Practice with Noun Clauses

Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
James H. Yetter
Copyright © 2012 James H. Yetter
ISBN-10:1478333189
ISBN-13:978-147833180
All rights reserved. No part of this electronic book may be
reproduced or duplicated in any form or by any means
including photocopying or printing without written permission
from the publisher.
Inquiries should be made to www.yetter’s learn Spanish.com.
TO THE STUDENT
If you are interested in learning Spanish, we are on the same journey.
Learning a language is as much about opening ourselves to other cultures as it is about
memorizing rules of grammar and expanding vocabularies. Learning to communicate in the
language of our neighbors at home and abroad can only enrich our professional and private
lives and help us understand, from a different perspective, the events that continue to shape
our world.
So I encourage you to explore the material this guide has to offer, and am confident it will help
you take your Spanish from beginning to advanced levels as we continue our shared journey
toward fluency en Español.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 1 PHONETICS
Unit One Table of Contents........................................................................................ 1
Introduction to Phonetics........................................................................................... 2
Cognates..................................................................................................................... 3
Vowel Sounds............................................................................................................. 4
Sound of the Consonants........................................................................................... 6
Syllables..................................................................................................................... 9
Phonetic Terminology............................................................................................... 11
Accent Marks............................................................................................................. 13
Accent Marks to Distinguish...................................................................................... 16
Diptongos................................................................................................................... 19
Sinéresis and Sinalefa................................................................................................ 22
Symbol Shortcuts…..................................................................................................... 23
Pronunciation Summary….......................................................................................... 24
UNIT 2 NOUNS
Unit Two Table of Contents......................................................................................
Noun Basics…….........................................................................................................
Gender of Nouns.......................................................................................................
Plural of Nouns..........................................................................................................
25
26
28
32
UNIT 3 DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
Unit Three Table of Contents....................................................................................
Definite and Indefinite Articles.................................................................................
Practice with Definite and Indefinite Articles...........................................................
When the Definite Article is Required......................................................................
When the Indefinite Article is Required....................................................................
Practice with Definite and Indefinite Articles...........................................................
34
35
36
37
39
42
UNIT 4 PRONOUNS
Unit Four Table of Contents...................................................................................... 44
Personal Pronouns.................................................................................................... 45
Practice with Personal Pronouns.............................................................................. 51
Prepositional Pronouns............................................................................................. 54
Possessive Pronouns................................................................................................. 57
Demonstrative Pronouns.......................................................................................... 59
Indefinite Pronouns………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61
Direct-Object and Indirect-Object Pronouns…….…………………..…………………………….. 64
Table of Contents
UNIT 5 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS
Unit Five Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
The Personal “A”........................................................................................................ 70
Practice with the Personal “A” ................................................................................. 72
Prepositions............................................................................................................... 74
Conjunctions.............................................................................................................. 76
UNIT 6 LINKING VERBS
Unit Six Table of Contents.........................................................................................
Linking Verbs Estar (to be) and Ser (to be)...............................................................
Practice with the Linking Verbs Estar and Ser..........................................................
Linking Verbs for a Change in State of Being............................................................
Tener to Express a Physical or an Emotional State of Being.....................................
A Detailed Explanation of Estar (to be) and Ser (to be)............................................
More Practice with Estar and Ser..............................................................................
78
79
82
83
84
86
90
UNIT 7 ADJECTIVES
Unit Seven Table of Contents.................................................................................... 92
Adjectives.................................................................................................................. 93
Practice with Descriptive Adjectives and Regularly Conjugated Verbs..................... 99
Apócope of Certain Adjectives.................................................................................. 100
Possessive Adjectives................................................................................................ 102
Practice with Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns................................. 109
Demonstrative Adjectives......................................................................................... 112
Practice with Demonstrative Adjectives and Demonstrative Pronouns................... 114
Indefinite Adjectives................................................................................................. 115
Practice with Indefinite Adjectives and Indefinite Pronouns.................................... 118
Practice with Affirmative and Negative Sentences................................................... 120
UNIT 8 ADVERBS
Unit Eight Table of Contents..................................................................................... 121
Adverbs..................................................................................................................... 122
Categories of Adverbs............................................................................................... 125
UNIT 9 COMPARISONS WITH ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, AND EXPRESSIONS
Unit Nine Table of Contents...................................................................................... 127
Comparisons with Tan Como…................................................................................. 129
Practice with Tan Como............................................................................................ 130
Comparisons with Tanto Como................................................................................. 131
v
Table of Contents
Practice with Tanto Como......................................................................................... 133
Comparisons of Inequality with Más or Menos........................................................ 134
Superlatives with El Más or El Menos…….……………………………………..………….…….…... 136
Practice with Más or Menos…………………….…………………………….....…….……....……...... 138
Comparisons with Mejor, Peor, Major, and Menor………..............................…….…… 140
Practicing Comparisons with Mejor, Peor, Major, and Menor.................................. 142
Comparative Expressions.......................................................................................... 143
Practice with Comparative Expressions.................................................................... 146
Same or Mismo......................................................................................................... 148
Practice with Mismo................................................................................................. 152
UNIT 10 USING VERBS AS NOUNS, ADVERBS, OR ADJECTIVES
Unit Ten Table of Contents....................................................................................... 154
Using Verbs as Nouns, Adverbs, or Adjectives.......................................................... 155
Practice with Verbs as Nouns, Adverbs, and Adjectives........................................... 157
The Infinitive............................................................................................................. 158
Verbs Which Take a Preposition before the Infinitive.............................................. 162
The Infinitive to Express an Obligation..................................................................... 164
Practice with the Infinitive........................................................................................ 165
Progressive Actions................................................................................................... 167
Practice with Progressive Actions............................................................................. 170
Gerundio……………………………………...............................................…..……….…..….…….. 171
Practice with Gerundio……………......................................................…….….….….……… 173
Past Participles as an Adjective................................................................................. 175
Perfect Tense............................................................................................................ 177
Practice with Past Participles.................................................................................... 178
Perfect Verb Tense for Past or Future Events........................................................... 180
Practice with the Perfect Tense for Present, Past, or Future Events........................ 183
UNIT 11 GUSTAR AND VERBS LIKE GUSTAR, SE FOR UNPLANNED EVENTS, THE PASSIVE VOICE,
AND REFLEXIVE ACTIONS
Unit Eleven Table of Contents...................................................................................185
Gustar and Verbs like Gustar................................................................................... 186
Practice with Gustar and Verbs like Gustar.............................................................. 188
Se to Indicate an Accident or Unplanned Event........................................................ 189
Practice with Se to Indicate an Accident or Unplanned Event.................................. 190
Active Voice and Passive Voice................................................................................. 191
Practice with Active Voice and Passive Voice........................................................... 193
Reflexive Actions....................................................................................................... 195
Commonly Used Reflexive Verbs.............................................................................. 198
Reflexive Verbs Requiring Prepositions.................................................................... 199
Practice with Reflexive Verbs.................................................................................... 201
vi
Table of Contents
UNIT 12 COMMANDS
Unit Twelve Table of Contents.................................................................................. 203
Informal Commands................................................................................................. 204
Practice with Informal Commands............................................................................ 206
Formal Commands.................................................................................................... 207
Practice with Formal Commands…………….....................................……..…..…...…....... 209
Nosotros Commands……………………………..................................………….……….…...…… 210
Practice with Nosotros Commands........................................................................... 212
Vosotros Commands................................................................................................. 213
Practice with Vosotros Commands........................................................................... 215
UNIT 13 INTERROGATORY AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Unit Thirteen Table of Contents................................................................................216
Interrogatory Pronouns............................................................................................ 217
Practice with Interrogatory Pronouns……………................................………………...…… 220
Exclamations………………………………................................................……….…..……..……. 222
Interrogatory Adjectives…………….....................................................……………...……… 223
Relative Pronouns………………………………….............................................…………...……. 224
Special Relative Adjectives........................................................................................ 227
Practice with Interrogatories and Relatives............................................................. 230
UNIT 14 WORDS WITH SIMILAR MEANINGS
Unit Fourteen Table of Contents.............................................................................. 234
Saber or Conocer - To Know…................................................................................... 235
Practice with Saber or Conocer………………………………………………………..……………....... 237
Pedir or Preguntar - To Ask………….………………………………………………..……….………...... 238
Sino, Pero, or Sino Que - Conjunctions Meaning “But”………………………..…….....…..... 239
Practice with Sino, Pero, or Sino que……………………………..................….…………......... 240
Por or Para - Prepositions Meaning “For”................................................................ 242
Por in Idiomatic Expressions..................................................................................... 246
Practice with Por or Para………………...................................................………….….….... 247
Por qué, Para qué, Porque, and El Porqué…………................…………………….…........... 249
Practice with Por qué, Para qué, Porque, and El Porqué…….......................….....…... 251
UNIT 15 MISCELLANEOUS
Unit Fifteen Table of Contents.................................................................................. 253
Negation and Affirmation......................................................................................... 254
Practice with Affirmations and Negations................................................................ 258
When to Capitalize.................................................................................................... 260
When Not to Capitalize............................................................................................. 263
vii
Table of Contents
Practice Using Capital Letters and Abbreviations..................................................... 265
How to Express the Weather.................................................................................... 268
Practice Expressing the Weather.............................................................................. 270
Dates......................................................................................................................... 272
Time.......................................................................................................................... 274
Length of Time with Desde or Hacer........................................................................ 275
Practice with Dates and Time................................................................................... 276
Numbers................................................................................................................... 278
Counting.................................................................................................................... 282
Ordinal Numbers....................................................................................................... 283
Practice with Numbers and Counting....................................................................... 284
Asking Questions...................................................................................................... 286
Titles and Family Names........................................................................................... 289
Spanish Surnames..................................................................................................... 291
Common Male Spanish Names................................................................................. 292
Common Female Spanish Names............................................................................. 293
Spanish Prefixes....................................................................................................... 294
Spanish Suffixes........................................................................................................ 295
UNIT 16 PAST-INDICATIVE VERBS TENSES
Unit Sixteen Table of Contents................................................................................. 296
Phrases Associated with the Pretérito and Imperfecto............................................ 297
Pretérito or Imperfecto............................................................................................. 299
Pretérito and imperfecto in the Same Sentence....................................................... 301
Changes in Meaning When in the Pretérito or Imperfecto...................................… 303
Practice with Words with Slight Changes in Meaning
When Used in the Pretérito or Imperfecto............................................................... 305
Estar or Ser with the Pretérito or Imperfecto........................................................... 307
UNIT 17 OVERVIEW OF SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES
Unit Seventeen Table of Contents............................................................................ 309
Overview of Subjunctive Clauses.............................................................................. 310
Subjunctive Conjugation........................................................................................... 314
UNIT 18 NOUN CLAUSES
Unit Eighteen Table of Contents............................................................................... 316
Subjunctive Verb Tense with Noun Clauses............................................................. 317
Practice with Noun Clauses...................................................................................... 320
Noun Clauses for Actions Which Have Already Taken Place.................................... 322
Practice with Noun Clauses in the Present and Past Tenses..................................... 324
viii
Table of Contents
Conditional or Future Verb Tense in Noun-Clause Sentences.................................. 326
Practice with the Conditional or Future Verb Tense in Noun Clauses...................... 327
Advice with Noun Clause-Sentences......................................................................... 328
Practice with Advice in Noun-Clause Sentences....................................................... 330
UNIT 19 ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Unit Nineteen Table of Contents.............................................................................. 332
Adjective Clauses...................................................................................................... 333
Practice with Adjective Clauses................................................................................ 335
Relative Pronouns Connecting Adjective Clauses..................................................... 337
Practice with Relative Pronouns Connecting Adjective Clauses............................... 339
Practice with Según, Independientemente, and Depender de/en............................. 341
Unspecified Relatives............................................................................................... 342
Practice with Unspecified Relatives......................................................................... 344
UNIT 20 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Unit Twenty Table of Contents................................................................................. 346
Adverbial Time Clauses............................................................................................. 347
Practice with Adverbial Time Clauses....................................................................... 350
Practice with Adverbial Time Clauses and the Past Tense....................................... 352
Adverbial Clauses of Condition................................................................................. 354
Practice with Adverbial Clauses of Condition........................................................... 357
Practice with Adverbial Clauses of Condition and the Past Tense........................... 359
Adverbial Clauses of Mode....................................................................................... 360
Practice with Adverbial Clauses of Mode................................................................. 362
Adverbial Clauses of Cause (Reasons Why).............................................................. 364
Practice with Adverbial Clauses of Cause (Reasons Why).........................................366
Adverbial Clauses of Finality..................................................................................... 368
Practice with Adverbial Clauses of Finality............................................................... 370
Subordinate Conjunctions “So That” (de manera) and “Like” (de modo)................ 372
Practice with De Modo, De Manera, Del Modo, and De La Manera......................... 374
Concessions of Unknown Quantity and Unknown Intensity..................................... 375
Practice with Por + Adjective/Advert + Que............................................................. 377
List of Subordinate Conjunctions.............................................................................. 378
UNIT 21 IRREGULAR ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
Unit Twenty-one Table of Contents......................................................................... 379
Conditional “If” Clauses for the Real, Unreal, or Impossible.................................... 380
Practice with Conditional “If” Clauses...................................................................... 383
“As If” Clauses for Comparison................................................................................. 386
Practice with “As If” Clauses for Comparisons.......................................................... 387
ix
Table of Contents
Aunque, a Subordinate Conjunction of Concession.................................................. 389
Practice with Aunque (“Even Though” or “Even If”)................................................. 391
UNIT 22 SPECIAL SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES
Unit Twenty-two Table of Contents.......................................................................... 393
Adverbial Clauses of Concession for Degrees of Possibility..................................... 394
Practice with Degrees of Possibilities....................................................................... 396
Repeated Speech...................................................................................................... 398
Future Verb Tense.................................................................................................... 400
Conditional Verb Tense............................................................................................ 402
Reduplicative Forms with Lo Que............................................................................. 405
Polite Requests with Want, Should, and Could........................................................ 406
UNIT 23 VERB CONJUGATION RULES
Unit Twenty-three Table of Contents....................................................................... 407
Why Learning Conjugation is Important.................................................................. 408
Regular -AR, -ER, and -IR Verbs................................................................................ 409
Stem-Changing -ER and -AR Verbs............................................................................ 410
Stem-Changing -IR Verbs.......................................................................................... 412
Spelling Changes to Match Phonetic Rules.............................................................. 415
I → Y Spell Changing ................................................................................................. 419
Past-Indicative Verbs................................................................................................ 420
Special Irregular Conjugations.................................................................................. 423
INDEX……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 424
x
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to the professors who taught me Spanish, especially Marcela Valencia, Pedro
Escamilla, and Jeana Paul-Ureña of Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogdoches, Texas.
Thanks to Judith Patch for reviewing and editing the English text. Wilber Arías, a graduate
student at SFASU, edited the Spanish text and made substantial contributions to the practice
sentences. Thanks also to Kathryn Marcellino for the cover design.
A special thanks to my wife, Karen, for her ongoing support.
xi
PREFACE
This unique language guide covers Spanish phonetics, verb conjugation, and grammar rules in
detail, and provides a go-to resource for aspiring linguists. Many of the rules the reader will
already know, and many will be easily recognizable because they are the same in English as
they are in Spanish. The book builds on this foundation of similarities to more readily explain
the rules that differ between the two languages.
The chapters are organized independently so that everything a student needs to know about
each subject can be found in the stand-alone sections.
New students:
 New students need only study unit one (Phonetics) completely, plus the first chapter of
each additional unit.
 The first chapter of each unit contains the fundamental information the beginning
student will need to know on that subject before going to the first chapter of the next
unit.
 The units are sequential, with a smooth flow from the most basic subject matter to
more complicated material.
Intermediate students:
 Intermediate students will build on the basics by studying each unit in its entirety.
 Each unit starts with a chapter covering the material necessary for a strong foundation
and builds on that knowledge in each of the following chapters within the unit.
Advanced students:
 The index and organization of the book make a quick review of any subject readily
available, and any weakness can quickly be corrected by reviewing the chapters
covering that material.
 To strengthen their skills, advanced students can go straight to the practice exercises.
 Any weakness can quickly be corrected by reviewing the chapter covering that material.
It’s not necessary to learn every single rule or exception, but they are included so that if the
student comes across something unusual in his or her studies, the guide offers an easy-to-find
explanation.
Trust in the format and you will be surprised how quickly and easily you will increase your
command of the language with Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide to show the way. ¡Adelante!
xii
1
PHONETICS
UNIT 1 PHONETICS
Unit One Table of Contents.......................................................................................... 1
Introduction to Phonetics............................................................................................. 2
Cognates....................................................................................................................... 3
Vowel Sounds............................................................................................................... 4
Sound of the Consonants............................................................................................. 6
Syllables....................................................................................................................... 9
Phonetic Terminology................................................................................................ 11
Accent Marks............................................................................................................. 13
Accent Marks to Distinguish...................................................................................... 16
Diptongos.................................................................................................................. 19
Hiatos…………............................................................................................................. 21
Sinéresis and Sinalefa............................................................................................... 22
Symbol Shortcuts…................................................................................................... 23
Pronunciation Summary…......................................................................................... 24
Explorer and navigator, Cristóbal Colón, made four trips from Spain to the New World, opening
the route for other explorers. Prior to his historical trips the world was isolated into two
separate hemispheres.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 2
INTRODUCTION TO PHONETICS
INTRODUCCIÓN A LOS FONÉTICOS
Why understanding phonetics is so important:
 The cornerstones of any language are vocabulary, grammar, and phonetics.
 Understanding Spanish phonetics will allow the listener to understand what is being said
even if he or she knows very little Spanish. Because both English and Spanish share Latin
roots, many Spanish words have similar or identical English counterparts. Even if you
know very little Spanish, you will be able to recognize some words in a conversation, if
you know Spanish phonetics.
 Understanding phonetics is the key to correct spelling.
 Understanding phonetics is fundamental in order to be understood when speaking.
Correct pronunciation of the sounds, with the correct pauses, will allow the words and
sentences to flow in a smooth, articulate manner.
English and Spanish phonetics:
English language phonetics is based on the rhythm of words. In English, it’s common to
pronounce the stressed syllable with clear vowel sounds and reduce the vowel sound in the
unstressed syllables that have the schwa sound or “uh” sound. The schwa sound helps create
the rhythm of the language. Remove the schwa when speaking Spanish.
Spanish language phonetics is based on the rhythm of the syllables. Spanish divides words into
syllables differently than does English. Clear pronunciation of the syllables and vowels creates
the rhythm of the language. Don’t cut off the vowel sounds; keep them clear and full.
The keys to speaking Spanish for English speakers:
 Maintain the rhythm of the syllables.
 Identify and accentuate the stressed syllable.
 Pronounce the vowels clearly.
In this unit, the phonetic examples will be in square brackets [ ] (los corchetes) with the word
divided into syllables, and the stress syllable will be identified with upper case letters. Usually,
English speakers will need to open the mouth more when pronouncing the stressed syllable
than when pronouncing the unstressed syllable.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 3
COGNATES
DOBLETES
Examples of English and Spanish Cognates:
 Notice how the words are divided into syllables.
 Notice on which syllable the stress falls.
 Try opening the mouth more when pronouncing the stressed syllable.
 Don’t cut off the vowel sounds; keep them clear and full.
English
Spanish
Phonetic Example
color
color
[ko-LŎR]
family
familia
[fa-MI-lĭa]
electric
eléctrico
[e-LEK-tri-ko]
remedy
remedio
[re-ME-dĭo]
limit
limite
[li-MI-te]
condition
condición
[kon-di-SĬON]
animal
animal
[a-ni-MAL]
finally
finalmente
[fi-nal-MĔN-te]
mechanic
mecánico
[me-KA-ni-ko]
optimist
optimismo
[op-ti-MĬS-mo]
decisive
decisivo
[de-si-SI-βo]
brutal
brutal
[bru-TAL]
criminal
criminal
[kri-mi-NAL]
fantastic
fantástico
[fan-TAS-ti-ko]
impossible
imposible
[ĭm-po-SIB-le]
terrible
terrible
[tĕr-RIB-le]
ordinary
ordinario
[ŏr-di-NA-rĭo]
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 4
VOWEL SOUNDS
SONIDOS DE LOS VOCALES
Spanish vowel sounds:
A
The vowel A is pronounced AH as in “father,” but with the mouth more open and
rounded than in English. Examples: madre [MA-dre], boca [BO-ka], música [MU-si-ka].
E
The vowel E is pronounced like a hard A as in the word “ape” or “away.”
Examples: nena [NE-na], leche [LE-che], débil [DE-βil], bebé [be-βE].
I
The vowel I is pronounced EE as in the word “me” or “be.” Examples: tía [TI-a],
preciso [pre-SI-so], sí [si], límite [LI-mi-te].
Y
Y can sometimes be a vowel. Examples: muy [mŭi], hay [aĭ] (This is explained in more
detail in the section on diptongos on page 20).
O
The vowel O is pronounced O as in the word “mow” or “doe” with the mouth open and
rounded. Examples: robo [RO-bo], poco [PO-ko], modelo [mo-ðE-lo].
U
The vowel U is pronounced OO as in the word “two” or “moo” with the mouth open and
rounded. Examples: uno [U-no], mundo [MUN-do], rústico [RUS-ti-ko].
Strong consonant sounds which overshadow vowel sounds:
 It’s physically difficult to make certain combinations of vowel sounds followed by certain
consonant sounds in one syllable because the mouth and tongue cannot move smoothly
from one position to another within one syllable. The consonant sound overshadows
the vowel sound because the consonant sound takes precedence in establishing the
meaning of the word.
AR in the same syllable:
 When A precedes an R within the same syllable, the AR sounds like the word “are.”
Examples: tarde [TĂR-de], hablar [ab-LĂR], farmacia [făr-MA-sĭa].
ER in the same syllable:
 When E precedes an R within the same syllable, the ER sounds like the word “air.”
Examples: perfume [pĕr-FU-me], comer [ko-MĔR], cero [SĔR-o], mecer [ME-sĕr].
IR in the same syllable:
 When I precedes an R within the same syllable, the IR sounds like the word “ear.”
Examples: vivir [vi-βĬR], irrigación [ĭr-ri-ga-SĬON], escribir [ĕs-kri-BĬR].
OR in the same syllable:
 When O precedes an R within the same syllable, the OR sounds like the word “or.”
Examples: orden [ŎR-dĕn], cortar [kŏr-TĂR], dormir [dŏr- MĬR].
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 5
UR in the same syllable:
 When U precedes an R within the same syllable, the UR sounds like “ur” in the word
“urban.” Examples: turno [TŬR-no], surdo [SŬR-do], murciélago [mŭr-SĬE-la-go].
R in the following syllable:
 When a vowel precedes an R which is not in the same syllable, the R does not affect the
sound of the vowel. Examples: pirata [pi-RA-ta], sarape [sa-RA-pe], mérito [ME-ri-to],
perico [pe-RI-ko].
The strong consonant sound of the N and M affecting the I or E sound:
 When I or E precedes an N or M within the same syllable, the vowel sound is almost
silent. Examples: incomodo [ĭn-ko-MO-do], importante [ĭm-pŏr-TĂN-te], entrar [ĕnTRĂR], silencio [si-LĔN-sĭo].
 When I or E precedes an N or M which is not in the same syllable, the N or M does not
affect the vowel sound. Examples: delicioso [de-li-SĬO-so], filosofía [fi-lo-so-FI-a],
democracia [de-mo-KRA-sĭa], menos [ME-nos].
The strong consonant sound of the S and Z:
 When E precedes an S or Z within the same syllable, the E sound is almost silent.
Examples: estilo [ĕs-TI-lo], especial [ĕs-pe-SĬAL], espacio [ĕs-PA-sĭo]. Martínez [măr-TInĕs].
 When I precedes an S or Z within the same syllable, it creates a sound like the English
word “is.” Examples: distancia [dĭs-TĂN-sia], izquierdo [ĭs-KĔR-do], pistola [pĭs-TO-la].
 When I or E precedes an S or Z which is not in the same syllable, the S or Z does not
affect the vowel sound. Examples: mesa [ME-sa], prisa [PRI-sa], beso [BE-so], rojizo [roHE-so], agonizar [a-go-NI-săr].
The strong consonant sound of the L:
 When E precedes an L within the same syllable, the E is almost silent. Examples: el [ĕl],
celda [SĔL-da], delfín [dĕl-FĬN], selva [SĔL-va].
 When E precedes an L which is not in the same syllable, the L does not affect the vowel
sound. Examples: delicioso [de-li-SĬO-so], duele [DŬE-le], pelota [pe-LO-ta], teléfono [teLE-fo-no].
Avoid the shwa:
 In English, it’s common to strongly pronounce the stressed syllable with clear vowel
sounds and reduce the unstressed syllables that have the schwa or “uh” sound.
 The phonetic symbol for the schwa is “æ.”
 The schwa sound can replace any vowel sound.
 The schwa can be found in many words. Examples: what, tough, alone, sofa, circus,
muffin, system, and done.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 6
THE SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS
EL SONIDO DE LOS CONSONANTES
Spanish consonant sounds which are different fromEnglish consonant sounds:
B
B = B sound /B/. When a B starts a word or follows a consonant, the sound is the same as
B in English. Examples: Beto [BE-to], imbécil [ĭm-BE-sĭl], pobre [PO-bre].
B between vowels = β sound /β/. When a B or V is between vowels, the B or V sounds as
if you are pronouncing a B and V at the same time. The symbol for this sound is ß.
Examples: débil [DE-βĭl], labios [LA-ßĭos], nube [NU-βe].
C
C < E or I = S sound /S/. When a C is in front of the vowels E or I, the sound is the same as
S in English. Examples: cena [SE-na], cine [SI-ne], porcentaje [pŏr-sĕn-TA-he], centro [sĕntro].
C < A, O, U = K sound /K/. When a C is in front of the vowels A, O, or U, the sound is the
same as K in English. Examples: factor [fak-TŎR], coco [KO-ko], cuco [KU-ko], microscopio
[mi-kro-SKO-pĭo].
D
D = D sound /D/. When a D starts the word or is beside a consonant, the sound is the
same as D in English. Examples: donde [DON-de], indefinido [ĭn-de-fi-NI-do], duque [DUke], verdad [vĕr-DAD].
D between vowels = ð sound /ð/. When a D is between vowels, the sound is more like
combining the D sound and the “th” sound. The symbol for this sound is [ð]. Examples:
nada [NA-ða], todo [TO-ðo], sábado [SA-βa-ðo], modelo [mo-ðE-lo].
Note: in some dialects the ð sound is completely eliminated in words ending in
-ado. Examples: hablado → [a-BLA-o], ganado → [ga-NA-o], lado→ [LA-o].
G
G < A, O = G sound /G/. When a G is in front of the vowels A or O, the sound is the same
as G in English. Examples: goma [GO-ma], gota [Go-ta], gato [GA-to], pongo [PON-go].
G < E, I = H sound /H/. When a G is in front of the vowels E or I, the sound is the same as
H in English. Examples: gitano [hi-TAN-o], gemelo, [he-ME-lo], gente [HĔN-te].
GU < A = GW sound /GW/. When GU is in front of an A, the ‘gwa” sound is created. The g
+ ŭa↑ (diptongo creciente) creates the “gwa” sound. Examples: jaguar [ha-GŬĂR], yegua
[YE-gŭa], guacamole [gŭa-ka-MO-le]
GU < E, I = G sound /G/. When GU is in front of the vowels E or I, the sound is the same as
G in English. Example: guitarra [gi-TĂR-ra], seguí [se-GI], guisado [gi-SA-do], sigue [SI-ge],
merengue [me-RĔN-ge].
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Phonetics 7
GÜ < E, I = the GW sound /GW/. When a G is followed by Ü with the dieresis (la diéresis)
over the U, the “gwa” sound is created. GÜ is always followed by an E or I. GÜ = g + ŭe↑
or g + ŭi↑ (diptongo creciente). This creates the gwa sound. Examples: güero [GŬE-ro],
lingüística [lin GŬIS-ti-ka], pingüino [pĭn-GŬI- no], güevón [gŭe-ßON], vergüenza [vĕrGŬĔN-sa].
H
H is silent, except when followed by a U + vowel combination. Examples: hijo [I-ho],
hermano [er-MA-no], hilo [I-lo].
HU + vowel = the W sound /W/. When an H is followed by a U + vowel combination, the
W sound is created. Examples: hueco [WE-ko], huevo [WE-ßo], Chihuahua [chi-WA-wa].
HU + consonant = silent H sound. When HU is followed by a consonant the H is silent.
Examples: humor [u-MŎR], humo [U-mo], huracán [ŭr-ra-KAN].
J
J = the H sound /H/. The J sound is the same as the English H, except when followed by a
U + vowel combination. Examples: Jiménez [hi-ME-nĕs], mujer [mu-HĔR], Jaime [HAĬ-me],
jefe [HE-fe], jalapeño [ha-la PE-ño].
JU + vowel = W sound /W/. When a J is followed by a U + vowel combination, the W
sound is created. Examples: Juan [wan], Juárez [WA-rĕs], jueves [WE-βĕs].
JU + consonant = H sound /H/. When JU is followed by a consonant, the H sound is
created. Examples: juntos [HUN-tos], jugo [HU-go].
K
K = K sound /K/. K is not normally used in Spanish, except when it’s founds in
words from other languages. Examples: kilometro [ki-lo-ME-tro], Kukulcán [ku-kul-KAN].
LL
LL = J sound /J/. In most dialects LL is the same sound as J in the English word Joe, but in
Mexico the LL sound /Y/ is the same as the Y sound in the English word yoyo. Choose
between the J or Y sound for LL and stay with it. Examples: llamar [ja-MĂR] or [ya-MĂR],
lleno [JE-no] or [YE-no], lluvia [JU-βĭa] or [YU-βĭa], millón [mi-JON] or [mi-YON].
Ñ
Ñ = Ñ sound /Ñ/. The Ñ sound is the same as the N sound in onion. Examples: niño [NIño], piña [PI-ña], pestaña [pĕs-TA-ña], señal [SE-ñăl], señor [SE-ñŏr].
Q
QU = K sound /K/. Q is always followed by a U. The QU combination creates the K sound.
QU is only used before the vowels I or E. Examples: duque [DU-ke], quien [kĭen], que [ke],
paquistaní [pa-kĭs-ta-NI].
R
R = R sound /R/. The Spanish R is pronounced with more vibration than the English R..
Examples: rato [RA-to], recibo [re-SI-βo], robo [RO-bo], rubia [RU-βĭa].
RR = RR sound /RR/. The Spanish double R is pronounced with more vibration than the
English double R. Examples: carro [KĂR-ro], perro [PĔR-ro], derroto [dĕr-RO-to].
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Phonetics 8
S
S = S sound /S/. The Spanish S sounds the same as the English S. Examples: sangre [SANgre], selva [SĔL-va], sin [sĭn].
V
V = V sound /V/. When a V starts a word or follows a consonant, it’s pronounced like the
English V. Examples: voz [voz], olvidar [ol-VI-ðăr], vamos [VA-mos], volar [vo-LĂR], vino
[VI-no].
V between vowels = β sound /β/. When a V or B is between vowels, the sound is as if you
are pronouncing a B and V at the same time. The symbol for this sound is ß. Examples:
cueva [KŬE-ßa], favorito [fa-βo-RI-to], pavo [PA-βo].
X
X = KS sound /KS/. X is normally pronounced with the same KS sound as the English word
exit. Examples: éxito [EK-si-to], máximo [MAK-si-mo], externo [eks-TĔR-no].
X = H sound /H/. X may make the H sound, but it is very rare. It almost always makes the
KS sound. Examples: México [ME-hi-co], Xavier [HA-βĭer].
Y
Y = J sound /J/. In most dialects Y is the same sound as J in the English word Joe, but in
Mexico the Y sound /Y/ is the same as the Y sound in the English word yoyo. Choose
either the Y or J sound for the letter Y and stay with it. Examples: payaso [pa- JA-so] or
[pa-YA-so], yerno [JĔR-no] or [YĔR-no].
Z
Z = S sound /S/. The Z sound is the same sound as S sound. Examples: zorro [SŎR-ro],
zapato [sa-PA-to], noviazgo [no-βĬAS-go], durazno [du-RAS-no]. As a rule ZE and ZI are
not used together; C is used before E or I.
Pronunciation variations:
 In Latin American and parts of Spain, seseo is the common pronunciation of the
consonants S, Z, and C before I or E with the S sound /s/, and is the method taught in this
book.
 The Spanish spoken in central and northern Spain is considered true Castellan Spanish.
Castellan Spanish distinguishes between the sound of the consonant S from the sounds
of the consonants Z and C before I or E. In Castellan Spanish, the letters Z and C before I
or E are pronounced with the “th” sound /θ/.
 Ceceo differs from seseo in that the pronunciation of the letters S, Z, and C before I or E
are all made with the “th”sound.
Ejemplos
sensaciones
zapatas
delicioso

Seseo
[sĕn-sa-SĬO-nĕs]
[sa-PA-tas]
[de-li-SĬO-so]
Castellano
[sĕn-sa-ѲĬO-nĕs]
[Ѳa-PA-tas]
[de-li-ѲĬO-so]
Ceceo
[Ѳĕn-Ѳa-ĬO-nĕѲ]
[Ѳa-PA-taѲ]
[de-li-ѲĬO-Ѳo]
Yeísmo is the pronunciation of LL and Y with the J sound /j/. This is the common
pronunciation of these letters in many dialects and is the method taught in this book.
Yeísmo is not the formal or traditional pronunciation of these letters, but it’s widely
used and accepted. Exampes: lleno [JE-no], yo [jo], lluvia [JU-βĭa], payaso [pa- JA-so].
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Phonetics 9
THE SYLLABLES
LAS SÍLABAS
Syllables:
 A syllable must contain at least one vowel.
Open and closed syllables:
 Open syllables (sílabas abiertas) are the most common syllables and always end in a
vowel.
 Closed syllables (sílabas cerradas) are syllables which end in a consonant.
Consonant and vowel plus consonant and vowel pattern:
 The most common syllable patterns is the consonant + vowel pattern (CV + CV):
nada
[NA-ða]
modelo [mo-ðE-lo]
codo [KO-ðo]
nace [NA-se]
gato [GA-to]
pone [PO-ne]
Vowel plus consonant and vowel syllable pattern (V + CV):
ala
[A-la]
util [U-til]
ave [A-ße]
ébano [E-ßa-no]
ido [I-do]
hace [A-se]
hola
uno [U-no]
otoño [o-TO-ño]
[O-la]
Two consonants together (CC or C + C):
 If two consonants can start a word, the consonants are not divided.
 The rule for when two consonants can start a word is the same in Spanish as in English,
with three exceptions:
o
LL can start a word in Spanish. Ejemplos: llama [JA-ma] o [YA-ma], llave [JA-βe]
o [YA-βe], llover [jo-BĔR] o [yo-BĔR].
o
ST cannot start a word in Spanish. ST is replaced by the EST. Examples: statue =
estatua [ěs-TA-tŭa], station = estación [ěs-ta-SĬON].
o
PH is not used in Spanish. PH is replaced by F. Examples: phamacy = farmacia
[făr-MA-sia], phonetic = fonética [fo-NE-ti-ka].
Examples of words with two consonants together which are not divided because these two
consonants can start a word:
negro [NE-gro]
madre [MA-dre]
llamar [lla-MĂR]
lavaplatos [la-va-PLA-tos]
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Phonetics 10
Examples of words with two consonants together which are divided because these two
consonants cannot start a word:
encima [ĕn-SI-ma]
fantástico [fan-TAS-ti-ko]
índigo [ĬN-di-go]
ninguno [nĭn-GU-no]
Words with three consonants together (C + CC):
 Normally three consonants placed together are divided between the first and
second consonant(C+CC).

implementar [ĭm-ple-mĕn-TĂR]
increíble [ĭn-kre-I-ble]
amplio
infracción [ĭn-frak-SĬON]
[AM-plĭo]
Cs+C is the exception. In this case, the syllable is divided after the consonant and S.
constancia [kons-TAN-sĭa]
solsticio
[sols-TI-sĭo]
abstracto [abs-TRAK-to]
perspectivo [pĕrs-pek-ti-βo]
Words with four consonants together (CC + CC):
 Four consonants placed together are divided into groups of two.
inscribir [ĭns-kri-BĬR]
instructor [ĭns-truk-TŎR]
construir [kons-TRŬIR]
adscribir [ads-kri-BĬR]
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Phonetics 11
PHONETIC TERMINOLOGY
TERMINOLOGÍA FONÉTICA
Tónica o átona:
 Sílaba tónica is the stressed syllable in a word.
 Sílaba átona is an unstressed syllable in a word.
 Usually English speakers will need to open the mouth more when pronouncing the
sílaba tónica than they would when pronouncing the sílaba átona.
Aguda:
 When a word ends in a consonant other than N or S, the natural stress is on the last
syllable. This is called an aguda or acento aguda.
David [da-βID]

Isabel [i-sa-βĔL]
Hablar [a-BLAR]
When there is an exception to this rule, an accent mark is placed over the vowel in the
stressed syllable. Ejemplos de excepciones: César, móvil, difícil, y Martínez.
Llana:
 When a word ends in a vowel, or the consonants N or S, the natural stress falls on the
next-to-last syllable (penúltima sílaba). This is called a llana or acento grave.
Ana [A-na]

Carlos [KĂR-los]
Roberto [ro-BĔR-to]
When there is an exception to this rule, an accent mark is placed over the vowel in the
stressed syllable. Ejemplos de excepciones: Belén, Germán, hablé, y colibrí.
Tilde:
 A tilde is a written accent mark.
 When there is an exception to the normal pronunciation rules, tildes are used to move
the acento de intensidad.
José:
o José ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable.
o Without a tilde the word would be pronounced × [HO-se], which is incorrect.
o The correct pronunciation is √ [ho-SE], so an accent mark is required to change
the pronunciation.

Tildes are also used to indicate an acento diacrítico. An acento diacrítico uses a tilde to
distinguish between two words which are spelled the same but have different
meanings. Examples are the words si (if), and sí (yes).

Tildes are used with interrogatory pronouns. A tilde is placed over the open vowel (A, E,
O) of interrogatory pronouns in order to distinguish interrogatory pronouns from
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Phonetics 12
relative pronouns. Ejemplos de pronombres interrogativos: ¿qué?, ¿quién?, ¿cómo?,
¿cuál?, ¿cuándo?, ¿cuánto?, ¿cuán?, ¿dónde?, y ¿adónde?
Esdrújulas:
 When the stressed syllable is the second-from-last syllable (antepenúltima sílaba), it is
called an esdrújula.
 Esdrújulas always need a tilde over the vowel in the stressed syllable.
tráfico [TRA-fi-ko]
análisis [a-NA-li-sĭs]
sábado [SA-βa-ðo]
Sobreesdrújula:
 When the stressed syllable precedes the antepenúltima sílaba, it is called a
sobreesdrújula.
 Sobreesdrújulas are formed when an indirect-object pronoun and direct-object
pronouns are attached to a verb.
 A tilde is needed to maintain the correct pronunciation of the word. The tilde is placed
over the open vowel (A, E, O) in the stressed syllable.
muestra [MŬES-tra] → muéstramelo [MŬES-tra-me-lo]
explicar [eks-pli-KĂR] → explícamelo [eks-PLI-ka-me-lo]
decir
[de-SĬR]
→ digámoselo [di-GA-mo-se-lo]
Diptongos and triptongos:
 In Spanish, the majority of the time that two vowels are placed together in the syllable,
they are pronounced as one sound. This is called a diptongo.
 When three vowels are placed together and pronounced as one sound, it is called a
triptongo.
Hiatos acentúales:
 When a tilde is placed over the closed vowel (I or U) in a diptongo, the diptongo is
divided into two syllables and the stress is placed on the syllable with the accented
vowel.
Diptongo
Hiato Acentual
paisano [paĭ-SA-no]
país [pa-ÍS]
aunque [AŬN-ke]
aún [a-UN]
ley
leí [le-Í]
[leĭ]
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Phonetics 13
ACCENT MARKS
TILDES
Exceptions to the pronunciation rule for agudas require an accent mark:
 Aguda rule: words which end in a consonant other than N or S are agudas with the
natural stress on the last syllable of the word.
 When there is an exception to this rule, an accent mark is placed over the vowel in the
stressed syllable.
Spanish surnames ending in -ez are exceptions to the aguda rule:
 Spanish surnames ending in the suffix -ez mean “son of.”
 An accent mark is needed in order to keep the pronunciation of the son’s name the
same as the father’s name.
 An example is Fernández son of Fernando:
o Fernando ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. Fernando [fĕr-NAN-do].
o Fernandez, son of Fernando, ends in a consonant other than N or S, so it is an aguda
with the natural stress on the last syllable. × Fernandez [fĕr-nan-DĔS].
o Without an accent mark to move the stress, the pronunciation of the names would
be different. × Fernandez [fĕr-nan-DĔS] ≠ Fernando [fĕr-NAN-do].
o With the accent mark, the stress is placed on the next-to-last syllable so that both
words are pronounced the same. √ Fernández [fĕr-NÁN-dĕs] = Fernando [fĕr-NANdo].
Words ending in -ion are exceptions to the aguda rule:
 Words ending in -ion end in -n, so they are llanas with the natural stress falling on the
next-to-last syllable. Following the rule for llanas, word ending in -ion such as misión
would be incorrectly pronounced. × mision [MI-sion].
 Place an accent mark over the open vowel (A, E, O) in the last syllable of all words
ending in -ión so that the stress is placed on the last syllable.
√ misión [mi-SĬON] √ tensión [ten-SĬON]
√ emoción [e-mo-SĬON]
Plural form of words ending in –ión do not need an accent mark:
 Estaciones [ĕs-ta-SĬON-ĕs] is the plural form of estación [ĕs-ta-SĬON].
 Estaciones is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
 Estaciones [ĕs-ta-SĬON-ĕs] is pronounced the same as estación [ĕs-ta-SĬON]
 Because the basic rule for llanas is followed, the accent mark is not needed.
Exceptions to the pronunciation rule for llanas require an accent mark:
 Llana rule: words which end in a vowel, or the consonants N or S, are llanas with the
natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
 Exceptions: when there is an exception to this rule an accent mark is placed over the
vowel in the stressed syllable.
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Phonetics 14
Verónica, an exception to the basic rule for llanas:
 Veronica [ve-RO-ni-ka] is pronounced the same in English and Spanish.
 Because Veronica ends in a vowel, it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. According to the basic rule for llanas, the word would be pronounced × [Ve-roNI-ka], which is incorrect.
 The correct pronunciation is Verónica √ [Ve- RO- ni-ka], so an accent mark is required to
put the stress on the correct syllable.
Attaching object pronouns to an infinitive verb form:
Infinitive verbs forms always end in -r, so they are agudas with the natural stress on the last
syllable of the word.
hablar (to speak) [a-BLĂR]
comer (to eat) [ko-MĔR]
vivir (to live) [vi-βĬR]
Comprarlo (to buy it), an example of attaching an object pronoun to an infinitive verb form:
 Compar [kom-PRĂR] ends in -r, so it is an aguda with the natural stress on the last
syllable of the word.
 Comprar → comprarlo [kom-PRĂR-lo]. When the direct-object pronoun is attached,
comprarlo ends in a vowel so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. Because the stressed syllable has not changed, an accent mark is not needed.
 Comprar → comprárselo [kom-PRĂR-se-lo]. When two pronouns are attached to the
infinitive, an accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the
pronunciation.
Attaching object pronouns to present participles:
 Present participles always end in an -o. Words that end in a vowel are llanas with the
natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
hablando [a-BLAN-do]
comiendo [ko-MĬEN-do]
permitiendo [pĕr-mi-TĬEN-do]
Viviéndolo (living), an example of attaching an object pronoun to a present participle:
 The present participle of vivir is viviendo. Viviendo ends in an -o, so it is a llana with the
natural stress on the next-to-last syllable. Viviendo [vi-βĬEN-do].
 Viviéndolo is the present participle of vivir with a direct-object pronoun attached. This
word ends in an -o, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
× Viviendolo [vi-βĭen-DO-lo].
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, there is a difference in the pronunciation of
the words. × Viviendo [vi-βĬEN-do] ≠ viviendolo [vi-βĭen-DO-lo].
 With an accent mark, the attached pronoun does not change the pronunciation.
√ Viviendo [vi-βĬEN-do] = viviéndolo [vi-βĬEN-do-lo].
Attaching object pronouns to affirmative commands:
 Regularly conjugated commands end in a vowel or the letter -s. Words that end in a
vowel or the letter –s are llanas, with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
 Object pronouns are attached to the end of affirmative commands.
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Phonetics 15
Cómelo (eat it), an example of attaching object pronouns to an affirmative command:
 The affirmative informal command of comer is come. Come ends in a vowel, so it is a
llana with the normal stress on the next-to-last syllable. Come [KO-me].
 Cómelo is the affirmative informal command of comer with the direct-object pronoun
attached. Comelo ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-tolast syllable. Comelo [ko-ME-lo].
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, there is a difference in the pronunciation of
the words. × Comelo [ko-ME-lo] ≠ come [KO-me].
 With an accent mark, the stress is placed on the correct syllable so that the attached
pronoun does not change the pronunciation. √ Cómelo [KO-me-lo] = come [KO-me].
Distinguishing hiato acentuales from diptongos:
 When a diptongo is divided into two syllables, it is called a hiato acentual.
 Hiatos acentuales always require an accent mark over the closed vowel.
María, an example of a hiato acentual:
 María ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
Following the rule for llanas, this two-syllable name would be pronounced × [MĂ-rĭa].
 However, María has an accent mark over the i to place the stress on the weak vowel of
the diptongo. The accent mark divides the diptongo into two syllables. Now the word
has three syllables, with the stress correctly placed on the middle syllable √[ma-RI-a].
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Phonetics 16
ACCENT MARKS TO DISTINGUISH WORDS
ACENTOS DIACRÍTICOS Y ACENTOS ENFÁTICO
Acento diacrítico:
 An acento diacrítico is the use of an accent mark to distinguish two words which are
spelled the same, but have different meanings.
 The only difference in the two words is the written accent mark used with one of the
words.
 The acento diacrítico does not change the sound of the word.
 The exception to this rule is aun [aun] or aún [a-UN]. In this case, the accent mark
divides the diptongo into two syllables, aún [a-UN], so the pronunciation of the two
words is different.
 In English there are homographs (words which have the same spelling and sound, but
have different meanings). Examples of homographs: fair, which may mean impartial or
traveling entertainment show, and general, which may mean common or officer of rank.
 In English there are heterographs (words which sound the same, but are spelled
differently, and have different meanings). Examples of heterographs: sale or sail; to,
two, or too; and Jim or gym.
 When we hear homographs or heterographs in English or Spanish, we can distinguish
their meaning by how they are used.
Word
Definition
Example
Aún
“Still”/“todavia”
Aún está durmiendo.
Aun
“Even”/“incluso”
Aun si hace calor.
Dé
Verb form of “to give”/verbo dar
Espero que dé lo que necesitan.
De
Preposition “of”/preposición
Miré la novia de mi amigo.
Él
Pronoun “he”/pronombre personal
Él es mi amigo.
El
Article “the”/artículo
El hombre es guapo.
Más
Adverb “more”/adverbio de cantidad
Hacer es más que decir
Mas
Coordinating conjunction “but”/“pero”
Has gastado mucho dinero, mas no
todo.
Mí
Prepositional pronoun “me”/pronombre
preposicional
¿Es para mí?
Mi
Possesive adjective “my”/adjetivo posesivo
Éste es mi libro.
Sé
Verb form of “know” or “to be/verbo ser o
saber
Yo sé la respuesta.
Se
Reflexive pronoun/pronombre reflexivo
¿Cómo se llama?
Sí
Affirmative adverb “yes”/ afirmación
Sí, eso es verdad.
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Phonetics 17
Si
Subordinate conjunction “if”/condicional
Si sales ahora, llegarás a tiempo.
Sólo
“Only”/"solamente"
Sólo recuerdo el nombre.
Solo
“Alone”/“soledad”
Ahora estoy solo.
Té
“Tea”/planta o bebida
¿Tomemos una taza de té?
Te
Pronoun “you” / pronombre(informal)
Te doy un regalo.
Tú
Personal pronoun “you” / pronombre
personal y informal
Tú eres mi amiga.
Tu
Possessive adjective “your”/ adjetivo posesivo
y informal
Tu trabajo es bueno.
Acentos enfáticos with interrogatory pronouns:
 Acento enfáticos are used with interrogatory pronouns.
 An accent mark is placed over the strong vowel (A, E, O) when the words what (qué),
who (quién), how (cómo), which (cuál), when (cuándo), how much (cuánto), and where
(dónde) are used in a question or exclamatory statement.
 This is another form of the acento diacrítico because the accent mark does not change
the pronunciation.
 The accent mark is used to distinguish the different uses of the word.
Acentos enfáticos in questions or exclamations:
Who is responsible?
¿Quién es responsable?
What is your address?
¿Cuál es su dirección?
Excellent!
¡Qué bueno!
Acentos diacríticos with demonstrative pronouns:
 Demonstrative pronouns have an accent mark over the first E.
 Demonstrative adjectives do not have an accent mark.
 Remember that the demonstrative pronouns replace the noun while demonstrative
adjectives describe the noun.
This plate of chicken is mine.
Este plato de pollo es mío.
That building is my brothers.
Ese edificio es de mi hermano.
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Phonetics 18
I said this one is mine (masculine).
Dije que éste es mío.
This (feminine) is better than that (feminine).
Ésta es mejor que aquélla.
Note: La Real Academia Española has made the use of accent marks with demonstrative
pronouns optional, except when there may be confusion as to whether they are demonstrative
pronouns or demonstrative adjectives. Accent marks are used in this grammar guide even
though their use is optional.
Real Academia Española: 3.2.1. Demostrativos. Los demostrativos este, ese y aquel, con sus
femeninos y plurales, pueden ser pronombres (cuando ejercen funciones propias del
sustantivo): Eligió este; Ese ganará; Quiero dos de aquellas; o adjetivos (cuando modifican al
sustantivo): Esas actitudes nos preocupan; El jarrón este siempre está estorbando. Sea cual sea
la función que desempeñen, los demostrativos siempre son tónicos y pertenecen, por su forma,
al grupo de palabras que deben escribirse sin tilde según las reglas de acentuación: todos, salvo
aquel, son palabras llanas terminadas en vocal o en -s (→ 1.1.2) y aquel es aguda acabada en -l
(→ 1.1.1). Por lo tanto, solo cuando en una oración exista riesgo de ambigüedad porque el
demostrativo pueda interpretarse en una u otra de las funciones antes señaladas, el
demostrativo llevará obligatoriamente tilde en su uso pronominal. Así, en una oración como la
del ejemplo siguiente, únicamente la presencia o ausencia de la tilde en el demostrativo
permite interpretar correctamente el enunciado: ¿Por qué compraron aquéllos libros usados?
(aquéllos es el sujeto de la oración); ¿Por qué compraron aquellos libros usados? (el sujeto de
esta oración no está expreso, y aquellos acompaña al sustantivo libros). Las formas neutras de
los demostrativos, es decir, las palabras esto, eso y aquello, que solo pueden funcionar como
pronombres, se escriben siempre sin tilde: Eso no es cierto; No entiendo esto.
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Phonetics 19
DIPHTHONGS
DIPTONGOS
Diptongos and triptongos:
 In Spanish, the majority of the time two vowels are placed together they are
pronounced as one sound in the syllable. This is called a diphthong (diptongo).
 When there are three vowels together that are pronounced as one sound, it is called a
triphthong (triptongo).
Closed vowels:
 Closed vowels (vocales cerradas) are I and U.
 Closed vowels are also called weak vowels or semivowels (semivocales).
 Closed vowels are pronounced with the mouth more closed than when pronouncing
open vowels.
Open vowels:
 The open vowels (vocales abiertas) are A, E, and O.
 Open vowels are also called strong vowels.
 Open vowels are pronounced with the mouth more open than when pronouncing
closed vowels.
The two types of diptongos:
 Diptongo creciente: when a closed vowel (I or U) is followed by an open vowel (A, E, O).
In this case, the mouth goes from being more closed to being more opened so it is called
a diptongo creciente or tripongo creciente.
 Diptongo decreciente: when an open vowel (A, E, O) is followed by a closed vowel (I or
U). In this case, the mouth goes from being more opened to being more closed so it is
called a diptongo decreciente or triptongo decreciente.
Diptongos decrecientes:
 The open vowel (A, E, O) is in front of the closed vowel (I or U).
 The mouth goes from being more opened to being more closed.
aire
[AĬ↓-re] ([ai] sounds like the word “eye”)
Laura [LAŬ↓-ra]
europa [eŭ↓-RO-pa]
oigo
[OĬ↓-go]
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Phonetics 20
Diptongos crecientes:
 The closed vowel (I or U) is in front of the open vowel (A, E, O).
 The mouth goes from being more closed to being more opened.
pueblo [PŬE↑-blo]
continuo [kon-TI-nŭo↑]
miedo [MĬE↑-ðo]
jaguar
pie
guacamole [gŭa↑-ka-MO-le]
[pĭe↑]
[ja-GŬĂ↑R]
Diptongo homogéneas with UI or IU combinations:
 Occasionally two closed vowels (I or U) will be together.
 This is also called a homogeneous diphthong (diptongo homogéneas).
 A diptongo creciente is formed because the second vowel is pronounced more strongly
than the first vowel.
ciudad [sĭu↑-ðAD]
pingüino [pin-GŬI↑-no]
triunfo [TRĬU↑N-fo]
ruido
viuda [VĬU↑-ða]
lingüística [lĭn-GŬI↑S-ti-ka]
fui
buitre
[fŭi↑]
[RŬI↑do]
[BĬU↑tre]
Y as a vowel in a diptongo:
 The letter Y can be a vowel when used in a diptongo or triptongo.
 When the letter Y functions as a vowel, it replaces the letter I.
muy [mŭi↑]
hay [aĭ↓]
ley [leĭ↓]
buey [bueĭ↓]
When a diptongo takes an accent mark:
 Béisbol and huérfano are examples of diptongos with an accent mark.
 The word béisbol is an aguda with the natural stress on the last syllable of the word.
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, the pronunciation of the word is incorrect.
× Beisbol [beis-BOL]].
 The accent mark is placed over the strong vowel in the diptongo so that the stress is
placed on the diptongo without dividing the diptongo into two syllables.
√ Béisbol [BEĬ-bol].
 If the accent mark had been placed over the weak vowel in the diptongo, the diptongo
would have been incorrectly divided into two syllables. × Beíbol [be-IS-bol]].
√ béisbol [BEĬ↓-bol
× beíbol [be-IS-bol
× beisbol [beis-BOL]
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Phonetics 21
THE HIATUS
EL HIATO
Hiatos:
 Hiatos occur when two vowels placed together are separated into individual sounds in
different syllables.
 Diptongos occur when two vowels placed together are pronounced as one sound in the
syllable.
 Hiatos are rare; diptongos are common.
 There are two types of hiatos. One is the hiato accentual, which takes an accent mark.
The other is the hiato vocálico, which is sometimes called the hiato simple.
Hiato acentual:
 A hiato acentual occurs when an accent mark is placed over the closed vowel (I, U) in a
diptongo. The accent mark divides the diptongo into two syllables, and places the stress
on the syllable with the accented vowel.

