monitoring and Characterization of Insecticide
Resistance Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in
Four Western States. Journal of Economic Entomology 86
(1):1-10.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully acknowledge the Apple Research Development
Program for funding this project. We also wish to thank the New
York apple producers assisting in the collection of codling moth
adults including orchards in Verbridge, Williamson and Wolcott,
Indian Ladder Farms in Altamont, Truncalli Farm in Marlboro,
Dressel Farm and Moriello Farm in New Paltz, Knights Orchards
in Burnt Hills, the LOFT fruit team for their help and support in
making this project possible.
Peter Jentsch is an Extension Associate in the Department
of Entomology at Cornell’s Hudson Valley Laboratory
specializing in arthropod management in tree fruits,
grapes and vegetables. Frank Zeoli is a research
technician at the Hudson Valley Laboratory. Deborah
Breth is an extension specialist on the Lake Ontario Fruit
Team of Cornell Cooperative Extension who specializes
in integrated pest management.

Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009 - New York State Horticultural Society

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