Diptongo
Hiato Acentual
paisano [paĭ↓-SA-no]
país [pa-ÍS]
aunque [AŬ↓N-ke]
aún [a-UN]
ley
leí
[leĭ↓]
[le-Í]
More examples of hiatos acentules:
continúo [kon-ti-NÚ-o]
María [Ma-RÍ-a]
caímos [ka-Í-mos]
Raúl
[ra-UL]
Hiato simple:
 Hiatos simples are also called hiatos vocálicos. An hiato simple occurs when two open
vowels (A, E, O) are placed together and pronounced as two syllables, or when two
closed vowels (I, U) are placed together and pronounced as two syllables.
 An accent mark is not required with hiatos simples.
bacalao [ba-ka-LA-o]
teatro [te-A-tro]
Rafael
Leona [le-O-na]
[ra-fa-EL]
Teodoro [te-o-Do-ro]
fluido [flu-I-do]
Ismael
poeta [po-ET-ta]
[is-ma-EL]
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Phonetics 22
SYNERESIS AND SYNALEPHA
SINÉRESIS Y SINALEFA
Syneresis (sinéresis):
 If two strong vowels (A, E, O) are together in a word, they are normally separated into
two syllables.
leer → [le-ĔR]

creer → [Cre-ĔR]
With informal rapid speech, sinéresis may be used. In this case, the adjoining strong
vowels (A, E, O) are pronounced together to form one continuous sound like a diptongo.
Without sinérisis
With sinéresis in rapid speech
crear →
[cre-ĂR]
→
[creăr]
cae
[KA-e]
→
[kae]
→
Synalepha (sinalefa):
 With informal rapid speech, sinalefa may be used. In this case, the vowel that ends one
word is combined with the vowel that starts the next word to form one continuous
sound.
Me equivoqué (I was wrong). The EE’s form one continuous sound when sinalefa is
used in rapid informal speech, [Me-e-ki-βo-KE] → [Mee-ki-βo-KE].
Sí es mío (Yes it’s mine). The IE is pronounced as one continuous sound when sinalefa is
used in rapid informal speech, [si-ĕs-MI-o] → [sĭes- MI-o].
Su amigo (your friend). The UA is pronounced as one continuous sound when sinalefa is
used in rapid informal speech, [su-a-MI-go] → [sŭa-MI-go].
Mi hija (my daughter). The H is silent, so the two I’s form one continuous sound when
sinalefa is used in rapid informal speech, [mi-I-ha] → [MI-ha].
Without sinalefa
With sinalefa in rapid speech
me equivoqué → [Me-e-ki-βo-Ke] →
[Mee-ki-βo-ke]
sí es mío
→ [si-ĕs-MI-o]
→
[sĭes- MI-o]
su amigo
→ [su-a-MI-go]
→
[sŭa-MI-go]
mi hija
→ [mi-I-ha]
→
[MI-ha]
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Phonetics 23
SYMBOL SHORTCUTS
Spanish symbol insertion using the Alt key with Microsoft word:
 Hold down the Alt key and type ALL the numbers, then let up the Alt key.
á = Alt / 160
Á = Alt / 0193
é= Alt / 130
É = Alt / 0201
í = Alt / 161
Í = Alt / 0205
ñ = Alt /164
Ñ = Alt / 165
ó = Alt / 162
Ó = Alt / 0211
ú = Alt / 163
Ú = Alt 0218
ü = Alt / 129
¿ = Alt / 168
¡ = Alt / 173
« = Alt / 174
» = Alt / 175
Assigning a symbol shortcut with Microsoft word:
1. Choose insert toolbar pull-down,
2. Choose symbols,
3. Find and highlight the symbol you want to use (example ñ),
4. Choose shortcut key,
5. Enter new shortcut in the new shortcut key box (example Alt key + N key),
6. Choose assign box.
7. Now, any time you want to enter the ñ, just press the Alt key and N key together.
Example of a symbol shortcut sequence:
 Alt key + letter key for lower case letters: á, é, í, ó, ú, ñ, ¿, ¡
 Ctrl key + letter key for upper case symbols: Á, É, Í, Ó, Ú, Ñ
 To enter a saved symbol, press Alt key + letter key, or Ctlr key + letter key.
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Phonetics 24
PRONUNCIATION SUMMARY
Key Terms to Know
Acento Diacrítico
Acento Enfático con Pronombres Demostrativos
Acento Enfático con Pronombres Interrogatorios
Agudas
Átona
Diptongo
Esdrújulas
Hiatos Acentúales
Hiatos Simples
Llanas
Schwa
Sílaba
Sinalefa
Sinéresis
Tónica
Triptongo
The English language uses a rhythm of words. The schwa sound strongly influences the
pronunciation and rhythm of English words. Remove the shwa sound when speaking Spanish.
The Spanish language uses the rhythm of the syllables. Clear pronunciation of the stressed
syllables and the vowel sounds creates the rhythm of the language. Don’t cut off the vowel
sounds.
Practice Tips:
 Copy and double space an article written in Spanish.
 Write the words between the double-spaced lines using the phonetic sound symbols,
and place hyphens between each syllable inside the word.
 Record yourself reading the article out loud.
Example:
«Estaban todos los árboles verdes y llenos de fruta, y las yerbas todas floridas y muy altas, los
caminos muy anchos y buenos . . . » 13 de diciembre de 1492, Cristóbal Colón (23 HenríquezUreña).
ěs-TA-βan TO-ðos los ĂR-bol-ěs VĔR-děs i YE-nos de FRU-ta, i las YĔR- bas TO-ðos flo-RI-ðas i
mŭi↑ AL-tas, los ka-MI-nos mŭi↑ AN-chos i BŬE↑-nos . . .
“All the trees are green and full of fruit, all the grasses are flowering and very high, and the
roads are wide and good . . . ” December 13, 1492, Christopher Columbus (23 HenríquezUreña).
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25
NOUNS
UNIT 2
Unit Two Table of Contents...................................................................................... 25
Noun Basics……...................................................................................................…… 26
Gender of Nouns...................................................................................................... 28
Plural of Nouns......................................................................................................... 32
Romans invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 200 BC and remained until 400 AD. Hispania was one
of the most prosperous regions under Roman control.
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Nouns 26
NOUN BASICS
LOS BÁSICOS DE LOS SUSTANTIVOS
Noun basics:
 Nouns are words which denote persons, places, or things.
 Nouns are either subject nouns, direct-object nouns, indirect-object nouns, or
prepositional nouns.
The mother took her son to the doctor.
o Subject noun which controls the action: mother.
o Direct object which receives the action: son.
o Preposition: to.
o Indirect-object noun which receives the direct object: doctor.
Karen borrowed a book from the library.
o Subject noun which controls the action: Karen.
o Direct-object noun which receives the action: book.
o Preposition: from.
o Object of the preposition and indirect object: library.
The man read the story about the three pigs to his grandson.
o Subject noun which controls the action: man.
o Direct-object noun which receives the action: story.
o Preposition: to.
o Object of the preposition and indirect-object noun: grandson.
Articles and adjectives will match the noun:
 Articles and adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
Gender of the nouns:
 In Spanish, all nouns are either masculine or feminine. This is called the género de los
sustantivos.
Noun gender for nouns ending in -o or -a:
 Most nouns end in -o or an -a.
o Nouns that end in an -o are almost always masculine.
o Nouns that end in an -a are almost always feminine.
An acronym of the final letters of the word to determine noun gender:

Not all nouns end in -o or -a. Nouns can end in other letters.
 “Loners” is an acronym to help remember masculine gender nouns
o Most nouns ending in -l, -o, -n, -e, -r, -s are masculine.
 “Dazión” is an acronym to help remember feminine gender nouns.
o Most nouns ending in -d, -a, -z, -ión are feminine.
 Learning these acronyms letters will help you to determine the gender of almost all
nouns even if you don’t know the meaning of the word or any other rule.
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Nouns 27
Note: there are other rules to help determine noun gender. For example, the meaning of the
word will indicate whether the word is masculine or feminine. These rules are explained in the
following sections of this unit. For beginners, remember the “loners” and “dazíon” acronym and
learn the definition of the words as you build your vocabulary.
Contractions of the masculine singular definite article:
 De (of) or a (to) is contracted into one word when followed by the masculine singular
definite article el (the).
DE + EL → DEL
A + EL → AL
Give the woman’s hat to the man.
Or literally, “give the hat of the woman to the man.”
Da el sombrero de la mujer al hombre.
Give the man’s hat to the woman.
Or literally, “give the hat of the man to the women.”
Da el sombrero del hombre a la mujer.
Basic rules for forming the plural:
 Most nouns follow the basic rule of adding -s to nouns ending with a vowel and adding
-es to nouns ending with a consonant.
Nouns ending in a vowel form the plural by adding -s:
el hombre
una niña
un niño
→ los hombres
→ unas niñas
→ unos niños
Nouns ending in a consonant form the plural by adding -es:
un hospital → unos hospitales
la mujer
→ las mujeres
la universidad → las universidades
Practice exercise with acronyms “-l-o-n-e-r-s” for masculine and “-d-a-z-íón” for feminine:
 Take a book, magazine, or any article written in Spanish.
 Use a highlighter to identify the nouns that you can recognize.
 Use a pen or pencil to number the highlighted nouns.
 Circle and number the highlighted nouns which do not obey the loners/dazíon rule.
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Nouns 28
GENDER OF NOUNS
GÉNERO DE LOS SUSTANTIVOS
Gender of nouns:
 In Spanish, all nouns are either masculine or feminine. This is called the género de los
sustantivos.
Noun gender for nouns ending in -o or -a:
 Most nouns end in an -o or an -a.
o Nouns that end in an -o are almost always masculine.
o Nouns that end in an -a are almost always feminine.
An acronym of the final letters of the word to determine noun gender:

Not all nouns end in -o or -a. Nouns can end in other letters.
 “Loners” is an acronym to help remember masculine gender nouns.
o Most nouns ending in -l, -o, -n, -e, -r, -s are masculine.
 “Dazión” is an acronym to help remember feminine gender nouns.
o Most nouns ending in -d, -a, -z, -ión are feminine.
Loners:
 “Loners” is an acronym we can use to help us remember that most nouns ending in
-l, -o, -n, -e, -r, -s are masculine.
-L
el hospital (the hospital)
un vendaval (a wind storm)
el árbol
(the tree)
un animal (an animal)
el sol
(the sun)
el metal (the metal)
-O
el sueño (the dream)
el destino (the destiny)
el lado (the side)
el suelo (the ground)
el cuello (the neck)
el brazo (the arm)
-N
el medallón (the medallion)
el capitán (the captain)
un tazón (a bowl)
el bastón (the cane)
el corazón (the heart)
un cinturón (a belt)
-E
el café (the coffee)
el airé
(the air)
el parque (the park)
el pie (the foot)
un bote (a boat)
el este (the east)
-R
el fumar (smoking)
el beber
(drinking)
el porvenir (the future)
el líder (the leader)
un olor (a odor)
el altar (the altar)
-S
el lunes
(Monday)
un rompecabezas (a puzzle)
el paraguas
(the umbrella)
el mes
(the month)
el francés (the French)
el inglés (the English)
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Nouns 29
Dazión:
 “Dazión” is an acronym we can use to help us remember that most nouns ending in
-d, -a, -z, -ión are feminine.
-D
la ciudad
(the city)
la universidad (the university)
una tempestad (a storm)
la seguridad (the security)
la felicidad (the happiness)
una multitud (a multitude)
-A
la arena (the sand)
la música (the music)
la mirada (the look)
la fogata (the bonfire)
una piedra (a rock)
la mesa
(the table)
-Z
la voz (the voice)
una cruz (a cross)
la niñez (the childhood)
la nariz (the nose)
la paz (the peace)
una vez (one time)
-IÓN
una canción
(a song)
una estación (the station)
la aprehensión (the apprehension)
la vegetación (the vegetation)
la expresión (the expression)
la protección (the protection)
MASCULINE/FEMININE GENDER RULES
Masculine or feminine meaning will indicate the gender of the noun:
 The meaning of the word will indicate whether the word is masculine or feminine.
el hombre (the man)
la mujer (the woman)
Meaning and origin will determine the gender of the noun:
 The day, the day of the week, the day of the month, and months of the year are always
masculine.
el día (the day), el lunes (Monday), el martes (Tuesday)
el enero (January), el agosto (August)
el catorce de febrero (the fourteenth of February)
Time is always feminine:
It’s one o’clock
Es la una.
It’s three o’clock.
Son las tres.
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Nouns 30
Most trees are masculine and most fruits are feminine:
Trees (masculine)
el olivo
(the olive tree)
un naranjo (a orange tree)
el almendro (the almond tree)
Fruit (feminine)
la oliva
(the olive)
una naranja (an orange)
la almendra (the almond)
Greek origin words which end in -ma are masculine:
el alma
el clima
el problema
el sistema
un programa
el idioma

(the soul)
(the climate)
(the problema)
(the system)
(a program)
(the language)
el diagrama
el emblema
un dilema
el diploma
el poema
el drama
(the diagram)
(the emblem)
(a dilema)
(the diploma)
(the poem)
(the drama)
La pluma (the feather or writing pen) is not of Greek origin. It obeys the basic rule that
nouns ending in -a are feminine.
EXCEPTIONS TO THE MASCULINE/FEMININE GENDER RULES
These nouns which end in -o are feminine:
la mano (the hand)
una radio (a radio)
la foto
(short for fotografía)
una moto (short for motocycleta)
Two nouns which end in -a are masculine:
el planeta (the planet)
el día (the day)
Nouns beginning with a stressed a syllable or stressed ha syllable are masculine in the
singular form, but feminine in the plural form:
Singular Form is Masculine
el agua
(the water)
el águila (the eagle)
el hambre (the hunger)
el hacha (the hachet)
Plural Form is Feminine
las aguas (the waters)
las águilas (the eagles)
las hombre (the hungry ones)
las hachas (the hachets)
Some nouns which refer to people or positions add an -a for the feminine form:
Masculine
el director
el campeón
un león
el héroe
Feminine
la directora
la campeona
una leona
la heroína
Meaning
the director
the champion
a lioness
the heroine
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Nouns 31
Some nouns which refer to people or positions do not change forms:
Masculine
el artista
un dentista
el socialista
el bebé
un cantante
el joven
el modelo
un atleta
Feminine
la artista
una dentista
la socialista
la bebé
una cantante
la joven
la modelo
una atleta
Meaning
the artist
a denist
the socialist
the baby
the singer
the teenager
the model
an athlete
A few masculine nouns that end in -e change to -a in order to form the feminine:
Masculine
el monje (the monk)
Feminine
la monja (the nun)
A few titles add -sa, -esa, or -ina in their feminine form:
Masculine
el conde (the count)
un baron (a baron)
Feminine
la condesa (the countess)
una baronesa (a baroness)
Some nouns are either masculine or feminine depending on their meaning:
Masculine
el justicia (the magistrate)
el policía (the policeman)
Feminine
la justicia (the justice)
la policía (the police)
Exceptions to the masculine/feminine ending rules:
 Not all nouns ending in -l, -o, -n, -e, -r, -s are masculine.
la piel (the skin)
la radio (the radio)
la sartén (the skillet)

la gente (the people)
la mujer (the woman)
la crisis (the crisis)
Not all nouns ending in -d, -a, -z, -ión are feminine.
el césped (the grass)
el día
(the day)
el lápiz (the pen)
el avión (the plane)
The largest number of exceptions to the masculine/feminine rule are with -e:
la gripe (the flu)
la leche (the milk)
la cumbre (the summit)
la gente (the people)
la especie (the species)
la sangre (the blood)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
la carne (the meat)
una nube (the cloud)
la base (the base)
Nouns 32
PLURAL OF NOUNS
NOMBRES PLURALES
Basic rules for forming the plural:
 Most nouns follow the basic rule of adding -s to nouns ending with a vowel and adding
-es to nouns ending with a consonant.
Nouns ending in a vowel form the plural by adding -s:
el hombre → los hombres
una niña → unas niñas
un niño → unos niños
Nouns ending in a consonant form the plural by adding -es:
un hospital
→ unos hospitales
la mujer
→ las mujeres
la universidad → las universidades
Nouns ending in -y:
 Y is treated as a consonant, so the plural is formed by adding -es.
la ley
→ las leyes
un buey → unos bueyes
Noun ending with an accented -í, or -ú:
 The accent mark is maintained over the stressed syllable, and the plural is formed by
adding -es.
el colibrí → los colibríes
un hindú → unos hindúes
Nouns ending in -s, -z, or -x and preceded by an unstressed vowel:
 A noun ending in -s, -z, or -x in which the final letter is preceded by an unstressed
vowel, does not change form when made plural.
el jueves
el tórax
el paraguas
un rompecabezas
→
→
→
→
los jueves
los tórax
los paraguas
unos rompecabezas
Nouns endings in -s and preceded by a stressed vowel:
 Add -es to form the plural.
el mes
→ los meses
un francés → unos franceses
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Nouns 33
Nouns ending in -z:
 Z changes to C when -es is added to form the plural.
 As a rule ZE and ZI are not used together; C is used before E or I.
el pez → los peces
la luz → las luces
un lápiz → unos lápices
Nouns ending in -n:
 When a word ends in a vowel or the consonants N or S, the natural stress falls on the
next-to-last syllable. When the plural is formed by adding -es, the stress will move to a
different syllable.
 Add an accent mark over the appropriate vowel in the second-from-last syllable
(antipenúltima silaba) to maintain the correct pronunciation.
el examen [ek-SA-mĕn] → los exámenes [ek-SA-me-nĕs]
el crimen [KRI-mĕn]
→ los crímenes [KRI-me-nĕs]
Words ending with an accent mark on the last syllable:
 When the word ends in a vowel or the consonants N or S, the natural stress falls on the
next-to-last syllable
 When the plural is formed by adding -es, the accent mark is removed because the
stress naturally falls on the next-to-last syllable.
una acción [ak-SĬON]
→ unas acciones [ak-SĬO-nĕs]
un alemán [a-le-MAN] → unos alemanes [a-le-MA-nĕs]
la estación [ĕs-ta-SĬON → las estaciones [ĕs-ta-SĬO-nĕs]
el halcón [al-KON]
→ los halcones [al-KO-nĕs]
el inglés [ĭn-GLES]
→ los ingleses [ĭĭn-GLE-sĕs]
el león [le-ON]
→ los leones [le-O-nĕs]
Surnames do not change forms when the plural is formed:
The Garcias
= los García
The Martinezes = los Martínez
The Rodriguezes = los Rodríguez
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34
DEFINITE AND INDEFINTE ARTICLES
UNIT 3
Unit Three Table of Contents................................................................................... 34
Definite and Indefinite Articles................................................................................. 35
Practice with Definite and Indefinite Articles........................................................... 36
When the Definite Article is Required...................................................................... 37
When the Indefinite Article is Required................................................................... 39
Practice with Definite and Indefinite Articles........................................................... 42
Visigoths, Vandals, and other Germanic tribes took control of the Iberian
Peninsula in 409. The Visigoths pushed the other tribes out of most of the
Iberian Peninsula in 415 and governed in the name of the Roman emperor.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 35
DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
ARTÍCULOS DETERMINADOS E INDETERMINADOS
The definite article (el artículo determinado):
 The definite article is equivalent to “the.”
 In Spanish, the definite article agrees in number and gender with the noun.
 In Spanish, the definite article has four forms: masculine singular (el), feminine singular
(la), masculine plural (los), and feminine plural (las).
el hombre = the man
la mujer = the woman
(masculine singular)
(feminine singular)
los muchachos = the boys (masculine plural)
las muchachas = the girls (feminine plural)
The indefinite article (el artículo indeterminado):
 The indefinite article is equivalent to “a,” “one,” or “some.”
 In Spanish, the indefinite article agrees in number and gender with the noun.
 In Spanish, the definite article has four forms: masculine singular (un), feminine singular
(una), masculine plural (unos), and feminine plural (unas).
un hombre = a man or one man
(masculine singular)
una mujer = a woman or one woman (feminine singular)
unos muchachos = some boys
unas muchachas = some girls
(masculine plural)
(feminine plural)
When the masculine article is required:
 When there is a group of both feminine and masculine nouns, the masculine plural
article is used even if the group includes only one masculine and many feminine nouns.
unos tíos = some uncles
unas tías = some aunts
unos tíos = some uncles or some aunts and uncles
los hijos = the sons
las hijas = the daughters
los hijos = the sons or the sons and daughters
Articles are used before each noun in a group or list:
Some men and women speak Spanish in the office.
Unos hombres y unas mujeres hablan español en la oficina.
The coat, hat, and tie belong to Alfred.
El abrigo, el sombrero, y la corbata son de Alfredo.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 36
EXAMPLES OF DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE ARTICLES
Most nouns ending in -l, -o, -n, -e, -r, -s are masculine.
Most nouns ending in -d, -a, -z, -ión are feminine.
the kitchen
the living room
the doors
the gardens
la cocina
la sala
las puertas
los jardines
some offices
a computer
some telephones
a bank
unas oficinas
una computadora
unos teléfonos
un banco
some churches
a pharmacy
some hotels
a park
unas iglesias
una farmacia
unos hoteles
un parque
the beers
the coffees
the tea
the cheese
las cervezas
los cafés
el té
el queso
the bread
some potatoes
some tomatoes
some pinapples
el pan
unas papas
unos tomates
unas piñas
the plates
the glass
the cups
the wine glasses
los platos
el vaso
las tazas
las copas
the knife
the spoon
some dogs
some cats
el cuchillo
la cuchara
unos perros
unos gatos
the river
the mountain
the lakes
the rocks
el río
la montaña.
los lagos
las rocas
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Articles 37
WHEN THE DEFINITE ARTICLE IS REQUIRED
CUANDO EL ARTÍCULO DETERMINADO ES UN REQUISITO
The definite article as a demonstrative pronoun:
 The definite article + de is a method used to specify a subject.
The one from San Francisco is very friendly.
La de San Francisco es muy amable.
The one to the left is the boss.
El de la izquierda es el jefe.
The definite article is used before adjectives to form nouns:
el anciano = the old man.
la vieja
= the old woman.
Spanish does not require the definite article when used in an apposition (a noun or noun
phrase placed next to another noun and used as a description or explanation):
Barcelona, the capital of Spain
Barcelona, capital de España
Spanish requires the definite article to tell time:
It’s two-thirty in the afternoon.
Son las dos y media en la tarde.
Spanish requires the use of the definite article in some cases, but not in others:
Days of the week:
 The definite article is normally used before days of the week.
Thursday I go to the village.
El jueves yo voy al pueblo.

The definite article is not used before the day of week after the word ser.
Tomorrow is Thursday.
Mañana es jueves.
Titles of respect:
 The definite article is normally used with titles of respect.
Mr. Garcia spoke with the men.
El señor García hablaba con los hombres.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 38

The definite article is not used with a title of respect when you are speaking directly to
someone.
Hello, Mr. Garcia.
Hola, señor García.
Names of languages:
 The definite article is normally used with the names of languages.
Spanish is a romantic language.
El español es una lengua romántica.

The definite article is not used before the names of languages following these verbs:
enseñar, escribir, entender, estudiar, hablar, leer, and saber.
He speaks Spanish.
Él habla español.

The definite article is not used before the names of languages after de or en.
She is speaking in Spanish.
Ella está hablando en español.
Names of seasons:
 The definite article is normally used with the names of seasons.
Summer is very hot.
El verano es muy caliente.

The definite article is not used before the names of seasons after de or en.
It’s very cold in winter.
Es muy frío en invierno.
Some words always require a definite article.
el agua
el hambre
la escuela
la iglesia
la ciudad
la cárcel
el Salvador
la Habana
el Cairo
la Argentina
el Brasil
el Canadá
los Estados Unidos
el Perú
la Gran Bretaña
la Florida
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 39
WHEN THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE IS REQUIRED
CUANDO EL ARTÍCULO INDETERMINADO ES UN REQUISITO
The indefinite article is not normally used before nouns denoting a class or group:
He was a politician.
Él era político.
He is a fisherman.
Él es pescador.
The indefinite article is used if the noun denoting a class or group is modified with an
adjective:
He is a corrupt politician.
Él es un político corrupto.
He was a good fisherman.
Él era un buen pescador.
The indefinite article is not used after de or como when meaning “as” or “as a”:
Is it possible to work as an English teacher in Mexico?
¿Es posible trabajar como maestro de inglés en México?
She eats like a little bird.
Ella come como pajarillo.
He served as a soldier.
Él servía de soldado.
The indefinite article is not used after qué in exclamations:
What a big city!
¡Qué ciudad tan grande!
What a shame!
¡Qué lástima!
The indefinite article is not used before numbers:
I have a million things to do.
Tengo mil cosas que hacer.
It doesn’t cost a hundred pesos.
No cuesta cien pesos.
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Articles 40
THE NEUTERED DEFINITE ARTICLE
EL GÉNERO NEUTRO
Lo is the neutered definite article:
 Lo means “the” and is used when the gender of the noun is not known.
I prefer the best. (things in general)
Prefiero lo mejor.
Let’s leave the difficult things for tomorrow. (things in general)
Dejemos lo difícil para mañana.
I will protect my things.
Protegeré lo mío.
Abstract nouns with what (lo):
 What (lo) + adjective + to be (ser) translates to “what is” in most cases.
 The masculine singular form of the adjective is used.
 Lo + adjetivo + ser
What’s important is to win.
Lo importante es ganar.
What’s bad about the movie is that it’s really long.
Lo malo de la película es que es muy larga.
What’s good is that we still have a chance.
Lo bueno es que todavía tenemos posibilidades.
What’s bad is that Maria didn't come to the party.
Lo malo fue que María no vino a la fiesta.
The funniest thing was the face that she made.
Lo gracioso es la cara que puso ella.
What’s logical is to put on a coat when it’s cold.
Lo lógico es ponerse un abrigo cuando hace frio.
Lo + adjective or adverb + que translates into “how” in most cases:
 Lo + adjective/adverb + que = “how.”
 The adjective or adverb will be singular and match the gender of the noun that is being
described.
 In English, “that” is omitted.
They don’t know how sick the girls are.
No saben lo enferma que las chicas están.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 41
Don’t doubt how pretty she is.
No duda lo bonita que es ella.
I didn’t know how intelligent these students are.
No sabía lo inteligente que son estos estudiantes.
Did you see how big it is?
¿Viste lo grande que es?
Do you understand how serious this is? (informal)
¿Entiendes lo serio que es?
I heard how boring it is.
Escuché lo aburrido que es.
Lo is not always a neutered definite article:
 Lo can be a masculine direct-object pronoun:
I can’t believe it.
No lo creo.
I can’t understand it.
No lo comprendo.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 42
PRACTICE WITH ARTICLES AND PHONETICS
Fill-in the blank with the correct article, and show the phonetic spelling for the word
Example: The pharmacy,
_______ farmacia → la farmacia [făr-MA-cĭa].
1.
Some pirates
_______ piratas
2.
The month
_______ mes
3.
The trees
_______ árboles
4.
A belt
_______ cinturón
5.
The pineapple
_______ piña
6.
Some voices
_______ voces
7.
The telephone
_______ teléfono
8.
The truth
_______ verdad
9.
A dolphin
_______ delfín
10.
The cities
_______ ciudades
11.
The hospitals
_______ hospital
12.
A hurricane
_______ huracán
13.
The rain
_______ lluvia
14.
The success
_______ éxito
15.
Some villages
_______ pueblos
16.
A multitude
_______ multitud
17.
The foot
_______ pie
18.
A mare
_______ yegua
19.
The English
_______ inglés
20.
The guitar
_______ guitarra
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Articles 43
PRACTICE WITH ARTICLES AND PHONETICS
Answers:
1.
Some pirates, unas piratas [pi-RA-tas]
2.
The month, el mes [mĕs]
3.
The trees, los árboles [ĂR-bo-lĕs]
4.
A belt, un cinturón [sĭn-tu-RON]
5.
The pineapple, la piña [PI-ña]
6.
Some voices, unas voces [VO-sĕs]
7.
The telephone, el teléfono [te-LE-fo-no]
8.
The truth, la verdad [vĕr-DAD]
9.
A dolphin, un delfín [dĕl-FĬN]
10.
The cities, las ciudades [Sĭu-ðAD-ĕs]
11.
The hospitals, los hospitales [os-pi-TAL-ĕs]
12.
A hurricane, un huracán [ur-ra-KAN]
13.
The rain, la lluvia [Jo-βía] or [YO-βĭa]
14.
The success, el éxito [EK-si-to]
15.
Some villages, unos pueblos [PŬE-blos]
16.
A multitude, una multitud [mul-ti-TUD]
17.
The foot, el pie [pĭe]
18.
A mare, una yegua [YE-gŭa]
19.
English, el inglés [ĭn-GLĔS]
20.
The guitar, la guitarra [gi-TĂR-ra]
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
44
PRONOUNS
UNIT 4
Unit Four Table of Contents.......................................................................... 44
Personal Pronouns........................................................................................ 45
Practice with Personal Pronouns.................................................................. 51
Prepositional Pronouns................................................................................. 54
Possessive Pronouns..................................................................................... 57
Demonstrative Pronouns.............................................................................. 59
Indefinite Pronouns.......................................................................................61
Direct-Object and Indirect-Object Pronouns................................................ 64
Map of the Califato de Córdoba in the year 1000.
Moors from Northern Africa invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 712 and
defeated the Visigoths, bringing Muslim rule to the Iberian Peninsula.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pronouns 45
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES PERSONALES
REGULARLY CONJUGATED PRESENT-INDICATIVE VERBS
INFINITIVE VERB STEM + APPROPRIATE VERB ENDING
Agent
-AR Verb
-ER Verb
Yo
First-person singular
(I)
Tú
Second-person singular
(you, informal)
Usted
Second-person singular
(you, formal)
Él
Third-person singular (he)
Ella
Third-person singular (she)
Nosotros, Nosotras
First-person plural (we)
masculine and feminine forms
Vosotros, Vosotras
Second-person plural
(you plural, informal in Spain)
masculine and feminine forms
Ustedes,
Second-person plural
(you plural, formal)
Ellos, Ellas
Third-person plural (they)
masculine and feminine forms
-IR Verb
-o
-o
-o
-as
-es
-es
-a
-e
-e
-amos
-emos
-imos
-áis
-éis
-is
-an
-en
-en
Personal pronouns:
 Personal pronouns are substituted for nouns.
 Nouns or personal pronouns usually come before the verb, except when forming a
question.
 The verb ending matches the noun or pronoun.
John and Mary speak Spanish.
Juan y María hablan español.
They speak Spanish
Ellos hablan español.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pronouns 46
Do you (pl.) eat tamales?
¿Comen ustedes tamales?
Yes, John and I eat tamales.
Sí, Juan y yo comemos tamales.
Yes, we eat tamales.
Sí, nosotros comemos tamales.
Singular personal pronouns:
Yo:


Yo (I) is the singular first-person personal pronoun.
The singular first-person present-tense verb form for all verbs is the infinitive verb stem
+ o.
I speak Spanish.
Yo hablo español.
I live in Mexico.
Yo vivo en México.
I eat tacos.
Yo como tacos.

The singular first-person personal pronoun is often omitted when the singular firstperson present-tense verb form is used because the unique verb ending identifies the
subject.
I speak Spanish.
Hablo español.
I live in Mexico.
Vivo en México.
Usted, él, and ella:
 Usted (you formal), él (he), and ella (she) all use the same verb endings.
 The present-tense verb form for -ar verbs is the infinitive verb stem + a.
 The present-tense verb form for -er and -ir verbs is the infinitive verb stem + e.
Usted:
 Usted (you) is the formal singular second-person personal pronoun.
 Usted is derived from vuestra merced which means “your mercy” or “your
honor.”
 Usted may be abbreviated to Ud. The abbreviated form is always capitalized.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pronouns 47
Mr. Perez, you speak English well.
Señor Pérez, usted/Ud. habla bien el inglés.
Do you live in Peru?
¿Vive usted/Ud. en Perú?
Él:

Él (he) is the masculine singular third-person personal pronoun.
Steve speaks Spanish well.
Esteban habla bien el español.
He speaks Spanish well.
Él habla bien el español.
Does he eat rice and beans?
¿Come él arroz y frijoles?
Ella:

Ella (she) is the feminine singular third-person personal pronoun.
Carmen lives in Jamaica.
Carmen vive en Jamaica.
She lives in Guatemala.
Ella vive en Guatemala.
She eats in the restaurant.
Ella come en el restaurante.
Plural personal pronouns:
Nosotros:
 Nosotros (we) is the plural first-person personal pronoun.
 Nosotros has two forms: masculine plural (nosotros) and feminine plural (nosotras).
 When substituted for a group of both feminine and masculine nouns, the masculine
pronoun is used.
 The plural first-person present-tense verb form for -ar verbs is the infinitive verb stem +
amos.
 The plural first-person present-tense verb form for -er verbs is the infinitive verb stem +
emos.
 The plural first-person present-tense verb form for -ir verbs is the infinitive verb stem +
imos.
We speak Spanish.
Nosotros hablamos español.
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Pronouns 48
We eat a lot of sweets.
Nosotros comemos muchos dulces.

The plural first-person personal pronoun is often omitted when a present-tense verb is
used in the sentence because the unique verb ending identifies the subject.
We speak Spanish.
Hablamos español.
We live in Mexico.
Vivimos en México.
Ustedes, ellos, and ellas:
 Ustedes (you plural), ellos (them), and ellas (them) use the same verb endings.
 The present-tense verb form for -ar verbs is the infinitive verb stem + an.
 The present-tense verb form for -er and -ir verbs is the infinitive verb stem + en.
Ustedes:
 Ustedes (you plural) is the formal plural second-person personal pronoun.
 Ustedes is derived from vuestra merced which means “your mercy” or “your honor.”
 Ustedes may be abbreviated to Uds. The abbreviated form is always capitalized.
Mr. Perez and Mr. Garcia, you speak English well.
Señor Pérez y señor García, ustedes/Uds. hablan bien el inglés.
Do you (pl.) live in Peru?
¿Viven ustedes/Uds. en Perú?
Ellos:
 Ellos (them) is the masculine plural third-person personal pronoun.
 When substituted for a group of both feminine and masculine nouns, the masculine
pronoun is used.
Paul and Martha speak Spanish well.
Pablo y Marta hablan bien el español.
They speak Spanish well.
Ellos hablan bien el español.
Do they eat rice and beans?
¿Comen ellos arroz y frijoles?
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Pronouns 49
Ellas:
 Ellas (they) is the feminine plural third-person personal pronoun.
The girls live in Guatemala.
Las chicas viven en Guatemala.
They live in Guatemala.
Ellas viven in Guatemala.
They eat in the restaurant.
Ellas comen en el restaurante.
Informal personal pronouns are as follows:
Tú:





Tú (you) is the singular second-person personal pronoun used informally with friends or
family.
The informal singular second-person present-tense verb form for -ar verbs is the
infinitive verb stem + as.
The informal singular second-person present-tense verb form for -er and - ir verbs is
the infinitive verb stem + es.
Tú is used in place of usted.
Tú is used in both Spain and Latin America, but primarily in Latin America.
Cecilia, you sing well.
Celia, tú cantas bien.
Mark, you eat a lot.
Marc, tú comes mucho.
You live like a king.
Tú vives como un rey.
Vos:




Voseo is the substitution of vos for tú.
Vos is used in Argentina and other regions of South America, Central America, and the
Caribbean.
The general verb conjugation which accompanies vos is similar to that which
accompanies tú, but there are numerous regional variations.
The general conjugation of vos: vos hablás, vos comés, and vos vivés.
You speak English well.
Vos hablás bien el inglés.
You live like a queen.
Vos vivés como una reina.
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Pronouns 50

Vos is also used in place of the prepositional pronoun ti.
This is for you.
Esto es para vos.
I dreamed of you.
Soné con vos.

Vosear is the use of vos as a form of respect in old style Spanish, and is not commonly
used today.
Vosotros:
 Vosostros is used in place of ustedes.
 Vosotros is used primarily in Spain.
 Vosotros is the informal plural second-person pronoun used with family and friends.
 Vosotros has two forms: masculine (vosotros) and feminine (vosotras).
 When substituted for a group of both feminine and masculine nouns, the masculine
pronoun is used.
Vosotros Conjugation Rules:
Presente:
Imperfecto:
Pretérito:
Futuro:
Potencial simple:
Subjuntivo presente:
Imperfecto de subj. 1:
Imperfecto de subj. 2:
Imperativos:
habláis
hablabais
hablasteis
hablaréis
hablaríais
habléis
hablarais
hablaseis
hablad, no habléis
coméis
comíais
comisteis
comeréis
comeríais
comáis
comierais
comieseis
comed, no comáis
Girls, you (pl.) speak too loudly.
Chicas, vosotras habláis demasiado fuerte.
You (pl.) eat very little.
Vosotros coméis muy poco.
Why do you (pl.) sleep in the living room?
¿Por qué dormís en la sala?
I never stop thinking about you (pl.).
Nunca dejo de pensar en vosotros.
You (pl.) cannot come.
Vosotros no podéis venir.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
vivís
vivían
vivisteis
viviréis
viviríais
viváis
vivierais
vivieseis
vivid, no viváis
Pronouns 51
PRACTICE WITH PERSONAL PRONOUNS AND PRESENT TENSE VERB CONJUGATION
aprender (to learn)
asistir
(to attend)
bailar
(to dance)
cantar (to sing)
comer
(to eat)
contestar (to answer)
1.
John and Mary speak Spanish.
Juan y María hablan español.
2.
They speak Spanish.
Ellos hablan español.
3.
Gloria and Claudia live in Guatemala.
Gloria y Claudia viven en Guatemala.
4.
They (Gloria and Claudia) live in Guatemala.
Ellas viven in Guatemala.
5.
We (Gloria and Claudia) eat a lot of sweets.
Nosotras comemos muchos dulces.
6.
Do you study a lot? (informal)
¿Estudias mucho?
7.
She and I attend the class.
Ella y yo asistimos la clase.
8.
We write a lot of reports.
Escribimos muchos informes.
9.
Do you (pl.) learn a lot when he teaches?
¿Aprenden mucho cuando él enseña?
enseñar (to teach)
escribir (to write)
estudiar (to study)
hablar (to speak)
usar
(to use)
vivir
(to live)
10.
No, we learn very little when he teaches.
No, aprendimos muy poco cuando él enseña.
11.
The girls attend a dance class.
Las chicas asisten una clase de bailar.
12.
They (the girls) dance the cumbia.
Ellas bailan la Cumbia.
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13.
Alice sings while we dance.
Alicia canta cuando bailamos.
14.
Do you sing in the choir?
¿Canta usted en el coro?
15.
Yes, I attend the music class.
Sí, asisto la clase de música.
16.
Mr. Munoz teaches the music class.
El señor Muñoz ensaña la clase de música.
17.
Miss Perez, you speak English well.
Señorita Pérez, usted habla bien el inglés.
18.
They teach from the book.
Ellos enseñan del libro.
19.
Do you (pl.) study a book?
¿Estudian ustedes un libro?
20.
The students don’t use backpacks.
Los estudiantes no usan mochilas.
21.
Why do you (pl.) not answer the question? (informal in Spain)
¿Por qué no contestáis vosotros la pregunta?
22.
He answers every question.
Él contesta cada pregunta.
23.
She works as a teacher.
Ella trabaja como maestra.
24.
Do you (pl.) live in Peru?
¿Viven ustedes en Perú?
25.
Yes we live in Peru.
Sí, vivimos en Perú.
26.
I work in the library.
Yo trabajo en la biblioteca.
27.
The students use a dictionary.
Los estudiantes usan un diccionario.
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28.
Do you all use a pen?
¿Usan ustedes una pluma?
29.
John uses a computer.
Juan usa un computador.
30.
The boys live near the school.
Los chicos viven cerca de la escuela.
31.
Do you all eat in the cafeteria? (informal in Spain)
¿Coméis vosotros en la cafetería?
32.
He works in the office.
Él trabaja en la oficina.
33.
The teacher uses chalk and the blackboard.
La maestra/el maestro usa tiza y la pizarra.
34.
Professor Gomez teaches a history class.
Profesor Gómez/Profesora Gómez enseña una clase de historia.
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PREPOSITIONAL PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES PREPOSICIONALES
Prepositional pronouns:
 Prepositional pronouns are introduced by a preposition and are the object of the
preposition.
 Prepositional pronouns replace the noun that comes immediately after a preposition.
 Prepositional pronouns use the same form as personal pronouns, except the firstperson singular prepositional pronoun mí and the informal second-person singular
prepositional pronoun ti.
Personal Pronouns
Prepositional Pronouns
yo = I
mí = me
tú = you (informal)
ti = you (informal)
él = he
él = him
ella = she
ella = her
usted = you (formal)
usted = you (formal)
nosotros/as = we
nosotros/as = us
vosotros/as = you (informal Spain)
vosotros/as = you plural (informal Spain)
ellos/ellas = them
ellos/ellas = them
ustedes = you plural
ustedes = you plural
The gift is for me?
¿El regalo es para mí?
Yes, the gift is for you (informal).
Sí, el regalo es para ti.
The gift is from you (pl.)?
¿El regalo es de ustedes?
No, the gift is from them.
No el regalo es de ellos.
The pharmacy is in front of you (pl). (informal in Spain)
La farmacia está delante de vosotros.
There’s always a black cloud over them.
Siempre hay una nube negra encima de ellos.
My cousin is beside them. (the girls)
Mi primo está al lado de ellas.
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Conmigo, contigo, and consigo:
 The prepositional pronouns mi (me), ti (you informal), and si (himself/herself) combine
with the preposition con (with) and add the ending -go when they are used together.
con + mí → conmigo (with me)
con + ti → contigo (with you)
con + si → consigo (with himself/herself)
Examples of con + prepositional pronoun:
I am not going with you.
No voy contigo.
Aren’t you going with me? (informal)
¿Vas conmigo?
She is going with him.
Ella va con él.
He took the books with him.
Él llevó los libros consigo.
She is not content with herself.
Ella no está contenta consigo.
Eso and ello:
 Ello (it) and eso (this) are neutered prepositional pronouns.
 Ello (it) and eso (that) refer to a general condition or something not identified.
 Ello or eso is used as the object of the preposition when the gender of the noun being
replaced is not specified.
 Ello and eso are interchangeable.
Don’t worry about it/that.
No te preocupes por ello. No te preocupes por eso.
I’ll think about it/that.
Pensaré en ello. Pensare en eso.
Don’t count on it/that.
No cuentes con ello. No cuentes con eso.
It’s/that’s why that I am going.
Literally, “is for it that I am going” or “is for that that I am going.”
Es por ello que me voy. Es por eso que me voy.
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I don’t want to talk about it/that.
Literally, “I don’t want to speak of it” or “I don’t want to speak of that.”
No quiero hablar de ello. No quiero hablar de eso.
There are six special prepositions that are followed by personal rather than prepositional
pronouns.
entre
(between)
excepto (except)
incluso (including)
menos (except)
según (according to)
salvo
(except)
There are no secrets between you and me.
No hay secretos entre tú y yo.
Everyone drank too much, including me.
Todos bebían demasiado, incluso yo.
Everyone went except you.
Todos fueron excepto tú.
According to them, these products are safe.
Según ellos, estos productos son seguros.
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POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES POSESIVOS
Possessive Pronouns
Possessor
Singular
Singular object
masculine feminine
Plural object
neutral
masculine
feminine
First-person singular
(my)
el mío
la mía
lo mío
los míos
las mías
Second-person singular
(your, informal)
el tuyo
la tuya
lo tuyo
los tuyos
las tuyas
Third-person singular
(his, hers, your)
el suyo
la suya
lo suyo
los suyos
las suyas
Possessor
Plural
Singular object
masculine
feminine
el nuestro la nuestra lo nuestro
los
nuestros
las nuestras
Second-person plural
el vuestro la vuestra lo vuestro
(your, informal in Spain)
los
vuestros
las vuestras
Third-person plural
(their or your)
los suyos
las suyas
First-person plural
(ours)
masculine feminine
Plural object
el suyo
la suya
neutral
lo suyo
Possessive pronouns:
 Possessive pronouns replace nouns.
 Possessive pronouns are normally used with the definite article.
 Possessive pronouns match the gender and number of the noun they replace.
Yours (wine glass) is in the garden.
La suya está en el jardín.
Theirs (books) are on the desk.
Los suyos están encima del escritorio.
Our idea is better than theirs. (informal in Spain)
Nuestra idea es mejor que la vuestra.
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
The definite article is usually omitted when the possessive pronoun follows the verb ser.
The car is mine.
El carro es mío.
The book is yours
El libro es tuyo.
The storm damaged ours (house).
La tormenta dañó la nuestra.
Lo (the neutered article):
 The neutered article, lo, is used with the possessive pronoun to denote one's belongings
in a general sense.
All mine.
Todo lo mío.
It’s not yours. (informal)
No es lo tuyo.
Students, I have put your (things) in the box. (informal in Spain)
Estudiantes, he puesto lo vuestro en la caja.
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DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES DEMOSTRATIVOS
DEMONSTATIVE PRONOUNS
Masculine
Feminine
Neutered
Definition
Singular
éste
ésta
esto
this, this one
Plural
éstos
éstas
Singular
ése
ésa
Plural
ésos
ésas
Singular
aquél
aquélla
Plural
aquéllos
aquéllas
these
eso
that, that one
those
aquello
that, that one (distant)
those (distant)
Demonstrative pronouns:
 Demonstrative pronouns match the gender and number of the noun they replace.
 Demonstrative pronouns take an accent mark over the first E.
 Demonstrative adjectives do not take an accent mark.
 Accent marks distinguish demonstrative pronouns from demonstrative adjectives.
 Demonstrative pronouns take the neutered form when there is not an antecedent
(noun or noun phrase) to refer back to in order to determine gender and number.
 Neutered demonstrative pronouns do not take an accent mark because there are no
neutered demonstrative adjectives.
 Demonstrative pronouns éste/ésta/éstos/éstas mean “this” or “these” (which are near
the speaker).
 Demonstrative pronouns ése/ésa/ésos/ésas mean “that” or “those” (which are near the
direct listener).
 Demonstrative pronouns aquéllo/aquélla/aqéllos/aquéllas mean “that” or “those”
(which are distant from the speaker and direct listener).
I have a shirt like this one.
Tengo una camisa igual a ésta.
Those [in the distance] are the rebels.
Aquéllos son los rebeldes.
What is this?
¿Qué es esto?
Are these your books?
¿Son éstos sus libros?
Yes, those are my books.
Sí, ésos son mis libros.
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These dogs are bigger than those.
Estos perros son más grandes que ésos.
That one (car)[in the distance] is mine.
Aquél es mío.
That is a problem.
Eso es un problema.
This house is bigger that that one.
Esta casa es más grande que ésa.
Note: La Real Academia Española has made the use of accent marks with demonstrative
pronouns optional, except when there may be confusion as to whether they are demonstrative
pronouns or demonstrative adjectives. Accent marks are used in this grammar guide even
though their use is optional.
Real Academia Española: 3.2.1. Demostrativos. Los demostrativos este, ese y aquel, con sus
femeninos y plurales, pueden ser pronombres (cuando ejercen funciones propias del
sustantivo): Eligió este; Ese ganará; Quiero dos de aquellas; o adjetivos (cuando modifican al
sustantivo): Esas actitudes nos preocupan; El jarrón este siempre está estorbando. Sea cual sea
la función que desempeñen, los demostrativos siempre son tónicos y pertenecen, por su forma,
al grupo de palabras que deben escribirse sin tilde según las reglas de acentuación: todos, salvo
aquel, son palabras llanas terminadas en vocal o en -s (→ 1.1.2) y aquel es aguda acabada en -l
(→ 1.1.1). Por lo tanto, solo cuando en una oración exista riesgo de ambigüedad porque el
demostrativo pueda interpretarse en una u otra de las funciones antes señaladas, el
demostrativo llevará obligatoriamente tilde en su uso pronominal. Así, en una oración como la
del ejemplo siguiente, únicamente la presencia o ausencia de la tilde en el demostrativo
permite interpretar correctamente el enunciado: ¿Por qué compraron aquéllos libros usados?
(aquéllos es el sujeto de la oración); ¿Por qué compraron aquellos libros usados? (el sujeto de
esta oración no está expreso, y aquellos acompaña al sustantivo libros). Las formas neutras de
los demostrativos, es decir, las palabras esto, eso y aquello, que solo pueden funcionar como
pronombres, se escriben siempre sin tilde: Eso no es cierto; No entiendo esto.
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INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES INDEFINIDOS
Singular
Masculine
Feminine
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Neutral
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
uno
una
uno
unos
unas
alguno
alguna
algo
algunos
algunas
ninguno
ninguna
nada
poco
mucho
todo
otro
mismo
tanto
poca
mucha
toda
otra
misma
tanta
poco
mucho
todo
otro
mismo
tanto
pocos
muchos
todos
otros
mismos
tantos
varios
ambos
pocas
muchas
todas
otras
mismas
tantas
varias
ambas
cualquiera
quienquiera
cualquiera/
cualesquiera
quienquiera/
quienesquiera
cualesquiera
quienesquiera
alguien
nadie
Definition
a, one,
some
some
neither,
nothing,
few
many
every, all
another
same
so many
different
both
whichever
whoever
somebody,
someone,
anybody
no one,
nobody
Indefinite pronouns:
 Indefinite pronouns match the gender and number of the noun they replace.
 Indefinite pronouns take the neutered form when there is no antecedent (noun or noun
phrase) to refer back to in order to determine gender and number.
Both [of the women] have young children.
Ambas [de las mujeres] tienen niños jóvenes.
Indefinite pronoun: ambas.
Optional prepositional phrase: de las mujeres.
The prepositional phrase gives more information about the indefinite pronoun.
Both have young children.
Ambas tienen niños jóvenes.
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I speak a little [Spanish].
Hablo un poco [de español].
Many [of the wines] are expensive.
Muchos [de los vinos] son caros.
The hotels are good, but none [of them] is cheap.
Los hoteles son buenos, pero ninguno [de ellos] es barato.
He loaned me ten books and I want to read each one.
Él me prestó diez libros y quiero leer cada uno.
Ninguno (nobody, no one, neither, not any):
 Ninguno, as a pronoun, has two forms: masculine singular (ninguno) and feminine
singular (ninguna).
 The idea of ninguno is inherently plural.
I don’t believe in either of them.
No doy fe a ninguno de ellos.
I haven’t seen either of the girls.
No he visto ninguna de las niñas.
Neutered Indefinite Pronouns:
 Indefinite pronouns take the neutered form when there is no antecedent (noun or noun
phrase) to refer back to in order to determine gender and number.
I don’t see anyone.
No veo nadie.
The boy doesn’t eat anything.
El niño no come nada.
Do you want something to eat?
¿Quieres algo para comer?
Negative and affirmative indefinite pronouns:
 The negative particle “no” precedes the verb.
 Negative pronouns follow the verb when used with “no.”
Affirmative
alguien (someone, somebody, anybody)
algo
(something)
Negative
nadie (no one, nobody)
nada (nothing)
No one can help me.
Nadie puede ayudarme.
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There is nothing more important.
No hay nada más importante.
No, no one knows it.
No, no lo sabe nadie.
Some of these photos are clear.
Algunas de estas fotos son claras.
No, no one studied the lesson.
No, no estudiaba nadie la lección.
Yes, somebody is responsible.
Sí, alguien es responsable.
I don’t want to see anyone.
No quiero ver a nadie.
Cualquiera → cualesquiera; quienquiera → quienesquiera:
 These indefinite pronouns have two forms: singular and plural.
 Cualquiera → cualesquiera: the plural -es is placed in the middle of the word.
 Quienquiera → quienesquiera: the plural -es is placed in the middle of the word.
Anybody can do it.
Cualquiera puede hacerlo.
Whoever those men were, they were waiting for the train.
Quienesquiera que fueran esos hombres, estaban esperando por el tren.
I need a pen. Whichever!
Necesito una pluma. ¡Cualquiera!
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DIRECT-OBJECT AND INDIRECT-OBJECT PRONOUNS
LOS PRONOMBRES DE COMPLEMENTOS DIRECTOS E INDIRECTOS
Direct-Object Pronouns
me
(me)
te
(you, informal)
la/lo (it, her, him, you)
nos
(us)
las/los (them, you pl.)
os
(you pl., informal in Spain
Indirect-Object Pronouns
me
(me)
te
(you, informal)
le-----se (him,her, you)
nos
(us)
les-----se (them, you pl.)
os
(you pl., informal in Spain)
Direct-object and indirect-object pronouns:
 Direct-object pronouns have the same form as indirect-object pronouns with the
exception of third-person pronouns.
o Third-person direct-object pronouns are la/lo and las/los.
o Third-person indirect-object pronouns are le and les.
 Normally both direct-object and indirect-object pronouns are placed immediately
before a conjugate verb.
Direct object pronoun:
 The direct object receives the action from the verb.
 The direct-object pronoun replaces the direct-object noun in a sentence.
Examples of direct-object nouns being replaced with direct-object pronouns:
I threw the ball.
I threw it.
Yo tiré la pelota.
Yo la tiré.
The girls will bring the drinks. Las chicas traerán los refrescos.
The girls will bring them.
Las chicas los traerán.
William wrote the letter.
William wrote it.
Guillermo escribió la carta.
Guillermo la escribió.
The dog bit the man.
The dog bit him.
El perro mordió el hombre.
El perro lo mordió.
We invited Luz and Isabel.
We invited them.
Nosotros invitamos a Luz e Isabel.
Nosotros las invitamos.
Yo veo a usted y ella cada día.
I see you (pl.) everyday. (informal in Spain) Os veo cada día.
I see you and her everyday.
Indirect-object pronoun:
 Indirect objects receive a direct object.
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

Indirect-object pronouns replace the indirect-object noun in the sentence.
Indirect-object pronouns have singular and plural forms, but they do not have masculine
and feminine forms.
Examples of indirect-object nouns being replaced by indirect-object pronouns:
I threw the ball to Carl.
I threw him the ball.
Yo tiré la pelota a Carlos.
Yo le tiré la pelota.
The boy ran to his mama.
The boy ran to her.
El chico corrió a su mamá.
El chico le corrió.
She showed the bill to the customers.
She showed them the bill.
Ella mostró la cuenta a los clientes.
Ella les mostró la cuenta.
Julie gave the message to her friends.
Julie gave them the message.
Julia dio el mensaje a sus amigas.
Julia les dio el mensaje.
Edward called Charles and me.
Edward called us.
Eduardo llamó a Carlos y a mí.
Eduardo nos llamó.
Girls, I am going to give a gift to each one of you.
Niñas, voy a dar un regalo a cada una de ustedes.
Boys, I am going to give a gift to you (pl.). (informal in Spain)
Niños, os voy a dar un regalo.
Indirect-object pronouns and direct-object pronouns together:
 Indirect-object pronouns precede direct-object pronouns.
 The indirect-object pronouns, le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
Examples of subject nouns being replaced by pronouns and object nouns being replaced by
object pronouns:
The pitcher threw the ball to the catcher.
El lanzador tiró la pelota al receptador.
He threw it to him.
Él se la tiró.
Santa Claus gives toys to us.
Papa Noel regala juguetes a nosotros.
He gives them to us.
Él nos los regala.
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John will send the letter to Magdalena.
Juan enviará la carta a Magdalena.
He will send it to her.
Él se la enviará.
The waiters brought the soft-drinks to the boys.
Los meseros trajeron los refrescos a los chicos.
They brought them to them.
Ellos se los trajeron.
Julie gave the message to her friends.
Julia dio el mensaje a sus amigas.
She gave it to them.
Ella se lo dio.
The teacher showed the photo to Robert and me.
La maestra mostró la foto a Roberto y a mí.
She showed it to us.
Ella nos la mostró.
Object pronouns with an infinitive when the infinitive is a noun:
 Direct-object pronouns are always attached to the infinitive when the infinitive is used
as a noun.
 If you attach both an indirect-object pronoun and a direct-object pronoun to the
infinitive, you must remember to add an accent mark to maintain the correct
pronunciation.
Accent marks when attaching object pronouns to infinitives:
 Decir [de-SĬR], like all infinitive verb forms, ends in -r, so it is an aguda with the natural
stress on the last syllable of the word.
 Decir → decirlo, [de-SĬR-lo]. When the direct-object pronoun is attached, decirlo ends in
a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable. Because the
stressed syllable has not changed, an accent mark is not needed.
 Decir → decírselo, [de-SĬR-se-lo]. When two pronouns are attached to the infinitive, an
accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the pronunciation.
We did it in order to help you. (informal)
Lo hicimos para ayudarte.
To know us is to love us.
Conocernos es amarnos.
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Dessert, I don’t have money to buy it for you. (formal)
El postre, no tengo dinero para comprárselo.
Object pronouns with paired verbs:
 A paired verb is a conjugated verb paired with an infinitive verb.
 Object pronouns can either be attached to the infinitive verb or placed before the
paired verbs.
 The indirect-object pronoun always goes before the direct-object pronoun.
 The indirect-object pronouns, le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
 When two pronouns are attached to the infinitive, an accent mark is needed so that the
attached pronouns do not change the pronunciation.
The pitcher wants to throw it to him.
El lanzador quiera tirársela. / El lanzador se la quiera tirar.
We don’t want to return it to them.
No queremos devolvérselo. / No se lo queremos devolver.
She is going to study it.
Ella va a estudiarlo. / Ella lo va a estudiar.
We can’t understand it.
No podemos comprenderlo. / No lo podemos comprender.
Object pronouns with the present participle:
 Object pronouns can either be attached to the present participle or placed before the
verbs.
 If you attach either an indirect-object pronoun or a direct-object pronoun to the present
participle, you must remember to add an accent mark to maintain the correct
pronunciation.
Accent marks when attaching object pronouns to present participles:
 The present participle of dar is dando. Dando ends in an -o, so it is a llana with the
natural stress on the next-to-last syllable. Dando [DAN-do].
 Dándolo is the present participle of dando with the direct-object pronoun attached. This
word ends in an -o, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, there is a difference in the pronunciation of
the words. × Dandolo [dan-DO-lo] ≠ dando [DAN-do].
 With an accent mark, the attached pronoun does not change the pronunciation.
√ Dándolo [DAN-do-lo] = dando [DAN-do].
Are you telling me the truth?
¿Estás diciéndome la verdad? / ¿Me estás diciendo la verdad?
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Yes, I am telling it to you. (informal)
Sí, estoy diciéndotela. / Sí, te la estoy diciendo.
I am not asking you anything. (formal)
No estoy pidiéndole nada. / No le estoy pidiendo nada.
Object pronouns with affirmative and negative commands:
 With affirmative commands, attach object pronouns to the end of the verb.
 With negative commands, the pronouns are placed before the verb.
 When used together, the indirect-object pronoun goes before the direct-object
pronoun.
 The indirect-object pronouns le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
 If you attach either an indirect-object pronoun or a direct-object pronoun to an
affirmative command, you must remember to add an accent mark to maintain the
correct pronunciation.
Accent marks when attaching pronouns to affirmative commands:
 The affirmative informal command of escribir is escriba. Escriba ends in a vowel, so it is a
llana with the natural stress is on the next- to-last syllable [ĕs-KRI-βa].
 Escribalo (write it) is the affirmative informal command of escribir with the direct-object
pronoun attached. Escribalo ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress is on
the next-to-last syllable [ĕs-kri-βA-lo].
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, there is a difference in the pronunciation of
the words. Χ Escribalo [ĕs-kri-βA-lo] ≠ escriba [ĕs-KRI-βa].
 With the accent mark, the stress is placed on the correct syllable so that the attached
pronoun does not change the pronunciation. √ Escríbalo [ĕs-KRI-βa-lo] = escriba [ĕs-KRIβa].
Tell it to me! (affirmative informal command)
¡Dímelo!
Don’t tell it to me! (negative informal command)
¡No me lo digas!
Explain it to me. (affirmative informal command)
Explícamelo.
Don’t explain it to me. (negative informal command)
No me lo expliques.
Mr. Molina, explain it to me. (affirmative formal command)
Señor Molina, explíquemelo.
Mr. Molina, don’t explain it to me! (negative informal command)
¡Señor Molina, no me lo explique!
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69
PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS
UNIT 5
Unit Five Table of Contents......................................................................................... 69
The Personal “A”…………………............................................................……………………….. 70
Practice with the Personal “A” .................................................................................... 72
Prepositions................................................................................................................ 74
Conjunctions............................................................................................................... 76
Alfonso the Wise (Alfonso el Sabio) 1221-1284, was the king of Castile, León, and
Galicia. An educated, intellectual with a thirst for knowledge, he employed
Jewish, Christian, and Muslim scholars to translated books from Hebrew, Latin,
and Arabic into Castilian.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Prepositions and Conjunctions 70
THE PERSONAL “A”
EL “A” PERSONAL
The personal “a”:
 The personal “a” is used with direct objects.
 The direct object receives the action of the verb.
 The personal “a” is placed before these direct objects:
o Named persons
o Beloved animals
o Things that have been personified
o Geographical places (except those that require a definite article)
The personal “a” is not used with direct objects which are things in general.
The personal “a” is used with proper names:
I am going to look for George.
Voy a buscar a Jorge.
I am going to look for a doctor.
Voy a buscar un médico.
(The personal “a” is not used with an unspecified person).
The personal “a” is used with common nouns that refer to specific persons:
I see my sister in the cafe.
Veo a mi hermana en el café.
I see a man in the hotel.
Veo un hombre en el hotel.
(The personal “a” is not used with an unspecified person).
The personal “a” is used with pets or personified animals:
Patricia loves her dog.
Patricia quiere a su perro.
They killed a chicken.
Ellos mataron una gallina.
(The personal “a” is not used with animals in general).
The personal “a” is used with geographical names:
I have visited Cuba many times.
He visitado a Cuba muchas veces.
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 71
I have visited Habana many times.
He visitado la Habana muchas veces.
(The personal “a” is not used with places that require a definite article).
The personal “a” is used with things personified:
I am going to pray to our star.
Voy a rezar a nuestra estrella.
Look at the stars in the sky.
Mire las estrellas en el cielo.
(The personal “a” is not used with things which are not personified).
The personal “a” is not be used after tener (to have) or hay (there is):
I have a brother and a sister.
Tengo un hermano y una hermana.
There is a professor in the classroom.
Hay un profesor en el aula.
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 72
PRACTICE WITH THE PERSONAL “A”
1.
He is taking Maria to the dance.
Él lleva a María al baile.
2.
I am inviting his daughters to the party.
Invito a sus hijas a la fiesta.
3.
Paul called Gloria.
Pablo llamó a Gloria.
4.
I called the repair shop.
Llamé el taller.
5.
She drove to the repair shop.
Ella condujo al taller mecánico. (A also means “to”).
6.
He fears death.
Teme a la muerte. (personalized noun)
7.
I am looking for my dog.
Busco a mi perro.
8.
Do you see anyone in the street? (informal)
¿Ves a alguien en la calle?
9.
I don’t know any of them.
No conozco a ninguno.
10.
I have some Cuban friends.
Tengo algunos amigos cubanos. (The personal “a” not used after tener).
11.
Julio taught Marta to play the guitar.
Julio le enseñó a Marta a tocar la guitarra.
12.
They see a waitress in the kitchen.
Ven una mesera en la concina. (The personal “a” is not used for an unspecified person).
13.
They gave a dog to the girl.
Ellos le dieron un perro a la niña.
14.
I don’t see anyone.
No veo a nadie.
15.
We saw Peter at the market.
Nosotros vimos a Pedro en el mercado.
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 73
16.
I found an engineer to help me.
Encontré un ingeniero para ayudarme.
(The personal “a” is not used with an unspecified person).
17.
Are you going to call your mother-in-law?
¿Vas a llamarle a tu suegra?
18.
Robert loves Isabel like a daughter.
Roberto quiere a Isabel como su hija.
19.
You (pl.) walk to the bakery to buy fresh bread. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros camináis a la panadería para comprar pan fresco. (A also means “to”).
20.
The professor gives the students their grades the next day.
El profesor les da a los estudiantes las notas el próximo día.
21.
Martin brought his girlfriend to the party.
Martín trajo a la novia a la fiesta.
22.
Do you know Dr. Patricia Jimenez? (informal)
¿Conoces a la doctora Patricia Jiménez?
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 74
PREPOSITIONS
PREPOSICIONES
Prepositions:
 Prepositions are used to introduce prepositional phrases (locuciones preposicionales).
 Prepositional phrases are groups of at least two words containing a preposition, the
object of the preposition, and any modifying clause.
 The object of the preposition must be a noun or pronoun.
 Prepositional phrases can be an adverbial clause or an adjective clause.
Yesterday we drove [to the city].
Ayer manejamos a la ciudad.
Prepositional phrase: to the city.
Preposition: to.
Object of the preposition: city.
The prepositional phrase functions as an adverbial clause.
Both [of the women] have young children.
Ambas [de las mujeres] tienen niños jóvenes.
Prepositional phrase: of the women.
Preposition: of.
Object of the preposition: women.
The prepositional phrase functions as an adjective clause.
More examples of prepositional phrases:
I am speaking [with my brother].
Estoy hablando [con mi hermano].
The teacher is respected [by all the students].
El maestro es respectado [por todos los estudiantes].
She is living [in San Francisco].
Ella está viviendo [en San Francisco].
Many [of the wines] are expensive.
Muchos [de los vinos] son caros.
They will arrive [between ten and eleven].
Llegarán [entre las diez y once].
The trip is [from the mountains to the coast].
El viaje es [desde las montañas hasta la costa].
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 75
Contractions of the prepositions a (to) or de (of) when preceding the masculine definite
article el (the):
A + EL → AL
DE + EL → DEL
Ask the waiter if it’s not the man’s hat.
Pregúntale al mesero si no es el sombrero del hombre.
Give the drink to the gentleman at the bar.
Dale la bebida al señor en la barra.
Common Single Word Prepositions
antes
(before)
hasta
(towards)
con
(with)
por
(for what reason)
contra
(against)
para
(for what purpose)
dentro
(inside)
según
(according to)
desde
(from)
sobre
(on)
encima
(on)
tras
(through)
Common Multi-Word Prepositions
a pesar de
(in spite of)
delante de (in front of)
acerca de
(close to)
dentro de
afuera de
(outside of)
desde
al lado de
(beside)
después de (after)
alrededor de
cerca de
(around)
(close to)
detrás de
(inside)
(from)
(behind)
encima de (over)
con el objeto de (with the object of)
lejos de
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
(far from)
Prepositions and Conjunctions 76
CONJUNCTIONS
NEXOS
Coordinating conjunctions (nexos coordinantes o conjunciones coordinantes):
 Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and sentences together.
 Common coordinating conjunctions are “and,” “or,” “but,” and “however.”
Y (and):
 Y means “and.”
The park has some swings and a slide.
El parque tiene varios columbios y un tobogán.

Y (and) is replaced by e (and) before a word beginning with an I or HI.
She is studying the culture and history of Mexico.
Ella estudia la cultura e historia de México.
O (or):
 O means “or.”
I drank one or two glasses of red wine.
Bebí uno o dos vasos de vino tinto.

O (or) is replaced by u (or) before a word beginning with an O or HO.
Are they wolves or sheep?
¿Son ellos lobos u ovejas?
Subordinate conjunctions (nexos subordinantes o conjunciones subordinantes):
 Subordinate conjunctions join subordinate adverbial clauses to the main clause of a
sentence.
 Subordinate adverbial clauses include both a noun and a verb.
 Subordinate adverbial clauses have a verb, while prepositional clauses do not.
There is no doubt [that he is telling the truth].
No hay duda [que él está diciendo la verdad].
Subordinate adverbial clause: that he is telling the truth.
You know [that they don’t speak English].
Sabe [que ellos no hablan inglés].
Subordinate adverbial clause: thay they don’t speak English.
You did it [before they arrived].
Lo hiciste [antes de que ellos llegaron].
Subordinate adverbial clause: before they arrived.
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Prepositions and Conjunctions 77
Many subordinating conjunctions are formed by adding que to an adverb or to a preposition:
I came because you asked me.
Vine porque me pediste.
Laugh until you cry.
Llora hasta que rías.
She arrived at the station after they had left.
Ella llegó a la estación después de que han salido.
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
a condición de que
a fin de que
a medida que
a menos de que
a no ser que
antes (de) que
con el objecto de que
con la intención de que
aunque
con tal (de) que
de manera que
de modo que
de la manera que
debido a que
del modo (en) que
después de que
en caso de que
en vista de que
hasta que
luego que
mientras que
para que
por culpa de que
por miedo de que
porque
puesto que
sin que
suponiendo que
visto que
ya que
(on the condition that)
(so that)
(as, while)
(unless)
(unless)
(before)
(with the object of)
(with the intention of)
(even though)
(provided that, as long as)
(so that)
(so that)
(in the way that)
(due to)
(in the way that)
(after)
(in case)
(seeing that)
(until)
(after)
(while)
(so that)
(since)
(for fear that)
(because)
(since)
(without that)
(supposing, assuming)
(seeing that)
(since)
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78
LINKING VERBS
UNIT 6 LINKING VERBS
Unit Six Table of Contents.........................................................................................
Linking Verbs Estar (to be) and Ser (to be)...............................................................
Practice with the Linking Verbs Estar and Ser..........................................................
Linking Verbs for a Change in State of Being............................................................
Tener to Express a Physical or an Emotional State of Being.....................................
A Detailed Explanation of Estar (to be) and Ser (to be)............................................
More Practice with Estar and Ser..............................................................................
78
79
82
83
84
86
90
La Celestina was published by Fernando de Rojas in 1499 and marks the beginning of the
literary renaissance in Spain. In this story of a love affair which ends in tragedy, the hero
falls from a ladder to his death and in response his grieving lover leaps from a tower to her
own death. Based on themes of the book, Maja y Celestina en el Balcón was painted by
Francisco de Goya (1812). Goya is regarded as both the last of the Old Masters and the first
of the moderns.
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Linking Verbs 79
LINKING VERBS ESTAR (to be) and SER (to be)
VERBOS COPULATIVOS ESTAR Y SER
Linking verbs:
 Linking verbs do not show action. Instead, they link the subject to a subject
complement.
 The subject complement describes or helps define the subject.
 Adjectives are often used in the subject compliment.
 When an adjective is used in the subject complement, it matches the gender and
number of the subject noun.
Subject Complements introduced by linking verbs:
 Linking verbs and subject complements are similar to action verbs and direct objects.
The pitcher threw the ball.
El lanzador tiró la pelota.
Action verb: threw.
Direct object: ball.
The car is old.
El carro es viejo.
Linking non-action verb: is.
Subject complement adjective: old (masculine singular).
Estar (to be) and ser (to be):
 The most common linking verbs are ser (to be) and estar (to be).
 Estar and ser are irregularly conjugated verbs:
ESTAR AND SER
Present-Tense Indicative Conjugation
Agent
Estar
Ser
Yo
First-person singular
(I)
estoy
soy
Tú
Second-person singular
(you, informal)
estás
eres
Usted
Second-person singular
está
es
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Linking Verbs 80
(you, formal)
Él
Third-person singular (he)
está
es
Nosotros, Nosotras,
First-person plural
(we)
masculine and feminine forms
estamos
somos
Vosotros, Vosotras,
Second-person plural
(you plural, informal in Spain)
masculine and feminine forms
estáis
sois
están
son
Ella
Third-person singular (she)
Ustedes,
Second-person plural
(you plural, formal)
Ellos, Ellas
Third-person plural (they)
masculine and feminine forms
Estar:
 Estar introduces a subject complement which describes a temporary condition,
situation, or circumstance. Something that can easily change.
Examples of the use of the linking verb estar:
Today I am in the school.
Estoy en la escuela.
Paulina is sick.
Paulina está enferma.
The girls are tired.
Las chicas están cansadas.
You (pl.) are drunk. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros estáis borrachos.
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Linking Verbs 81
We are angry.
Estamos enojados.
You (pl.) are in Bolivia.
Ustedes están en Bolivia.
Ser:



Ser introduces a subject complement which identifies.
The identifying quality or characteristic tends to be long lasting or permanent.
The indentifying quality or characteristic is not likely to change.
Examples of the use of the linking verb ser:
I am an athlete.
Yo soy un atleta.
Claudia, you are not the same person I knew.
Claudia, tú no eres la misma persona que conocí.
She is my friend.
Ella es mi amiga.
We are electricians.
Somos electricistas.
You (pl.) are tall. (informal feminine in Spain)
Vosotras sois altas.
You (pl.) are missionaries?
¿Son ustedes misionarios?
The shirts are made in Mexico.
Las camisas son hechas en México.
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Linking Verbs 82
PRACTICE WITH ESTAR AND SER
1.
Who is she?
¿Quién es ella?
2.
She is Miss Isabel Fernandez.
Ella es la señorita Isabel Fernández.
3.
Miss Fernandez is pretty, single, and a student here
Señorita Fernández es bonita, soltara, y una estudiante aquí.
4.
You are frustrated. (informal feminine)
Tú estás frustrada.
5.
You are not a leader. (informal)
Tú no eres un líder.
6.
You (pl.) are in the station.
Ustedes están en la estación.
7.
I am American.
Yo soy americano.
8.
We are married.
Somos casados.
9.
They are dressed.
Ellos están vestidos.
10.
You (pl.) are cruel. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros sois crueles.
11.
Today I am angry.
Hoy estoy enojado.
12.
Are you (pl.) Catholic?
¿Son ustedes católicos?
13.
The cars are red.
Los carros son rojos.
14.
Paulina is sick.
Paulina está enferma.
15.
We are Guatemalans.
Somos guatemaltecos.
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Linking Verbs 83
LINKING VERBS TO EXPRESS A CHANGE IN A STATE OF BEING
Ponerse (to become):
 Ponerse is a linking verb which introduces a subject complement that describes a change
in emotions or feelings.
The man became angry.
El hombre se puso enojado.
The dogs get nervous when there is lightning and thunder.
Los perros se ponen nerviosos cuando hay relámpago y truenos.
Volverse (to suddenly become):
 Volverse is a linking verb which introduces a subject complement that describes a
sudden change in emotions or feelings.
She suddenly went crazy with anger.
Ella se volvió loca con rabia.
Suddenly he became famous.
De repente él se volvió famoso.
Crecer (to grow):
 Crecer is a linking verb which introduces a subject complement that describes a slow
change in a state of being.
We grow older every day.
Crecemos más viejos cada día.
Many times children grow much taller than their parents.
Muchas veces los hijos crecen más altos que los padres.
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Linking Verbs 84
TENER (TO HAVE) TO EXPRESS A STATE OF BEING
Tener (to have):
 Tener is not a linking verb.
 Tener is an action verb.
 Tener is used to express possession.
 Tener is used to express chronological age.
 Tener is used to express a physical sensation.
 Tener is used to express feelings.
Tener is an irregularly conjugated verb:
 Tener is a -go verb.
 Tener is a stem-changing -ie verb.
 Tener’s stem changes from e → u in the preterit verb.
TENER (to have)
Irregular in the present-indicative and preterit verb tense
Singular Agent
Yo
First-person singular
(I)
Tú
Second-person singular
( you, informal)
Irregular
conjugation
Plural Agent
Irregular
conjugation
tengo
tuve
Nosotros, Nosotras
First-person plural
(we)
masculine and feminine forms
tenemos
tuvimos
tienes
tuviste
Vosotros, Vosotras
Second-person plural
( informal in Spain)
masculine and feminine forms
tenéis
tuvisteis
Usted
Second-person singular
(you, formal)
Él
Third-person singular (he)
Ella
Third-person singular (she)
Ustedes
Third-person plural
(you plural, formal)
tiene
tuvo
Ellos, Ellas
Third-person plural
(they)
masculine and feminine forms
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
tienen
tuvieron
Linking Verbs 85
Tener to express a person’s age:
I am sixteen years old.
Yo tengo dieciséis años.
You are seventeen years old. (informal)
Tú tienes diecisiete años.
Tener to express a physical sensation:
I have a headache.
Yo tengo dolor de cabeza.
She is cold.
Ella tiene frío.
He is hot.
Él tiene calor.
We are hungry.
Tenemos hambre.
They are thirsty.
Ellos tienen sed.
You (pl.) are sleepy.
Ustedes tienen sueño.
Tener to express feelings:
I was afraid of that dog.
Yo tenía miedo de aquel perro.
Yesterday I had bad luck.
Ayer, tuve mala suerte.
You had confidence in him? (informal)
¿Tenías tú confianza en él?
Sometimes she was jealous.
A veces ella tenía celos.
We were ashamed.
Teníamos vergüenza.
You (pl.) were always right. (informal in Spain)
Siempre tenías razón.
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Linking Verbs 86
A DETAILED EXPLANATION OF ESTAR (to be) and SER (to be)
Estar and ser, the different uses:
 Estar is associated with a temporary condition, usually a situation or circumstance which
can easily change.
 Ser identifies characteristics or qualities of the subject which are long lasting and not
likely to change.
Exceptions:
 Time always uses ser.
 Location, either permanent or temporary, uses estar.
o Exception: use ser when referring to a location where an event takes place.
CONJUGATION OF THE VERBS ESTAR AND SER
Estar
Present:
estoy,
estás,
Imperfect:
estaba,
estabas,
Future:
estaré,
estarás,
Conditional:
estaría, estarías,
Subjunctive:
esté,
estés,
Preterit:
estuve,
estuviste,
Past subj. 1:
estuviera, estuvieras,
Past subj. 2:
estuviese, estuvieses,
Present participle: estando
Past participle:
estado
Ser
Present:
soy,
eres,
Imperfect:
era,
eras,
Future:
seré,
serás,
Conditional:
sería,
serías,
Subjunctive:
sea,
seas,
Preterit:
fui,
fuiste,
Past subj. 1:
fuera, fueras,
Past subj. 2;
fuese, fueses,
Present participle: siendo
Past participle:
sido
está,
estamos,
estáis,
estaba,
estábamos, estabais,
estará,
estaremos,
estaréis,
estaría,
estaríamos, estaríais,
esté,
estemos,
estéis,
estuvo,
estuvimos,
estuvisteis,
estuviera, estuviéramos, estuvierais,
estuviese, estuviésemos, estuvieseis,
es,
era,
será,
sería,
sea,
fue,
fuera,
fuese,
somos,
éramos,
seremos,
seríamos,
seamos,
fuimos,
fuéramos,
fuésemos,
sois,
erais,
seréis,
seríais,
seáis,
fuisteis,
fuerais,
fueseis,
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
son
eran
serán
serían
sean
fueron
fueran
fuesen
están
estaban
estarán
estarían
estén
estuvieron
estuvieran
estuviesen
Linking Verbs 87
Estar:
 Estar introduces a subject complement which describes a temporary condition,
situation, or circumstance which can easily change.
 Estar refers to a location which may be either temporary or permanent (except where
an event takes place).
Examples of the use of the verb estar:

Indicating how something is perceived at a given time — to look, to feel, or to taste:
Maria is very pretty tonight.
María está muy bonita esta noche.
The desert is delicious.
El postre está delicioso

Conditions resulting from an action use estar + the past particle as an adjective:
The doors are closed.
Las puertas están cerradas.
The battle is lost.
La batalla está perdida.

Location of an object either permanent or temporary:
Where is the bathroom?
¿Dónde está el baño?
San Antonio is in Texas.
San Antonio está en Texas.

Estar + the present participle as an adverb forms a “progressive verb”:
The horses are running.
Los cabellos están corriendo.
The dogs were barking all night.
Toda la noche los perros estuvieron ladrando.
Ser:




Ser introduces a subject complement which identifies.
The identifying quality or characteristic tends to be long lasting or permanent.
The indentifying quality or characteristic is not likely to change.
Time always uses ser.
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Linking Verbs 88
Examples of the use of the verb ser:

Age:
My great grandparents are old.
Mis bisabuelos son viejos.

Appearance:
William is tall.
Guillermo es alto.

Monica is pretty.
Mónica es bonita.
The apple is red.
La manzana es roja.
The river is wide.
El río es ancho.
An orange is a fruit.
Una naranja es una fruta.
Inherent attribute:
The snow is white.
La nieve es blanca.

Magdalena is young.
Magdalena es joven.
Location where an event takes place:
The party will be at George’s house. The meeting was in the hotel.
La fiesta será en casa de Jorge.
La reunión era en el hotel.

Material:
The boat is made of wood.
La lancha es hecha de madera.

The statue is of metal.
La estatua es de metal.
Nationality:
He is not from Korea; he is from China.
Él no es de Corea; es de China.

Origin:
This suit is Italian.
Este traje es de Italia.

This shirt is from Guatemala.
Esta camisa es de Guatemala.
Ownership:
The keys are Claudia’s.
Las llaves son de Claudia.

Katherine is Colombian.
Catarina es colombiana.
That bicycle is Mary’s
Esa bicicleta es de María.
Occupation:
We are students.
Somos estudiantes
Miguel is a professor.
Miguel es profesor.
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Linking Verbs 89

Personality:
Henry is a serious boy.
Enrique es un chico serio.

Religion:
Carla is Catholic.
Carla es católica.

Rocío is a good person.
Rocío es una buena persona.
Isabel is a Baptist.
Isabel es un bautista.
Impersonal expressions:
It’s important to study.
Es importante estudiar.
Botero is famous for his art.
Botero es famoso por su arte.

The passive voice uses ser + the past-participle adverb:
The story was written by Quiroga.
El cuento fue escrito por Quiroga.
The castle was constructed in 1812 by the mores.
El castillo fue construido en 1812 por los moros.

Time and dates:
It’s 1:30
Es la una y media.
It’s the 10th of December.
Es el diez de diciembre.
It’s 9:00
Son las nueve.
It was 4:30 when Adam arrived.
Eran las cuatro y media cuando llegó Adán.
Some adjectives may be used with either estar or ser:
 Estar indicates a condition which is easy and/or likely to change.
 Ser refers to an identifying characteristic or quality not likely to change.
They are ready.
Están listos.
They are clever.
Son listos.
Are you sure?
¿Está seguro?
Is it safe?
¿Es seguro?
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MORE PRACTICE WITH ESTAR OR SER
1.
Mr. Hernandez is young.
El señor Hernández es joven. (identifying quality)
2.
Maria looks very pretty tonight.
María está muy bonita esta noche. (perception)
The boy was happy after going to the park.
El chico estaba alegre después de ir al parque. (temporary which could easily change)
3.
She was singing when they arrived.
Ella estaba cantando cuando llegaron. (progressive tense can easily change)
4.
The desert is delicious.
El postre está delicioso. (perception)
5.
It was 4:30 when Garcia arrived.
Eran las cuatro y media cuando llegó García. (to express time)
6.
The tower was constructed in 1812 by the Moors.
La torre fue construida en 1812 por los moros. (passive voice)
7.
Today the teacher is tired and I am sick.
Hoy la maestra está cansada y yo estoy enfermo. (temporary condition)
8.
The letters finally are written.
Las cartas ya están escritas. (condition resulting from an action)
9.
Where are the soldiers?
¿Dónde están los soldados? (location)
10.
The book was written by Carlos Antonio Alvarado.
El libro fue escrito por Carlos Antonio Alvarado. (true passive)
11.
Bogota is in Colombia.
Bogotá está en Colombia. (location)
12.
She is intelligent. She is from Mexico.
Ella es inteligente. Ella es de México. (characteristic)
13.
The door is closed.
La puerta está cerrada. (condition resulting from an action)
14.
Where will the meeting take place? It will be in the conference room.
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¿Dónde será la reunión? Será en el salón de conferencias. (ser with where an event will
take place)
15.
She is eating an apple.
Ella está comiendo una manzana. (progressive tense)
16.
The house is small. The house is white.
La casa es pequeña. La casa es blanca. (inherent)
17.
It’s my most elegant dress.
Es mi vestido más elegante. (quality)
18.
The doors were closed by Luz Maria at eleven o’clock.
Las puertas fueron cerradas por Luz María a las once. (passive voice)
19.
Normally Mario is a calm person, but today he is bothered.
Normalmente Mario es una persona tranquila pero hoy está muy molesto.
(identifying quality —calm personality, but temporarily bothered)
20.
Jose Marti is a hero to many people.
José Martí es un héroe a muchos.
21.
Too much sugar is bad for your health.
Demasiado azúcar es malo por la salud.
22.
The students are busy this semester because the classes are difficult.
Los estudiantes están ocupados este semestre porque las clases son difíciles.
23.
Adam is from Guadalajara, but today he is studying in New York.
Adán es de Guadalajara, pero hoy él está estudiando en Nueva York.
24.
The sky was covered in clouds.
El cielo estaba cubierto de nubes.
25.
The entire world was asleep.
Todo el mundo estaba dormido.
26.
The twelfth of April is my birthday.
El doce de abril es el día de mi cumpleaños.
27.
How is the weather?
¿Cómo está el tiempo?
28.
The books are where you left them.
Los libros están donde los dejaste.
This milk is bad.
Esta leche está mala. (perception)
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ADJECTIVES
UNIT 7
Unit Seven Table of Contents............................................................................ 92
Adjectives.......................................................................................................... 93
Practice with Descriptive Adjectives and Regularly Conjugated Verbs............ 99
Apócope of Certain Adjectives.........................................................................100
Possessive Adjectives.......................................................................................102
Practice with Possessive Adjectives and Possessive Pronouns........................109
Demonstrative Adjectives................................................................................112
Practice with Demonstrative Adj. and Demonstrative Pronouns....................114
Indefinite Adjectives........................................................................................115
Practice with Indefinite Adjectives and Indefinite Pronouns...........................118
Practice with Affirmative and Negative Sentences..........................................120
La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus Fortunas y Adversidades, a Spanish novella
published anonymously in 1554, tells the story of a poor boy, Lazarillo, and his struggles
after he becomes an apprentice to a blind beggar. This painting by Francisco de Goya
(1819) depicts the blind man searching the mouth of his apprentice; he believes
Lazarillo has eaten his food.
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ADJECTIVES
ADJETIVOS
ADJECTIVE BASICS
Descriptive adjectives:
 Descriptive adjectives give details of the characteristics, traits, or conditions of the noun
they describe.
 Descriptive adjectives follow the noun they describe.
 Most adjectives are descriptive.
 Adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
I live in a famous hotel.
Yo vivo en un hotel famoso.
You eat grilled chicken and green beans.
Tú comes pollo asado y habichuelas verdes.
The ugly dog lives in the little white house.
El perro feo vive en la casa pequeña blanca.
John and Paul live in the tall building.
Juan y Pablo viven en el edificio alto.
We eat hot soup.
Nosotros comemos sopa caliente.
Distinguishing adjectives:
 Distinguishing adjectives set the noun apart by classification, group, or category.
 Distinguishing adjectives precede the noun.
 Adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
 There are six types or groups of distinguishing adjectives.
The Six Types of Distinguishing Adjectives
1.
Numbering
dos hombres
(two men)
2.
Indefinite
mucha lluvia (a lot of rain)
3.
Interrogatory
cuántos tacos (how many books)
4.
Possessive
nuestra casa
(our house)
5.
Demonstrative
estas sillas
(these chairs)
6.
Inherent/usual qualities
la blanca nieve (the white snow)
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Distinguishing adjectives:
I speak two languages.
Yo hablo dos idiomas.
John, do you live in that apartment?
Juan, ¿vives tú en ese apartamento?
Mr. Gonzales, which is your preference?
Señor González, ¿cuál es su preferido?
Yes, we eat in our office.
Sí, comemos en nuestra oficina.
Some workers eat in the cafeteria.
Unos trabajadores comen en la cafetería.
Distinguishing and descriptive adjectives together:
Both teams have tall players.
Ambos equipos tienen jugadores altos.
o Both (ambos) is a distinguishing adjective which is placed before the
noun.Tall (altos) is a descriptive adjective which is placed after the noun.
I do not understand the second paragraph of the Spanish poem.
No entiendo el segundo párrafo de la poema española.
o Second (segundo) is a distinguishing adjective which is placed before the
noun. Spanish (española) is a descriptive adjective which is placed after
the noun.
Meaning of the adjective may be determined by the position of the adjective:
 For a few adjectives, the meaning of the adjective will change depending on its
placement before or after the noun.
My friend, who is old, lives in that nursing home.
Mi amigo viejo, vive en esa residencia de ancianos.
My old friend is here.
Mi viejo amigo está aquí.
Madrid is a great city.
Madrid es una gran ciudad.
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Adjectives 95
Madrid is a big city.
Madrid es una cuidad grande.
Adjectives used as nouns:
 Adjectives are commonly used as nouns in Spanish.
 The definite article is placed in front of the adjective to form a noun.
el anciano = the old man
la vieja
= the old woman.
Abstract nouns from adjectives:
 Lo, the neutered definite article, is used when gender and number are unknown. So,
when a noun is not referenced lo is used.
 An adjective, when used as an abstract noun, has only one form masculine singular.
What is important is to win.
Lo importante es ganar.
What is best is to forget it.
Lo mejor es olvidarlo.
We always eat the same thing.
Siempre comemos lo mismo.
To express an unknown quantity with an adjective:
 Lo, the neutered article, + adjective (singular and of matching gender) + que.
I didn’t know how intelligent these students are.
No sabía lo inteligente que son estos estudiantes.
Don’t doubt how pretty she is.
No duda lo bonita que es ella.
I heard how boring it is.
Escuché lo aburrido que es.
Adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to:
 Most adjectives end in -o.
 Adjectives which end in -o have four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (a), masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
 Adjectives ending in -e or -a have two forms: singular and plural. The plural is formed by
adding -s.
 Adjectives ending in a consonant usually have two forms: singular and plural. The plural
is formed by adding -es.
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Verbs as a descriptive adjective with the past-participle verb form:
 -AR verbs add -ado to the infinitive stem to form the past participle.
 -IR and -ER verbs add -ido to the infinitive stem to form the past participle.
 The past-participle verb form may be used as a descriptive adjective.
 Past participles, when used as adjectives, match the gender and number of the noun
they relate to.
 There are irregular past-participle verbs such as frito (fried) and abierto (opened). These
will be studied in the section on using verbs as adverbs, adjectives, and nouns.
Examples of past particles used as descriptive adjectives:
Verb
unir (to unite)
asar (to grill)
cerrar (to close)
usar (to use)
→
→
→
→
→
Past Participle
los Estados Unidos
pollo asado
la puerta cerrada
carro usado
(the United States)
(grilled chicken)
(the closed door)
(used car)
Examples of adjectives which end in -o:
 Most adjectives end in -o.
 Adjectives ending in -o have four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
tall
American
ambitious
white
pretty
British
good
Catholic
fat
handsome
beautiful
honest
new
small
little
worried
old
alto, alta, altos, altas
americano, americana, americanos, americanas
ambicioso, ambiciosa, ambiciosos, ambiciosas
blanco, blanca, blancos, blancas
bonito, bonita, bonitos, bonitas
británico, británica, británicos, británicas
bueno, buena, buenos, buenas
católico, católica, católicos, católicas
gordo, gorda, gordos, gordas
guapo, guapa, guapos, guapas
hermoso, hermosa, hermosos, hermosas
honesto, honesta, honestos, honestas
nuevo, nueva, nuevos, nuevas
pequeño, pequeña, pequeños, pequeñas
poco, poca, pocos, pocas
preocupado, preocupada, preocupados, preocupadas
viejo, vieja, viejos, viejas
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Examples of adjectives ending in -e:
 Adjectives ending in -e have two forms: singular (-e) and plural (-es).
happy
friendly
cowardly
frequent
strong
big
Intelligent
interesting
poor
recently
sensible
sad
brave
alegre, alegres
amable, amables
cobarde, cobardes
frecuente, frecuentes
fuerte, fuertes
grande, grandes
inteligente, inteligentes
interesante, interesantes
pobre, pobres
reciente, recientes
sensible, sensibles
triste, tristes
valiente, valientes
Examples of adjectives ending in -a:
 Adjectives ending in -a have two forms: singular (-a) and plural (-as).
Baptist
realistic
egoistic
Methodist
baptista, baptistas
realística, realísticas
egoísta, egoístas
metodista, metodistas
Examples of adjectives ending in a consonant:
 Most adjectives ending in consonants have two forms: singular and plural (-es).
cruel
weak
difficult
easy
faithful
young
less
better
more
worse
professional
cruel, crueles
débil, débiles
difícil, difíciles
fácil, fáciles
fiel, fieles
joven, jóvenes
menor, menores
mejor, mejores
mayor, mayores
peor, peores
profesional, profesionales
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Examples of adjectives ending in -dor:
 Adjective ending in -dor, have four forms: masculine singular (-), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
charming
conservative
hardworking
successfull
encantador,
conservador,
trabajador,
triunfador,
encantadora, encantadores,
conservadora, conservadores,
trabajadora, trabajadores,
triunfadora, triunfadores,
encantadoras
conservadoras
trabajadoras
triunfadoras
Examples of adjectives for nationalities:
 Adjectives for nationalities ending in a consonant have four forms: masculine singular
(-o), feminine singular (-a), masculine plural (-es), and feminine plural (-as).
German
Spanish
French
English
Irish
alemán,
español,
francés,
inglés,
irlandés,
alemana,
española,
francesa,
inglesa,
irlandesa,
alemanes,
españoles,
franceses,
ingleses,
irlandeses,
alemanas
españolas
francesas
inglesas
irlandesas
Spelling rules are followed when adjectives change from singular to plural:
 As a rule ZE and ZI are not used together; C is used before E or I.
happy
efficient
feliz → felices
eficaz → eficaces
Plural form of words ending in -ión:
 Estaciones [ĕs-ta-SĬON-ĕs] is the plural form of estación [ĕs-ta-SĬON].
 Estaciones is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable.
 Estaciones [ĕs-ta-SĬON-ĕs] is pronounced the same as estación [ĕs-ta-SĬON]
 The basic rule for llanas is not broken, and the accent mark is not needed.
dark brown marrón → marrones
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PRACTICE WITH DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES AND REGULARLY CONJUGATED VERBS
These practice exercises use the regular -AR verb comprar (to buy), the regular -ER verb comer
(to eat), and the regular -IR verb vivir (to live).
1.
I live in a famous hotel.
Yo vivo en un hotel famoso.
2.
I eat red tamales and black beans in the old restaurant.
Yo como tamales rojos y frijoles negros en el restaurante viejo.
3.
You (informal) eat fried chicken and green beans.
Tú comes pollo frito y habichuelas verdes.
4.
The ugly dog lives in the little white house.
El perro feo vive en la casa pequeña blanca.
5.
John and Paul live in the tall building.
Juan y Pablo viven en el edificio alto.
6.
We eat hot soup.
Nosotros comemos sopa caliente.
7.
I buy inexpensive food.
Yo compro comida barata.
8.
He buys very expensive food.
Él compra comida muy cara.
9.
We buy fresh fish in the new market.
Nosotros compramos pescado fresco en el mercado nuevo.
10.
The students live in our neighborhood.
Los estudiantes viven en nuestro barrio.
11.
Three friends live in that yellow house.
Tres amigos viven en esa casa amarilla.
12.
Do you eat chocolate cake?
¿Comes tú pastel de chocolate?
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THE APOCOPE OF CERTAIN ADJECTIVES
LA APÓCOPE DE CIERTOS ADJETIVOS
Apócope:
 La apócope is when a letter or letters are eliminated from the spelling of certain
adjectives when they are placed before a noun.
 La apócope also loses the sound of the letters omitted.
Possessive adjectives:
 Possessive adjectives, except nuestro and vuestro, lose a letter or letters when placed
before a noun.
un amigo mío
→ mi amigo
unos amigos míos → mis amigos
la hermana tuya
→ tu hermana
los hermanos tuyos → tus hermanos
el tío suyo
→ su tío
las tías suyas → sus tías
Ciento:
 Ciento loses the -o when placed before a noun.
ciento de los obreros → cien obreros
ciento de las mujeres → cien mujeres

Ciento is not an apócope when used in other forms.
doscientos de los pedazos → doscientos pedazos
doscientas de las casas
→ doscientas casas
trescientos y uno de los trozos
→ trescientos y un trozos
trescientas y una de las canciones → trescientas y una canciones
Cualquiera and cualesquiera:
 Cualquiera loses the -a when placed before a singular noun.
 Cualesquiera loses the -a when placed before a plural noun.
cualquiera de los hombres
→ cualquier hombre
cualquiera de las mujeres
→ cualquier mujer
cualesquiera de los hombres → cualesquier hombres
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Adjectives 101
cualesquiera de las mujeres → cualesquier mujeres
Grande:
 Grande loses the –e when placed before a masculine singular or a feminine singular
noun.
great → great man or great woman
grande → gran hombre o gran mujer
great → great men or great women
grande → grandes hombres o grandes mujeres
Certain adjectives:
 The following adjectives lose the final -o when placed before a masculine singular noun.
aquello → aquel hombre
alguno → algún hombre
ninguno → ningún hombre
primero → primer hombre
tercero → tercer hombre
postrero → postrer hombre
(postrero means “last”)
Santo → San Antonio
Bueno → buen perro
malo → mal perro
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POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
ADJETIVOS POSESIVOS
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Possessive adjective basics:
 Possessive adjectives are used to show ownership.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives show ownership of an object while stressed possessive
adjectives stress or emphasize ownership of an object.
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives have two forms: singular and plural.
 Stressed possessive adjectives have four forms: masculine singular, feminine singular,
masculine plural, and feminine plural.
Definite articles rather than of possessive adjectives:
 Use the definite article rather than possessive adjective when the subject noun is the
possessor, and the items being possessed are:
o Personal belongings
o Clothing
o Body parts
I buy my clothes.
Yo compro la ropa.
My tooth hurts.
Me duele el diente.
He likes his new suit.
Le gusta el traje nuevo.
UNSTRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
SINGULAR UNSTRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Singular Possessor
Item Possessed
Masculine Feminine
Definition
First-person
mi(s)
mi(s)
my
Second-person
informal
tu(s)
tu(s)
your
Second-person
formal
su(s)
su(s)
your
Third-person
su(s)
su(s)
his,her
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PLURAL UNSTRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Plural Possessor
First-person
Second-person
informal
Item Possessed
Masculine Feminine
Definition
nuestro(s) nuestra(s)
our
your,
vuestro(s) vuestra(s) primarily used in
Spain
Second-person
formal
su(s)
su(s)
your
Third-person
su(s)
su(s)
their
Unstressed possessive adjectives:
 Unstressed possessive adjectives are more commonly used than are stressed possessive
adjectives.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives are distinguishing adjectives so they precede the noun.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives are used before each noun in a group unless the nouns
refer to the same person or idea.
Unstressed possessive adjectives are apócopes:
 La apócope is when a letter or letters are eliminated from the spelling of certain
adjectives that are placed before a noun.
 The sounds of the letters are also omitted.
 All possessive adjectives, except nuestro and vuestro, lose a letter or letters in all forms.
UNSTESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES WHICH ARE APÓCOPES
Stressed Possessive Adjective
→
Unstressed Possessive Adjectives
un amigo mío
una amiga mía
los amigos míos
las amigas mías
→
→
→
→
mi amigo
mi amiga
mis amigos
mis amigas
el hermano tuyo
la hermana tuya
los hermanos tuyo
las hermanas tuyas
→
→
→
→
tu hermano
tu hermana
tus hermanos
tus hermanas
el tío suya
la tía suya
los tíos suyos
las tías suyas
→
→
→
→
su tío
su tía
sus tíos
sus tías
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Mi (my):
 Mi is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be yo, (first-person
singular pronoun).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Mi has two forms: singular (mi) and plural (mis).
My uncle always buys my books.
Mi tío siempre compra mis libros.
My parents live in your neighborhood.
Mis padres viven en su barrio.
Nuestro (our):
 Nuestro is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, nosotros
(first-person plural pronoun).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Nuestro has four forms: masculine singular (nuestro), feminine singular (nuestra),
masculine plural (nuestros), and feminine plural (nuestras).
We usually eat in our favorite restaurant.
Por lo general, comemos en nuestro restaurante preferido.
I study in our library.
Yo estudio en nuestra biblioteca.
Tu (your, informal):
 Tu (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, tú
(second-person informal pronoun).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Tu has two forms: singular (tu) and plural (tus).
Your dog is big.
Tu perro es grande.
Your dogs are big.
Tus perros son grandes.
Vuestro (your, informal in Spain):
 Vuestro means "your” and is not commonly used except in Spain.
 Vuestro is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, vosotros
(second-person plural informal used in Spain).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Vuestro has four forms: masculine singular (vuestro), feminine singular (vuestra),
masculine plural (vuestros), and feminine plural (vuestras).
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John and Paul, I see your parents.
Juan y Pablo, veo a vuestros padres.
Neighbors, I see your house.
Vecinos, veo a vuestra casa.
Su (your, formal):
 Su (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, usted
(second-person singular formal pronoun).
 Su (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be ustedes
(second-person plural formal pronoun).
 Su (his, hers) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, él
(third-person masculine singular pronoun) or ella (third-person feminine singular
pronoun).
 Su (their) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, ellos
(third-person masculine plural pronoun) or ellas (third-person feminine plural pronoun).
 Possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Su has two forms: singular (su) and plural (sus).
Mrs. Lopes, I see your mother and father.
Señora López, veo a su madre y a su padre.
Mrs. Lopes, I see your friends.
Señora López, veo a sus amigos.
Su may be replaced by a prepositional phrase:
 Su has many possible meanings: his, hers, your, and their.
 A prepositional phrase may be needed to clarify who is the possessor.
The doctor cured his wounds.
El médico curó sus heridas. (Whose wounds)?
The doctor cured the soldier’s wounds.
El médico curó las heridas del soldado.
They suspended her license.
Suspendieron su licencia. (Whose license)?
They suspended Julie’s license.
Suspendieron la licencia de Julia.
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STRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
SINGULAR STRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Singular Possessor
Item Possessed
Masculine
Feminine
Definition
First-person
mío(s)
mía(s)
my
Second-person
informal
tuyo(s)
tuya(s)
your
Second-person
formal
suyo(s)
suyo
your
Third-person
suyo
suya
his, her
PLURAL STRESSED POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
Plural Possessor
First-person
Item Possessed
Masculine
Feminine
Definition
nuestro(s)
nuestra(s)
our
Second-person
informal
vuestro(s)
vuestra(s)
your,
primarily used
in Spain
Second-person
formal
suyo(s)
suya(s)
your
Third-person
suyo(s)
suya(s)
their
Stressed possessive adjectives:
 Stressed possessive adjectives are used to stress or emphasize ownership of an object.
 Stressed possessive adjectives are always used with an article (the, a, or some).
 Stressed possessive adjectives follow the noun because they describe a specific object.
 Stressed possessive adjectives agree in gender and number with the object being
possessed.
 Stressed possessive adjectives have four forms: masculine singular, feminine singular,
masculine plural, and feminine plural.
Mío (my):
 Mío is a stressed possessive adjective.
 Mío (my) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, yo (firstperson singular pronoun).
 Mío takes an accept mark over the weak vowel to separate the diptongo into two
syllables to form an hiato acentual (ío) [i-a].
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

The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
Mío has four forms: masculine singular (mío) and feminine singular (mía) masculine
plural (míos), and feminine plural (mías).
I have my books!
¡Tengo los libros míos!
He is a friend of mine.
Él es un amigo mío.
Nuestro (our):
 Nuestro is a stressed possessive adjective.
 Nuestro is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, nosotros
(first-person plural pronoun).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Nuestro has four forms: masculine singular (nuestro), feminine singular (nuestra),
masculine plural (nuestros), and feminine plural (nuestras).
I lived with a friend of ours.
Yo vivía con un amigo nuestro.
It’s a gift from some friends of ours.
Es un regalo de unos amigos nuestros.
Tuyo (your, informal):
 Tuyo is a stressed possessive adjective.
 Tuyo (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, tú
(second-person informal pronoun).
 The possessive adjective agrees in gender and number with the object being possessed.
 Tuyo has four forms: masculine singular (tuyo), feminine singular (tuya), masculine
plural (tuyos), and feminine plural (tuyas).
Where is your homework?
¿Dónde está la tarea tuya?
I am sure that he found your wallet.
Estoy seguro que él encontró el billetero tuyo.
Suyo (your, formal):
 Suyo is a stressed possessive adjective.
 Suyo (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, usted
(second-person formal pronoun).
 Suyo (your) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be,
ustedes (second-person plural formal pronoun).
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



Suyo (his, hers) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, él
(third-person masculine singular pronoun) or ella (third-person feminine singular
pronoun).
Suyo (their) is used when the owner of the object being possessed is, or could be, ellos
(third-person masculine plural pronoun) or ellas (third-person feminine plural pronoun).
Possessive adjectives agree in gender and number with the object being possessed.
Suyo has four forms: masculine singular (suyo), feminine singular (suya), masculine
plural (suyos), and feminine plural (suyas).
Sir, your son won the race!
¡Señor, el hijo suyo ganó la carrera!
They found your entrance tickets!
¡Ellos encontraron las entradas suyas!
Suyo may be replaced by a prepositional phrase:
 Suyo has many possible meanings: his, hers, your, and their.
 A prepositional phrase may be needed to clarify who is the possessor.
I ate her vegetables.
Yo comí las legumbres suyas. (Whose vegetables)?
I ate Yuri’s vegetables.
Yo comí las legumbres de Yuri.
You ate her desert!
¡Tú comiste el postre suyo! (Whose desert)?
You ate Kathy’s desert.
Tú comiste el postre de Cata.
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PRACTICE WITH POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
1.
We buy our clothes in their store.
Compramos nuestra ropa en su tienda.
2.
My shoes are expensive.
Mis zapatos son caros.
3.
I am sure that he found your wallet.
Estoy seguro que él encontró el billetero tuyo.
4.
All mine.
Todo lo mío.
5.
My friends arrive at my house to play cards.
Mis amigos llegan a mi casa para jugar cartas.
6.
The girl threw the ball to her brother.
La niña lanzó la pelota a su hermana.
7.
Tomorrow our team travels to Houston.
Mañana nuestro equipo viaja a Houston.
8.
Your (pl.) mother lives in our neighborhood. (informal in Spain)
Vuestra madre vive en nuestro barrio.
9.
It’s not yours. (informal)
No es lo tuyo.
Mine are expensive. (shoes)
Los míos son caros.
10.
I have my books!
¡Tengo los libros míos!
11.
They suspended Julie’s license.
Suspendieron la licencia de Julia.
12.
It’s a gift from some friends of ours.
Es un regalo de unos amigos nuestros.
13.
Our idea is better than theirs. (informal in Spain)
Nuestra idea es mejor que la vuestra.
14.
I like my new suit.
Me gusta el traje nuevo.
15.
They found your entrance tickets!
¡Ellos encontraron las entradas suyas!
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16.
Students, I’ve put your things in the box. (informal in Spain)
Estudiantes, he puesto lo vuestro en la caja.
17.
You ate Kathy’s dessert.
Tú comiste el postre de Cata.
18.
This desk is mine and that desk is yours.
Este escritorio es mío y ese escritorio es tuyo.
19.
Your automobile is fast.
Tu automóvil es rápido.
20.
I lived with a friend of ours.
Yo vivía con un amigo nuestro.
21.
Do you (pl.) have your money ready?
¿Tienen ustedes su dinero listo?
22.
The storm damaged ours. (house)
La tormenta dañó la nuestra.
23.
Sir, your son won the race!
Señor, ¡El hijo suyo ganó la carrera!
24.
Neighbors, I see your house. (informal in Spain)
Vecinos, veo a vuestra casa.
25.
Theirs are on the desk. (books)
Los suyos están encima del escritorio.
26.
Yours is in the garden. (wine glass)
La suya está en el jardín.
27.
Your shoes are on the other side of the bed.
Tus zapatos están al otro lado de la cama.
28.
Your credit cards were rejected.
Sus tarjetas de crédito fueron rechazadas.
29.
Our car needs a wash because it’s dirty.
Nuestro carro necesita una lavada porque está sucio.
30.
My birthday is the 26th of July.
Mi cumpleaños es el 26 de Julio.
Yours is fast.
El tuyo es rápido.
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31.
I am very sorry, but your printer does not work. (informal in Spain)
Lo siento mucho, pero vuestra impresora no funciona.
32.
Thank you for letting me borrow your biology book.
Gracias por prestarme tu libro de biología.
33.
Sometimes your daughter is mean to her classmates.
A veces su hija es antipático con sus compañeros de clase.
34.
This desk is mine and that one is yours. (informal)
Este escritorio es mío y aquel es tuyo.
35.
Our school is bigger than yours. (informal in Spain)
Nuestra escuela es más grande que la vuestra.
36.
Of all of the exams, yours was the best.
De todos los exámenes, el suyo fue el mejor.
37.
You can use my charger to charge your cell phone.
Puede usar mi cargador para cargar su celular.
38.
This beer is mine, but that is yours. (informal)
Esta cerveza es mía, pero ésa es tuya.
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DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
ADJETIVOS DEMOSTRATIVOS
DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES
Masculine
Feminine
Definition
Singular
este
esta
this, this one
Plural
estos
estas
these
Singular
ese
esa
that, that one
Plural
esos
esas
those
Singular
aquel
aquella
that, that one (distant)
Plural
aquellos
aquellas
those (distant)
Demonstrative adjectives:
 Demonstrative adjectives are distinguishing rather than descriptive, so they precede the
noun.
 Demonstrative adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
 Demonstrative adjectives must be used with each noun in a group or list.
Este and esta (this):
 Este or esta (this) is used with a singular noun which is near the speaker.
 The adjective “this” is always singular with both masculine and feminine forms.
 The masculine singular form is este.
 The feminine singular form is esta.
Estos and estas (these):
 Estos or estas (these) is used with a plural noun which is near the speaker.
 The adjective “these” is always plural with both masculine and feminine forms.
 The masculine plural form is estos.
 The feminine plural form is estas.
Ese and esa (that):
 Ese or esa (that) is used with a singular noun which is near the direct listener.
 The adjective “that” is always singular with both masculine and feminine forms.
 The masculine singular form is ese.
 The feminine singular form is esa.
Esos and esas (those):
 Esos or esas (those) is used with a plural noun which is near the direct listener.
 The adjective “those” is always plural with both masculine and feminine forms.
 The masculine plural form is esos.
 The feminine plural form is esas.
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Aquel and aquella (that in the distance):
 Aquel or aquella (that) is used with a singular noun that is distant from the speaker and
direct listener.
 The adjective “that” is always singular with both masculine and feminine forms.
 The masculine singular form is aquel.
 Aquel is an apócope of aquello (aquello loses the final -o when placed in front of a
noun).
 The feminine singular form is aquella.
Aquellos and aquellas (those in the distance):
 Aquellos or aquellas (those) is used with a plural noun that is distant from the speaker
and direct listener.
 The adjective “those” is always plural with both masculine and singular forms.
 The masculine plural form is aquellos.
 The feminine plural form is aquellas.
Note: La Real Academia Española has made the use of accent marks with demonstrative
pronouns optional, except when there may be confusion as to whether it is a demonstrative
pronoun or a demonstrative adjective. Accent marks are used in this grammar guide even
though their use is optional.
Real Academia Española: 3.2.1. Demostrativos. Los demostrativos este, ese y aquel, con sus
femeninos y plurales, pueden ser pronombres (cuando ejercen funciones propias del
sustantivo): Eligió este; Ese ganará; Quiero dos de aquellas; o adjetivos (cuando modifican al
sustantivo): Esas actitudes nos preocupan; El jarrón este siempre está estorbando. Sea cual sea
la función que desempeñen, los demostrativos siempre son tónicos y pertenecen, por su forma,
al grupo de palabras que deben escribirse sin tilde según las reglas de acentuación: todos, salvo
aquel, son palabras llanas terminadas en vocal o en -s (→ 1.1.2) y aquel es aguda acabada en -l
(→ 1.1.1). Por lo tanto, solo cuando en una oración exista riesgo de ambigüedad porque el
demostrativo pueda interpretarse en una u otra de las funciones antes señaladas, el
demostrativo llevará obligatoriamente tilde en su uso pronominal. Así, en una oración como la
del ejemplo siguiente, únicamente la presencia o ausencia de la tilde en el demostrativo
permite interpretar correctamente el enunciado: ¿Por qué compraron aquéllos libros usados?
(aquéllos es el sujeto de la oración); ¿Por qué compraron aquellos libros usados? (el sujeto de
esta oración no está expreso, y aquellos acompaña al sustantivo libros). Las formas neutras de
los demostrativos, es decir, las palabras esto, eso y aquello, que solo pueden funcionar como
pronombres, se escriben siempre sin tilde: Eso no es cierto; No entiendo esto.
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PRACTICE WITH DEMONSTRATIVES ADJECTIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
1.
This house is mine.
Esta casa es mía.
This is my house.
Ésta es mi casa.
2.
What is this?
¿Qué es esto?
That is horrible.
Eso es horrible.
3.
These girls speak Spanish also.
Estas chicas hablan español también.
4.
That (in the distance) is the border.
Aquélla es la frontera.
5.
These boys eat a lot.
Estos chicos comen mucho.
6.
We know that one (feminine) is my brother’s.
Sabemos que ésa es de mi hermano.
7.
Yes, those boys eat a lot.
Sí, esos chicos comen mucho.
8.
You (informal) have some candy; those are for him.
Tienes unos dulces; ésos son para él.
9.
This beer is mine, but that is yours.
Esta cerveza es mía, pero ésa es tuya.
10.
Do you (pl.) live in this apartment?
¿Viven ustedes en este departamento?
11.
I said this one is mine (masculine).
Dije que éste es mío.
12.
No, we live in that house (which is a distance away).
No, nosotros vivimos en aquella casa.
13.
The magazine that you (informal) are looking for is on that shelf.
La revista que buscas está sobre aquel estante.
14.
Those boys and girls live in that neighborhood (which is a distance away).
Esos chicos y esas chicas viven en aquel barrio.
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INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES
ADJETIVOS INDEFINIDOS
INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
uno
una
unos
unas
algún
alguna
algunos
algunas
ningún
ninguna
poco
poca
pocos
pocas
mucho
mucha
muchos
muchas
todo
toda
todos
todas
varios
varias
otro
otra
otros
otras
mismo
misma
mismos
mismas
tanto
tanta
tantos
tantas
ambos
ambas
cualquier
cualesquier
cada
Definition
a, some
some
neither, not any
few
many, a lot, much
every, all
various, different
other(s)
same
as many
both
whichever
each
Indefinite Adjectives:
 Indefinite adjectives are distinguishing rather than descriptive, so they precede the
noun.
 Indefinite adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
A few students are sick.
Pocos estudiantes están enfermos.
Many students are very sick.
Muchos estudiantes están muy enfermos.
The other girl wore the same dress.
La otra chica llevaba el mismo vestido.
Cada (each, every individual one):
 Cada is an adjective which always uses the same form.
We have read each sentence.
Hemos leído cada oración.
My brother plays golf every Sunday.
Mi hermano juega el golf cada domingo.
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Ambos (both):
 Ambos has two forms: masculine plural (ambos) and feminine plural (ambas).
I traveled to both cities.
Viajaba a ambas ciudades.
Both hotels are excellent.
Ambos hoteles son excelentes.

When comparing two nouns, use tanto . . . como (both . . . and) which is a distributive
conjunction and is explained in the section on comparisons of equality.
Both men and both women live there.
× Ambos hombres y ambas mujeres viven allí
√ Tanto los hombres como las mujeres viven allí.
Ningún is an apócope:
 Ningún is an apócope of ninguno which drops the -o in front of a masculine noun.
 An accent mark is required to keep the pronunciation the same.
 Ningún, the adjective, has two forms: masculine singular (ningún) and feminine singular
(ninguna).
 Ninguno is inherently plural.
There is no problem here.
Aquí no existe ningún problema.
There is no reason [to do so].
No hay ningún motivo.
Algún is an apócope:
 Algún is an apócope of alguno which drops the -o in front of a masculine singular noun.
 An accent mark is required to keep the pronunciation the same.
 Algún, the adjective, has four forms: masculine singular (algún), feminine singular
(alguna), masculine plural (algunos), and feminine plural (algunas).
Cualquier and cualesquier are apócopes:
 Cualquier is an apócopes of cualquiera which loses the final -a when placed in front of a
noun.
 Cualquier → cualesquier; the plural form places the -es in the middle of the word.
 Cualesquier is an apócope of cualesquiera which loses the final -a when placed in front
of a noun.
Whichever man that lives in that city is desperate.
Cualquier hombre que vive en aquella ciudad está desesperado.
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Whichever women [who] buy this style are crazy.
Cualesquier mujeres que compran este estilo son locas.
Negative and affirmative adjectives:
 A negative sentence will never use the affirmative adjective algún.
 An affirmative sentence will never use the negative adjective ningún.
Affirmative
algún (some)
Negative
ningún (no)
I am going to visit you sometime this fall.
Voy a visitarte algún tiempo este otoño.
I don’t have any problems.
No, no tengo ningún problema.
Some side effects can be serious.
Algunos efectos pueden ser graves.
Is that any objection?
¿No hay ninguna objeción?
Someday you will learn the truth. (informal)
Algún día tú aprenderás la verdad.
Neither concept is acceptable.
Ningún concepto es aceptable.
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PRACTICE WITH INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
1.
A few students are sick.
Pocos estudiantes están enfermos.
2.
Both of the women have young children.
Ambas de las mujeres tienen niños jóvenes.
3.
Many students are sick.
Muchos estudiantes están enfermos.
4.
Tonight, everything is for you. (informal)
Esta noche, todo es para ti.
5.
I speak a little Spanish.
Hablo un poco de español.
6.
They study every day.
Ellos estudian todos los días.
7.
Many wines are expensive.
Muchos vinos son caros.
8.
I do a lot of different things during the weekends.
Hago muchas cosas diferentes durante los fines de semana.
9.
The other girl wore the same dress.
La otra chica llevaba el mismo vestido.
10.
My friends are not a group of anybodies.
Mis amigos no son un grupo de cualesquiera.
11.
Whichever man who lives in that city is desperate.
Cualquier hombre que vive en aquella ciudad está desesperado.
12.
The hotels are good, but none of them is cheap.
Los hoteles son buenos, pero ninguno de ellos es barato.
13.
Both are right.
Ambos tienen razón.
14.
We have read each sentence.
Hemos leído cada oración.
15.
He loaned me ten books and I want to read each one.
Él me prestó diez libros y quiero leer cada uno.
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16.
Anybody can do it.
Cualquiera puede hacerlo.
17.
Every week I go to the field to run.
Cada semana voy al campo para correr.
18.
Both movies are long and boring.
Ambas películas son largas y aburridas.
19.
Neither shoe store has the shoes that I want.
Ninguna zapatería tiene los zapatos que yo quiero.
20.
Whichever boots you choose will be expensive.
Cualesquier botas que escogen serán caros.
21.
Has anybody seen Lupita?
¿Alguien ha visto a Lupita?
22.
Some of the side effects can be serious.
Algunos de estos efectos pueden ser graves.
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PRACTICE WITH AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES
1.
Someday we are going to do it.
Algún día vamos a hacerlo.
2.
No problem is too difficult.
Ningún problema es demasiado difícil.
3.
No one can help me.
Nadie puede ayudarme.
4.
Someone stole my watch.
Alguien robó mi reloj.
5.
There is nothing more important.
No hay nada más importante.
6.
Yes, some kids eat a lot of sweets.
Sí algunos niños comen muchos dulces.
7.
Some of these photos are clear.
Algunas de estas fotos son claras.
8.
Neither concept is acceptable.
Ningún concepto es aceptable.
9.
No one studied the lesson.
No estudiaba nadie la lección.
10.
I am looking for a good book
Estoy buscando algún buen libro.
11.
I don’t want to see anyone.
No quiero ver a nadie.
12.
Yes, somebody is responsible.
Sí, alguien es responsable.
13.
There is not a reason for this.
No hay ninguna razón por esto.
14.
No one knows it.
No lo sabe nadie.
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ADVERBS
UNIT 8
Unit Eight Table of Contents......................................................................... 121
Adverbs......................................................................................................... 122
Categories of Adverbs................................................................................... 125
El ingenioso hidalgo don Quijote de la Mancha was written in 1605 by Miguel Cervantes. A
companion work, El ingenioso caballero don Quijote de la Mancha, was written in 1615.
The novel follows the adventures of Alonso Quixote, a hidalgo who has read so many
novels about chivalry that he isn’t able to distinguish between reality and fiction. He
recruits a simple farmer, Sancho Panza, as his squire. Sancho Panza is the voice of reason,
using his unique, earthy wit to balance Don Quixote's stubborn impulsiveness.
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ADVERBS
ADVERBIOS
Adverbs:
 Adverbs and adverbial clauses modify a verb.
Position of adverbs and adverbial clauses:
 Adverbs and adverbial clauses which add description to the action follow the verb as
closely as possible.
We eat quickly.
Nosotros comemos rápidamente.
She learns English fast.
Ella aprende inglés rápido.
They live close to the embassy.
Ellos viven cerca de la embajada.
I study a lot.
Estudio mucho.
The computer runs slowly.
El computador corre lentamente.

Adverbs of time or quantity are commonly placed before the verb.
I never eat sausage.
Yo nunca como salchicha.
Sometime we speak with her.
A veces hablamos con ella.
You always drink coffee with milk. (informal)
Siempre bebes café con leche.
Yesterday I went to the beach.
Ayer fui a la playa.
You (pl.) are lazy this morning. (informal in Spain)
Esta mañana vosotros estáis perezosos.

Longer adverbs or adverbial clauses may occur in other positions in the sentence.
I put it in the refrigerator as soon as possible.
Yo lo pongo en la nevera tan pronto posible.
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Formation of Adverbs:
 Many Spanish adverbs are formed by adding -mente to the feminine form of an
adjective.
Feminine adjective clara (clear) + mente → adverb claramente (clearly).
Feminine adjective lenta (slow) + mente → adverb lentamente (slowly).

If the adjective has an accent mark, the adverb formed by adding -mente will retain the
accent mark.
Feminine adjective rápida (quick) + mente → adverb rápidamente (quickly).

When two adjectives of this type are used together, the ending -mente is used with the
second adjective only.
The motor ran smoothly and efficiently.
El motor corría suave y eficientemente.
The lawyer explained it clearly and rapidly.
El abogado lo explicó clara y rápidamente.
Some words can be used as adverbs or adjectives:
 Adverbs have one form and modify the verb.
 Adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they distinguish or describe.
I like parties a lot.
Me gustan mucho las fiestas. (adverb)
I have a lot of parties.
Tengo muchas fiestas. (adjective)
She runs too much.
Ella corre demasiado. (adverb)
He drank too much beer.
Él tomó demasiada cerveza. (adjective)
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Negative and affirmative adverbs:
 Adverbs can be negative and affirmative.
 Most adverbs follow the verb as closely as possible.
 Adverbs of time or quantity are commonly placed before the noun.
Affirmative
siempre (always)
también (also)
a veces (sometimes)
Negative
nunca
(never)
tampoco (neither)
jamás
(never)
I never eat oysters.
Yo nunca como ostras.
You are happy, and so am I. (informal)
Tú estás alegre, y yo también.
She is not happy and neither am I.
Ella no está alegre ni yo tampoco.
Yes, sometimes we are sad.
Sí, a veces estamos tristes.
They will always remember you.
Siempre te recordarán.
I will never ever drink another beer.
Jamás tomaré una otra cerveza.
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CATEGORIES OF ADVERBS
CATEGORÍAS DE ADVERBIOS
Adverbs of space:
aquí (there)
allí (there)
ahí (there)
allá (there)
acá (here)
arriba (above)
Adverbs of time:
pronto
tarde
temprano
todavía
aún
ya
abajo
cerca
lejos
delante
encima
debajo
(quick)
(late)
(early)
(still)
(still)
(already)
(below)
(near)
(far)
(in front)
(over)
(behind)
ayer
hoy
mañana
siempre
nunca
enfrente
atrás
alrededor
detras
(yesterday)
(today)
(tomorrow)
(always)
(never)
(in front)
(behind)
(around)
(behind)
jamás
(never)
apróximamente (aproximately)
anoche
(last night)
enseguida
(right away)
ahora
(now)
mientras
(while)
Adverbs of relative time or order:
antes
(before)
posteriormente (after)
después
(after)
primero
(first)
respectivamente (respectively)
Adverbs of mode:
bien
mal
regular
despacio
deprisa
así
(well)
(bad)
(normal)
(slow)
(quick)
(like that)
aprisa
(quickly)
peor
(worst)
mejor
(better)
fielmente (faithfully)
fácilmente (easily)
All words ending in "-mente.”
Adverbs of quantity or quantity:
poco
mucho
bastante
más
menos
algo
demasiado
(few)
(many)
(enough)
(more)
(less)
(some)
(too much)
casi
(almost)
sólo
(only)
solamente (only)
tan
(so)
tanto
(so much)
todo
(all)
nada
(nothing)
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Adverbs of afirmation:
también
(also)
cierto
(certain)
ciertamente (certainly)
efectivamente
claro
claramente
exacto
(effectively)
(clear)
(clearly)
(exactly)
Adverbs of negation:
jamás (never)
nunca (never)
tampoco (neither)
Adverbs of doubt:
quizá(s)
(maybe)
probablemente (probably)
seguramente (surely)
acaso
(maybe)
posiblemente (possibly)
tal vez
(maybe)
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COMPARISONS WITH ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, AND EXPRESSIONS
UNIT 9
Unit Nine Table of Contents.......................................................................... 127
Comparisons with Tan Como........................................................................ 129
Practice with Tan Como................................................................................ 130
Comparisons with Tanto Como..................................................................... 131
Practice with Tanto Como............................................................................. 133
Comparisons of Inequality with Más or Menos............................................ 134
Superlatives with El Más or El Menos……………………………………………..…....…. 136
Practice with Más or Menos……………………………………………………………..…..... 138
Comparisons with Mejor, Peor, Major, and Menor…….............................…. 140
Practicing Comparisons with Mejor, Peor, Major, and Menor..................... 142
Comparative Expressions.............................................................................. 143
Practice with Comparative Expressions........................................................ 146
Same or Mismo............................................................................................. 148
Practice with Mismo……................................................................................ 152
Diego Velázquez (1599-1660) is considered Spain’s greatest painter. In this painting,
Venus, the personification of female beauty, is looking into a mirror held by Cupid. Nudes
were extremely rare in seventeenth-century Spanish art because all forms of art, science,
and literature were heavily censored during the Spanish Inquisition.
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COMPARISONS WITH TAN COMO
COMPARATIVOS CON TAN COMO
Comparisons:
 Comparisons in Spanish and English are very similar.
 The biggest challenge for English speakers is learning to recognize whether the
comparison is made with an adjective or an adverb.
 In Spanish, adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to while
adverbs take only one form.
Tan (as) + adjective + como:
 A linking verb introduces the subject complement.
 Tan + adjective is used in a subject complement.
 The adjective matches the gender and number of the subject.
This seat is as good.
Esta silla es tan buena.

Como (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison between the
subject noun and the prepositional noun.
This seat is as good as the other one.
Esta silla es tan buena como la otra.
Examples:
I am as funny as Beto.
Soy tan divertido como Beto.
Today they are not as sad as [they were] yesterday.
Hoy no están tan tristes como ayer.
The books are not as good as the movie.
Los libros no son tan buenos como la película.
Juanita is as tired as you.
Juanita está tan cansada como tú.
Beto is as old as Jaime.
Beto es tan viejo como Jaime.
He is as stubborn as Dad.
Él es tan terco como su padre.
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Tan (as) + adverb + como:
 Tan + adverb forms an adverbial clause.
 Adverbs have only one form.
 Adverbial clauses which describe the action follow the verb that they modify as closely
as possible.
The boy runs as fast.
El chico corre tan rápido.

Como (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison between the
action of the subject noun and the action of the prepositional noun.
The boy runs as fast as his brother [does].
El chico corre tan rápido como su hermano.
Examples:
The boy does not jump as high as his brother does.
El chico no salta tan alto como su hermano.
Like their parents, they speak very little.
Como sus padres, ellos hablan tan poco.
The little dog eats as fast as the big dog
El perro pequeño come tan rápido como el perro grande.
We don’t sing as well as they do.
No cantamos tan bien como ellos.
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PRACTICING COMPARISONS WITH TAN COMO
1.
This book is as interesting as the other.
Este libro es tan interesante como el otro.
2.
Like their parents, they sleep very little.
Como sus padres, ellos duermen tan poco.
3.
Very few are as prepared as you.
Muy pocos están tan preparados como tú.
4.
She drives as slow as my grandmother.
Ella maneja tan lento como mi abuela.
5.
The girls are as tall as the boys.
Las chicas son tan altas como los chicos.
6.
She doesn’t sing as badly as they say.
Ella no canta tan malo como dicen.
7.
The house is not as ugly as they say.
La casa no es tan fea como dicen.
8.
Who is as happy as we are?
¿Quién es tan feliz como nosotros?
9.
The house is not as elegant as I thought.
La casa no es tan elegante como yo pensaba.
10.
Thomas doesn’t run as often as he should.
Tomás no corre tan frecuente como debería.
11.
This book is as sad as the other one.
Ese libro es tan triste como el otro.
12.
José is not as honest as Marcos.
José no es tan honesto como Marcos.
13.
Maria is not as friendly as her sister.
María no es tan amable como su hermana.
14.
Learning a language isn’t as easy as people believe.
Aprendiendo un idioma no es tan fácil como cree la gente.
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COMPARISONS WITH TANTO COMO
COMPARATIVOS CON TANTO COMO
Tanto (as much) as an adjective:
 Tanto is a distinguishing adjective rather than a describing adjective, so it precedes the
noun.
 Tanto matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
 Tanto has four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a), masculine plural
(-os) and feminine plural (-as).
I speak as much Spanish.
Yo hablo tanto español.

Como (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison between the
subject noun and the prepositional noun.
I speak as much Spanish as she does.
Yo hablo tanto español como ella.
Examples of tanto (as much) as an adjective:
Carl, you don’t eat as much fruit as George.
Carlos, tú no comes tanta fruta como Jorge.
We drink as much beer as they do.
Bebemos tanta cerveza como ellos.
They break as many glasses as the other waiters.
Ellos rompen tantos vasos como los otros meseros.
Tanto (as much) as an adverb:
 Adverbs have only one form.
 Adverbs which describe the action follow the verb that they modify as closely as
possible.
The girls eat as much.
Las chicas comen tanto.

Como (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison between the
action of the subject noun and the prepositional noun.
The girls eat as much as we do.
Las chicas comen tanto como nosotros.
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Examples of tanto (as much) as an adverb:
The little dog doesn’t run as much as the big dog.
El perro pequeño no corre tanto como el perro grande.
Gloria works as much as Maria.
Gloria trabaja tanto como María.
Your students learn as much as my students.
Sus estudiantes aprenden tanto como mis estudiantes.
The oranges cost as much as the apples.
Las naranjas cuestan tanto como las manzanas.
Tanto . . . como (both . . . and) as a conjunction:
 Tanto . . . como, the conjunction, is used to express equality of possession between two
subject nouns.
 Tanto . . . como is a distributive conjunction (conjunción distributivo).
 Tanto . . . como, the distributive conjunction, has one form: tanto . . . como.
 Never use ambos for “both . . . and. “
Both men and women live there.
× Ambos hombres y ambas mujeres viven allí.
√ Tanto los hombres como las mujeres viven allí.
Both Venezuela and Ecuador have socialist leaders.
Tanto Venezuela como Ecuador tienen líderes socialistas.
Both the young and old will like this movie.
Tanto los niños como los mayores les gustarán esta película.
Both Peter and Angela are in Spain.
Tanto Pedro como Ángela están en España.
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PRACTICE WITH TANTO COMO
1.
We travel to the Caribbean as much as they do.
Nosotros viajamos al Caribe tanto como ellos.
2.
We have as many books as they do.
Tenemos tantos libros como ellos.
3.
Raymond talks on the phone as much as his brother.
Ramón habla por teléfono tanto como su hermano.
4.
We have classes on both Tuesdays and Wednesdays.
Tenemos clases tanto los lunes como los miércoles.
5.
Claudia likes this purse as much as that one.
A Claudia le gusta esa bolsa tanto como aquella.
6.
I eat as much fruit as you do.
Como tanta fruta como tú. (informal)
7.
A cell phone costs as much as a television.
Un celular cuesta tanto como un televisor.
8.
Snakes scare me as much as spiders.
Las culebras me asustan tanto como las arañas.
9.
You (pl.) swim as much as dolphins. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros nadáis tanto como delfines.
10.
Robert studies as much as the other students.
Roberto estudia tanto como los otros estudiantes.
11.
There are problems in both large and small countries.
Hay problemas en tanto las ciudades grandes como las pequeñas.
12.
We recycle as much as we can.
Reciclamos tanto como podemos.
13.
I can eat as much as my cousin.
Yo puedo comer tanto como mi primo.
14.
In Texas, Spanish is spoken as much as English.
En Tejas, el español se habla tanto como el inglés.
15.
The insects bother me as much as the sun.
Los insectos me molestan tanto como el sol.
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Comparisons 134
COMPARISONS OF INEQUALITY
COMPARATIVOS DE DESIGUALDAD
Más (more) or menos (less):
 Más (more) or menos (less) is used to show a difference when making a comparison
between the possessions of two people, two things, or two groups.
Más or menos uses the same formula when used with nouns, adjectives, or adverbs:
 Más/menos + adjective + que
 Más/menos + adverb + que
 Más/menos + noun + que
 The preposition que (than) adds a prepositional phase which includes a prepositional
noun to complete the comparison.
He reads more than Carlos.
Él lee más que Carlos.
February has fewer days than March.
Febrero tiene menos días que marzo.
The avocados contain more calories than the oranges.
Los aguacates contienen más calorías que las naranjas.
This storm was not stronger that the last one.
Esta tormenta no fue más fuerte que la anterior.
This chapter is shorter than that one.
Este capítulo es menos largo que ése.
You are taller than I. (informal)
Tú eres más alto que yo.
Negative comparisons with numbers:
 When using numbers in a negative comparison, the preposition que is used to convey
the meaning “no more than” or “only.”
I only have five pesos.
No tengo más que cinco pesos.
He only has two nephews.
No tiene más que dos sobrinos.
There are only twenty students in the class.
No hay más que veinte estudiantes en la clase.
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Affirmative comparisons with numbers:
 When using numbers in an affirmative comparison, the preposition de is used to convey
the meaning “than.”
There are fewer than twenty students in the class.
Hay menos de veinte alumnos en la clase.
He is more than seventy years old.
Él tiene más de setenta años.
I have fewer than five pesos.
Tengo menos de cinco pesos.
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SUPERLATIVES WITH EL MÁS OR EL MENOS
SUPERLATIVOS CON EL MÁS O EL MENOS
When comparing differences in groups:
 Use the superlatives el más (the most) or el menos (the least) when comparing
differences among three or more people, things, or groups.
El más (the most) or el menos (the least), to make a superlative comparison:
 El más or el menos is used to make a superlative comparison.
 The definite article always precedes the noun.
 In this case, más or menos is paired with a descriptive adjective, so it follows the noun.
 The definite article and the adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they
relate to.
 Más and menos have only one form.
The thinnest girl eats less.
La chica más delgada come menos.
The smartest boy studies very little.
El chico más inteligente estudia muy poco.

De (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison.
The thinnest girl of the group eats less than the other girls.
La chica más delgada del grupo come menos de las otras chicas.
The smartest boy in the class studies very little.
El chico más inteligente de la clase estudia muy poco.
El más or el menos to make a superlative comparison in a subject complement:
 The linking verb ser introduces the subject complement.
 El más or el menos + adjective is used in a subject compliment
 The definite article and the adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they
relate to.
 Más and menos have only one form.
These novels are the least interesting.
Estas novelas son las menos interesantes.
This house was the newest.
Esta casa era la más nueva.

De (as) adds a prepositional phrase which completes the comparison.
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These novels are the least interesting of all.
Estas novelas son las menos interesantes de todas.
This house was the newest ones in the neighborhood.
Esta casa era la más nueva del barrio.
The hottest of all are July and August.
Los más calurosos de todos son julio y agosto.
Más (most) paired with a possessive adjective:
 Más + adjective is commonly used with an unstressed possessive adjective to show
ownership, while making a comparison.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives mi, tu, su, nuestro, and vuestro precede the noun and
show ownership.
 In this case, más or menos is paired with a descriptive adjective, so it follows the noun.
 The adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
 Más and menos have only one form.
Is that your heaviest jacket?
¿Es esá su chaqueta más gruesa?
Our biggest fear is failure.
Nuestro miedo más profundo es el fracaso.
Más or menos paired with a possessive adjective in a subject complement:
 Más or menos + adjective is commonly used with an unstressed possessive adjective to
show ownership while making a comparison.
 The linking verb ser introduces the comparison in a subject complement.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives mi, tu, su, nuestro, and vuestro precede the noun and
show ownership.
 In this case, más or menos is paired with a descriptive adjective, so it follows the noun.
 The adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
 Más and menos have only one form.
That is your prettiest dress.
Ése es tu vestido más bonito.
This is not my prettiest dress.
Éste no es mi vestido más bonito.
What is your most precious possession? (informal)
¿Cuál es tu posesión más preciada?
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PRACTICE WITH MÁS OR MENOS
1.
I eat more when I am home.
Yo como más cuando estoy en casa.
2.
You (pl.) are less prepared for the presentation. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros estáis menos preparados para la presentación.
3.
We don’t have more time to work.
Nosotros no tenemos más tiempo para trabajar.
4.
Richard sleeps more when it rains.
Ricardo duerme más cuando llueve.
5.
People spend less money if they cook more.
La gente gasta menos dinero si cocinan más.
6.
Reading a book is more beneficial than watching TV.
Leer un libro es más beneficial que ver la televisión.
7.
The students need more resources.
Los estudiantes necesitan más recursos.
8.
We only have five cookies in the jar.
No tenemos más que cinco galletas en la jarra.
9.
Daniel knows more than six languages.
Daniel sabe más de seis lenguas.
10.
History interests me less than chemistry.
La historia me interesa menos que la química.
11.
You sell the best chocolate in the world. (informal)
Tú vendes el chocolate más delicioso del mundo.
12.
You (pl.) have at least ten minutes to finish. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros tenéis por lo menos diez minutos para terminar.
13.
They don’t think that English is more complicated.
Ellos no piensan que el inglés es más complicado.
14.
Do you think that Frida Kahlo’s art is the most interesting?
¿Crees tú que el arte de Frida Kahlo es el más interesante?
15.
There are fewer than fifty people in this building.
Hay menos de cincuenta personas en este edificio.
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16.
I’ve been on the road for more than three hours.
Llevo más de tres horas en la carretera.
17.
As a kid, one has fewer worries.
De niño, uno tiene menos preocupaciones.
18.
Pizza has more calories than a salad.
La pizza tiene más calorías que una ensalada.
19.
She is the prettiest girl.
Ella es la chica más bonita.
20.
That is the least important problem.
Ése es el problema menos importante.
21.
There are only three chairs in the classroom.
No hay más de tres sillas en el aula.
22.
Your hotel room is bigger than mine.
Su habitación es más grande que la mía.
23.
There are fewer than twenty people in the park.
Hay menos de veinte personas en el parque.
24.
The smartest boy in the class studies very little.
El chico más inteligente de la clase estudia muy poco.
25.
This house was the newest in the neighborhood.
Esta casa era la más nueva del barrio.
26.
The hottest of all are July and August.
Los más calurosos de todos son julio y agosto.
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COMPARISONS WITH MEJOR, PEOR, MAYOR, AND MENOR
Modifying adverbs, comparative adverbs, and superlative adverbs:
 The previous two chapters explained how más or menos may be used to make
comparisons of equality and superiority. Mejor, peor, major, and menor are used in the
same way.
Modifying adverbs
mucho (much)
poco (little)
bien (well)
malo (badly)
→
→
→
→
→
Comparatives
más (more)
menos (less)
mejor (better)
peor (worse)
→
→
→
→
→
Superlatives
el más
(the most)
el menos (the least)
el major (the best)
el peor (the worst)
Mejor and peor:
 Mejor and peor are used to indicate a degree of excellence.
She is my best friend.
Ella es mi mejor amiga.
This is the worst punishment imaginable.
Esto es el peor castigo imaginable.
That was the worst music that I had heard in my life.
Ésa fue la peor música que he escuchado en mi vida.
I did the best that I could.
Hice lo mejor que pude.
You spoke better than I. (informal)
Hablaste mejor que yo.
Mayor or menor:
 Mayor and menor are used to indicate a degree of importance.
That is our biggest problem. (most important)
Eso es nuestro mayor problema.
It’s not a minor task.
No es una tarea menor.
That was one of your biggest fears. (most important)
Eso fue uno de tus mayores miedos.
Generally, the violations were minor in nature.
Por lo general, las violaciones fueron de menor importancia.
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The recession has affected every country to a greater or lesser degree.
La recesión ha afectado en mayor o menor medida a todos los países.


Mayor or menor also mean “older” or “younger” when referring to people.
In this case, the adjective is describing and follows the noun.
The oldest son had the oldest house.
El hijo mayor tenía la casa más vieja.
Only one victim was a minor.
Sólo había una víctima menor de edad.
Which is the youngest of the siblings?
¿Cuál es el menor de los hermanos?
If you are of legal age you can vote.
Si usted es mayor de edad puede votar.
My younger sister is two years younger than I.
Mi hermana menor es dos años más joven que yo.
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PRACTICING COMPARISON WITH MEJOR, PEOR, MAYOR, AND MENOR
1.
My friend cooks the best fried chicken.
Mi amiga cocina el mejor pollo frito.
2.
I am younger than my brother.
Yo soy menor que mi hermano.
3.
Your idea is worse than ours.
Su idea es peor que la nuestra.
4.
The three cousins are older than you (pl.). (informal in Spain)
Las tres primas son mayores que vosotros.
5.
You study better when you don’t have distractions. (informal)
Tú estudias mejor cuando no tienes distracciones.
6.
All of my classmates were older than I.
Todos mis compañeros de clase fueron mayores que yo.
7.
You can’t buy beer because you are underage.
No puedes comprar cerveza porque eres menor de edad.
8.
The older brother has more responsibility.
El hermano mayor tiene más responsabilidad.
9.
Michael is the worst worker in this office.
Miquel es el peor trabajador en esta oficina.
10.
Those shoes fit me better than these.
Aquellos zapatos me quedan mejor que éstes.
11.
In your opinion, who is the worst soccer player in Spain? (informal in Spain)
En vuestra opinión, ¿cuál es el peor futbolista en España?
12.
That is the best idea possible for dinner.
Eso es la mejor idea posible para la cena.
13.
What do the older people want?
¿Qué quiere la gente mayor?
14.
This is our biggest worry. (most important)
Ésta es nuestra mayor preocupación.
15.
Butter gives them a better flavor than margarine.
La mantequilla les da un mejor sabor que la margarina.
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COMPARATIVE EXPRESSIONS
EXPRESIONES COMPARATIVOS
Comparison with abstract nouns:
 The syntax of the sentence is lo + adjective (optional) + abstract noun.
 Lo, the neutered definite article, is used when gender and number are unknown.
Therefore, when a noun is not referenced, lo is used.
 When used as an abstract noun, an adjective always takes the masculine singular form.
What is best is to forget it. / The best thing is to forget it.
Lo mejor es olvidarlo.
Nobody is perfect.
Nadie se tiene lo perfecto.
What is the most important thing in life?
¿Qué es lo más importante en la vida?
What is most important is winning. / The most important thing is winning.
Lo más importante es ganar.
Expressions of astonishment for an unusual quality or quantity:
 Lo + adjective or adverb + que
I cannot believe how expensive the hotel is!
¡No puedo creer lo caro que es el hotel!
You cannot imagine how well he speaks. (informal)
No te imaginas lo bien que habla.
It’s impressive how quickly he learns.
Es impresionante lo rápido que aprende.
I cannot believe how fat he is.
No lo puedo creer lo gordo que él está.
We know how smart they are.
Sabemos lo inteligente que son.
You (pl.) don’t know how bad these students are.
No saben lo malo que son estos estudiantes.
It surprises me how petty she is.
Me sorprende lo bonita que es ella.
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Expressing “as possible” with lo más:
 Verb + lo + más + adverb
Eat as slowly as you posible can.
Come lo más despacio que puedes.
The exam is going to be as easy as possible.
El examen va a ser lo más fácil.
I arrived as soon as possible.
Llegué lo más pronto.
Expressing “just like” with tal como:
 Tal como is equivalent to “just like” when used as an adjective or adverb.
She is pretty just like her sister.
Ella es bonita tal como su hermana.
They are just like we are.
Ellos son tal como somos.
I am going to do it just like you want.
Voy a hacerlo tal como quieres.
The coffee is just like you want.
El café es tal como quieres.
Do you like the letter just like it is?
¿Te gusta la carta tal como es?
Expressing “like” with a lo:
 A lo is equivalent to “like” when comparing a style or manner.
 A lo is equivalent to como (like, as).
 A + lo + noun
Diego acts like a playboy.
Diego actúa a lo playboy.
That man dresses like a hippie.
Ese hombre se viste a lo hippie.
He sang it mariachi style.
Él lo cantó a lo mariachi.
The girl dresses like a man.
La chica se viste a lo hombre.
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Expressing “the most” with de lo más:
 The syntax of the sentence is de lo más + adjective.
 De lo más is similar to muy (very), but with more emphasis on the strength of the
character trait.
 With de lo más, use the masculine singular form of the adjective.
My son is one of the friendliest boys.
Mi hijo es un chico de lo más amable.
I have one of the most comfortable beds in the world.
Yo tengo una cama de lo más cómodo que hay en el mundo.
Expressing “more or less than that which” with de lo que:
 Más + noun + de + el + que = “more than that which.”
 Menos + noun + de + el + que = “less than that which.”
 The definite article matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
He brought more things than he needed.
Él trajo más cosas de las que necesitaba.
I spend less money than I earn.
Gasto menos dinero del que gano.
There are fewer people than I thought.
Hay menos gente de la que creí.

The neutered definite article lo is used when there is no noun to reference.
You speak more than you should.
Hablas más de lo que debes.
I had more fun than I expected.
Me divertí más de lo que esperaba.
To express astonishment for an action with con lo:
 Con lo + adjective or adverb + que.
Emma arrived late to school today. That’s unusual knowing how punctual she is.
Emma llegó tarde hoy a la escuela. Ese es raro con lo puntual que es ella.
The boy broke his mother’s china. Given how expensive that china is, she will go
crazy!
El niño rompió la vajilla de su mama. ¡Hay con lo cara que es esa vajilla, ella se
volverá loca!
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PRACTICE WITH COMPARATIVE EXPRESSIONS
1.
What is most beautiful about this music the lyrics.
Lo más hermosa de esta música es la letra.
2.
I cannot believe how beautiful the beach is!
¡No puedo creer lo bonita que es la playa!
3.
He will drive as smoothly as possible.
Él conducirá lo más suave.
4.
It happened just like I told you. (informal)
Pasó tal como te dije.
5.
The black mamba is one of the most venomous snakes in the world.
La mamba negra es una de las serpientes más venenosas del mundo.
6.
Given how organized Charles is, he will have everything ready.
Con lo organizado que es Carlos, él tendrá todo listo.
7.
Beto is one of the most diligent when it comes to his work.
Beto es de lo más diligente en cuanto su trabajo.
8.
You know more than you should. (informal)
Tú sabes más de lo que debes.
9.
The saddest part was that she was not able to continue school.
Lo triste fue que ella no pudo continuar la escuela.
10.
Worst of all was that she left him for another man.
Lo peor de todo fue que ella lo dejó por otro hombre.
11.
Melissa acts like her mother.
Melisa se comparta tal como su madre.
12.
I can’t imagine how terrible the accident was.
No puedo imaginarme lo terrible que era el accidente.
13.
Joanna says that the most she can do is walk two kilometers.
Joanna dice que lo más que puede hacer es caminar dos kilómetros.
14.
Given how big the case is, the lawyer will have a lot of work.
Con lo grande que es el caso, la abogada tendrá mucho trabajo.
15.
The diamond is more expensive than you think.
El diamante es más caro de lo que tú piensas.
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16.
I have less time than I thought.
Tengo menos tiempo de lo que creía.
17.
Jaime became overly angry.
Jaime se puso de lo más enojado.
18.
As they are, they will never change.
Tal como son, jamás cambiarán
19.
I arrived as soon as possible.
Llegué lo más pronto.
20.
I am going to do it just like you want.
Voy a hacerlo tal como quieres.
21.
There are fewer (less) people than I thought.
Hay menos gente de la que creí.
22.
Diego acts like a playboy.
Diego actúa a lo playboy.
23.
You cannot imagine how well he speaks.
No te imaginas lo bien que habla.
24.
What is least important is winning. / The least important thing is winning.
Lo menos importante es ganar.
25.
They know how well you can play.
Ellos saben lo bien que puede jugar.
26.
He told me how well you were doing that job.
Él me decía lo bien que hacías ese trabajo.
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SAME
MISMO
El Mismo (the same) to make a comparison:
 El mismo (the same) is used to make a comparison of equality in an affirmative sentence
or to make a comparison of inequality in a negative sentence.
 The definite article always precedes the noun.
 Mismo, when meaning “same” is a distinguishing adjective which precedes the noun.
 The definite article and the adjective mismo match the gender and number of the noun
they relate to.
 The definite article has four forms: masculine singular (el), feminine singular (la),
masculine plural (los), and feminine plural (las).
 Mismo, as adjective, has four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
They always do the same thing with the same results.
Siempre se hacen la misma cosa con los mismos resultados.
I don’t have the same accent.
No tengo el mismo acento.
The same trees grow in Europe.
Los mismos árboles crecen en Europa.
He never runs the same distance.
Él nunca corre la misma distancia.
The same women won two times in the same week.
Las mismas mujeres ganaron dos veces en la misma semana.
We wear the same size.
Usamos la misma talla.
El mismo (the same) to make a comparison in a subject complement:
 El mismo is introduced by the linking verb ser in a subject complement.
 The definite article and adjective mismo match the gender and number of the noun they
relate to.
 The definite article has four forms: masculine singular (el), feminine singular (la),
masculine plural (los), feminine plural (las).
 Mismo, as an adjective, has four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
 A prepositional phrase may be used to give more clarity to the sentence.
The woman was not the same after the accident.
La mujer no era la misma después de la accidente.
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The town isn’t the same any more.
El pueblo ya no es el mismo.
We are always the same.
Somos los mismos de siempre.
The politicians are the same as always.
Los políticos son los mismos como siempre.
Mismo (same) paired with a possessive adjective:
 Mismo is commonly paired with an unstressed possessive adjective to make a
comparison.
 Unstressed possessive adjectives mi, tu, su, nuestro, and vuestro precede the noun and
show ownership.
 The possessive adjective matches the noun in gender and number.
 The distinguishing adjective mismo precedes the noun and matches it in gender and
number.
 Mismo, as an adjective has four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
They are with people of their same class.
Ellos están con gente de su misma clase.
It’s there, in front of your own noses.
Está ahí, delante de sus mismas narices.
I am looking for people with mine same values.
Busco personas con mis mismos valores.
Lo mismo (the same) as an abstract noun:
 Lo, the neutered definite article, may be paired with an adjective to form an abstract
noun.
 Mismo, as a noun, has only one form: masculine singular.
We always eat the same thing.
Siempre comemos lo mismo.
You should do the same thing. (informal)
Debes hacer lo mismo.
Mismo (self) as a descriptive adjective which follows the noun:
 Mismo, when meaning “self,” is a descriptive adjective used to give emphasis or
intensity to the noun.
 Descriptive adjectives follow the noun.
 Mismo, as an adjective, matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
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
Mismo, the adjective, has four forms: masculine singular (-o), feminine singular (-a),
masculine plural (-os), and feminine plural (-as).
The king himself appeared on the threshold.
El rey mismo apareció en el umbral.
She brought it herself.
Ella misma lo trajo.
Mismo (self) with an object of the preposition pronoun:
 The prepositional pronouns are introduced by a preposition.
 Mismo, when meaning “self,” is a descriptive adjective which follows the noun.
 Mismo, as an adjective, matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
Prepositional Pronoun + Mismo
mi mismo
(myself)
ti mismo
(yourself, informal)
si mismo
(yourself)
nosotros mismos (ourselves)
si mismos
(themselves, yourselves)
vosotros mismos (themselves, yourselves in Spain)
I see myself in the mirror.
Veo a mi mismo en el espejo.
They killed themselves.
Se mataron a si mismos.
Do you believe in yourself? (informal)
¿Crees en ti mismo?
He sees himself in the mirror.
Él se vio a si mismo en el espejo.
We buy clothes for ourselves.
Nosotros compramos ropa para nosotros mismos.
The images speak for themselves.
Las imágenes hablan por si mismas.
Look for yourselves. (informal in Spain)
Mirad por vosotros mismos
Help yourself. (informal)
Ayúdate a ti mismo.
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Mismo (to emphasize a time) as a paired adverb:
 Mismo is paired with another adverb to emphasize the exact time of an action.
 Adverbs have one form.
Right now we start the race.
Ahora mismo comencemos la carrera.
This very day they leave for Mexico.
Hoy mismo ellos salen para México.
Do it right now! (informal)
¡Hazlo ahora mismo!
I should leave this very day.
Debo salir hoy mismo.
What are you doing right now? (informal)
¿Qué estás hacienda ahora mismo?
I will call you today. (informal)
Te llamaré hoy mismo.
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Comparisons 152
PRACTICE WITH MISMO
1.
I have the same shirt.
Yo tengo la misma camisa.
2.
You (pl.) have to clean the living room. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros mismas tenéis que recoger la sala.
3.
The investigation was led by Ernest himself.
La investigación fue dirigida por Ernesto mismo.
4.
That man is the same one we saw.
Ese hombre es el mismo que vimos.
5.
It’s the same thing everyday.
Es la misma cosa todos los días.
6.
He wasn’t the same when he returned from the war.
No fue el mismo cuando regresó de la guerra.
7.
You can do it for yourself.
Puede hacerlo por si mismo.
8.
Santos sees himself in the lake.
Santos se ve a si mismo en el lago.
9.
I want you to call your aunt right now.
Ahora mismo quiero que le llames a tu tía.
10.
He put on the same suit.
Él se puso el mismo traje.
11.
Lucy has had the same car for twelve years.
Lucia ha tenido el mismo carro por doce años.
12.
We ourselves will defend your mother.
Nosotros mismos defenderemos a tu madre.
13.
They themselves chose you.
Ellos mismos te escogieron.
14.
Believe in yourselves. (informal in Spain)
Creed en vosotros mismos.
15.
Julia will ask for the same thing.
Julia va a pedir la misma cosa.
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16.
You want me to go to the store right now? (informal)
¿Quieres que vaya yo a la tienda ahora mismo?
17.
The government itself should defend our rights.
El gobierno mismo debe defender nuestros derechos.
18.
The same dog that I rescued bit me.
El mismo perro que rescaté yo me mordió.
19.
We saw the same movie in class.
Vimos la misma película en clase.
20.
I had the same doctor for twenty-five years.
He tenido el mismo doctor por veinticinco años.
21.
Do you respect yourself? (informal)
¿Te respecta a ti mismo?
22.
Do it yourselves. (informal in Spain)
Hacedlo vosotros mismos.
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VERBS AS NOUNS, ADVERBS, OR ADJECTIVES
UNIT 10
Unit Ten Table of Contents........................................................................... 154
Verbs as Nouns, Adverbs, or Adjectives....................................................... 155
Practice with Verbs as Nouns, Adverbs, or Adjectives................................. 157
The Infinitive ................................................................................................ 158
Verbs Which Take a Preposition before the Infinitive.................................. 162
The Infinitive to Express an Obligation......................................................... 164
Practice with the Infinitive............................................................................ 165
Progressive Action.........................................................................................167
Practice with Progressive Action................................................................. 170
Gerundio……………………………………...............................................…..………….. 171
Practice with Gerundio…………….......................................................…….….… 173
Past Participles When an Adjective............................................................... 175
Perfect Verb Tense........................................................................................ 177
Practice with Past Participles........................................................................ 178
Perfect Verb Tense for Past or Future Events............................................... 180
Practice with the Perfect Tense for Present, Past, or Future Events............ 183
La Rendición de Granada depicts Boabdil, the Sultan of Granada, surrendering the
keys of the city to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabel. Granada was the last Moorish
stronghold in Spain and fell in 1492. Shortly after the defeat, Muslims and Jews were
expelled from Spain. Painting by Francisco Pradilla Ortiz (1882).
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Verbs as Nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs 155
VERBS AS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, OR ADVERBS
VERBOS COMO SUSTANTIVOS, ADJETIVOS, O ADVERBIOS
Verbs as nouns using the infinitive:
 The infinitive may be used as a noun.
 The infinitive may be the subject noun or prepositional noun.
Swimming is the best exercise.
El nadar es el mejor ejercicio.
We eat after playing.
Comemos después de jugar.
Speaking in public is like learning to act.
Hablar en público es como aprender a actuar.
Verbs as descriptive adjectives using the past-participle verb form:
 -AR verbs add -ado to the infinitive stem to form past participles.
hablar → hablado

-IR and -ER verbs add -ido to the infinitive stem to form past participles.
comer → comido



vivir → vivido
Past participles may be used as descriptive adjectives.
Descriptive adjectives follow the noun.
When past participles are used as adjectives, they match the gender and number of the
noun they relate to.
Verb
unir (to unite
asar (to grill)
cerrar (to close)
→
→
→
→
Descriptive Adjective
los Estados Unidos (the United States)
pollo asado
(grilled chicken)
la puerta cerrada (the closed door)
Verbs as adjectives in a complement clause using the past-participle verb form:
 Past participles may function as adjectives in a subject complement.
 When used in a subject complement, past participles are usually introduced by the
linking verb estar (to be).
 Past participles are used in the subject complement to emphasize that the action is
completed.
 When used as adjectives, past participles match the gender and number of the noun.
The project is finished.
El proyecto está terminado.
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We are trapped.
Estamos atrapados.
The girls are asleep.
Las niñas están dormidas.
Verbs as adverbs using estar (to be) + a verb in the present-participle verb form:
 -AR verbs add -ando to the infinitive stem to form present participles.
hablar → hablando

-IR and -ER verbs add -iendo to the infinitive stem to form present participles.
comer → comiendo



vivir → viviendo
Estar (to be) + a verb in the present-participle verb form conveys a progressive action.
The verb estar is conjugated in its regular manner.
A verb in the present-participle verb form functions as an adverb, so it has only one
form: masculine singular.
I am speaking with my brother.
Estoy hablando con mi hermano.
She is living in San Francisco.
Ella está viviendo en San Francisco.
We are eating dessert.
Estamos comiendo postre.
Perfect tense:
 The perfect tense = the auxiliary verb haber (to have) + the main verb in the pastparticiple verb tense.
 It is called the perfect tense because the auxiliary verb haber + the main verb in the
past-participle verb tense indicates that the action has been completed.
 Haber is conjugated in its regular manner.
 Past participles used with the perfect tense are similar to adverbs in that they follow the
verb, and have only one form: masculine singular.
I have spoken with his cousin.
He hablado con su primo.
Have you lived there? (informal)
¿Has vivido allí?
They have eaten all the food.
Han comido toda la comida.
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PRACTICE WITH VERBS AS NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS
1.
They buy all types of used cars.
Ellos compran todos tipos de carros usados.
2.
The children are tired.
Los niños están cansados.
3.
Studying is important.
Es importante estudiar.
4.
Today we eat grilled chicken.
Hoy comemos pollo asado.
5.
The fishermen are lost.
Los pescadores están perdidos.
6.
We are trapped.
Estamos atrapados.
7.
Swimming is good for your health.
El nadir es bueno para la salud.
8.
We have successfully finished the race.
Hemos terminado la carrera con éxito.
9.
I will be reading a magazine if you need me.
Estaré leyendo una revista si me necesita.
10.
I don’t feel like doing anything.
No tengo ganas de hacer nada.
11.
Have you been with your in-laws? (informal)
¿Has estado con tus suegros?
12.
Peter is running through the park.
Pedro está corriendo por el parque.
13.
Have you taken Professor Anderson’s exam? (informal)
¿Has tomado el examen del profesor Anderson?
14.
I am talking with my best friend.
Estoy platicando con mi mejor amiga.
15.
That is difficult to understand.
Eso es difícil de entender.
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THE INFINITIVE
EL INFINITIVO
The infinitive:
 The infinitive is the unconjugated verb form.
 Infinitive verb forms end in -ar, -er, or -ir.
 Examples of the infinitive verb form of regular verbs:
hablar (to speak)
vivir
(to live)
comer (to eat)
In English, there are two ways to use a verb as a noun:
 The present-participle verb form (gerund) may be a noun and ends in –ing.
Forgetting is human.

The infinitive verb form may be a noun.
To forget is human.
In Spanish, only the infinitive can be a noun:
 In Spanish, only the infinitive verb form may be used as a noun.
 Present-participle (-ing) verb forms may not be used as nouns.
 When used as a noun, the infinitive is always masculine.
 When an infinitive is the subject noun, the definite article el is optional. The use of the
definite article can make the sentence more personal or informal.
Swimming is the best exercise.
Nadar es el mejor ejercicio.
Sharing is living.
Compartir es vivir.
They like to cook.
Les gusta cocinar.
Life is an opening and closing of the eyes.
La vida es un abrir y cerrar de los ojos.
Is it normal to hear the singing of birds in the night?
¿Es normal escuchar el cantar de los pájaros en la noche?
Knowing and not remembering is the same as not knowing at all.
Saber y no recordar es lo mismo que ignorar.
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The infinitive when following a preposition:
 A noun which is the object of the preposition, will follow the preposition.
 The infinitive is used because present-participle (-ing) verb forms cannot be used as
nouns.
She has illusions of winning.
Ella tiene ilusiones de ganar.
Preposition: of.
Object of preposition: winning.
They did it in order to help you.
Lo hicieron para ayudarte.
We’ll eat after playing football.
Comeremos después de jugar el futbol.
The infinitive may be used in impersonal commands:
 The infinitive is used to give commands to no one person in particular.
 When the infinitive is used in impersonal commands, it is used on signs and in written
instructions, rather than in normal speech.
Smoking is prohibited.
Es prohibido fumar.
No smoking.
No fumar.
Do not enter.
No entrar.
The infinitive as a direct object noun:
 Verbs expressing desire are often paired with infinitives.
 Sensory verbs are often paired with infinitives.
 Deber (should), poder (could), preferir (to prefer), querer, (to want), esperar (to hope),
saber (to know), soler (usually), decidir (to decide), and intender (to try) are often paired
with the infinitive.
I prefer to leave.
Yo prefiero salir.
She wants to speak.
Ella quiere hablar.
We can win.
Podemos ganar.
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Anthony watched the water run.
Antonio miraba correr el agua.
He knows how to dance.
Él sabe bailar.
You must take the medicine.
Debes tomar la medicina.
I saw the people swimming.
Vi nadar a la gente.
Object pronouns and infinitives:
 Even though infinitives function as nouns, they are verbs, so object pronouns may be
used with infinitives.
Object pronouns when the infinitive is a subject noun or object of preposition noun:
 Pronouns are attached to the infinitive.
 Indirect-object pronouns always precede direct-object pronouns.
 The indirect-object pronouns, le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
 If you attach both an indirect-object pronoun and a direct-object pronoun to the
infinitive, remember to add an accent mark to maintain the correct pronunciation.
Pedirlo (to ask it), an example of attaching pronouns to the infinitive:
 Pedir [pe-DĬR] ends in -r, so it is an aguda with the natural stress on the last syllable of
the word.
 Pedir → pedirlo [pe-DĬR-lo]. When the direct-object pronoun is attached, pedirlo ends in
a vowel so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable. Because the
stressed syllable has not changed, an accent mark is not needed.
 Pedir → pedírselo, [pe-DĬR-se-lo]. When two pronouns are attached to the infinitive, an
accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the pronunciation.
Examples of attaching pronouns to the infinitive when the infinitive is a subject noun or
object of the preposition noun:
We did it in order to help you.
Lo hicimos para ayudarte.
To know us is to love us.
Conocernos es amarnos.
Desert, I don’t have money to buy it for you.
El postre, no tengo dinero para comprárselo.
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Object pronouns when the infinitive is a direct object noun:
 Object pronouns can either be attached to the infinitive or placed before the paired
verbs.
 Indirect-object pronouns always precede direct-object pronouns.
 The indirect-object pronouns, le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
 If you attach both an indirect-object pronoun and a direct-object pronoun to the
infinitive, remember to add an accent mark so that the attached pronouns do not
change the pronunciation.
Examples of using object pronouns when the infinitive is a direct object noun:
The medicine, you should take it.
La medicina, debes tomarla. / La medicina, la debes tomar.
The lesson, we can’t understand it.
La lección, no podemos comprenderla. / La lección, no la podemos comprender.
The money, they don’t want to return it to them.
El dinero, no quieren devolvérselo. / El dinero, no se lo quieren devolver.
The pitcher wants to throw it to him.
El lanzador quiere tirársela. / El lanzador se la quiere tirar.
Verbs of motion require the preposition from de (of) or a (to):
 The preposition a is required before an infinitive used to indicate a destination.
 Verbs which are commonly used to indicate going to a destination are ir (to go), correr
(to run), bajar (to go down), and subir (to go up).
 The preposition de is required before an infinitive which is an origin.
 Verbs commonly used to indicate leaving from an origin are salir (to leave) and venir (to
come).
I came from shopping.
Vine de hacer compras.
He bent over to pickup something.
Se bajó a recoger algo.
We did not stop dancing.
No dejábamos de bailar.
She is going to study it.
Ella va a estudiarlo. / Ella lo va a estudiar.
It stopped raining.
Paraba de llorar.
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VERBS WHICH TAKE PREPOSITIONS BEFORE THE INFINITIVE
Many verbs take the preposition a (to) before the infinitive.
 Some of the most common verbs which take the preposition a (to) when followed by
the infinitive:
alcanzar a (to manage to)
aprender a (to learn how to)
animar a (to encourage to)
aspirar a (to aspire to)
atreverse a (to dare to)
ayudar a (to help to)
comenzar a (to begin to)
comprometerse a (to undertake to)
contribuir a (to contribute to)
decidirse a (to decide to)
dedicarse a (to dedicate oneself to)
disponerse a (to get ready to)
echarse a (to start to do something)
empezar a (to begin to)
enseñar a (to teach how to)
invitar a (to invite to)
llegar a (to arrive at)
limitarse a (to limit oneself to)
meterse a (to start to)
negarse a (to refuse to)
obligar a (to force to)
persuadir a (to persuade to)
prepararse a (to prepare to)
ponerse a (to start to)
resignarse a (to resign oneself to)
resistirse a (to resist)
volver a (to do something again)
Many verbs take the preposition de (of) before the infinitive.
 Some of the most common verbs which take the preposition de (of) when followed by
the infinitive:
acabar de (to have just done something)
acusar de (to accuse of)
acordarse de (to remember)
alegrarse de (to be happy)
arrepentirse de (to regret)
avergonzarse de (to be ashamed of)
cansarse de (to tire of)
convencerse de (to become convinced)
cuidar de (to be careful to)
dejar de (to stop)
encargarse de (to take charge of)
hartarse de (to be fed up with)
jactarse de (to boast of)
olvidarse de (to forget)
parar de (to stop doing something)
pensar de (to think about something)
preocuparse de (to be worried about)
quejarse de (to complain about something)
terminar de (to finish something)
tratarse de (to be about)
Many verbs take the preposition en (in) before the infinitive form.
 Some of the most common verbs which take the preposition en (in) when followed by
the infinitive:
confiar en (to trust in)
consentir en (to consent in)
consistir en (to consist in)
convencer en (to agree in)
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dudar en (to hesitate in)
hacer bien en (to be right in)
hacer mal en (to be wrong in)
insistir en (to insist in)
interesarse en (to be interested in)
pensar en (to think of doing something)
persistir en (to persist in)
tardar en (to delay in)
A few verbs take the preposition con (with) before the infinitive form.
 Some of the most common verbs which take the preposition con (with) when followed
by the infinitive:
amenazar con (to threaten with)
contar con (to count on)
preocuparse con (to be concerned with)
soñar con ( to dream about/of)
tener que ver con (to have to do with)
A few verbs take the preposition por (for) before the infinitive.
 Some of the most common verbs which take the preposition por (for) when followed by
the infinitive:
acabar por (to end doing something)
disculparse por (to apologize for)
estar por (to be in favor of)
luchar por (to fight for)
optar por (to opt for)
terminar por (to end up doing something)
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THE INFINITIVE TO EXPRESS AN OBLIGATION
EL INFINITIVO PARA EXPRESAR UNA OBLIGACIÓN
Tener que + the infinitive means “must” when expressing a direct obligation:
 Tener que + the infinitive is used in a personal or direct manner.
I have to go to the store.
Tengo que ir al mercado.
Joey has to visit his parents.
Pepito tiene que visitar a sus padres.
Hay que + the infinitive means “must” when expressing an impersonal obligation:
 Hay que + the infinitive is used as an impersonal expression of an obligation.
 The verb form hay is always used because there is no subject.
It’s necessary to take the bus.
Hay que tomar el autobús.
One must study a lot to make a good grade.
Hay que estudiar mucho para sacar una buena nota.
Deber + the infinitive means “should”when giving advice:
 Deber + the infinitive is used to give advice regarding a moral obligation.
We ought to listen to his advice.
Debemos escuchar sus consejos.
Thomas should take the medicine.
Tomás debe tomar la medicina.

Deber de + the infinitive is used to express a probability.
Martin probably should take the medicine.
Martín debe de tomar la medicina.
Everyone probably should know.
Todos deben de saber.

Deber in the conditional or past-subjunctive tense expresses advice in a softer manner.
You should be ashamed of yourself! / Shame on you!
¡Debería darte vergüenza!
You really should buy the tickets.
Usted debiera comprar los boletos.
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PRACTICE WITH THE INFINITIVE
1.
Running is good exercise.
Correr es buen ejercicio.
2.
It’s necessary to take the medicine.
Hay que tomar la medicina.
3.
He runs to arrive on time.
Corre para llegar a tiempo.
4.
I want to go to the movies.
Quiero ir al cine.
5.
I have to go to the store.
Tengo que ir al mercado.
6.
Everyone probably should know.
Todos deben de saber.
7.
She is going to study it.
Ella va a estudiarlo. / Ella lo va a estudiar.
8.
The pitcher wants to throw it to him.
El lanzador quiere tirársela. / El lanzador se la quiere tirar.
9.
Smoking is prohibited.
Es prohibido fumar.
10.
We can win.
Podemos ganar.
11.
No running.
No correr.
12.
You (pl.) love to play video games. (informal in Spain)
A vosotros os encantáis jugar videojuegos.
13.
Before having dinner, we set the table.
Antes de cenar, ponemos la mesa.
14.
Timothy should not walk for three months.
Timoteo no debe caminar por tres meses.
15.
Albert has to go shopping.
Alberto tiene que ir de compras.
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16.
To begin a hobby, you should have an interest in it. (informal)
Para empezar un pasatiempo, deberías tener interés.
17.
We like to take photos of animals.
A nosotros nos gusta tomar fotos de animales.
18.
The girl wants to eat ice cream.
La niña quiere comerse un helado.
19.
I forgot to charge my cell phone.
Se me olvidó cargar el celular.
20.
Are you going to buy Caroline’s cake? (informal)
¿Tú vas a comprar el pastel de Carolina?
21.
After taking a bath, I shave.
Después de bañarme, me afeito.
22.
Tomorrow we will start the diet.
Mañana vamos a comenzar la dieta.
23.
You should not touch your grandfather’s guitar.
Usted no debe tocar la guitarra de su abuelo.
24.
Knowledge is power.
Saber es poder.
25.
You (pl.) should know how to change a tire. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros debéis saber cómo cambiar una llanta.
26.
It’s necessary to take precautions against diseases.
Es necesario tomar precauciones contra las enfermedades.
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PROGRESSIVE ACTIONS
ACCIONES PROGRESIVAS
Forming present participles:
 -AR verbs add -ando to the third-person preterit stem to form present participles.
Infinitive → 3rd Person Preterit → Present Participle
hablar
→
habló
→
hablando

-IR and -ER verbs add -iendo to the third-person preterit stem to form present
participles.
Infinitive → 3rd Person Preterit → Present Participle
comer
→
comió
→
comiendo
vivir
→
vivió
→
viviendo

Present participles function as adverbs, so they have only one form.
Irregular present-participles verb form:
 Present-participle stems come from the third-person preterit stem. If the third-person
stem is irregular, the present-participle stem will be irregular.
Infinitive
venir
poder
dormir

→ Present Participle
→
viniendo
→
pudiendo
→
durmiendo
When an unstressed I appears between two vowels, the I always changes to Y.
Infinitive
caer
leer
oír
ir

→ 3rd Person Preterit
→
vino
→
pudo
→
durmió
→ 3rd Person Preterit
→
cayó
→
leyó
→
oyó
→
fue
→ Present Participle
→
cayendo
→
leyendo
→
oyendo
→
yendo
When the stem ends in LL or Ñ, the present-participle ending changes from -iendo to
-endo because the LL or Ñ already has an I sound.
Infinitive → 3rd Person Preterit → Present Participle
bullir
→
bulló
→
bullendo
gruñir
→
gruñó
→
gruñendo
Progressive action (acción progresivo):
 Estar (to be) + a verb in the present-participle verb form conveys a progressive action.
 The verb estar is conjugated in its regular manner.
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
A verb in the present-participle verb form functions like an adverb in that it follows the
verb, and it has only one form: masculine singular.
I am speaking with my brother.
Estoy hablando con mi hermano.
She is living in San Francisco.
Ella está viviendo en San Francisco.
We are eating dessert.
Estamos comiendo postre.
He is sleeping.
Él está durmiendo.
You (pl.) are fleeing from something.
Ustedes están huyendo de algo.
They are growling like dogs.
Están gruñendo como perros.
Object pronouns with present participles:
 Object pronouns can either be attached to present participles or placed before the
verbs.
 Indirect-object pronouns always precede direct-object pronouns.
 The indirect-object pronouns le and les change to se when used in front of a directobject pronoun that begins with the letter L.
Admitiéndolo (admitting it), an example of attaching object pronouns to present participles:
 The present participle of admitir is admitiendo. Admitiendo ends in an -o, so it is a llana
with the natural stress on the next-to-last syllable. Admitiendo [ad-mi-TĬEN-do].
 Admitiéndolo is the present participle of admitir with the direct-object pronoun
attached. Admitiendolo ends in an -o, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the nextto-last syllable. × Admitiendolo [ad-mi-tĭen-DO-lo].
 Without an accent mark to move the stress, the pronunciation of the words is different.
× Admitiendolo [ad-mi-tĭen-DO-lo] ≠ admitiendo [ad-mi-TĬEN-do].
 With an accent mark, the attached pronoun does not change the pronunciation.
√ Admitiéndolo [ad-mi-TĬEN-do] = admitiendo [ad-mi-TĬEN-do].
 Remember to place the accent mark over the strong vowel (a, e, o) in the dipthongo
because if the accent mark is placed over the weak vowel (i, u) the dipthongo will be
divided into two syllables.
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Examples of the two methods for using object pronouns with present participles:
The salad, we are eating it.
La ensalada, estamos comiéndola.
La ensalada, la estamos comiendo.
The accident, the police officer is asking him about it.
El accidente, el policía está preguntándoselo.
El accidente, el policía se lo está preguntando.
The beer, I am drinking it.
cerveza, estoy bebiéndola.
La cerveza, la estoy bebiendo.
The truth, they are telling it to him.
La verdad, están diciéndosela.
La verdad, se la están diciendo.
Reflexive pronouns with present participles:
 Reflexive pronouns may be added to present participles to create one word, or reflexive
pronouns may be placed before the verbs.
Tomorrow while I am fishing they will be getting married.
Mañana cuando estoy pescando ellos estarán casándose.
Mañana cuando estoy pescando ellos se estarán casando.
You are frustrating yourself.
Estás frustrándote.
Te estás frustrando.
I’m calming myself with music.
Estoy calmándome con música.
Me estoy calmando con música.
Present participles are not normally used for a future action:
 Present participles may be used to express an action which will take place in the future
only if something else is going to happen at the same time.
I will be crying when she marries him.
Estaré llorando cuando ella se case con él.
We will be leaving Friday at the same time John’s plane arrives.
Estaremos saliendo el viernes al mismo tiempo que llegue el avión de Juan.
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PRACTICE WITH PROGRESSIVE ACTION
1.
Now she is calling the police.
Ahora ella está llamando a la policía.
2.
Tony is sleeping now.
Antonio está durmiendo ahorita.
3.
They are fleeing from something.
Ellos están huyendo de algo.
4.
They are growling like dogs.
Están gruñendo como perros.
5.
The man was running very slowly.
El hombre estaba corriendo muy lentamente.
6.
My boyfriend was studying when I arrived at his house.
Mi novio estaba estudiando cuando llegué a su casa.
7.
I am telling her the truth.
Estoy diciéndola la verdad. / Le estoy diciendo la verdad.
8.
I am not asking you anything.
No estoy pidiéndote nada. / No te estoy pidiendo nada.
9.
You (pl.) are drinking a tea from China. (informal in Spain)
Estáis tomando un té de China.
10.
Marcela is recording her first lecture.
Marcela está grabando su primera lección.
11.
George is crying because they took away his bicycle.
Jorge está llorando porque le quitaron su bicicleta.
12.
We are cooking enchiladas with green sauce.
Estamos cocinando enchiladas con salsa verde.
13.
Carmen is writing a letter to her boyfriend.
Carmen está escribiendo una carta a su novio.
14.
My son is learning how to walk.
Mi hijo está aprendiendo a caminar.
15.
You are charging too much for that necklace. (informal)
Estás cobrando demasiado por ese collar.
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GERUNDIO
Gerund, progressive actions, and gerundio:
 In English, the gerund denotes the use of an -ing verb as a noun. Spanish does not use
the -ing verb form as a noun. In Spanish, only the infinitive verb form may be used as a
noun.
 Progressive action (acción progresiva) is the use of the verb estar + a verb in the
present-participle form to convey that an action is in progress.
 The gerundio, in Spanish, but not in English, is the usage that combines seguir (to
continue), andar (to walk), ir (to go), or venir (to come) with a verb in the presentparticiple verb form to convey continuation of an action.
Seguir + gerundio:
 Seguir (to continue) + a verb in the present-participle verb form is used to express
continuation without stopping.
Why do you continue talking?
¿Por qué sigue hablando?
We continue asking for help.
Nosotros seguimos pidiendo por ayuda.
They continued reading the book.
Ellos seguían leyendo el libro.
They continued reading it.
Ellos lo seguían leyendo. / Ellos seguían leyéndolo.
Andar + gerundio:
 Andar (to go) + a verb in the present-participle verb form is used to express movement.
He walks around drinking coffee.
Él anda tomando café.
You walked around looking for your dog. (informal)
Tú andabas buscando tu perro.
Mathew walks around writing love letters.
Mateo anda escribiendo mensajes de amor.
Ir + gerundio:
 Ir (to go) + a verb in the present-participle verb form is used to indicate more and more.
The flowers grow more and more.
Las flores van creciendo.
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The fire expands more and more.
Se va extendiendo el incendio.
Venir + gerundio:
 Venir (to come) + a verb in the present-participle verb form is used to indicate a
continuation from past to present.
Astronomers from past to present continue studying life on Mars.
Astrónomos vienen estudiando la vida en Marte.
Industries from past to present continue contaminating the water.
Industrias vienen contaminando el agua.
My mother-in-law from the past to the present caused a lot of problems.
Mi suegra venía causando muchos problemas.
Present participles in adverbial clauses:
 Present participles may be used in adverbial clauses.
 Present participles are used in adverbial clauses to convey action that occurs, or
occurred, at the same time, or just before the other action takes place.
Reading the instructions you will be successful. (informal)
Leyendo las instrucciones, tendrás éxito.
Walking in the park he found a coin.
Caminando por el parque, se encontró una moneda.
Reading them (the instructions) you will be successful. (informal)
Leyéndolas, tendrás éxito.
He continued speaking, ignoring my presence.
Él seguía hablando, ignorando mi presencia.
You arrived quickly using the elevator. (informal)
Te llegaste pronto usando el ascensor.
Arriving late, I found no one in the office.
Llegando tarde, no encontré a nadie en la oficina.
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PRACTICE WITH GERUNDIO
1.
We entered running, trying to pass through the crowd.
Entramos corriendo, tratando de pasar entre la muchedumbre.
2.
You continue living however you like. (informal)
Tú sigues viviendo como te da la gana.
3.
Nicolas was very satisfied understanding the instructions.
Nicolás estaba muy satisfecho entendiendo las instrucciones.
4.
You arrived quickly using the elevator. (informal)
Te llegaste pronto usando el ascensor.
5.
Walking in the park, he found a coin.
Caminando por el parque, se encontró una moneda.
6.
Mexico, from past to present, continues exporting.
México viene exportando.
7.
We were traveling in Argentina.
Andábamos viajando por Argentina.
8.
Keep eating; I’ll pick up the phone.
Sigue comiendo; yo recojo el teléfono.
9.
I came running from the soccer fields.
Vengo corriendo desde los campos de fútbol.
10.
You were in class doing nothing? (informal)
¿Estuviste in clase hacienda nada?
11.
The wind grows stronger every hour.
El viento va creciendo más fuerte cada hora.
12.
Juana has played the piano since she was a girl.
Juana sigue tocando el piano desde niña.
13.
He is leaving class right now.
Ahora mismo va saliendo de clase.
14.
Ruben is thinking about his career of choice.
Rubén está pensando en su carrera preferida.
15.
We continue watching our favorite program.
Seguimos mirando nuestro programa favorito.
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16.
I am counting the days until Christmas.
Voy contando los días hasta la Navidad.
17.
Oscar continues chewing gum like a cow.
Oscár sigue masticando el chicle como una vaca.
18.
Our love continues growing.
Nuestro amor va creciendo.
19.
It comes down to the same thing.
Viene siendo lo mismo.
20.
They keep listening to the same music.
Ellos siguen escuchando la misma música.
21.
Arthur is walking around looking for you.
Arturo anda buscándote.
22.
Martha continues studying medicine.
Marta sigue estudiando medicina.
23.
When painting the scenery, an idea came to me.
Cuando pintando el escenario, se me vino una idea.
24.
From the past to the present politicians continue to deceive people.
Los políticos vienen engañando la gente.
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PAST PARTICIPLES AS ADJECTIVES
PARTICIPIOS PASADOS COMO ADJETIVOS
Past participles as descriptive adjectives:
 Past participles express a completed state of being.
Forming past participles:
 Past-participle verb endings are added to the infinitive verb stem.
 Past participles, when used as adjectives, match the gender and number of the noun
they relate to.
 Past-participle verb endings for infinitive verb ending in -ar have four forms: masculine
singular (-ado), feminine singular (-ada), masculine plural (-ados), and feminine plural (adas).
 Past-participle verb endings for infinitive verbs ending in -ir or -er have four forms:
masculine singular (-ido), feminine singular (-ida), masculine plural (-idos), and feminine
plural (-idas).
Past participles as adjectives following a noun:
 Past participles may be used as descriptive adjectives.
 Descriptive adjectives follow the noun they describe.
 Past participles, when used as adjectives, match the gender and number of nouns being
described.
I never eat burnt tortillas.
Yo nunca como las tortillas quemadas.
The used books are cheaper.
Los libros usados son más baratos.
She likes to eat boiled shrimp.
A ella le gusta comer los camarones hervidos.
I don’t have the certified document.
No tengo el documento certificado.
Past participles as adjectives in a subject complement:
 The subject complement is introduced by the linking verb estar or ser.
 Past participles may be adjectives in the subject complement.
 Past participles, as adjectives, match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
The store is opened.
La tienda está cerrada.
Angela is asleep.
Ángela está dormida.
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Those workers are tired.
Estos obreros están cansados.
These women are clever.
Estas mujeres están listas.
Past participles with the passive voice:
 Ser + a past participle is only used with the passive voice.
 When using the passive voice, ser introduces the past participle in a subject
complement.
They (feminine) were rescued by the workers.
Ellas fueron rescatadas por los obreros.
The novel was written by Ramirez.
La novela fue escrita por Ramírez.
Irregular past-participle verb forms:
abrir
cerrar
componer
decir
describir
descubrir
devolver
disolver
escribir
freír
hacer
inscribir
morir
poner
prescribir
resolver
romper
ver
volver
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
→
abierto
cerrado
compuesto
dijo
descrito
descubierto
devuelto
desvuelto
escrito
frito
hecho
inscrito
muerto
puesto
prescrito
resuelto
roto
visto
vuelto
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PERFECT TENSE
TIEMPOS PERFECTOS
Perfect tense:
 The perfect tense = the auxiliary verb haber (to have) + the main verb in the pastparticiple verb tense.
 It is called the perfect tense because the auxiliary verb haber + the main verb in the
past-participle verb tense indicate that the action has been completed.
 Haber is conjugated in its regular manner.
 Past participles, when used in the perfect tense, function like adverbs in that they have
only one form: masculine singular, and they follow the verb.
Conjugation of haber:
Present:
he,
has,
Imperfect: había,
habías,
Future:
habré,
habrás,
Conditional: habría, habrías,
Subjunctive: haya,
hayas,
Preterit:
hube,
hubiste,
Past subj. 1: hubiera, hubieras,
Past subj 2: hubiese, hubieses,
Present participle: habiendo
Past participle: habido
ha,
había,
habrá,
habría,
haya,
hubo,
hubiera,
hubiese,
hemos,
habíais,
habremos,
habríamos,
hayamos,
hubimos,
hubiéramos,
hubiésemos,
habéis,
habíamos,
habréis,
habríais,
hayáis,
hubisteis,
hubierais,
hubieseis,
han
habían
habrán
habrían
hayan
hubieron
hubieran
hubiesen
Present perfect tense (perfecto de indicativo):
 The present-perfect tense references a completed action in relation to the present, the
same as it does in English.
I have spoken with his cousin.
He hablado con su primo.
Have you lived there? (informal)
¿Has vivido allí?
We have eaten all the food.
Hemos comido toda la comida.
They haven’t said it to me.
Ellos no me lo han dicho.
Have they bought it yet?
¿Ya lo han comprado?
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PRACTICE WITH PAST PARTICIPLES
1.
The boys are tired.
Los chicos están cansados.
2.
They have eaten all the food.
Han comido toda la comida.
3.
We have done that.
Hemos hecho eso.
4.
The electrical repairs have been tested.
Las reparaciones eléctricas han sido probadas.
5.
They haven’t gone to the hospital.
No han ido al hospital.
6.
She is a married woman.
Ella es una mujer casada.
7.
The towns were destroyed by the earthquake.
Los pueblos fueron destruidos por el terremoto.
8.
They have finished the work.
Ellos han terminado el trabajo.
9.
Have you had time to read my new book?
¿Ha tenido tiempo usted para leer mi nuevo libro?
10.
We have done everything possible to find the dog.
Hemos hecho lo posible para encontrar el perro.
11.
They have discussed the economic situation.
Han discutido de la situación económica.
12.
I have called several times, but no one answered.
Yo he llamado varias veces, pero contestaba nadie.
13.
Have you seen an albino elephant? (informal)
¿Has visto un elefante albino?
14.
Have you (pl.) found bats in the caves? (informal in Spain)
¿Habéis encontrado murciélagos en las cuevas?
15.
We have acquired a new computer.
Hemos conseguido una nueva computadora.
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16.
Those students have been failed.
Esos estudiantes han sido reprobados.
17.
We had said that we weren’t going to tell him.
Hemos dicho que no se lo vamos a decir.
Hemos dicho que no vamos a decírselo.
18.
I have never cooked tamales.
Jamás he cocinado tamales.
19.
The present was bought by your mother.
El regalo fue comprado por tu madre.
20.
The boy was calmed with a toy.
El niño fue calmado con un juguete.
21.
The heated food was still cold.
La comida calentada aún estaba fría.
22.
You left the light on. (informal)
Dejaste la luz prendida.
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COMPOUND TENSES FOR THE PAST OR FUTURE
TIEMPOS COMPUESTOS PARA EL PASADO O FUTURO
Tiempos compuestos:
 Tiempos compuestos (compound tenses) combine the verb haber in various verb tenses
with a verb in the past-participle tense.
Pluscuamperfecto de indicativo:
 Haber in the imperfect indicative tense + a verb in the past-participle tense =
pluscuamperfecto de indicativo.
 The pluscuamperfecto de indicativo is commonly used to provide information about two
actions which both took place in the past.
 The action in one clause took place before the other action.
 The pluscuamperfecto de indicativo verb tense is used in the clause with the action
which took place first.
I asked my father if he had already turned on the lights.
Le pregunté a mi padre si ya había prendido las luces.
When we arrived, they still had not eaten.
Cuando llegamos, ellos no habían comido todavía.
We had not visited the ruins until that trip.
No habíamos visitado las ruinas hasta ese viaje.
Had you finished the project when the professor arrived? (informal)
¿Habías terminado el proyecto cuando llegó el profesor?
I was sure that they have had that type of boss.
Estaba seguro que ellos habían tenido ese tipo de jefe.
We could have had differences.
Habíamos podido tener diferencias.
Pretérito anterior:
 Haber in the preterit tense + a verb in the past-participle tense = pretérito anterior.
 The pretérito anterior is not commonly used in modern Spanish. It has been substituted
by the pluscuamperfecto de indicativo.
 There are two actions referenced in the sentence.
 The pretérito anterior is used with the first action to emphasize that the first action had
been completed immediately before the second action was completed.
I had hardly arrived when he came to see me.
Apenas hube llegado cuando vino a verme.
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Verbs as Nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs 181
As soon as I had closed the window, it started to rain.
En cuanto hubo cerrado la ventana, comenzó a llover.
He felt like new as soon as he stopped smoking.
Él se sintió como nuevo en cuanto hubo dejado de fumar.
Potencial compuesto:
 Haber in the conditional tense + a verb in the past-participle tense = potencial
compuesto.
 The potencial compuesto describes events that would have happened in the past.
They told me that they would have done it.
Ellos me dijeron que lo habrían hecho.
After working all day I would have been tired.
Después de trabajar todo el día yo habría estado cansado.
We told here that we would have brought the food.
Le dijimos que habremos traído la comida.
The potencial compuesto tense may also be used to express a probability:
He probably would have left messages on my cell phone.
Habría dejado mensajes en mi teléfono celular.
They probably would have danced the salsa all night.
Habrían bailado salsa toda la noche.
The potencial compuesto may also be used in a question:
Where do you suppose they would have gone?
¿Adónde habrían ido?
Who do you suppose it would have been?
¿Quién habría sido?
Futuro compuesto:
 Haber in the future tense + a verb in the past-participle tense = futuro compuesto.
 The futuro compuesto refers to an event that will have been completed before a specific
time or before another event in the future.
Mr. Garcia will have signed the contract before three o’clock.
El Sr. García habrá firmado el contracto para las tres.
I will have arranged everything before leaving.
Todo lo habré arreglado antes de irme.
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He will have gone when you arrive.
Se habrá marchado cuando usted llegue
The futuro compuesto may also be used as a general question:
What happened with Victor (I’m thinking about Victor)?
¿Qué habrá ocurrido con Victor?
What will his wife think (I’m wondering)?
¿Qué habrá pensado la esposa?
I don’t know; maybe he had an accident (Just a thought)?
No sé, ¿habrá tendido un accidente?
Gerundio compuesto:
 Haber in the gerundio verb form + a verb in the past-participle tense = gerundio
compuesto.
 The gerundio compuesto is rarely used.
 The gerundio compuesto is used to introduce a subordinate adverbial clause, a
completed action which took place immediately before the action in the main clause.
Having finished my homework, I went to play football.
Habiendo terminado mi tarea, me fui a jugar al fútbol.
Having walked a long time through the rocks and snow, he finally found a
road.
Habiendo caminado largo tiempo a través de rocas y de nieve, encontró al fin un
camino.
Having written the card, he was content.
Habiendo escrito la carta, él estaba contento.
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Verbs as Nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs 183
PRACTICE WITH THE PERFECT TENSE FOR PRESENT, PAST, OR FUTURE EVENTS
1.
I asked my father if he had already turned on the lights.
Le pregunté a mi padre si ya había prendido las luces.
2.
This is the first Spanish class I have taken.
Ésta es la primera clase de español que he tomado.
3.
We could have had differences.
Habíamos podido tener diferencias
4.
I have set the table.
He puesto la mesa.
5.
They told me that they would have done it.
Ellos me dijeron que lo habrían hecho.
6.
As soon as he had an opportunity, he took it.
En cuando hubo oportunidad, él lo tomó.
7.
What happened to Juan? (I am thinking about Juan).
¿Qué habrá ocurrido con Juan?
8.
I told Carl what had happened.
Yo le conté a Carlos lo que había pasado.
9.
Anthony had just finished the exam.
Antonio apenas había terminado el examen.
10.
We would have seen it before.
Nosotros lo habríamos visto antes.
11.
She will have gone when you return.
Ella se habrá ido cuando regreses.
12.
I had finished cleaning when my in-laws arrived.
Había terminado de limpiar cuando llegaron mis suegros.
13.
My brother will have told Mom.
Mi hermano ya le habrá dicho a mamá.
14.
There were times where I couldn’t sleep.
Había veces que no yo no podía dormir.
15.
I left the office as soon as we had completed the meeting.
Sali de la oficina tan pronto como hubimos terminado la junta.
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16.
Aaron had placed his wallet on the table.
Aaron había puesto su billetera en la mesa.
17.
I had found out that the singer died.
Me había enterado que el cantante falleció.
18.
You would have kept the car that they bought you. (informal)
Te habrías quedado con el coche que te compraron.
19.
They will have told him the worst of me.
Le habrán dicho lo peor de mí.
20.
I had learned the subjunctive in high school.
Yo había aprendido el subjuntivo en el colegio.
21.
They have calculated the costs of the party.
Ellos han calculado los gastos de la fiesta.
22.
Trevor has signed the contract.
Trevor ha firmado el contrato.
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185
GUSTAR AND VERBS LIKE GUSTAR, SE FOR UNPLANNED EVENTS,
THE PASSIVE VOICE, AND REFLEXIVE ACTIONS
UNIT 11
Unit Eleven Table of Contents....................................................................... 185
Gustar and Verbs like Gustar........................................................................ 186
Practice with Gustar and Verbs like Gustar.................................................. 188
Se to Indicate an Accident or Unplanned Event........................................... 189
Practice with Se to Indicate an Accident or Unplanned Event..................... 190
Active Voice and Passive Voice..................................................................... 191
Practice with the Passive Voice.................................................................... 193
Reflexive Actions........................................................................................... 195
Commonly Used Reflexive Verbs.................................................................. 198
Reflexive Verbs Requiring Prepositions........................................................ 199
Practice with Reflexive Verbs....................................................................... 201
On November 8, 1519, Montezuma welcomed Hernán Cortés and his entourage into
the capital city of México-Tenochtitlan. The Spanish contingent took the
unsuspecting Aztec ruler prisoner and eventually conquered the Aztec Empire.
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 186
GUSTAR AND VERBS LIKE GUSTAR
GUSTAR Y VERBOS COMO GUSTAR
Gustar and verbs like gustar:
 An indirect-object pronoun always precedes the conjugated verb.
 The indirect-object pronoun matches the noun it replaces.
 A direct-object always follows the verb.
 The verb tense is in the third-person, and it agrees in number with the direct object.
Singular Indirect-Object Pronouns
me (myself)
te (yourself, informal)
le (himself, herself, yourself)
Plural Indirect-Object Pronouns
nos (ourselves)
les (themselves, yourselves)
os (yourselves, informal in Spain)
I like the records.
Me gustan los discos.
Indirect-object pronoun: me.
Direct-object noun: los discos.
Verb : gustan (third-person plural to match the direct object).
We like to dance.
Nos gusta bailar.
Indirect-object pronoun: nos.
Direct-object noun: bailar (— verbs may be used as nouns).
Verb = gusta (third-person singular to match the direct object).

If a subject noun is added for clarification, the preposition a must be used.
My brothers like music.
A mis hermanos les gusta la música.
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Verbs like gustar:
aburrir
(to bore)
bastar
(to be sufficient)
caer bien
(to get along)
caer mal
(to not get along)
convenir
(to suit)
dar asco
(to be loathsome)
disgustar
(to hate something)
doler
(to be painful)
encantar
(to love something)
faltar
(to need)
fascinar
(to be fascinating to)
importar
(to be important to)
interesar
(to be interesting to)
molestar
(to be a bother)
parecer
(to seem to be)
picar
(to sting)
preocupar (to worry)
quedar
(to have left)
volver loco (to go crazy about)
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 188
PRACTICE WITH GUSTAR AND VERBS LIKE GUSTAR
1.
Do you like Professor Ramos’s lectures? (informal)
¿Te gustan las conferencias del profesor Ramos?
2.
I need three tickets.
Me faltan tres billetes.
3.
It’s necessary for us to study more.
Nos hace falta estudiar más.
4.
They have only one peso left.
Les queda sólo un peso.
5.
Money doesn’t matter to me.
No me importa el dinero.
6.
The schedule doesn’t suit the workers.
A los trabajadores no les conviene el horario.
7.
Are you interested in going to the movies? (informal)
¿A ti te interesa ir al cine?
8.
What’s happening to you?
¿Qué te pasa?
9.
It seemed fine to me
A mí me parecía bien.
10.
Many women love looking for bargains.
A muchas mujeres les encanta la búsqueda de ofertas.
11.
It’s not that we need ears; it’s that we don’t use them.
No es que nos faltan oídos; es que no los usamos.
12.
She likes concerts.
A ella le encantan los conciertos.
13.
The doctor worries about my high blood pressure.
Al médico le preocupa mi presión alta.
14.
My family gets along well with my boyfriend.
A mi familia le cae bien mi novio.
15.
I think that you (pl.) like the photos more. (informal in Spain)
Creo que os gustan más las fotos.
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 189
SE TO INDICATE AN ACCIDENT OR UNPLANNED EVENT
SE PARA INDICAR UN ACCIDENTE O ACONTECIMIENTO NO PREVISTO
Se to indicate an accidental or unplanned event:
 Se is placed before an indirect-object pronoun.
 An indirect-object pronoun always precedes the conjugated verb.
 The indirect-object pronoun matches the gender and number of the noun it replaces.
 A direct object always follows the verb.
 The verb form matches the direct object.
Singular Indirect-Object Pronouns
me (myself)
te (yourself, informal)
le (himself, herself, yourself
Plural Indirect-Object Pronouns
nos (ourselves)
os (yourselves, informal in Spain)
les (themselves, yourself plural)
I forgot the tickets.
Se me olvidaron las entradas.
Se is placed before the indirect-object pronoun.
Indirect-object pronoun: me.
Direct-object noun: las entradas.
Verb: olvidaron (past plural to match the direct object).

If the subject noun is added for clarification, the preposition a must be used.
Soraya broke the plates.
A Soraya se le rompieron los platos.
Common verbs for an unplanned event:
acabar
(to finish)
olvidar (to forget)
perder
(to lose)
quebrar (to break or shatter)
quedar (to remain)
romper (to break or stop working)
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PRACTICE WITH SE TO INDICATE AN ACCIDENT OR UNPLANNED EVENT
1.
We lost the newspapers.
Se nos perdieron los periódicos.
2.
They broke the eggs.
Se les quebraron los huevos.
3.
Alice forgot the books.
A Alicia se le olvidaron los libros.
4.
I dropped the glass.
Se me cayó el vaso.
5.
I ran out of milk.
Se me acabó la leche.
6.
It occurred to the students to study.
A los estudiantes se les ocurrió estudiar.
7.
I ran out of patience.
Se me acabó la paciencia.
8.
Marcela left the keys in the house.
A Marcela se le quedaron las llaves en la casa.
9.
The boy broke the plates.
Al chico se le quebraron los platos.
10.
The woman dropped her dentures.
A la mujer se le cayó su dentadura.
11.
Joe broke his right leg.
A José, se le quebró la pierna derecha.
12.
I broke the radio.
Se me rompió la radio.
13.
I have burned the cookies.
Se me han quemado las galletas.
14.
I have killed the plant.
Se me ha muerto la planta.
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ACTIVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE
VOZ ACTIVA Y VOZ PASIVA
The voice of the sentence:
 The voice of the sentence is determined by whether the subject noun of the sentence is
the agent that performs or controls the action (active voice) or the receiver of the action
(passive voice).
 Most sentences with an action verb use active voice because it’s straight to the point,
while passive voice is less direct.
Someone robbed the bank. (active voice)
Alguien robó el banco.
The bank was robbed. (passive voice)
El banco fue robado.
Active Voice:
 The subject noun is the agent of action.
 The agent of action controls the verb.
 The direct object receives the action.
My brother painted the house.
Mi hermano pintó la casa.
They have sold the car.
Ellos han vendido el carro.
Anthony bought the coffeepot.
Antonio compró la cafetera.
Passive voice is used:
 To place an emphasis on the receiver of the action
 When the agent of the action is intentionally not mentioned
 When the agent of action is unimportant, unknown or secret
True passive voice with ser (to be):
 True passive voice is formed by the verb ser + a verb in the past-participle tense.
 The agent of action does not need to be mentioned.
 The agent of action, when expressed, is introduced by the preposition por.
The house was painted [by my brother].
La casa fue pintada [por mi hermano].
The car has been sold.
El carro ha sido venido.
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The car was bought [by Anthony].
El carro fue comprado [por Antonio].
Passive voice with se:
 Passive voice with se is used when the agent of action is unimportant, unknown or
secret.
 Se is placed before the conjugated verb.
 The third-person present-indicative verb form is used.
 The verb agrees in number with the direct-object noun.
They speak Spanish. (active voice)
Ellos hablan español.
Spanish is spoken here. (passive voice)
Se habla español aquí.
They sell fruit here. (active voice)
Ellos venden fruta aquí.
Jewelry is sold here. (passive voice)
Se venden joyas aquí.
What do they call you? (passive voice)
¿Cómo se llama?
Passive voice with reflexive verbs:
 When the action is reflexive, the agent of the action and the receiver of the action are
the same.
The man became angry.
El hombre se puso enojado.
She suddenly went crazy with anger.
Ella se volvió loca con rabia.
He stayed to see the movie.
Él se quedó para ver la película.

When a reflexive verb is used in the passive voice, a subject noun may be required.
People stayed to see the movie.
La gente se quedó para ver la película.
One goes to bed late in Paris.
Uno se acuesta tarde en Paris.
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 193
PRACTICE WITH ACITVE VOICE AND PASSIVE VOICE
1.
She gave you flowers.
Ella te regaló las flores.
2.
The flowers were given you.
Se te regalaron las flores.
(The agent of the action is unknown, unimportant, or secret).
3.
Apples are sold here.
Se venden manzanas aquí.
4.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) gave him the book.
Se le dio el libro.
5.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) will heat the room.
Se calentará el cuarto.
6.
The clock was repaired.
El reloj estaba arreglado.
7.
My uncle repaired the clock.
Mi tío reparo el reloj.
8.
What is your name?
¿Cómo se llama usted?
9.
One enjoys a good living in Spain.
Se vive bien en España.
10.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) sell them everywhere.
Se las venden en todas partes.
11.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) have constructed two new buildings here.
Se han construido dos edificios nuevos aquí.
12.
The house was constructed in 1812.
La casa fue construida en 1812.
13.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) gave him the book of the prophet Isaiah.
Se le dio el libro del profeta Isaías.
14.
They (unknown, unimportant) open the doors at six.
Se abren las puertas a las seis.
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15.
No, Corona beer is not served here.
No, aquí, no se sirve la cerveza Corona.
16.
In that carwash, they washed twenty cars each day.
En esa lavadora, se lavaron veinte carros cada día.
17.
The parts have been fabricated.
Las piezas han sido fabricadas.
18.
Ines of My Soul was written by Isabel Allende.
Inés del alma mía fue escrita por Isabel Allende.
19.
He (unknown, unimportant, or secret) gave me the shirts.
Se me dieron las camisas.
20.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) took away his passport.
Se le quitaron su pasaporte.
21.
They (unknown, unimportant, or secret) sent us the checks by mail.
Se nos enviaron los cheques por correo.
22.
I am against smoking in public buildings.
Estoy en contra de que se fume en edificios públicos.
23.
I am in favor of a total ban of tobacco.
Estoy a favor de que se prohíba totalmente el tabaco.
24.
The cake was eaten b the children.
El pastel fue comido por los niños.
25.
The children ate the cake.
Los niños comieron el pastel.
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 195
REFLEXIVE ACTIONS
ACCIONES REFLEXIVOS
Reflexive Actions:
 A reflexive action is an action that is being done to or for oneself.
 When the action is reflexive, the agent of the action and the receiver of the action are
the same.
 Many reflexive verbs are about doing something to one's own body, (bathing, dressing,
getting up, sitting down, etc.).
 Many reflexive verbs are about changing one’s state of mind (to become tired, happy,
sad, calm, angry, etc.).
Reflexive verb:
 The term reflexive verb is a misnomer.
 The verb or verb conjugation does not make the action reflexive.
 The use of a reflexive pronoun indicates the action is reflexive.
 Reflexive verbs are sometimes called pronominal verbs (pronombres átonos).
Reflexive pronouns:
 A reflexive pronoun is used with the verb when the action is reflexive.
 Reflexive pronouns are usually placed before conjugated verbs.
 The reflexive pronoun se is added to the infinitive when reflexive.
Infinitive with Reflexive Pronouns
bañarse (to bathe oneself)
enojarse (to become angry)
vestirse (to dress oneself)
Singular Reflexive Pronouns
me (myself)
te (yourself, informal)
se (himself, herself, yourself)
Plural Reflexive Pronouns
nos (ourselves)
se (themselves, yourselves)
os (yourselves, informal in Spain)
Comparisons of reflexive actions and nonreflexive actions:
I married my girlfriend. (reflexive)
Yo me casé con mi novia.
The priest married the couple. (nonreflexive)
El sacerdote casó la pareja.
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I bathe every morning. (reflexive)
Me baño cada mañana.
I bathe the dog. (nonreflexive)
Yo baño el perro.
The reflexive pronoun may be equivalent to “each other” or “one another”:
My friends always help each other.
Mis amigos siempre se ayudan.
Yes, we see each other Saturdays.
Sí, nos vemos los sábados.
Reflexive pronouns may be used to change the emphasis in specific statements:
 When the reflexive pronoun is used in this manner, the emphasis is directed toward an
extraordinary action.
 The extraordinary action needs to be specified by quantity, quality, etcetera.
Right away, I drank three beers.
En seguida, me tomé tres cervezas.
I ate a whole chicken.
Me comí un pollo entero.
Last night my friends ate almost all of the cake.
Anoche mis amigos se comieron casi todo el pastel.
Reflexive pronouns with the present participle:
 Reflexive pronouns may be added to the present-participle verb form to create one
word or the reflexive pronoun may be placed before the verbs.
I don’t see myself marrying again.
No me veo casándome otra vez. / No me veo me casando otra vez.
I am calming myself.
Estoy calmándome. / Me estoy calmando.
Reflexive pronouns with affirmative commands:
 Reflexive pronouns are always added to an affirmative command verb to form one
word.
Stay here, sir.
Quédese aquí, señor.
Don’t get up! (you plural)
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¡No se levanten!
Let’s get up.
Levantémonos. (The -s is dropped from -mos).
Reflexive pronouns maintain their position in negative statements:
You can’t say that!
¡No se puede decir eso!
Reflexive pronouns maintain their position in questions:
Did you wash your hands? (informal)
¿Te lavaste las manos?
Reflexive pronouns precede direct-object pronouns:
Yes, I took them off. (your shoes)
Sí, me los quité.
Yes, he put it on. (the jacket)
Sí, se lo puso.
Possessive adjectives are not used with reflexive pronouns:
 When the action is reflexive, direct articles are used instead of possessive adjectives.
I took off my shoes.
Me quité los zapatos.
He put on his underwear.
Se puso la ropa interior o se puso los calzoncillos.
What did he do after cleaning his teeth?
¿Qué hizo después de lavarse los dientes?
SOME WORDS HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS WHEN USED REFLEXIVELY
Nonreflexive
Reflexive
despedir (to fire)
despedirse (to say good bye)
dormir (to sleep)
dormirse (to fall asleep)
ir
(to go)
irse
(to leave)
occurir (to happen)
occurirse (to think of something)
probar (to taste, try)
probarse (to try on something)
poner (to put)
ponerse
(to put on something)
volver (to return)
volverse
(to turn around or to become)
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VERBS WHICH ARE COMMONLY USED WITH REFLEXIVE ACTIONS
EXTERNAL
External
bañarse
ducharse
vestirse
ponerse
desvestirse
quitarse
cepillarse
limpiarse
lavarse
afeitarse
peinarse
cortarse
curarse
mirarse
esconderse
pintarse
quemarse
Physical
acostarse
sentarse
levantarse
arrodillarse
agacharse
reclinarse
reírse
estirarse
hincarse
torcerse
encogerse
INTERNAL
Social
casarse
separarse
despedirse
divorciarse
graduarse
retirarse
jubilarse
matricularse
inscribirse
Mental
apresurarse
acostumbrarse
cansarse
confundirse
fatigarse
debilitarse
decidirse
desmayarse
enfermarse
fortalecerse
despertarse
dormirse
emborracharse
marearse
ponerse
olvidarse
hacerse
resignarse
obsesionarse
complacerse
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Emotional
alegrarse
entristecerse
calmarse
tranquilizarse
molestarse
frustrarse
perturbarse
preocuparse
avergonzarse
enojarse
lastimarse
sorprenderse
deprimirse
trastornarse
ponerse
volverse
hacerse
Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 199
VERBS REQUIRING PREPOSITIONS WHEN USED REFLEXIVELY
Many Reflexive Verbs Take The Preposition A
apresurarse a
(to hurry)
acostumbrarse a
(to get accustomed)
atreverse a
(to dare)
decidirse a
(to make up one's mind)
dedicarse a
(to dedicate oneself to a profession, activity, etc.)
dirigirse a
(to go toward)
disponerse a
(to get ready)
echarse a
(to begin to)
exponerse a
(to expose oneself)
negarse a
(to refuse)
parecerse a
(to look like)
prepararse a
(to prepare to)
resignarse a
(to resign oneself to)
resolverse a
(to resolve oneself to)
Many Reflexive Verbs Take The Preposition De
aprovecharse de
(to approve of)
burlarse de
(to make fun of)
cansarse de
(to get tired of)
compadecerse de (to take pity on)
darse cuenta de
(to realize)
despojarse de
(to remove)
divertirse de
(to have fun)
enamorarse de
(to be in love with)
encargarse de
(to take charge of)
enterarse de
(to find out, to realize)
exponerse de
(to run the risk of)
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 200
ocuparse de
(to look after)
olvidarse de
(to forget)
preocuparse de
(to worry about)
quejarse de
(to complain about)
reírse de
(to laugh about)
servirse de
(to use for)
tratarse de
(to be about)
Many Reflexive Verbs Take The Preposition Con
casarse con
(to marry)
conformarse con
(to be content)
contentarse con
(to cheer up, to make do)
encontrarse con
(to meet with)
meterse con
(to pick on)
obsesionarse con (to be, get obsessed with)
apoyarse en
(to support)
complacerse en
(to take pleasure in)
Many Reflexive Verbs Take The Preposition En
convertirse en
(to become, to convert)
empeñarse en
(to insist on)
esforzarse en
(exert oneself in)
fijarse en
(to pay attention)
meterse en
(to get into)
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 201
PRACTICE WITH REFLEXIVE ACTIONS
1.
I took off my shoes.
Me quité los zapatos.
2.
What did he do after cleaning his teeth?
¿Qué hizo después de lavarse los dientes?
3.
Lola bothered John.
Lola molestó a Juan.
4.
John is bothered because of Lola.
Juan se molestó por causa de Lola.
5.
The storm did not bother Carmen.
El tormento no molestó a Carmen.
6.
Carmen did not agonize over the storm.
Carmen no se agonizó por la tormenta.
7.
You (pl.) help each other when you need each other. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros os ayudáis cuando os necesitáis.
8.
And you, how do you feel?
Y usted, ¿cómo se siente?
9.
Wash your hands. (informal)
Lávate las manos.
10.
Yes, we have known each other for a long time.
Sí, nos conocimos hace mucho tiempo.
11.
Their faces looked so happy.
Sus caras se veían tan alegres.
12.
I didn’t move.
No me moví.
13.
What do you call yourself?
¿Cómo se llama usted?
14.
I am called John
Me llamo Juan.
15.
Marco wants to shave after breakfast.
Marco quiere afeitarse después del desayuno.
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Gustar, Passive Voice, and Reflexive Actions 202
16.
The man sat his hat on the chair.
El hombre sentó su sombrero sombre la silla.
17.
I sat in the same chair every day.
Me sentaba en la misma silla cada día.
18.
When I retire, I would like to live in Guatemala.
Cuando me jubile, me gustaría vivir en Guatemala.
19.
I get tired of things quickly.
Me canso de cosas muy rápidamente.
20.
Yes, we will meet in the cafe this afternoon.
Sí, nos encontraremos en el café esta tarde.
21.
The old man tires after running.
El viejo se fatiga después del andar.
22.
The dog calmed down when the wind calmed down.
El perro se calmaba cuando el viento se calmó.
23.
Put on the coat. (informal)
Ponte el abrigo.
24.
I get mad when the professor gives us too much homework
Me enojo cuando el profesor nos da demasiada tarea.
25.
Sometimes I cut myself when I shave.
A veces me corto cuando me afeito.
26.
I shower every night before bed.
Me ducho cada noche antes de dormir.
27.
They hugged when they said good-bye.
Ellos se abrazaron cuando se despidieron.
28.
Because of that, Carmen has become more responsible.
Por eso, Carmen se ha hecho más responsable.
29.
The business has suddenly become more prosperous.
La empresa se ha vuelto más prospera.
30.
Luke has gained a lot of weight.
Lucas se ha puesto más gordo.
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203
COMMANDS
UNIT 12
Unit Twelve Table of Contents...................................................................... 203
Informal Commands......................................................................................204
Practice with Informal Commands................................................................ 206
Formal Commands........................................................................................ 207
Practice with Formal Commands…………….....................................………..….. 209
Nosotros Commands……………………………..................................……………..….. 210
Practice with Nosotros Commands............................................................... 212
Vosotros Commands..................................................................................... 213
Practice with Vosotros Commands............................................................... 215
After Inca Sapa Huayna Capa became ill and died, a civil war broke out between his sons
Atahualpa and Huascar. In 1526, during the height of their struggle for power, Francisco
Pizarro set out to find and conquer the rich empire of the Incas. Captured by Pizzaro,
Atahualpa gave the Spanish a room full of gold and silver for his freedom, but the Spanish
burned him at the stake. With the Incas in disarray, it only took a few years for the Spanish
to destroy the entire Incan Empire.
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Commands 204
INFORMAL TÚ COMMANDS
MANDATOS INFORMALES
Informal commands:
 Informal commands are used with friends or family; someone you would address as tú.
 Tú is usually omitted from an informal command.
Conjugation rules for the imperative:
 The imperative verb form is used with affirmative tú commands.
 The second-person present-indicative tú verb form will be the stem.
 Drop the final -s.
hablas → habla
comes → come
vives → vive
Irregular imperative verbs:
 These irregular imperative verb forms are used with affirmative tú commands.
 These irregular verb forms are abbreviations of the normal imperative verb form.
decir
ir
ser
venir
→
→
→
→
di
ve
sé
ven
haber → hé
poner → pon
tener → ten
hacer → haz
salir → sal
valer → val
Affirmative tú commands:
Sing louder
Canta más recio.
Read the story to the child.
Lee el cuento al niño.
Be careful.
¡Ten cuidado!
Conjugation rules for negative tú commands:
 The negative informal command verb form is the same as the informal second-person
present-subjunctive (tú) verb form.
 Reference the subjunctive overview unit for a complete chart on conjugation rules for
the present-subjunctive verb tense.
hablar → no hables
comer → no comas
Negative informal commands:
Don’t touch me!
¡No me toques!
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
vivir → no vivas
Commands 205
Don’t be stupid!
¡No seas estúpido!
Don’t study all night.
No estudies toda la noche.
Pronouns with affirmative tú commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns are attached to affirmative commands.
 If the command has more than two syllables, add an accent mark.
 The accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the
pronunciation.
Be quiet!
¡Cállate!
Hand it over to me.
Entrégamelo.
Do it.
Hazlo.
Tell me the truth.
Dime la verdad.
Pronouns with negative tú commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns precede negative commands.
Don’t do it.
No lo hagas.
Don’t tell me that.
No me digas eso.
Affirmative tú commands and negative tú commands:
Put on your shoes.
Ponte los zapatos.
Put them on.
Póntelos.
Don’t put on your shoes.
No te pongas los zapatos.
Don’t put them on.
No te los pongas.
Tell me the truth.
Dime la verdad
Tell it to me.
Dímela
Don’t tell me lies.
No me digas mentiras.
Don’t tell them to me.
No me las digas.
Don’t bring me problems.
No me traigas problemas.
Don’t bring them to me.
No me los traigas.
Bring me the magazine. Bring it to me.
Tráeme la revista.
Tráemela.
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Commands 206
PRACTICE WITH INFORMAL COMMANDS
1.
Read the story to the child.
Lee el cuento al niño.
2.
Read it to him.
Léeselo.
3.
Don’t read it to him.
No se lo leas.
4.
Tell me it!
¡Dímela!
5.
Don’t tell them to me.
No me las digas.
6.
Bring me the magazine.
Tráeme la revista.
7.
Bring it to me.
Tráemela.
8.
Don’t bring me problems.
No me traigas problemas.
9.
Don’t bring them to me.
No me los traigas.
10.
Tell it to him!
¡Díselo!
11.
Don’t tell me you don’t know the answer.
No me digas que no sabes la respuesta.
12.
Put on the sunscreen so that the sun won’t burn you.
Ponte el bronceador para que no te queme el sol.
13.
Don’t put on that baseball cap because it makes you look dumb.
No te pongas esa cachucha porque te pareces tonto.
14.
Take them out for me.
Sácamelos.
15.
Don’t take them out for me.
No me los saques.
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Commands 207
FORMAL COMMANDS
MANDATOS FORMALES
Formal commands:
 Formal commands are used with a person or persons you would address as usted or
ustedes.
 The subject pronouns usted or ustedes may be used with the commands.
 Using the subject pronouns adds a degree of formality to the command.
Conjugation rules for formal commands:
 Affirmative and negative formal commands are conjugated the same.
 Affirmative and negative formal command verbs use the same verb form as presentsubjunctive verbs.
 Refer to the subjunctive overview unit for a complete chart on conjugation rules for the
present-subjunctive verb tense.
Infinitive
hablar
comer
vivir
→
Singular /
Plural
→ hable usted / hablen ustedes
→ coma usted / coman ustedes
→ viva usted / vivan ustedes
Examples of formal commands using the verbs hablar, comer, and escribir:
Speak more slowly.
Hable usted más lentamente.
Hablen ustedes más lentamente.
Don’t speak so quickly.
No hable tan rápidamente.
No hablen tan rápidamente.
Eat the grapes.
Coma las uvas.
Coman las uvas.
Don’t eat all the grapes.
No coma usted todas las uvas.
No coman ustedes todas las uvas.
Write the letter.
Escriba usted la carta.
Escriban ustedes la carta.
Don’t write that letter.
No escriba esa carta.
No escriban esa carta.
Pronouns with affirmative formal commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns are attached to the end of the affirmative
command.
 If the command has more than two syllables, add an accent mark.
 The accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the
pronunciation.
Excuse me, ma’am.
Discúlpeme, señora.
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Commands 208
Please let me pass. (speaking to a group)
Por favor, déjenme pasar.
Pronouns with negative formal commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns precede the verb in a negative command.
Don’t tell me that.
No me diga eso.
Don’t touch me.
No me toque.
Affirmative formal commands and negative formal commands:
Call us often.
Llámenos con frecuencia.
Don’t call them often.
No les llame con frecuencia.
You (pl.) stay here.
Quédense aquí.
Don’t stay here.
No se queden aquí.
Bring it to me.
Tráigamelo
Don’t bring it to me.
No me lo traiga
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Commands 209
PRACTICE WITH SINGULAR AND PLURAL FORMAL COMMANDS
1.
Write better.
Escriba usted mejor. / Escriban ustedes mejor.
2.
Raise your hand.
Levante la mano. / Levanten la mano.
3.
Dress in style.
Vístase a la moda. / Vístanse a la moda.
4.
Play outside.
Juegue afuera. / Jueguen afuera.
5.
Print your essay.
Imprima su ensayo. / Impriman su ensayo.
6.
Bring the bag.
Traiga la bolsa. / Traigan la bolsa.
7.
Revise the errors.
Revise los errores. / Revisen los errores.
8.
Don’t hit me.
No me pegue. / No me peguen.
9.
Don’t give him orders.
No le dé órdenes. / No le dan órdenes.
10.
Describe it to me.
Descríbamelo. / Descríbanmelo.
11.
Draw it.
Dibújelo. / Dibujenlo.
12.
Try it.
Inténtelo. / Inténtenlo.
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Commands 210
NOSOTROS COMMANDS
MANDATOS CON NOSOTROS
Nosotros commands:
 Nosotros commands express the idea “let’s.” Nosotros commands are used when the
speaker is included.
Conjugation rules for nosotros commands:
 Affirmative and negative nosotros commands are conjugated in the same way.
 Affirmative and negative formal command verbs use the same verb form as presentsubjunctive verbs.
 Refer to the subjunctive overview unit for a complete chart on conjugation rules for the
present-subjunctive verb tense.
Nosotros commands use the present-subjunctive verb form:
hablar → hablemos
comer → comamos
vivir → vivamos
Affirmative nosotros commands:
Let’s start over.
Comencemos de nuevo.
Let’s make a better world.
Hagamos un mundo mejor.
Negative nosotros commands:
Let’s don’t talk to them.
No hablemos con ellos.
Let's not eat in the kitchen.
No comamos en la cocina.
Irse (to go) is the only exception to the conjugation rules:
 Irse takes the present-indicative verb form when used in an affirmative nosotros
command.
Let’s go after the game.
Vámonos después del partido.
Let’s not go right now.
No nos vayamos ahora.
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Commands 211
Pronouns with affirmative nosotros commands:
 Attach object pronouns and reflexive pronouns to the end of the verb.
 Add an accent mark if the command is more than two syllables.
 The accent mark is needed so that the attached pronouns do not change the
pronunciation.
 With affirmative commands, the final -s of the verb form is dropped before adding the
pronouns -nos or -se.
Let’s put them on.
Pongámonoslas.
Let’s give it to her!
¡Démoselo!
Let’s sit down.
Sentémonos.
Pronouns with negative nosotros commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns precede the verb in a negative command.
Let’s not sit down.
No nos sentemos.
Let’s not write it to them.
No se la escribamos.
Affirmative nosotros commands and negative nosotros commands:
Let’s get up
¡Levantémonos!
Let’s not get up.
No nos levantemos.
Let’s tell it to him.
Digámoselo.
Let’s not tell it to him.
No se lo digamos.
Let’s close it
¡Cerrémosla!
Let’s not close it.
No la cerremos.
Let’s stay.
Quedémonos.
Let’s not stay.
No nos quedemos.
Let’s dress.
Vistámonos.
Let’s not dress.
No nos vistamo.s
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Commands 212
PRACTICE WITH NOSOTROS COMMANDS
1.
Let’s travel to Paris.
Viajemos a Paris.
2.
Let’s find out what happened.
Averigüemos lo que pasó.
3.
Let’s buy another stove.
Compremos otra estufa.
4.
Let’s cook the green beans with bacon.
Cocinemos los ejotes con tocino.
5.
Let’s call Gabriela next week.
Llamemos a Gabriela la próxima semana.
6.
Let’s fix the refrigerator today.
Arreglemos la nevera hoy.
7.
Let’s take a shower.
Duchémonos.
8.
Let’s not take a shower.
No nos duchemos.
9.
Let’s meet.
Juntémonos.
10.
Let’s not meet.
No nos juntemos.
11.
Let’s paint it.
Pintémoslo.
12.
Let’s not paint it.
No lo pintemos.
13.
Let’s chat a little.
Platiquemos un poco.
14.
Let’s not chat again.
No charlemos otra vez.
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Commands 213
VOSOTROS COMMANDS
MANDATOS CON VOSOTROS
Vosotros commands:
 Vosotros is used primarily in Spain.
 Vosotros is the plural second-person pronoun used informally with friends or family.
 Vosostros is used in place of ustedes.
 The pronoun vosotros is not normally used with commands.
 Vosotros has two forms: masculine plural (vosotros) and feminine plural (vosotras).
Conjugating rules for the imperative:
 The imperative verb form is used with affirmative vosotros commands:
o The infinitive verb form is the stem.
o Drop the -r, and add -d.
hablar → hablad
comer → comed
vivir → vivid
Affirmative vosotros commands:
Come here.
Venid aquí.
Look at the teacher.
Mirad al maestro.
Conjugation rules for negative vosotros commands:
 The negative vosotros command verb form is the same as the plural second-person
present-subjunctive verb form.
 Refer to the subjunctive overview unit for a complete chart on conjugation rules for the
present-subjunctive verb tense.
hablar → habléis
comer → comáis
vivir → viváis
Negative vosotros commands:
Don’t talk all the time.
No habléis todos a la vez.
Don’t move!
¡No mováis!
Reflexive pronouns with affirmative vostros commands:
 The reflexive vosotros pronoun is os.
 When os is added to an affirmative vosotros command, the -d is dropped and the -os is
added to the end of the verb stem.
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Commands 214
levantarse → levantad → levantaos

ponerse → poned → poneos
Reflexive verbs ending in -ir take a written accent over the closed vowel in the
diptongo.
Get dressed. Vestíos.

Irse (to go) is the only exception to reflexive verbs ending in -ir. Irse retains the final -d:
Go away! ¡Idos!
Pronouns with affirmative vosotros commands:
 Attach object pronouns to the end of the verb.
 An accent mark may be needed to prevent the attached pronouns from moving the
stress to a different syllable.
Tell it to me!
¡Decídmela!
Call us.
Llamadnos.
Pronouns with negative vosotros commands:
 Reflexive pronouns and object pronouns precede the verb in the negative command.
Don’t tell me that!
¡No me la digáis!
Don’t call us.
No nos llaméis.
Affirmative vosotros commands and negative vosotros commands:
Wash your hands.
Lavad las manos.
Don’t wash your face with that dirty water.
No lavéis la cara con esa agua sucia.
Eat the vegetables!
¡Comed las verduras!
Don’t eat so many sweets!
¡No comáis tantos dulces!
Get up!
¡Levantaos!
Don’t get up!
¡No levantéis!
Tell it to me!
¡Decídmela!
Don’t tell it to me!
¡No me la digáis!
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Commands 215
PRACTICE WITH VOSOTROS COMMANDS
1.
Speak with them.
Hablad con ellos.
2.
Don’t speak to the others.
No habléis a los otros.
3.
Don’t buy the books.
No compréis los libros.
4.
Come here and buy some tickets.
Venid aquí y comprad unas entradas.
5.
Wash yourselves and comb your hair.
Lavaos y peinaos.
6.
Get up and brush your teeth.
Levantaos y cepillaos los dientes.
7.
Don’t get dressed.
No os vistáis
8.
Get dressed and go away!
¡Vestíos y idos!
9.
Drink the orange juice.
Bebed el zumo de naranja.
10.
Don’t drink too much beer.
No toméis tanta cerveza.
11.
Call me by cell phone.
Habladme por móvil.
12.
Brush your teeth.
Cepillad los dientes.
13.
Don’t watch that movie.
No miréis esa película.
14.
Don’t walk there.
No os caminéis ahí.
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216
INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS, INTERROGATORY ADJECTIVES, AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS
UNIT 13
Unit Thirteen Table of Contents................................................................... 216
Interrogatory Pronouns................................................................................ 217
Practice with Interrogatory Pronouns……………................................……..….. 220
Exclamations………………………………................................................………….… 222
Interrogatory Adjectives…………….....................................................……..….. 223
Relative Pronouns………………………………….............................................….…. 224
Special Relative Adjectives........................................................................... 227
Practice with Interrogatories and Relatives................................................. 230
Mexican scholar, write, and poet, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651-1695) fought her
entire life to achieve success in a male-dominated society in which the Spanish
Inquisition oppressed freedom of thoughts and ideas. Painting by Miguel Cabrera (1750,
who is recognized as one of the greatest painters in all of New Spain.
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Interrogatory and Relative Pronouns 217
INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES INTERROGATIVOS
Interrogatory pronouns:
 Interrogatory pronouns are used in questions and exclamatory statements.
 Interrogatory pronouns are used to replace or refer to an unknown noun or noun group.
 Interrogatory pronouns are normally placed at the beginning of the question.
 Question marks (signos de interrogación) go before and after a direct question.
 Interrogatory pronouns require an accent mark over the strong vowel (A, E, O) in the
first syllable.
 The accent mark (acento diacrítico) does not change the pronunciation of the word.
Qué:


Qué translates to “what.”
Qué is used when asking for a description or an explanation.
What does the maintenance man do?
¿Qué hace el mantenimiento?
What does “vaquero” mean?
¿Qué significa vaquero?

Qué is also used when making a choice or selection from a generalized and undefined
group.
What are you looking for? (informal)
¿Qué buscas?
What do you want?
¿Qué quiere?
Cuál:
 Cuál translates to “which.”
 Cuál is used when choosing from a defined group.
 Cuál has two forms: singular (cuál) and plural (cuáles).
Which of the desserts do you prefer?
¿Cuál de los postres prefieres?
Which of them is responsible?
¿Cuáles de ellos son responsables?
Which are recommended?
¿Cuáles se recomiendan?
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Interrogatory and Relative Pronouns 218
Por qué:
 Por qué translates to “why” (for what cause, justification, or reason).
Why do you complain? (for what reason)
¿Por qué te quejas?
Why is that?
¿Por qué es eso?
Para qué:
 Para qué translates to “why” (for what goal or purpose).
Why do you use this tool? (for what purpose)
¿Para qué se usa esta herramienta?
That’s for what?
¿Para qué es eso?
Dónde:
 Dónde translates to “where.”
Where is the bathroom?
¿Dónde está el baño?
Where are the bodies buried?
¿Dónde están enterrados los restos?
Adónde:
 ¿Adónde translates to where and implies movement (destination).
Where are you going?
¿Adónde vas?
Where are we travelling to today?
¿Adónde viajamos hoy?
Cómo:
 Cómo translates to “how.”
How are you?
¿Cómo está usted?
How do I know if I am pregnant?
¿Cómo sé sí estoy embarazada?
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Interrogatory and Relative Pronouns 219
Cuánto:
 Cuánto translates to “how much.”
 Cuánto has four forms: masculine singular (cuánto), feminine singular (cuánta),
masculine plural (cuántos), and feminine plural (cuántas).
How much does it cost?
¿Cuánto cuesta?
How many of them give their children up for adoption?
¿Cuantas de ellas dan su hijos en adopción?
Quíen:
 Quién translate to “who” or “whom.”
 Quién is used when requesting the identity of a person or persons.
 Quíen has two forms: singular (quién) and plural (quiénes).
You were with whom last night?
¿Con quién(es) estuviste anoche?
Who pays taxes?
¿Quiénes pagan impuestos?
Cuándo:
 Cuándo translates to “when.”
When is your birthday?
¿Cuándo es tu cumpleaños?
When did they find the photos?
¿Cuándo encontraron las fotos?
Interrogatory pronouns or interrogatory adjectives in indirect questions:
 Interrogatory pronouns or interrogatory adjectives may be used in indirect questions.
 The indirect question is included in a statement.
You did not say why you did it. (for what purpose)
No dijiste para qué lo hiciste.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
I asked the doctor how long was it going to take, but he did not answer.
Le pregunté al doctor cuánto tiempo iba a tomar, pero no contestó.
(interrogatory adjective in an indirect question)
The problem is where will we sleep.
El problema es dónde dormiremos.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
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PRACTICE WITH INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS
1.
What are you looking for?
¿Qué buscas?
2.
Which of the brands is more recommended?
¿Cuál es la marca que más se recomiendan?
3.
Why is that (for what reason)?
¿Por qué es eso?
4.
Why do you use this tool (for what purpose)?
¿Para qué se usa esta herramienta?
5.
Where are we travelling to today?
¿Adónde viajamos hoy?
6.
How much is your time worth?
¿Cuánto vale tu tiempo?
7.
Who pays taxes?
¿Quiénes pagan impuestos?
8.
What is this?
¿Qué es esto?
9.
What is your address?
¿Cuál es su dirección?
10.
Where are the bodies buried?
¿Dónde están enterrados los restos?
11.
Where are you going?
¿Adónde vas?
12.
How much does it cost?
¿Cuánto cuesta?
13.
Which are the best chocolates?
¿Cuales son los mejores chocolates?
14.
You were with whom last night? (informal)
¿Estuviste con quién(es) anoche?
15.
When did they find the photos?
¿Cuándo encontraron las fotos?
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16.
There are two choices. Which one should I choose?
Hay dos opciones. ¿Cuál debo elegir?
17.
Do you remember where she lived? (informal)
¿Recuerdas dónde vivía ella?
18.
Who robbed the bank?
¿Quiénes robaron el banco?
19.
When will they call?
¿Cuándo van a llamar?
20.
Why did you (pl.) take the boxes? (for what purpose)
¿Para qué llevaron las cajas?
21.
Why did you want to leave early? (for what reason)
¿Por qué quería salir temprano?
22.
What’s new?
¿Qué hay de nuevo?
23.
Where are the doctors?
¿Dónde están los médicos?
24.
How’s it going?
¿Cómo le va?
25.
When did you get married? (informal)
¿Cuándo te casaste?
26.
What would you like to drink?
¿Qué desean para tomar?
27.
Why did you do it?
¿Por qué lo hiciste?
28.
Why did you call me? (informal)
¿Para qué me llamaste?
29.
How do you bake a cake?
¿Cómo se hace un pastel?
30.
Which of these puppies do you like best?
¿Cuál de estos cachorros te gustan más?
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INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS IN EXCLAMATIONS
PRONOMBRES INTERROGATIVOS EN EXCLAMACIONES
Exclamations:
 Interrogatory pronouns are used in exclamatory statements.
 Exclamation points (signos de exclamaciones o signos de admiraciones) go before and
after an exclamation statement.
 The strong vowel (A, E, O) in the first syllable of the interrogatory pronoun always takes
an accent mark (tilde).
What a big city!
¡Qué ciudad tan grande!
Look at how it’s raining!
¡Mira cómo llueve!
So many snakes!
¡Cuántas culebras!
Who knows!
¡Quién sabe!
What a shame!
¡Qué lástima!
Look at how he runs!
¡Mira cómo corre!
So many colors!
¡Cuántos colores!
What a night!
¡Qué noche!
How I like to go to the beach!
¡Cómo me gusta ir a la playa!
How handsome!
¡Qué guapo!
How quickly you arrived!
¡Qué pronto llegaste!
Excellent!
¡Qué bueno!
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INTERROGATORY ADJECTIVES
ADJETIVOS INTERROGATIVOS
Interrogatory adjectives:
 Interrogatory adjectives introduce an unknown quality or quantity of the noun.
 Interrogatory adjectives are used in questions.
 Interrogatory adjectives are distinguishing adjectives, so they precede the noun.
 Interrogatory adjectives match the gender and number of the noun they relate to.
Cuánto as an interrogatory adjective:
 Cuánto translates to “how many.”
 Cuánto has four forms: masculine singular (cuánto), feminine singular (cuánta),
masculine plural (cuántos), and feminine plural (cuántas).
How many tacos do you want?
¿Cuántos tacos quiere?
How many girls are going to be there?
¿Cuántas chicas van a estar allí?
Qué or cuál as an interrogatory adjective:
 Qué may be an interrogatory adjective meaning “which.”
Which student makes better grades?
√ ¿Qué estudiante saca mejores notas?
× ¿Cuál estudiante saca mejores notas?
Which desert do you prefer?
√ ¿Qué postre prefieres?
× ¿Cuál postre prefieres?
In which city do they live?
√ ¿En qué ciudad viven ellos?
√ ¿En cuál ciudad viven ellos?

Cuál (which) or qué (which) may be an interrogatory adjective when preceded by a
preposition, (preposition + interrogatory adjective + object of preposition noun).
From which store do you prefer to buy clothes?
√ ¿De qué tienda prefieras comprar ropa?
√ ¿De cuál tienda prefieras comprar ropa?
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RELATIVE PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS
Relative pronouns:
 Relative pronouns are used in statements, rather than in questions or exclamations.
 Relative pronouns do not have an accent mark.
Who knows the truth should say it.
Quien sepa la verdad debe decirla.
(relative pronoun in a statement)
Interrogatory pronouns:
 Interrogatory pronouns are used in questions or exclamations.
 Interrogatory pronouns have an accent mark over the strong vowel in the first syllable.
When will they call?
¿Cuándo van a llamar?
(interrogatory pronoun in a direct question)
Comparing interrogatory pronouns to relative pronouns:
Where were the keys?
¿Dónde estaban las llaves?
(interrogatory pronoun in a direct question)
Your keys were where you left them. (informal)
Tus llaves estaban donde las dejaste.
(relative pronoun in a subject complement)
Where is the bathroom?
¿Dónde está el baño?
(interrogatory pronoun in a direct question)
I know where the bathroom is.
Yo sé donde está el baño?
(relative pronoun as the direct-object pronoun in a statement)
Who robbed the bank?
¿Quiénes robaron el banco?
(interrogatory pronoun in a direct question)
I don’t know, but the police are going to find who are responsible.
No sé, pero la policía va a encontrar quienes son responsables.
(relative pronoun as the direct-object pronoun in a statement)
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Relative pronouns to connect subordinate-adjective clauses:
 Relative pronouns may connect subordinate-adjective clauses to a noun.
 Relative pronouns connecting subordinate-adjective clauses function as descriptive
adjectives and will immediately follow the noun.
 Relative pronouns connecting subordinate-adjective clauses match the gender and
number of the noun which they relate to.
Relative pronouns connecting adjective clauses describing people:
 Quien, el que, and que are relative pronouns used with people.
 Quien (who), que (that), and el que (the one that) have slightly different meanings.
 Quien has two forms: singular (quien) and plural (quienes).
 El que has four forms: masculine singular (el que), feminine singular (la que), masculine
plural (los que), and feminine plural (las que).
Quien, el que, or que with people:
 If a noun is followed by a comma, either quien or que may be used to introduce the
adjective clause.
The men, who are poor, won the lottery.
Los hombres, que son pobres, ganaron la lotería.
Los hombres, quienes son pobres, ganaron la lotería.
I would like to introduce you to Mary, who is the new professor.
Quiero presentarte a María, quien es la nueva profesora.
Te quiero presentar a María, que es la nueva profesora.

If a noun is not followed by a comma, the relative pronoun que is used to introduce the
adjective clause.
I know the author that wrote the book.
Conozco al autor que escribió el libro.
The woman that won was tall and thin.
La mujer que ganó era alta y delgada.

If the relative pronoun is preceded by a preposition, quien is used to introduce the
adjective clause.
The boys with whom we went to the beach are outside.
Los chico, con quienes fuimos a la playa están afuera.
The coaches for whom I played in the past helped me a lot.
Los entrenadores para quienes jugué en el pasado me ayudaban mucho.
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
The relative pronoun el que (the one that) has a slightly different meaning than que or
quien.
My uncle, the one that is a taxi driver, will arrive soon.
Mi tío, el que es taxista, llegará pronto.
The girls, the ones that are sisters, want to work together.
Las chicas, las que son hermanas, quieren trabajar juntas.
Relative pronouns connecting adjective clauses describing things:
 Que, or el que, are relative pronouns which may be used with things.
 Que (that) has a slightly different meaning than el que (the one that).
My pants that are old are very comfortable.
Mis pantalones que son viejos son cómodos.
My pants the ones that are old are very comfortable.
Mis pantalones los que son viejos son cómodos.
The city from which we are leaving was old.
La ciudad de la que salimos era vieja.
The team with which they play is excellent.
El equipo con el que juegan es excelente.
This is the computer with which I make my reports.
Éste es el ordenador con que hago mis informes.
Relative pronouns connecting adjective clauses describing locations:
 Donde translates to “where.”
I will stay where I am.
Me quedaré donde estoy.
This is where we are going to stop them.
Aquí es donde los vamos a detener.


Adonde translates to “to where.”
Adonde is usually followed by a verb of motion.
The island where we sailed was beautiful.
La isla adonde zarpamos fue hermosa.
The museum where we are going is famous.
El museo adonde vamos es famoso.
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SPECIAL RELATIVE PRONOUNS
PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS ESPECIALES
Lo que, a neutered relative pronoun:
 Lo que is equivalent to the pronoun “what” when used in a statement rather than in a
question.
 Lo que is used in sentences referring to a general idea, action, or concept.
What you did was bad.
Lo que hiciste era malo.
They know what happened.
Saben lo que sucede.
That is what I want to say.
Eso es lo que quiero decir.
What you want is impossible.
Lo que quieres no es posible.
Mary is mad?
No, what she has is a stomach ache.
¿María está enojada? No, lo que tiene es un dolor de estomago.
What I think of the team is that the coaches are excellent.
Lo que pienso del equipo es que los entrenadores son excelentes.
A lot of what I do in my work is talk about history.
Mucho de lo que hago en mi trabajo es hablar sobre la historia.
Lo cual, to connect an adjective clause:
 Lo cual means “which” or “what.”
 Lo cual is used to connect a subordinate-adjective clause that describes the
consequences of a general idea, action, or concept.
 Lo cual has only one form.
Lo que, to connect an adjective clause:
 Lo que means “which” or “what.”
 Lo que is used to connect a subordinate-adjective clause that describes a general idea,
action, or concept.
 Lo que has only one form.
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Comparing lo cual (to describe the consequences) and lo que (to describe the idea, concept or
action):
I had a car accident in 2001 which traumatized me.
Tuve un accidente de carro en el año 2001 lo cual me traumatizó.
I had a car accident in 2001; what happened was horrible.
Tuve un accidente de carro en el año 2001, lo que pasó fue horrible.
A year ago he received a wound which now gives him a lot of pain.
Hace un año recibió una herida lo cual ahora le da mucho dólar.
My book is for those who don’t understand what is happening here.
Mi libro es para quienes no comprenden lo que está pasando aquí.
The crowing of the rooster woke up the drunk, which made him mad.
El canto de gallo despertó al borracho, lo cual se enojó.
They have their hands tied, which is very uncomfortable.
Tienen las manos atadas, lo que es muy incomodo.
She practices everyday, which helps her to improve.
Ella practicaba cada día, lo cual se ayuda a mejorar.
El cual, a special relative pronoun:
 El cual means “that,” “who,” or “which.”
 El cual may be used in place of el que or quien in certain instances.
 El cual has four forms: masculine singular (el cual), feminine singular (la cual),
masculine plural (los cual), and feminine plural (las cual).
 El cual is preferred when the relative pronoun is separated from the noun it describes
by intervening words, a multi-syllable preposition, or a grammatical pause.
There's a neighbor in my neighborhood who sleeps all day.
Hay un vecino en mi barrio el cual duerme toda el día.
I saw the factory workers, some of whom waved to me.
Vi a los obreros de fábrica, algunos de los cuales me saludaron.
I have a farm, half of which is full of weeds.
Tengo una finca, la mitad de la cual está lleno de maleza.
Cuyo (whose) a special relative pronoun:
 Cuyo means “whose.”
 Cuyo is used to connect an adjective clause to a noun.
 Cuyo functions as a descriptive adjective and will immediately follow the noun it
describes.
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

Cuyo has four forms: masculine singular (cuyo), feminine singular (cuya), masculine
plural (cuyos), and feminine plural (cuyas).
What makes cuyo different from other relative pronouns is that cuyo matches the
gender and number of the noun in the subordinate clause.
The girl, whose grandfather goes to church with us, is very nice.
La señorita, cuyo abuelito va a la iglesia con nosotros, es muy simpática.
The hotel, whose rooms are big, will be more comfortable.
El hotel, cuyas habitaciones son grandes, será más cómodo.
That is the girl whose father is a teacher at our school.
Esa es la chica cuyo padre es un maestro en nuestra escuela.
Cuan, an apóscope of cuánto:
 Cuan is only used before adjectives or adverbs.
 Cuan is rarely used.
How happy it makes me to see this.
Cuan feliz me hace mirar esto.
How quickly bad news travels.
Cuan rápidamente caminan las malas nuevas.
How stupid was all of that!
¡Cuán estúpido fue todo eso!
(An interrogatory adjective in an exclamation requires an accent mark).
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PRACTICE WITH RELATIVE ADJECTIVES, RELATIVE PRONOUNS, INTERROGATORY ADJECTIVES,
AND INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS
1.
Where were the keys?
¿Dónde estaban las llaves?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
2.
I asked the doctor, how long it was going to take, but he did not answer.
Le pregunté al doctor cuánto tiempo iba a toma, pero no contestó.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
3.
The girls, the ones who are sisters, want to work together.
Las chicas, las que son hermanas, quieren trabajar juntas.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
4.
I don’t know, but the police are going to find who are responsible.
No sé, pero la policía va a encontrar quienes son responsables.
(relative pronoun replacing a noun).
5.
How many tacos do you want?
¿Cuántos tacos quiere?
(interrogatory adjective in a question)
6.
The girl, whose grandfather goes to church with us, is very nice.
La señorita, cuyo abuelito va a la iglesia con nosotros, es muy simpática.
(Cuyo, a special relative pronoun that matches the gender and number of the
subordinate noun).
7.
The man, who is poor, won the lottery.
El hombre, quien/que es pobre, ganó la lotería.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
8.
What you did was bad. (informal)
Lo que hiciste era malo.
(Lo que means “what” when in a statement rather than a question).
9.
Who robbed the bank?
¿Quiénes robaron el banco?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
10.
All night I was thinking of the game and who was going to win.
Toda la noche yo estaba pensando en el partido y quién iba a ganar.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
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11.
The boys, with whom we went to the beach, are outside.
Los chicos, con quienes fuimos a la playa, están afuera.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
12.
How are you?
¿Cómo está usted?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
13.
How quickly bad news travels.
Cuan rápidamente caminan las malas nuevas.
(Cuan is an apócope of cuanto when placed before an adjective or adverb).
14.
How stupid was all of that!
¡Cuán estúpido fue todo eso!
(interrogatory adverb cuán in an exclamation requiring an accent mark)
15.
Where is the bathroom?
¿Dónde está el baño?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
16.
I am going to ask where the bathroom is.
Voy a preguntar dónde está el baño.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
17.
Which car did you buy? (informal)
¿Qué carro compraste?
(interrogatory adjective in a question)
18.
That is the school where they want to send their children.
Aquélla es la escuela adonde quieren enviar sus hijos.
(adonde for destination, relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
19.
I don’t remember the city where I was born.
No recuerdo la ciudad donde nací.
(donde for location, relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
20.
The hotel, whose rooms are big, will be more comfortable.
El hotel, cuyas habitaciones son grandes, será más cómodo.
(Cuyo, a special relative pronoun that matches the gender and number of the
subordinate noun).
21.
When will they call?
¿Cuándo van a llamar?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
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22.
How many girls are going to be there?
¿Cuántas chicas van a estar allí?
(interrogatory adjective in a question)
23.
What you want is impossible.
Lo que quieres no es posible.
(Lo que means “what” in a statement, qué means “what” in a question).
24.
You did not say why you did it. (for what purpose)
No dijiste para qué lo hiciste.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
25.
The team with which they play for is excellent.
El equipo con el que juegan es excelente.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
26.
I saw the factory workers, some of whom waved to me.
Vi a los obreros de fábrica, algunos de los cuales me saludaron.
(El cual is preferred when the relative adjective is separated from the noun by
intervening words, a multi-syllable preposition, or a grammatical pause).
27.
Why did you take the boxes? (for what purpose)
¿Para qué llevaron las cajas?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
28.
What color is the skirt?
¿De qué color es la falda?
(The interrogatory adjective qué)
29.
Which of the two do you prefer?
¿Cuál de los dos prefieres? (interrogatory pronoun cuál used in a question when
choosing from a defined group)
30.
My uncle, the one that is a taxi driver, will arrive soon.
Mi tío, el que es taxista, llegará pronto.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
31.
My pants that are old are very comfortable.
Mis pantalones que son viejos son cómodos.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
32.
That is the girl whose father is a teacher at our school.
Esa es la chica cuyo padre es un maestro en nuestra escuela.
(Cuyo, a special relative pronoun that matches the gender and number of the
subordinate noun).
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33.
Why did you want to leave early? (for what reason)
¿Por qué quería salir temprano?
(interrogatory pronoun in a direct question)
34.
The argument is why I left early.
El argumento es por que salí temprano.
(relative pronoun in a subject complement)
35.
A lot of what I do in my work is talk about history.
Mucho de lo que hago en mi trabajo es hablar sobre la historia.
(Lo que means “what” in a statement, qué means “what” in a question).
36.
After the earthquake, the house in front of the one where I live was destroyed.
Después del terremoto, la casa frente a la cual donde yo vivo estaba en ruinas.
(El cual is preferred when the relative adjective is separated from the noun by
intervening words, a multi-syllable preposition, or a grammatical pause).
37.
Which of them is responsible?
¿Cuáles de ellos son responsables?
(interrogatory pronoun cuál used in a question when choosing from a defined group)
38.
How happy it makes me to see this.
Cuán feliz me hace mirar esto.
(Cuan is an apóscope of cuánto and is only used before adjectives or adverbs).
39.
I had a car accident in 2001 which traumatized me.
Tuve un accidente de carro en el año 2001 lo cual me traumatizó.
(Lo cual, a relative pronoun introducing a subordinate clause which describes the
consequences of the action).
40.
I had a car accident in 2001, and what happened was horrible.
Tuve un accidente de carro en el año 2001, y lo que pasó fue horrible.
(Lo que, a relative pronoun introducing a subordinate clause which describes the action
in more detail).
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234
WORDS WITH SIMILAR MEANINGS
UNIT 14
Unit Fourteen Table of Contents.................................................................. 234
Saber or Conocer - To Know......................................................................... 235
Practice with Saber or Conocer……………………………………………………….......…. 237
Pedir or Preguntar - To Ask…………………………………………………………..….....….. 238
Sino, Pero, or Sino Que - Conjunctions Meaning “But”………………………...….. 239
Practice with Sino, Pero, or Sino que……………………………..................…......… 240
Por or Para - Prepositions Meaning “For”.....................................................242
Por in Idiomatic Expressions........................................................................ 246
Practice with Por or Para………………...................................................….…… 247
Por qué, Para qué, Porque and El Porqué…………........................………….….. 249
Practice with Por qué, Para qué, Porque, and El Porqué……....................... 251
Map of the viceroyalty of New Spain (Virreinato de Nueva España)
and its various provinces in 1819.
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Words With Similar Meanings 235
SABER OR CONOCER – TO KNOW
Saber or conocer:
Saber and conocer both mean “to know.”
 Saber is to know information as the result of a mental effort.
 Conocer is to be familiar with a person, a place, a thing, or a fact.
 Saber and conocer both are irregular in the first-person (yo) form.
saber → yo sé
conocer → yo conozco
Saber (to know):
 Saber means to know information as the result of a mental effort.
I know the information.
Yo sé la información.
You know who is responsible.
¿Sabe quién es responsable?
They know that the journey will be difficult.
Saben que el viaje será difícil.
We would like to know who they are.
Nos gustarίa saber quiénes son.
That is something that they should know.
Eso es algo que deben saber.
I want to know about you.
Quiero saber de ti.

Saber is followed by the infinitive to explain “how to” knowledge.
I know how to cook Peruvian style food.
Yo sé cocinar comida peruana.



Saber in the pretérito verb tense means “learned” or “found out.”
Saber in the imperfecto verb tense means “knew.”
Saber is irregular in the pretérito: supe, supiste, supo, supimos, supisteis, supieron.
I found out the truth.
Yo supe la verdad.
I knew the truth.
Yo sabía la verdad.
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Conocer (to know):
 Conocer means to know a person, a place, or a thing.
They know Playa del Carmen.
Ellos conocen Playa del Carmen.
We invite you to meet (get acquainted with) Madrid.
Te invitamos a conocer Madrid.

Conocer is used to express knowledge of a fact.
We know the price.
Conocemos el precio.
I want to know the results.
Quiero conocer los resultados.
I would be interested in knowing your opinion.
Me interesaría conocer su opinión.

If the direct object is a person, the personal “a” must be used.
I know John.
Conozco a Juan.
Do you (pl.) know someone here?
¿Conocen ustedes a alguien aquí?
I know myself.
Me conozco a mí mismo.


Conocer in the pretérito verb tense means “met.”
Conocer in the imperfecto verb tense means “knew.”
We didn’t know anyone.
No conocíamos a nadie.
I met Richard.
Yo conocí a Ricardo.
I knew Richard.
Yo conocía a Ricardo.
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Words With Similar Meanings 237
PRACTICE WITH SABER OR CONOCER
1.
Do you (pl.) know where the book is?
¿Saben ustedes dónde está el libro?
2.
She doesn’t know the music of Mana.
Ella no conoce la música de Maná.
3.
Do you know the telephone number?
¿Sabes tú el número de teléfono?
4.
Leti knows a new restaurant.
Leti conoce un restaurante nuevo.
5.
I know the answers.
Sé las repuestas.
6.
We are familiar with the paintings of Diego Velazquez.
Conocemos los cuadros de Diego Velázquez.
7.
They didn’t know how to play baseball.
No sabían jugar béisbol.
8.
Martin doesn’t know Maria.
Martín no conoce a María.
9.
Grace doesn’t know any English.
Graciela no sabe nada de inglés.
10.
I don’t know if she is there.
No sé si ella está allí.
11.
Felix met his wife in Argentina.
Félix conoció su esposa en Argentina.
12.
I found out the rules yesterday.
Yo supe las reglas ayer.
13.
He knew the rules.
Él sabía las reglas.
14.
Do you (pl.) know Spanish?
¿Saben ustedes español?
We don’t know Spanish.
No sabemos español.
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PEDIR OR PREGUNTAR – TO ASK
Pedir or preguntar:
 Pedir means “to ask” or “to ask for” an object or service.
 Preguntar means “to ask” or “to ask for” information.
Practice with pedir or preguntar:
1.
Ask him what time it is.
Pregúntale qué hora es. (information)
2.
We are going to ask for the money.
Vamos a pedir el dinero. (service)
3.
John and Frank both asked for more food.
Ambos Juan y Franco pidieron más comida. (object)
4.
I am asking for more time to pay the bill.
Estoy pidiendo por más tiempo para pagar la cuenta. (service)
5.
I am going to ask what time the shops open.
Voy a preguntar a qué hora abren las tiendas. (information)
6.
The policeman asked me for my driver’s license.
El policía me pidió la licencia de manejar. (object)
7.
She will ask when the party begins.
Ella preguntará cuándo empieza la fiesta. (information)
8.
Martha asked for Colombian food.
Marta pidió comida colombiana. (object)
9.
The boy asked the girl for her telephone number.
El chico le preguntó a la chica cuál es su número de teléfono. (information)
10.
Lillian asked for help to move to her new house.
Liliana pidió ayuda para mudarse a su nueva casa. (service)
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PERO, SINO, OR SINO QUE - CONJUNCTIONS THAT MEAN “BUT”
PERO, SINO, O SINO QUE - CONJUNCIÓNES QUE SIGNIFICAN “BUT”
Pero or sino:
 Pero and sino are both coordinating conjunctions meaning “but,” however,” or “rather.”
 Pero and sino normally link contrary words or phrases.
Pero is used in an affirmative sentence:
 The coordinating conjunction pero is used if the clause before pero is stated in the
affirmative, and the clause after pero includes a contrary word or phrase.
I called, but you were not there.
Llamé, pero no estabas.
We wanted to look for you, but didn’t know where to start.
Queríamos buscarte, pero no sabíamos donde comenzar.

Exception: pero may be used if it links a word or phrase which is not a contrary word or
phrase, even if the first part of the sentence is negative.
He was not the most prepared, but still he ran very fast.
Él no estaba el más preparado, pero todavía corrió muy rápido.
Sino is used in a negative sentence:
 The coordinating conjunction sino is used if the clause before sino is stated in the
negative, and the clause after sino includes a contrary word or phrase.
She is not fat but skinny.
No es gorda sino flaca.
I didn’t ask for chocolate ice cream but strawberry.
No pedí helado de chocolate sino de fresa.
Sino que in place of sino:
 Sino que is used in place of sino when the coordinating conjunction is followed by a
phrase which includes a conjugated verb.
 Sino que is a coordinating conjunction not a subordinate conjunction, so it never triggers
the use of the subjunctive verb tense. (Sino que is sometimes confused with the
subordinate conjunction sin que, see page 367 for more about sin que).
He did not come, but rather called.
No vino, sino que llamó.
I don’t drink coffee with milk, but I drink black coffee.
No tomo café con leche, sino que tomo café puro.
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PRACTICE WITH PERO, SINO OR SINO QUE
1.
I have a connection, but cannot navigate.
Tengo conexión, pero no puedo navegar.
2.
My brother didn’t cook the dinner, but rather he bought it.
Mi hermano no cocinó la cena, sino que la compró.
3.
He didn’t write ten phrases, but rather twenty.
No escribió diez frases, sino veinte.
4.
He is not a native speaker of Spanish, but he speaks the language well.
No es hablante nativo de español, pero habla bien el idioma. (not a contrary
statement)
5.
But where were you? (informal)
¿Pero dónde estabas?
6.
I called, but you were not there.
Llamé, pero no estabas.
7.
He didn’t drink wine, but rather he drank a lot of rum.
Él no bebía vino, sino que bebía mucho ron.
8.
The students didn’t travel in cars, but in a bus.
Los estudiantes no viajaron en carros, sino en camión.
9.
He didn’t say that he would come, but that he would stay at home.
No dijo que vendría, sino que se quedaría en casa.
10.
They don’t like to do exercises, but they should do it for their health
No les gusta hacer ejercicios, pero deben que hacerlo por su salud.
11.
I don’t eat tortillas, but bread.
No como tortillas, sino pan.
12.
Come in the evening, but before six. (command)
Ven por la tarde, pero antes de las seis.
13.
Don’t come early in the morning, but before noon. (command)
No vengas temprano por la mañana, sino antes del mediodía.
14.
Don’t buy the decorations, but make them. (command)
No compres los adornos, sino que hazlos.
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15.
The next week I will not swim, but will run.
La semana posterior no nadaré, sino que correré.
16.
We will not return Saturday, but Sunday.
No regresaremos sábado, sino domingo.
17.
I don’t run fast, but I like to run.
No corro rápido, pero me gusta correr.
18.
She is not a great speaker, but is a great organizer.
Ella no es una gran oradora, sino que es una gran organizadora.
19.
It’s old but good.
Es viejo pero bueno.
20.
I lost it, but no one stole it from me.
Lo perdí, pero nadie me lo robó.
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POR OR PARA - PREPOSITIONS MEANING “FOR”
POR O PARA - PREPOSICIONES QUE SIGNIFICAN “FOR”
Para = Conclusive:
 Para is a preposition.
 Prepositions introduce prepositional phrases and are immediately followed by a
prepositional noun or pronoun.
 Para is used to introduce conclusive statements of belief such as: a statement of a fact,
a final destination, the recipient, or a deadline.
Por = Informative:
 Por is a preposition.
 Por is used to add information such as: manner, method, measurements, possibilities,
and general information with the passive voice.
Space:
 Por = Movement (through, along, by)
I ran through the fields.
Corrí por el campo. (movement)
They travelled through all the regions.
Viajaron por todas las regiones. (movement)
The ship passed along the bank of the river.
El barco pasó por las orillas del río. (movement)

Para = Destination
I walked towards your house.
Caminé para tu casa. (destination)
The child is going to the table.
El niño va para la mesa. (destination)
I'm heading to Europe.
Me voy para Europa. (destination)
Time:
 Por = Measured Time
I studied for three hours.
Estudié por tres horas. (measurement in time)
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The jet flies at five hundred miles per hour.
El avión vuela a quinientas millas por hora. (measurement in time)
The Arabs were in Spain for eight centuries.
Los árabes estuvieron en España por ocho siglos. (measurement in time)

Para = Deadline
Write the report by Friday.
Escriba el informe para el viernes. (deadline)
We will have it finished by three.
Lo haremos terminado para las tres.(deadline)
We're going to my mother's for the weekend.
Vamos a la casa de mi madre para el fin de semana. (deadline)
Persons:
 Por = Change (substitute, in behalf of, instead of)
I have to be here for him.
Tengo que estar aquí por él. (in behalf of)
He bought this gift for Maria. (He shopped for her).
Compró este regalo por María.
Tomorrow I will work for Steve.
Mañana trabajaré por Estaban. (in behalf of)

Para = Recepient
This present is for you.
Este regalo es para ti. (recepient)
He bought this gift for Mary.
Compró este regalo para María.(recepient)
It's for you.
Es para usted. (recepient)
Action:
 Por = Cause (manner, justification, due to)
She guided the child by the hand.
Conducía a la niña por la mano. (manner)
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The letter arrived by mail.
La carta llegó por correo. (manner)
Due to the lack of time we cannot go to both places.
Por falta de tiempo no podemos ir a los dos lugares. (justification)
They fined me for speeding.
Me multaron por exceso de velocidad. (justification)
I will marry for love.
Voy a casarme por amor. (cause, not purpose)
She bought it for three pesos.
Lo compró por tres pesos. (justification not purpose)

Para = Purpose (in order to)
I called him to invite him to the movies.
Lo llamé para invitarlo al cine. (purpose, in order to)
He is studying to be a lawyer.
Estudia para abogado. (purpose, in order to)
This is used for opening the boxes.
Esto sirve para abrir las cajas. (purpose, in order to)
The glasses are for water.
Los vasos son para agua. (purpose, in order to)
Statement:
 Por = Possible (uncertain, incomplete)
They will be here sometime in December.
Estarán aquí por diciembre. (uncertain)
We have a lot left to do.
Quedamos mucho por hacer. (incomplete)
Bring your credit card just in case.
Trae su tarjeta de credito por si acaso. (uncertain)

Para = Statement of belief
For a man of his age he is in good shape.
Para un hombre de su edad está en forma. (statement of belief)
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For a foreigner he speaks Spanish very well.
Para extranjero habla muy bien el español. (statement of belief)
For me, that is not important.
Para mí, eso no tiene importancia. (statement of belief)
The soldiers are prepared to leave quickly.
Los soldados están listos para salir rápidamente. (statement of belief)
Estar por or estar para:
 Estar por (informative) means “feel like,” “considering,” or “in favor of.”
They’re in the mode for some beers.
Están por tomarles unas cervezas. (informative)
I’m in the mood to take a nap.
Estoy por echarme una siesta. (informative)
I was so mad that I felt like screaming.
Era tan enojado que estuve por gritar. (informative)
I am for/ in favor of Clinton.
Estoy por Clinton. (informative)

Estar para (conclusive) means “about to,” or “going to soon.”
I’m just about to take a bath.
Estoy para bañarme. (conclusive)
The bus is about to leave.
El autobús está para salir. (conclusive)
Who is about to say what I was going to say?
¿Quién está para decir lo que yo iba a decir? (conclusive)
Passive voice = Por:
 Por introduces the agent of action when using the passive verb.
It was written by Jorge Luis Borges
Lo fue escrito por Jorge Luis Borges.
The building was destroyed by the storm.
El edificio fue destruido por el tormento.
The teacher is respected by all the students.
El maestro es respectado por todos los estudiantes.
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POR (FOR) IN IDIOMATIC EXPRESSIONS
Phrase
Meaning
Phrase
Meaning
por adelantado
(in advance)
por lo general
(generally)
por ahora
(for now)
por lo visto
(apparently)
por allí
(that way)
por medio de
(by means of)
por amor de Dios (for the love of God)
por lo menos
(at least)
por aquí
(this way)
por lo tanto
(consequently)
por casualidad
(by chance)
por mi parte
(as for me)
por ciento
(percent)
por ningún lado
(nowhere)
por cierto
(certainly)
por otra parte
(on the other hand)
por completo
(completely)
palabra por palabra (word for word)
por dentro
(inside)
por primera vez
(for the first time)
por desgracia
(unfortunately)
por supuesto
(of course)
por ejemplo
(for example)
por suerte
(fortunately)
por eso
(therefore)
por todas partes
(everywhere)
por favor
(please)
por todos lados
(on all sides)
por fin
(finally)
por último
(finally)
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PRACTICE WITH POR OR PARA
1.
I walked through the streets of the city.
Anduve por las calles de la ciudad. (movement)
2.
I walked toward your house.
Caminé para tu casa. (destination)
3.
The car can go a hundred kilometers per hour.
El coche corre cien kilómetros por hora. (measurement in time)
4.
I’m going to the theater to see a movie.
Voy al cine para ver una película. (purpose, in order to)
5.
These pants are too small for me.
Estos pantalones son demasiado pequeños para mí. (statement of belief)
6.
I will travel by plane.
Viajaré por avión. (manner)
7.
She took him for an intellectual.
Lo tomó por intelectual. (possible)
8.
We have a lot left to do.
Queda mucho por hacer. (incomplete)
9.
That portrait was painted by El Greco.
Ese retrato fue pintado por el Greco. (general information with the passive voice)
10.
I need glasses to read.
Necesito gafas para leer. (purpose, in order to)
11.
She guided the child by the hand.
Conducía a la niña por la mano. (manner)
12.
I want it by tomorrow.
Lo quiero para mañana. (deadline)
13.
The building exploded due to a gas leak.
El edificio explotó por una pérdida de gas. (cause)
14.
He did it to win the prize.
Lo hizo para ganar el premio. (purpose, in order to)
15.
For an athlete he runs very slowly.
Para atleta corre muy despacio. (statement of belief)
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16.
He gave me a hundred pesos for my services.
Él me dio cien pesos por mis servicios. (cause, not purpose)
17.
Those computers are for public use.
Esos ordenadores son para el público. (recepient)
18.
They sell them by the dozen.
Los venden por docenas. (justification, not purpose)
19.
We still have three exercises to complete.
Ya, tenemos tres ejercicios por terminar. (incomplete)
20.
I paid thirty dollars for the book.
Yo pagué treinta dólares por el libro. (cause, not purpose)
21.
I'm heading to Europe.
Me voy para Europa. (destination)
22.
I fell down because of the snow
Me caí por la nieve. (cause)
23.
This account has been suspended due to lack of payment.
Esta cuenta ha sido suspendida por falta de pago. (justification)
24.
I am considering buying an apartment.
Estoy por comprar un apartamento. (estar + por = informative)
25.
I am ready to buy the apartment.
Estoy para comprar el apartamento. (estar + para = conclusive)
26.
Next year Angel will work for Justin.
El próximo año Ángel trabajara por Justin. (substitute)
27.
It was directed by Christopher Nolan.
Fue dirigida por Christopher Nolan. (passive voice)
28.
They will stay for a whole month.
Se quedarán por todo un mes. (measured time)
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POR QUÉ, PARA QUÉ, POR QUE, PARA QUE, PORQUE, AND EL PORQUÉ
Por qué, an interrogatory pronoun:
 Por qué is used when asking a question.
 Por is a preposition which translates to “for” (for what reason).
 Qué is an interrogatory pronoun which translates to “what.”
 ¿Por qué? is an interrogatory pronoun which translates to “why” (for what cause,
justification, or reason).
Why do you complain?
¿Por qué te quejas? (for what reason)
Para qué, an interrogatory pronoun:
 Para qué is used when asking a question.
 Para is a preposition which translates to “for” (for what purpose).
 Qué is an interrogatory pronoun which translates to “what.”
 ¿Para qué? is an interrogatory pronoun which translates to “why” (for what goal or
purpose).
Why do you use this tool?
¿Para qué se usa esta herramienta? (purpose)
Por que, a relative pronoun:
 Por que may be used as a pronoun in a subject complement.
 Por que may function as a descriptive adjective introducing an adjective clause.
 Por is a preposition which translates to “for” (for what reason).
 Que is a relative pronoun which translates to “that.”
 Por que is a relative pronoun which translates to “why” (for what reason).
That is the reason why I wanted to leave.
Ésa es la razón por que he querido salir.
(adjective meaning “for what reason” introducing an adjective clause)
The argument is why I left early.
El argumento es por que salí temprano
(pronoun meaning “for what reason” in a complement clause)
Porque, a subordinate conjunction:
 Porque is a subordinate conjunction of cause which introduces a subordinate adverbial
clause.
 Porque means “because” (for what reason, justification).
I am happy because it’s the weekend.
Estoy feliz porque es el fin de semana.
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I came because you asked me.
Vine porque me lo pediste.
I think that they are going to buy the other one because it’s much cheaper.
Creo que van a comprar el otro porque es más barato.
Hector and Nacho shouted because their favorite team won.
Héctor y Nacho gritaron porque su equipo preferido ganó.
Para que, a subordinate conjunction:
 Para que is a subordinate conjunction of finality which introduces a subordinate
adverbial clause.
 Para que means “so that” (for what purpose).
 Para que always introduces a subordinate adverbial clause which may or may not
happen, so the subjunctive verb tense is always used in the subordinate adverbial clause
introduced by para que.
I gave it to you so that you would be quiet.
Te lo di para que te calles.
We took the boxes so that we could protect the presents.
Llevamos las cajas para que protegiéremos los regalos.
I repeated it for her so that she would understand.
Se lo repetí para que lo entendiera.
I thought of taking the umbrellas so that we would not get wet.
Pensaba en llevar los paraguas, para que no nos mojáramos.
El porqué, a noun:
 El porqué is a noun which means “the reason.”
 El porqué has four forms: masculine singular (el porqué), feminine singular (la porqué),
masculine plural (los porqués), and feminine plural (las porqués).
I would like to know the reason for his attitude.
Me gustaría saber el porqué de su actitud.
The reason for Christmas is the birth of Christ.
El porqué de la Navidad es el nacimiento del Cristo.
She is the reason they did not finish.
Ella es la porqué de no terminaron.
Only he knows the reasons.
Solo él sabe los porqués.
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PRACTICE WITH POR QUÉ, PARA QUÉ, PORQUE, AND EL PORQUÉ
1.
Why did they sell the house? (for what reason)
¿Por qué vendieron ellos la casa?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
2.
Why did they sell the house? (for what purpose)
¿Para qué ellos vendieron la casa?
(interrogatory pronoun in a question)
3.
They sold the house because the house had problems with the structure.
Ellos vendieron la casa porque la casa tenía problemas con la estructura.
(subordinate conjunction introducing subordinate adverbial clause)
4.
The reason why they sold the house is that there are problems with the structure.
La razón por que vendieron la casa es que hay problemas con la estructura.
(relative pronoun introducing an adjective clause)
5.
They sold the house so that they could buy a bigger house.
Ellos vendieron la casa para que compraran una casa más grande.
(subordinate conjunction introducing a subordinate adverbial clause, subjunctive in the
subordinate clause because the action may or may not happen)
6.
Why are you leaving? Because I am bored.
¿Por qué sales?
Porque estoy aburrida.
(interrogatory pronoun in the question, relative pronoun in the statement)
7.
That is the reason why I wanted to leave.
Ésa es la razón por que quería salir.
(relative pronoun introducing adjective clause describing the reason)
8.
Tell the police so that they find them!
¡Di a la policía para que ellos los encuentren!
(subordinate conjunction introducing subordinate adverbial clause)
9.
Frank went to eat because he was hungry.
Franco fue a comer porque tenía hambre.
(subordinate conjunction introducing subordinate adverbial clause)
10.
Only he knows the reasons.
Solo él sabe los porqués.
(noun, “the reason” = el porqué)
11.
Why did you do it? In order to know the truth.
¿Para qué lo hiciste? Para saber la verdad.
(interrogatory pronoun in the question, preposition in the statement)
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12.
I want to know why they use inferior materials.
Quiero saber por qué se usan materiales inferiores.
(interrogatory pronoun in an indirect question)
13.
Why does he want to pay more each month? In order to pay off the debt more quickly.
¿Para qué quiere pagar más cada mes? Para pagar más rápido la deuda.
(interrogatory pronoun in the question, preposition in the statement)
14.
Why do the stars shine?
¿Por qué brillan las estrellas?
(interrogatory pronoun, for what reason = por qué)
15.
This is important because it can help the patient.
Esto es importante porque puede ayudar al paciente.
(subordinate conjunction introducing subordinate adverbial clause)
16.
This is important so that we can reach our objectives.
Esto es importante para que alcancemos nuestros objectivos.
(subordinate conjunction introducing a subordinate adverbial clause, subjunctive in the
subordinate clause because the action may or may not happen)
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MISCELLANEOUS
UNIT 15
Unit Fifteen Table of Contents...................................................................... 253
Negation and Affirmation............................................................................. 254
Practice with Affirmations and Negations.................................................... 258
When to Capitalize........................................................................................ 260
When Not to Capitalize................................................................................. 263
Practice Using Capital Letters and Abbreviations......................................... 265
How to Express the Weather........................................................................ 268
Practice Expressing the Weather.................................................................. 270
Dates............................................................................................................. 272
Time.............................................................................................................. 274
Length of Time with the Verb Hacer............................................................. 275
Practice with Dates and Time....................................................................... 276
Numbers........................................................................................................278
Counting........................................................................................................ 282
Ordinal Numbers........................................................................................... 283
Practice with Numbers and Counting........................................................... 284
Asking Questions........................................................................................... 286
Titles and Family Names............................................................................... 289
Spanish Surnames......................................................................................... 291
Common Male Spanish Names..................................................................... 292
Common Female Spanish Names................................................................. 293
Spanish Prefixes............................................................................................ 294
Spanish Suffixes.............................................................................................295
Spanish colonies in South America in the 18th Century were divided into
territories called viceroyalties (virreinatos) and captaincies (capitanías).
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NEGATION AND AFFIRMATION
NEGACIÓN Y AFIRMACIÓN
Affirmatives and negatives:
 Pronouns, adjectives, conjunctions, and adverbs can be negative or affirmative.
 A negative sentence will never use affirmatives.
 An affirmative sentence will never use negatives.
Affirmative and negative pronouns:
Affirmative
algo
(some)
alguien (someone)
Negative
nada (none)
nadie (nobody)
Affirmative and negative adjectives:
Affirmative
algún (some)
Negative
ningún (no)
Affirmative and negative conjunctions:
Affirmative
o
(or)
pero (but)
Negative
ni (neither or nor)
sino (but)
Affirmative and negative adverbs:
Affirmative
siempre (always)
a veces (sometimes)
también (also)
sí
(yes)
Negative
nunca (never)
jamás (never)
tampoco (neither)
no
(no)
The indefinite article in negative expressions:
 The indefinite article uno (a, any) is not used in a negative expression.
 Double negatives are commonly used to answer questions.
No, we don’t have any ideas.
No, no tenemos ideas.
No, I don’t have any money.
No, no tengo dinero.
Algún and ningún, affirmative and negative adjectives:
 The affirmative and negative adjectives algún and ningún are apócopes that drop the -o
in front of a masculine singular noun.
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



An accent mark must be used to maintain the correct pronunciation.
Algún as an adjective has four forms: masculine singular (algún), feminine singular
(alguna), masculine plural (algunos), and feminine plural (algunas).
Ningún as an adjective has two forms: masculine singular (ningún) and feminine singular
(ninguna).
The idea of ningún is inherently plural.
Affirmative
algún (some)
Negative
ningún (neither)
I am going to visit you someday this fall.
Voy a visitarte algún día este otoño.
No, I don’t have any problems.
No, no tengo ninguno problema.
I am looking for a good book.
Estoy buscando algún buen libro.
There is not a reason for this.
No hay ninguna razón por esto.
Negative and affirmative indefinite pronouns:
 Negative pronouns usually precede the verb, but when the negative adverb “no” is
used, the negative pronoun follows the verb.
 Double negatives are commonly used in Spanish.
Affirmative
algo
(something)
alguno/a/as/os (some, one)
alguien
(someone, somebody)
No one can help me.
Nadie puede ayudarme.
No, no one can.
No, no puede nadie.
No one knows it.
No lo sabe nadie.
No, no one studied the lesson.
No, no estudiaba nadie la lección.
Someone stole my watch.
Alguien se robó mi reloj.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Negative
nada
(nothing)
ninguno/a (no one, neither)
nadie
(no one, nobody)
Miscellaneous 256
There is nothing more important.
No hay nada más importante.
Yes, somebody is responsible.
Sí, alguien es responsable.
No, I don’t want to see anyone.
No, no quiero ver a nadie.
I don’t understand any of these problems.
No entiendo ninguno de estos problemas.
One of these nights I will find you.
Alguna de estas noches te encontraré.
Negative and Affirmative Conjunctions:
Affirmative
o
(or)
pero (but)

Negative
ni (neither, nor)
sino (but)
Pero (but) is used to connect a contrary statement if the part of the sentence before the
conjunction is stated in the affirmative.
I rang, but you were out.
Llamé, pero no estabas.
I have a connection, but cannot navigate.
Tengo conexión, pero no puedo navegar.

Sino (but) is used to connect a contrary statement if the part of the sentence before the
conjunction is stated in the negative.
She is not fat but skinny.
No es gorda sino flaca.
My brother doesn’t cook the dinner, but rather buys it.
Mi hermano no cocina la cena, sino que la compra.

Ni (neither) is a conjunction used in double negation.
I have neither friends nor money.
No tengo ni amigos ni dinero.
I don’t like rum or tequila.
No me gusta ron ni tequila.
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
O (or) is an affirmative conjunction.
Everyday I eat a salad or green vegetables.
Todos los días yo como una ensalada o vegetales verdes.

O (or) is replaced by u (or) before a word beginning with an o or ho.
Are they wolves or sheep?
¿Son ellos lobos u ovejas?
Negative and affirmative adverbs:
Affirmative
siempre (always)
también (also)
a veces (sometimes)
sί
(yes)
Negative
nunca (never)
tampoco (neither)
jamás (never)
no
(no)
I never eat oysters.
Yo nunca como ostras.
You are happy, and so am I.
Tú estás alegre, y yo también.
You are not happy and neither am I.
Tú no estás alegre ni yo tampoco.
Yes, sometimes we are sad.
Sí, a veces estamos tristes.
I will always remember you.
Siempre te recordaré.
I will never drink another beer.
Jamás tomaré una otra cerveza.
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PRACTICE WITH AFFIRMATIONS AND NEGATIONS
1.
Someone stole my watch.
Alguien se robó mi reloj.
2.
No one can help me.
Nadie puede ayudarme.
3.
I rang, but you were out.
Llamé, pero no estabas.
4.
I like rum and tequila.
Me gusta ron y tequila.
5.
I have an idea.
Tengo una idea.
6.
I will always remember you.
Siempre te recordaré.
7.
Yes, somebody is responsible.
Sí, alguien es responsable.
8.
Every day I eat a salad or green vegetables.
Todos los días yo como una ensalada o vegetales verdes.
9.
My brother doesn’t cook the dinner, but rather buys it.
Mi hermano no cocina la cena, sino que la compra.
10.
Nothing is here.
No hay nada aquí.
11.
There is no reason for this.
No hay ninguna razón por esto.
12.
I will never drink another beer.
Jamás tomaré una otra cerveza.
13.
Yes, sometimes we are sad.
Sí, a veces estamos tristes.
14.
It’s not long but short.
No es largo sino corto.
15.
I told nobody about your secret.
No le dije a nadie de tu secreto.
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16.
I don’t like pork tamales.
No me gustan los tamales de puerco.
17.
Sandra also wants to accompany us.
Sandra también quiere acompañarnos.
18.
Juanita never cooks with lard.
Juanita nunca cocina con manteca.
19.
Nobody wants to work with you.
Nadie quiere trabajar contigo.
20.
A student came to see the professor.
Algún estudiante vino a ver el profesor.
21.
Caesar doesn’t have an interest in any university.
A Cesar no le interesa ninguna universidad.
22.
No one understands what is happening.
Nadie entiende lo que está pasando.
23.
I don’t eat onions or tomatoes.
Yo no como cebolla ni tomates.
24.
Will this affect the manager or the workers?
¿Afectará los gerentes o los obreros?
25.
We clean the house, but without success.
Nosotros limpiamos la casa, pero sin éxito.
26.
No one is at fault.
Ninguna persona tiene la culpa.
27.
Sometimes I get an asthma attack.
De vez en cuando me da un ataque de asma.
28.
Some of your friends are publishing an article.
Algunos de tus amigos están publicando un artículo.
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WHEN TO CAPITALIZE
CUANDO SE USAN LAS MAYÚSCULAS
Abbreviations:
 Abbreviations, including personal or introductory titles, use capital letters (mayúsculas).
 When not abbreviated, personal titles or introductory titles use lower case letters
(minúsculas).
Ud. = usted
Uds. = ustedes
Sr.
= señor
Sra. = señora
Srta. = señorita
Dr. = doctor
Dra. = doctora
D.
= don
Dña = doña
Prof. = professor (masculine)
Profa. = profesor (feminine)
Gral. = general (military)
Lic. = licenciado (attorney)
E.E.U.U. = Estados Unidos (United States)
O.N.U = Organization of Nations United
Examples of when to capitalize abbreviations:
Do you know Mrs. Lopez?
¿Conoces a la señora López?
¿Conoces a la Sra. López?
I didn’t know that you (pl.) lived in Paraguay.
No sabía que ustedes vivían en Paraguay.
No sabía que Uds. vivían en Paraguay.
During the Spanish Civil War, the leader of the Nationalists was General Franco.
Durante la Guerra Civil Española, el líder de las Nacionalistas fue general Franco.
Durante la Guerra Civil Española, el líder de las Nacionalistas fue Gral. Franco.
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Proper names:
 Proper names are capitalized.
Barcelona, the capital of Spain, is recognized as a global city.
Barcelona, la capital de España, está reconocida como Ciudad global.
Fernando the Catholic was king of Aragón and the son of John the Great.
Fernando el Católico fue rey de Aragón y el hijo de Juan el Grande.
The Rosary is a traditional Catholic prayer which consists of fifty Hail Maries, five
Our Fathers, five Glories, and the Litanies.
El Rosario es una oración católica tradiciaonal que consiste en cincuenta Ave
Marías, cinco Padre Nuestros, cinco Glorias, y la Letanía.
The ships of the expedition were the Hercules and the Neptune.
Los barcos de la expedición eran el Hércules y el Neptuno.
Titles:
 Capitalize titles that refer to a specific person if the person’s name is not included with
the title.
The President and First Lady in the company of Vice-President and
Doctor Biden went to the National Arlington Cemetery.
El Presidente y la Primera Dama en la compañía de Vicepresidente y la
Dra. Biden se fueron al Cementerio Nacional de Arlington.

Do not capitalize titles, when used as part of a proper name.
Yesterday, Pope Francisco met with the President of Argentina, Christina
Fernandez.
Ayer, papa Francisco encontró con la presidenta de Argentina, Christina
Fernández de Kirchner.
Queen Elizabeth and King Fernando believed in the ideas of Christopher
Columbus.
La reina Isabela y el rey Fernando creían en las ideas de Cristóbal Colón.
Place names:
 Given names of rivers, lakes, mountains, and other geographic features are capitalized,
but the place identifier is not capitalized.
We go to the church of Saint Mark.
Vamos a la iglesia San Marcos.
We didn't see the Bravo River at the border of Texas.
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No conocimos el río Bravo en la frontera de Texas.
(Rio Bravo is the common Mexican name for the Rio Grande River).
We live near the Guadalupe Mountains.
Vivimos cerca de las montañas Guadalupe.
Divine names:
 Capitalize divine names.
Zeus is the father of the Greek Gods.
Zeus es el padre de los dioses griegos.
Satan and Lucifer are synonymous with the Devil.
Satanás y Lucifer son sinónimos con el Diablo.
Festival names:
 Capitalize festival names.
The Day of the Dead is a Mexican celebration of pre-Columbian origin.
El Día de los Muertos es una celebración mexicana de origen precolombino.
In Mexico presents are not received on Christmas Day because Christmas
Day is a celebration of the life of Our Savior.
En México regalos no se reciben en la Navidad porque la Navidad es la
celebración del Nacimiento de Nuestro Salvador.
Names of institutions, organizations, and entities:
 Capitalize names of institutions, organizations, and entities
The Royal Academy of Spanish was founded in 1713 by John Manuel
Fernandez Pacheco, the Marquis of Villena, and the Duke of Escalona.
La Real Academia Española fue fundada en 1713 por Juan Manuel
Fernández Pacheco, el marqués de Villena, y el duque de Escalona.
The Department of Development offers a wide variety of services.
El Departamento de Desarrollo ofrece una amplia variedad de servicios.
Titles of movies, books, plays, and similar works:
 Capitalize only the first word and proper nouns of titles of movies, books, plays, and
similar works.
One Hundred Years of Solitude
(Cien años de soledad)
Like Water for Chocolate
(Como aqua para chocolate)
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WHEN NOT TO CAPITALIZE
CUANDO SE USAN LAS MINÚSCULAS
Days of the week and months of the year are not capitalized:
Today is Tuesday.
Hoy es martes.
Thursday I go to the village.
El jueves voy al pueblo.
Tomorrow is Monday the eleventh of June.
Mañana es lunes el once de junio.
Mexico celebrates its independence on September sixteenth.
México celebra su independencia el 16 de septiembre.
Names of religions, their adjectives, and their adherents are not capitalized:
el cristianismo
el judaísmo
el hinduismo
el budismo
el islamismo
cristiano
judío
hindú
budista
musulmán
un cristiano
un judío
un hindú
un budista
un musulmán
My mother is Catholic.
Mi madre es católica.
I'm studying Christianity.
Estudio el cristianismo.
Ordinal numbers are not capitalized when used after a name:
Luis the Fourteenth
Luis catorce
Charles the Eighth
Carlos octavo
Names of countries are capitalized, but nationalities are not capitalized:
I’m English
Soy inglés.
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They are from Germany.
Ellos son de Alemania.
Alice is Spanish.
Alicia es española.
The majority of wines from France are excellent
La mayoría de los vinos de Francia son excelentes.
Which are the main French foods?
¿Cuáles son los platos principales franceses?
Where is the map of France?
¿Dónde está el mapa de Francia?
Names of languages are not capitalized:
She is speaking Spanish.
Ella habla español.
I want to study Spanish
Quiero estudiar español.
Spanish is a romantic language.
El español es una lengua romántica.
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PRACTICE USING CAPITAL LETTERS AND ABBREVIATIONS
1.
Today is Tuesday.
Hoy es martes.
2.
Mexico celebrates its independence on September sixteenth.
México celebra su independencia el dieciséis de septiembre.
3.
We go to the church of Saint Mark.
Vamos a la iglesia San Marcos.
4.
My mother is Catholic.
Mi madre es católica.
5.
I believe in God.
Creo en Dios.
6.
Louis XIV was called the Sun King.
Luis catorce se llamaba el rey sol.
7.
Tomorrow is Monday, the eleventh of June.
Mañana es lunes, el once de junio.
8.
This is one of the best French wines.
Éste es uno de los mejores vinos franceses.
9.
One Hundred Years of Solitude is a novel by the Colombian writer Gabriel Garcia
Marquez.
Cien años de soledad es una novela del escritor colombiano Gabriel García Márquez.
10.
I didn’t know that you (pl.) lived in Paraguay.
No sabía que ustedes vivían en Paraguay.
No sabía que Uds. vivían en Paraguay.
11.
Queen Elizabeth and King Fernando believed in the ideas of Christopher Columbus.
La reina Isabela y el rey Fernando creían en las ideas de Cristóbal Colón.
12.
Thursday I go to the village.
El jueves voy al pueblo.
13.
I'm studying Christianity.
Estudio el cristianismo.
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14.
In Mexico presents are not received on Christmas Day because Christmas Day is a
celebration of the life of Our Savior.
En México regalos no se reciben en la Navidad porque la Navidad es la celebración del
Nacimiento de Nuestro Salvador.
15.
Like Water for Chocolate was written by the Mexican author Laura Esquivel.
Como agua para chocolate fue escrita por la autora mexicana Laura Esquivel.
16.
The head of government between 1938 and 1973 was General Franco.
El jefe de Gobierno entre 1938 y 1973 fue general Franco.
El jefe de Gobierno entre 1938 y 1973 fue Gral. Franco.
17.
Do you know when Alex’s birthday is?
¿Sabes la fecha del cumpleaños de Alex?
18.
Andrea doesn’t believe in God.
Andrea no cree en Dios.
19.
Abraham Lincoln freed the slaves.
Abraham Lincoln liberó los esclavos.
20.
Yin is Japanese.
Yin es japonés
21.
I am from Guatemala.
Yo vengo de Guatemala.
22.
London is the capital of England.
Londres es la capital de Inglaterra.
23.
Frank does not want to study Portuguese.
Francisco no quiere estudiar el portugués.
24.
Russian is a difficult language to learn.
El ruso es un idioma difícil de aprender.
25.
Spain won the World Cup in 2010.
España ganó la Copa Mundial en 2010.
26.
Juana speaks Romanian and English.
Juana habla rumano e inglés.
27.
We love Italian food.
A nosotros nos encanta la comida italiana.
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28.
Mr. Escobar went to visit China.
El señor Escobar fue a visitar China.
29.
The Romans conquered much of the European continent.
Los romanos conquistaron mucho del continente europeo.
30.
Jews cannot eat bacon.
Los judíos no pueden comer tocino.
31.
Lope de Vega wrote during the Golden Age of Spain.
Lope de Vega escribió durante el Siglo de Oro de España.
32.
My wife is a Texan.
Mi esposa es una tejana.
33.
The chocolate from Belgium is excellent.
El chocolate de la Bélgica es excelente.
34.
Central American beaches are unique.
Las playas centroamericanas son únicas.
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HOW TO EXPRESS THE WEATHER
COMO EXPRESAR EL TIEMPO
Weather expressions with hacer:
 Hacer normally means “to do” or “to make.”
 Hacer is used idiomatically for weather expressions and means “it is.”
What’s the weather?
¿Qué tiempo hace?
It’s very cold.
Hace mucho frío.
It’s hot.
Hace calor.
The weather is good.
Hace buen tiempo.
It’s windy.
Hace viento.
The weather is bad.
Hace mal tiempo.
It’s sunny.
Hace sol.
It’s cool.
Hace fresco.
Weather expressions with the verb hay (there is):
It’s foggy.
Hay niebla.
It’s drizzling or raining lightly.
Hay llovizna o una llovizna fina.
It’s sunny.
Hay sol.
There’s lightning.
Hay relámpagos.
It’s thundering.
Hay truenos.
It’s cloudy.
Hay nubes.
It’s pouring.
Hay lluvias torrenciales.
There’s a windstorm.
Hay un vendaval.
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It’s hailing.
Hay granizo.
Weather expressions with estar (to be):
 Estar is used to express a state of being which tends to be temporary and is easily
changed.
 Estar (to be) is commonly used to express the weather.
How is the weather?
¿Cómo está el tiempo?
It’s raining.
Está lloviendo.
It’s snowing.
Está nevando.
It’s sunny.
Está soleado.
It’s rainy.
Está lluvioso.
Conjugating verbs for generic weather expressions:
 There are ways to express the weather with verbs conjugated in the third-person
singular.
It rains a lot in the spring.
Llueve mucho en la primavera.
It always snows in the mountains
Siempre nieva en las montañas.
It rained for three hours.
Llovió durante tres horas.
Asking the forecast:
What is the weather forecast for tomorrow?
¿Cuál es el pronóstico del tiempo para mañana?
The meteorologist forecasts that it will rain all day tomorrow.
El meteorólogo pronostica que mañana lloverá todo el día.
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PRACTICE EXPRESSING THE WEATHER
1.
What’s the weather?
¿Qué tiempo hace?
2.
It’s very cold.
Hace mucho frío. / Está muy frío.
3.
It’s hot.
Hace calor.
4.
It’s windy.
Hace viento.
5.
It’s sunny.
Hace sol. / Está soleado.
6.
The weather is good.
Hace buen tiempo.
7.
The weather is bad.
Hace mal tiempo.
8.
It’s cool.
Hace fresco. / Está fresco.
9.
How is the weather?
¿Cómo está el tiempo?
10.
It’s raining.
Está lloviendo.
11.
It’s snowing.
Está nevando.
12.
It’s cloudy.
Hay nubes. / Está nublado.
13.
It’s rainy.
Está lluvioso.
14.
What is the weather forecast for tomorrow?
¿Cuál es el pronóstico del tiempo para mañana?
15.
There is a lot of snow in the mountains.
Hay mucha nieve en las montañas.
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16.
What’s the weather now?
¿Qué tiempo hace ahora?
17.
There’s fog.
Hay niebla.
18.
There is drizzle or light mist.
Hay llovizna o llovizna fina.
19.
It’s sunny.
Hay sol.
20.
There’s lightning.
Hay relámpagos.
21.
It’s thundering.
Hay truenos.
22.
It’s pouring
Hay lluvias torrenciales.
23.
There’s a windstorm
Hay un vendaval.
24.
It’s hailing
Hay granizo.
25.
The meteorologist forecasts that it will rain all day tomorrow.
El meteorólogo pronostica que mañana lloverá todo el día.
26.
It rains a lot in the spring.
Llueve mucho en la primavera.
27.
It rained for three hours.
Llovió durante tres horas.
28.
It’s cloudy.
Hay nubes. / Está nublado.
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THE DATE
LA FECHA
Months of the year
Abbreviations
January
el enero
February
el febrero
March
el marzo
April
el abril
May
el mayo
June
el junio
July
el julio
August
el agosto
September
el septiembre
October
el octubre
November
el noviembre
December
el diciembre
Days of the week
Sunday
el domingo
Monday
el lunes
Tuesday
el martes
Wednesday
el miércoles
Thursday
el jueves
Friday
el viernes
Saturday
el sábado
ene.
feb.
mar.
abr.
may.
jun.
jul.
ago.
sep.
oct.
nov.
dic.
Abbreviations
dom.
do
lun.
lu
mar.
ma
mié.
mi
jue.
ju
vie.
vi
sab.
Sá
Stating the day, month, or year:
February fourteenth is Valentine’s Day.
El catorce de febrero es el Día de los Enamorados.
Thanksgiving Day is Thursday, November the twenty-forth two thousand
and eleven.
El Día de Acción de Gracias es el jueves, veinticuatro de noviembre del
dos mil once.
Wednesday, April the thirteenth, two thousand and eleven, we will
complete the Project.
Miércoles, el trece de abril, del dos mil once, terminaremos el proyecto.
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Thursday, April 13, 2011 (04-13-2011)
Jueves, 13 de abril de 2011 (13-04-2011)
Asking the date:
What is the date?
¿Cuál es la fecha?
(the noun cuál, not qué, when there is a choice)
¿A cuánto estamos hoy?
(an idiomatic expression for what is the date)
Estamos a 24 de diciembre. (an idiomatic answer for what is the date)
Telling today’s date:
It’s the 13th of April.
Es el 13 de abril.
Today is July 7, 2011.
Hoy es el 7 de julio de 2011.
Asking the day of the week:
What day of the week is it?
¿Qué día es hoy? (the adjective qué because cuál is not used as an adjective)
Today is Wednesday.
Hoy es miércoles.
It’s Thursday.
Es jueves.
It is the first of the month:
 On the first day of the month, it’s common to use the ordinal number “first” (primero)
or “1st” (1°) rather than the cardinal number (uno).
It's March 1st.
Es el primero de marzo.
Hoy es el 1° de marzo.
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THE TIME
LA HORA
Asking the time:
What time is it?
¿Qué hora es?
Telling time:
 The hour + and (y) + the number of minutes.
 Cuarto may be used for quarter hour.
 Media may be used for half hour.
It’s 1:30 a.m.
Es la una y media de la mañana.
Es la una y treinta de la madrugada.
Es la 1:30 h.
It’s 2:15 p.m.
Son las dos y cuarto de la tarde.
Son las dos y quince de la tarde.
Son las 14:15 h.
Noon
Es el mediodía.
Son las doce de la mañana.
Son las 12 m.
Midnight
Es la medianoche.
Son las doce de la noche.
Es las 00:00 h.
Using menos to express time:
 Menos may be used to tell time during the second half of each hour.
 Use the hour + menos + the number of minutes before the hour, or you can continue to
express time numerically during the second half of the hour.
It’s 12:50.
Es la una menos diez.
(It’s ten till one).
Son las doce y cincuenta. (It’s twelve fifty).
Son las 12:50 h.
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LENGTH OF TIME WITH DESDE OR HACER
Desde means “from” or “since”:
I have lived in Caracas since last year.
He vivido en Caracas desde el año pasado.
Since 1980 I haven’t lived in the United States
Desde 1980 no he vivido en los Estados Unidos.
I was in Venezuela from August until November.
Estuve in Venezuela desde agosto hasta noviembre.
Desde hacer or hacer both mean “for”:
 Desde hace + tiempo
 Hacer + tiempo + que
For two years I have lived in Caracas.
Desde hace dos años he vivido en Caracas.
Hace dos años que vivo en Caracas
For weeks I have been telling him that he has to go to the doctor.
Desde hace semanas le estoy diciendo que tiene que ir al médico.
Hace semanas que le estoy diciendo que tiende que ir al médico.
For years I did not study Spanish.
Desde hacía años no estudiaba español.
Hace años que no estudiaba español.
For years I did not sleep more than six hours.
Desde hacía años no dormía más de seis horas.
Hacía años que no dormía más de seis horas.
Hacer combined with a verb in the pretérito tense is used for a completed action:
They went to Mexico a year ago.
Hace un año fueron a México.
That was twelve years ago.
Fue hace doce años.
It has been a week since he wrote me a letter.
Hace una semana me escribió una carta.
A while back I bought a new jacket.
Hace poco compré una chaqueta nueva.
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PRACTICE WITH THE DATE AND TIME
1.
What day of the week is it?
¿Qué día es hoy?
2.
Today is Wednesday.
Hoy es miércoles.
3.
What time is it?
¿Qué hora es?
4.
It’s 1:30 p.m.
Es la una y media.
Es la una y treinta.
Es la 1:00 h.
5.
Today is July 7, 2011.
Hoy es el 7 de julio de 2011.
6.
It’s Thursday.
Es jueves.
7.
It’s 2:15 p.m.
Son las dos y cuarto.
Son las dos y quince.
Son las 14:15 h.
8.
It’s 12:50 a.m.
Es la una menos diez. (It’s ten till one).
Son las doce y cincuenta. (It’s twelve fifty).
Son las 00:50 h.
9.
It’s noon.
Es el mediodía.
Son las doce.
Son las 12:00 h.
10.
It’s midnight.
Es la medianoche.
Son las doce de la noche.
Es las 00:00 h.
11.
What is the date?
¿Cuál es la fecha?
(Use cuál not qué when there is a choice).
¿A cuánto estamos hoy? (This is an idiomatic expression for “what is the date”).
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12.
It’s the 13th of April.
Es el 13 de abril.
Estamos a 13 de abril. (This is an idiomatic answer for what is the date).
13.
It's March 1st.
Es el primero de marzo.
Hoy es el 1° de marzo.
(On the first day of the month, it’s common to use primero or 1° rather than uno).
14.
I spoke with the boss recently.
Hace poco tiempo hablé con el jefe.
15.
For the last week she has been calling me every day.
Desde hace una semana me llama cada día.
Hace una semana que me llama cada día.
16.
The 25th of December is Christmas.
El día 25 de diciembre es la Navidad.
17.
Today is Monday, June 22, 2009 (06-22-2009).
Hoy es lunes, 22 de junio de 2009 (22-06-2009).
18.
I have known how to program computers since childhood.
He sabido como programar computadoras desde niño.
19.
The last time I went to Mexico was three years ago.
La última vez que fui a México fue hace tres años.
20.
Saturday, May 9th, will be Jacob’s party.
El sábado, 9 de mayo será la fiesta de Jacob.
21.
I have six years of practice.
Tengo seis años de practicar.
22.
He hasn’t been to New York in five months.
Desde hace cinco meses él no ha ido a Nueva York.
Hace cinco meses que él no ha ido a Nueva York.
23.
A couple of weeks ago Ruben returned to the United States.
Rubén regresó a los Estados Unidos hace unas semanas.
24.
She has lived in Venezuela for ten years.
Ella ha vivido en Venezuela desde hace diez años.
Hace diez años que ella ha vivido en Venezuela.
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NUMBERS
LOS NÚMEROS
Los números:
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
cero
uno
dos
tres
cuatro
cinco
seis
siete
ocho
nueve
diez
once
doce
trece
catorce
quince
dieciséis
diecisiete
dieciocho
diecinueve
veinte
veintiuno
veintidós
veintitrés
veinticuatro
veinticinco
veintiséis
veintisiete
veintiocho
veintinueve
treinta
treinta y uno
treinta y dos
treinta y tres
40 cuarenta
41 cuarenta y uno
42 cuarenta y dos
50 cincuenta
60 sesenta
70 setenta
80 ochenta
90 noventa
100 ciento
101 ciento uno
102 ciento dos
103 ciento tres
110 ciento diez
199 ciento noventa y nueve
200 doscientos
201 doscientos uno
202 doscientos dos
203 doscientos tres
251 doscientos cincuenta y uno
252 doscientos cincuenta y dos
300 trescientos
400 cuatrocientos
500 quinientos
600 seiscientos
700 setecientos
800 ochocientos
900 novecientos
1.000 mil
2.000 dos mil
3.000 tres mil
3.232 tres mil doscientos treinta y dos
1,000,000 un millón
1,000,000,000 mil millones
1,000,000,000,000 billón
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Modern and old spelling for teens and twenties:
 The modern, correct Spanish spelling for numbers sixteen through nineteen and
twenty-one through twenty-nine are combination words.
 When number words are combined, an accent mark may be needed to correctly place
the stress on the last number word.
dieciséis, diecisiete, dieciocho, diecinueve, veinte, veintiuno, veintidós, etc.


The old way of spelling these numbers is something that you will still see today.
The pronunciation of the old spelling is the same as the modern spelling.
diez y seis, diez y siete, diez y ocho . . . veinte y uno, veinte y dos, etc.
Dieciséis, veintitrés, and veintiséis:
 When number words are combined, an accent mark may be needed to correctly place
the stress on the last word.
 A word ending in the letter -s is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. Without the accent mark, the natural stress would incorrectly fall on the first
number word. × Dieciciseis [dĭe-SI-seĭs].
 Dieciséis, veintitrés, and veintiséis need an accent mark to correctly place the stress on
the last number word. √ Dieciséis [die-si-SEIS].
diez + seis → dieciséis
veinte + tres → veintitrés
veinte + seis → veintiséis
Uno:


Uno, and numbers ending in -uno, change to un when preceding a masculine noun.
Uno, and numbers ending in -uno, change to una when preceding a feminine noun.
un padre
una madre
cincuenta y un chicos
cincuenta y una chicas
Veintiuno:
 When number words are combined, an accent mark may be needed to correctly place
the stress on the last word.
 Numbers ending in -uno change to -un when preceding a masculine noun.
 Veintiun ends in the letter N, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. Without the accent mark, the natural stress would incorrectly fall on the first
number word. × Veintiun [VEĬN-tĭun].
 Veintiún takes an accent mark to correctly place the stress on the last number word.
√ Veintiún [veĭ-tĭ-UN].
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veintiún coches
veintiún años
veintiún hombres

Veintiuna and veintiuno end in vowels, so they are llanas with the natural stress
correctly placed on the next-to-last syllable. In this case, an accent mark is not required.
√ Veintiuna [veĭn-ti-U-na]
veintiuna mujeres
veintiuna casas
veinte más uno son veintiuno
Ciento, cientos, and cien:
 Ciento (one hundred exactly) is always masculine singular and cientos (hundreds) is
always masculine plural. They are neutral and not gender associated.
There are hundreds. Yes, there is definitely more than a hundred pencils and a
hundred pens.
Hay cientos. Sí, definitivamente hay más de ciento lápices y ciento plumas.
One hundred and forty men and one hundred and five women participated.
Ciento cuarenta señores y ciento y cinco señoritas participaron.

The hundreds portions of long numbers change in gender even when other parts of the
number intervene before the noun.
800 cars
500 houses
460 men
504,405 songs

=
=
=
=
ochocientos coches
quinientas casas
doscientos sesenta hombres
quinientas y cuatro mil, cuatrocientas y cinco canciones
Ciento (one hundred exactly) is shortened to cien when preceding a noun of either
gender.
one hundred of the workers → one hundred workers
ciento de los obreros → cien obreros
one hundred of the women → one hundred women
ciento de las mujeres → cien mujeres

Cien is also used when one hundred exactly precedes mil.
one hundred thousand soldiers
cien mil soldados
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one hundred thousand women
cien mil mujeres
Connecting numbers with y (and):
 Y (and) is not used to separate hundreds from the remainder of the number.
× 161 ≠ ciento y sesenta y uno.
√ 161 = ciento sesenta y uno.
Connecting numbers with ó (or):
 To avoid confusion with the zero, the word ó (or) is written with an accent between
numerical figures.
He has 8 or 9.
Él tiene 8 ó 9.
Commas or periods with numbers:
 In Spanish, periods and commas within numbers are reversed from what they are in U.S.
English.
Spanish 1.234,567 would be written in the United States as 1,234.567
Note: in Mexico, Central America, and Puerto Rico, numbers usually are punctuated as they are
in the United States.
Mil:


1,000 is simply mil not un mil.
Mil is not made plural by adding the -es except for “thousands of” (miles de . . . )
√ dos mil
√ tres mil
× dos miles
× tres miles
Mil Millones, Billón, and Trillón:
 1,000,000,000 is un mil milliones in Spanish and British English but a billion in U.S.
English.
 1,000,000,000,000 is a un billón in Spanish and British English but a trillion in U.S.
English.
 1,000,000,000,000,000 is a un trillón in Spanish and British English.
Note: what makes this even more confusing is that in Puerto Rico and some places in Latin
American the U.S. counting system is used. Be sure to clarify the meaning concerning numbers
larger than one million.
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COUNTING
EL CONTAR
Adding and subtracting:
 Más means “plus,” and menos means “minus.”
 When subtracting, place the larger number before menos, and place the number that is
being subtracted after it.
Seven minus two is five.
Siete menos dos son cinco.
Two plus two is four.
Dos más dos son cuatro.
Dividing:
 Entre means “divided by.”
 When dividing, place the larger number before entre, and place the smaller number
after it.
Eight divided by two is four.
Ocho entre dos son cuatro.
Multiplying:
 Por or veces means “times” when multiplying.
Five times two is ten.
Cinco por dos son diez
Five times two is ten.
Cinco veces dos son diez.
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ORDINAL NUMBERS
LOS NÚMEROS ORDINALES
1
primer(o)
25
vigésimo quinto
2
segundo
26
vigésimo sexto
3
tercer(o)
27
vigésimo séptimo
4
cuarto
28
vigésimo octavo
5
quinto
29
vigésimo noveno
6
sexto
30
trigésimo
7
séptimo
40
cuadragésimo
8
octavo
50
quincuagésimo
9
noveno
60
sexagésimo
10 décimo
70
septuagésimo
11 undécimo
80
octogésimo
12 duodécimo
90
nonagésimo
13 decimotercero/a
100 centésimo
14 decimocuarto
101 centésimo primero/a
15 decimoquinto
200 ducentésimo
16 decimosexto
300 tricentésimo
17 decimoséptimo
400 cuadringentésimo
18 decimoctavo
500 quingentésimo
19 decimonoveno
600 sexcentésimo
20 vigésimo
700 septingentésimo
21 vigésimo primero/a
800 octingentésimo
22 vigésimo segundo
900 noningentésimo
23 vigésimo tercero/a
1.000 milésimo
24 vigésimo cuarto
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PRACTICE WITH NUMBERS AND COUNTING
1.
There is one father and one mother there.
Hay un padre y una madre allí.
2.
Two plus three is five.
Dos más tres son cinco.
3.
Ten minus four is six.
Diez menos cuatro son seis.
4.
Ninety divided by thirty is three.
Noventa entre treinta son tres.
5.
Twenty times two is ten.
Veinte por dos son cuarenta.
6.
Thirty-eight minus sixteen equals twenty-two.
Treinta y nueve menos diecisiete son veintidós.
7.
Forty minus twenty-one equals nineteen.
Cuarenta menos veintiuno son diecinueve.
8.
One hundred sixteen plus twenty-three equals one hundred thirty-nine.
Ciento dieciséis más veintitrés son ciento treinta y nueve.
9.
Fifty-one boys are taking the trip.
Cincuenta y un chicos están tomando el viaje.
10.
Fifty-one girls signed up for the class.
Cincuenta y una chicas se matriculaban por la clase.
11.
She will be thirty-one years old on the tenth day of the month.
Ella tendrá treinta y un años el décimo día del mes.
12.
They married when she was twenty-one and he was twenty-four.
Ellos se casaron cuando ella tenía veintiún años y él tenía veinticuatro.
13.
The distance is more than one hundred kilometers.
La distancia es más de cien kilómetros.
14.
One hundred thousand soldiers died in the battle.
Cien mil soldados se murieron durante la batalla.
15.
We have helped hundreds of women in your situation.
Hemos apoyado a cientos de mujeres en tu situación.
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16.
The new auditorium holds two hundred people.
El nuevo auditorio tiene cabida para doscientos usuarios.
17.
They have completed two hundred and two houses.
Han terminado con doscientas dos casas.
18.
One hundred thousand women have attended the seminars.
Cien mil mujeres han asistido los seminarios.
19.
The weight is three and two-thirds pounds.
El peso es tres y dos tercios libras.
20.
A kilo is two and one-half rounds.
Un kilo tiene dos libras y media.
21.
We received the ten percent discount.
Recibimos el diez por ciento de descuento.
22.
2,000 or 3,000
2.000 ó 3.000
dos mil o tres mil
23.
1,234.567
1.234,567
mil doscientos treinta y cuatro, quinientos sesenta y siete
24.
The second day of the fifth week.
El segundo día de la quinta semana.
25.
He spoke of the seventh paradise.
Él habló del séptimo paraíso.
26.
Alonzo is 27 or 28.
Alonso tiene 27 ó 28 años.
27.
Eight divided by two is four.
Ocho entre dos es cuatro.
28.
One hundred of the pages were burned.
Ciento de las páginas fueron quemadas.
29.
Five hundred and twenty-one girls and four hundred and ninety boys were there.
Quinientas veintiuna chicas y cuatrocientos noventa chicos estaban ahí.
30.
The cost is four hundred and forty-one pesos.
El precio es cuatrocientos cuarenta y un pesos.
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ASKING QUESTIONS
FORMANDO PREGUNTAS
Changing the intonation is the simplest way to ask a question:
What a man!
¡Qué hombre!
Which man?
¿Qué hombre?
We are ready.
Estamos listos.
Are we ready?
¿Estamos listos?
Placing the verb before the noun is a common and more formal way to ask a question:
They study. → Do they study?
Ellas estudian. → ¿Estudian ellas?
Mr. Perez has money.
→ Does Mr. Perez have money?
El señor Pérez tiene dinero. → ¿Tiene dinero el señor Pérez?
Interrogatory pronouns are used to form questions:
Where is the bathroom?
¿Dónde está el baño?
Which are the most serious problems?
¿Cuáles son los problemas más graves?
How much does it cost?
¿Cuánto cuesta?
What is this?
¿Qué es esto?
Interrogatory adjectives are used to form questions:
Which car did you buy?
¿Qué carro compraste?
In which city do they live?
¿En cuál ciudad viven ellos?
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How many girls are going to be there?
¿Cuántas chicas van a estar allí?
Deber (should), poder (could) or querer (want) may be used in the conditional verb tense to
make a polite request:
Could you bring me more tea?
¿Pudiera traerme más té?
I would like to ask you a favor.
Quisiera pedirle un favor.
Qué + haber (to have) in the futuro perfecto tense may be used as a question:
What happened to Juan? (I’m wondering)?
¿Qué habrá ocurrido con Juan?
What will his wife think? (I’m wondering)?
¿Qué habrá pensado la esposa?
I don’t know, maybe he had an accident? (Just a thought).
No sé, ¿habrá tendido un accidente?
Qué tal, is a very casual way to ask a question:
How are you?
¿Qué tal estas? → ¿Qué tal?
(This is the shortened, more common expression).
How was the trip?
¿Qué tal ha sido el viaje?
How was the movie?
¿Qué tal la película?
How was the vacation?
¿Qué tal la vacación?
Qué tan (how much), is commonly used to ask questions in Latin America:
How important is health for you?
¿Qué tan importante es la salud para usted?
And the house, how big is it?
Y la casa, ¿qué tan grande es?
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Different ways to ask questions, example one:
The house is big.
La casa es grande.
The house is big? (Change the intonation to ask a question).
¿La casa es grande?
The house is big? (Place the verb before the noun to ask a question).
¿Es grande la casa?
How big is the house? (Use interrogatories to ask a question).
¿Qué grande es la casa?
And the house, how big is it?
(These are more examples of interrogatories to ask a question).
Y la casa, ¿cómo de grande es?
Y la casa, ¿qué tan grande es? (Qué tan is more common in Latin America).
Y la casa, ¿cómo es de grande?
(In Spain, the verb is normally not placed at the end of the sentence).
Different ways to ask questions, example two:
Health is important for you.
La salud es importante para usted.
Health is it important for you? (Change the intonation to ask a question).
La salud, ¿es importante para usted?
Is it important to you, health? (Place the verb before the noun to ask a
question).
¿Es importante para usted, la salud?
How important is your health? (Use interrogatories to ask a question).
¿Qué importante es la salud para usted?
¿Cómo de importante es la salud para usted?
¿Cuánto le importa, a usted, la salud?
A usted ¿cuánto le importa la salud?
A usted ¿qué tan importa es la salud?
¿Qué tan importante es la salud para usted?
(Qué tan is more commonly used in Latin America).
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TITLES AND FAMILY NAMES
TÍTULOS Y APELLIDOS
Señor, señora, and señorita:
 Mr. (señor), Mrs. (señora), and Miss (señorita)
 In Spanish, titles are not capitalized, unless abbreviated.
 The abbreviations are: Sr. for señor, Sra. for señora, and Srta. for señorita.
Don and doña, titles for respect:
 The titles “don” for men and “doña” for women have no equivalent in English. They are
courtesy titles used only before someone’s given name to show respect to elders or
superiors.
When to use don or doña:
 Doña is usually used only for married or widowed women, except in official documents,
when it can refer to any woman.
 When referring to a third person, you can use don and doña before their first name,
followed by their surname: «don Carlos Gonzalez».
 Don and doña may be abbreviated to D. or Dn. As with other titles, in the abbreviated
form don or doña is capitalized and may be preceded by the appropriate title señor or
señora.
El señor don Juan Sánchez o el Sr. D. Juan Sánchez
La señora doña Ana Martínez o la Sra. Dña. Ana Martínez.
Spanish surnames:
 Spanish-speaking people usually use two family names.
 The first name will be the father’s family name.
 The second name, for men and unmarried women, will be the mother’s family name.
 Generally these two last names are connected by the conjunction y.
When a woman marries:
 The first name will remain her father’s family name.
 The second name will be her husband’s family name.
 Generally the father’s family name is followed by the preposition de.
El señor Gabriel Rodríguez y Gutiérrez y su esposa, la señora Liliana Castro de Rodríguez
tienen una hija.
Su hija, la señorita Daniela Rodríguez y Castro es soltera.
La señorita Daniela Rodríguez y Castro se casó con el señor Alfredo Molino y Guerra.
Ahora su nombre es la señora Daniela Rodríguez de Molino.
El señor Alfredo Molino y Guerra y su esposa, la señora Daniela Rodríguez de Molino,
tienen un hijo.
El nombre completo de su hijo Pablo es Pablo Molino y Rodríguez.
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El señor Jesús Vega y López y la señora Marcela Díaz de López tienen una hija.
Su hija, la señorita Cecilia López y Díaz es soltera.
La señorita Cecilia López y Díaz se casó con el señor Sergio Gómez y Muñoz.
Ahora su nombre completo es la señora Cecilia López de Gómez.
El señor Sergio Gómez y Muñoz y la señora Cecilia López de Gómez tienen una hija.
El nombre completo de su hija Isabel es Isabel Gómez y López o Isabel Gómez-López.
Note: Many people prefer to use only the first family name in everyday conversation; thus
Cecilia López de Gómez would be called la señorita Cecilia López (before her marriage) and la
señora Cecilia López after her marriage. Her daughter would be called la señorita Isabel Gómez.
It is also common to hyphenate the two last names rather than use y or de to connect them. In
this case her name would be la señorita Isabel Gómez-López.
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SPANISH SURNAMES
APELLIDOS ESPAÑOLES
Spanish surnames ending in -ez are exceptions to the aguda rule:
 Aguda rule: words which end in a consonant other than N or S are agudas and have the
natural stress on the last syllable.
 Spanish surnames ending in the suffix -ez mean “son of.”
 An accent mark is needed in order to keep the pronunciation of the son’s name the
same as the father’s name.
 An example is Perez son of Pedro:
o Pedro ends in a vowel, so it is a llana with the natural stress on the next-to-last
syllable. Pedro [PE-dro].
o Perez, son of Pedro, ends in a consonant other than N or S, so it is an aguda with the
natural stress on the last syllable. × Perez [pe-RES].
o Without an accent mark to move the stress, the pronunciation of the names would
be different. × Perez [pe-RES] ≠ Pedro [PE-dro].
o With the accent mark, the stress is placed on the next-to-last syllable so that both
words are pronounced the same. √ Pérez [PE-res] = Pedro [PE-dro].
EXAMPLES OF SPANISH SURNAMES ENDING IN -EZ
Álvarez
- son of Alvaro, from Alvar, of Germanic origin.
Díaz
- son of Diago or Diego, from Greek Didachos.
Domínquez - son of Domingo, from the Latin Dominicus, meaning of the Lord.
Fernández - son of Fernando, from Germanic Fredenand or Fridnand.
Gómez
- son of Gome, Gomo or Gomaro, of Germanic origin.
González
- son of Gonzalo, from Gundisalvus, of Germanic origin.
Gutiérrez
- son of Gutier or Gutierre, from Germanic Wutier.
Hernández - son of Hernando, variation of Fernando.
Jiménez
- son of Jimeno, from Xemeno or Ximeno, of unknown origin.
López
- son of Lope, from Latin Lupus, meaning wolf.
Martínez
- son of Martin, from the Latin Martis, whose root is Mars.
Méndez
- son of Mendo, meaning knowledge or wisdom.
Núñez
- son of Nuño, from Portuguese or Galician roots.
Pérez
- son of Pedro, from Latin Petrus.
Ramírez
- son of Ramon, meaning wise protector.
Rodríguez - son of Rodrigo, from Germanic Roderic.
Sánchez
- son of Sancho, from Latin Sanctius.
Vásquez
- son of Vasco, meaning one who came from the Basque country.
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COMMON MALE SPANISH NAMES
NOMBRES MASCULINAS
Adán - Nickname: none - Adam
Geraldo - Nickname: Gera - Gerald
Alberto - Nickname: Beto - Albert
Guillermo - Nickname: Memo - William
Alejandro - Nickname: Alex - Alexander
Héctor - Nickname: Teto - Hector
Alfredo - Nickname: Fredi - Alfred
Humberto - Nickname: Beto - Hubert
Andrés - Nickname: none - Andrew
Ignacio - Nickname: Nacho
Antonio - Nickname: Toño, -Tony, Anthony
Jaime - Nickname: none - James
Armando - Nickname: Nando - Herman
Jesús - Nicknames: Chuy, Chucho - Jesus
Arturo - Nickname: none - Arthur
Jorge - Nickname: Koque - George
Benjamín - Nickname: Benja - Benjamin
José - Nickname: Pepe - Joseph
Bernardo - Nickname: Berna - Bernard
Josue - Nickname: none - Joshua
Carlos - Nicknames none - Charles
Juan - Nickname: none - John
Cristián - Nickname: Cris - Christian
Julio - Nickname: none - Julius
Cristóbal - Nickname: Cris - Christopher
Leonardo - Nickname: Leo - Leonard
David - Nickname: none - David
Lorenzo - Nickname: none - Laurence
Delfino - Nickname: Pillo
Luis - Nickname: Wicho - Louis
Domingo - Nicknames Mingo
Manuel - Nickname: Manolo - Manuel
Eduardo - Nickname: Lalo - Edward
Moises - Nickname: Moy - Moses
Enrique - Nickname: Quique - Henry
Noe - Nickname: none - Noah
Ernesto - Nickname: Neto - Ernest
Pedro - Nickname: none - Peter
Esteban - Nickname: none - Steven
Raymundo - Nickname: Mundo - Raymond
Federico - Nickname: Quiquo, Kiko -
Refugio - Nickname: Cuco
Frederick
Ricardo - Nickname: Rica - Richard
Fernando - Nickname: Nando - Ferdinand
Roberto - Nickname: Beto - Robert
Francisco - Nickname: Paco, Pancho -
Sergio - Nickname: Checo
Francis
Tomás - Nickname: Tomy - Thomas
Gabriel - Nickname: Gabi - Gabriel
Víctor - Nickname: none - Victor
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COMMON FEMALE SPANISH NAMES
NOMBRES FEMININAS
Alejandra - Nickname: Ale - Alexandra
Josefina - Nickname: Fina - Josephine
Alicia - Nickname: Licha - Alice
Leticia - Nickname: Leti
Ana - Nickname: none - Anne
Liliana - Nickname: Lili - Lilian
Araceli - Nickname: Cheli
Lucia - Nickname: Luci - Lucy
Beatriz - Nickname: Beti - Beatrice
Luz - Nickname: none
Belén - Nickname: none - Bethlehem
Luz María - Nickname: Luzma
Blanca - Nickname: none - Blanche
Magali - Nickname: Magi
Carla - Nickname: none - Carla
Magdalena - Nickname: Magda
Carolina - Nickname: Caro - Caroline
María - Nickname: Mari - Mary
Catalina - Nickname: Cata - Katherine
Mercedes - Nickname: Meche
Cecilia - Nickname: Chila
Monica - Nickname: Moni - Monica
Claudia - Nickname: Clau - Claudia
Rocío - Nickname: Chiyo
Concepción - Nickname: Conchis
Rosario - Nickname: Chayo
Consuelo - Nickname: Chelo
Sandra - Nickname: Sandy - Sandra
Cristina - Nickname: Cris - Christine
Susana - Nickname: Susi -Susan, Suzanne
Dolores - Nickname: Lola - Dolores
Teresa - Nickname: Tere - Theresa
Estefanía - Nickname: Fani - Stephanie
Tomasa - Nickname: Tomi
Eva - Nickname: none - Eve
Verónica - Nickname: Vero - Veronica
Fernanda - Nickname: Fer
Viviana - Nickname: Vivi - Vivian
Gabriela - Nickname: Gabi - Gabriel
Yaneth - Nickname: Yane - Janet
Graciela - Nickname: Chela - Grace
Yolanda - Nickname: Yoli - Yolanda
Guadalupe - Nickname: Lupe, Lupita
Yuridia - Nickname: Yuri
Isabel - Nickname: Chavela, Isa - Isabel
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Miscellaneous 294
SPANISH PREFIXES
PREFIJOS ESPAÑOLES
SPANISH PREFIXES
Prefix
ante
anti
auto
bi, bis, biz
cent
contra
con
de, des
entre
ex
inter
mal
mono
para
pre
pro
psi
re
semi
sobre
super
sub
uni
Meaning
before
against
self
two
hundred
against
with
undo
between,
among
former
between,
among
bad
one
together, with
before
in favor
psyagain
medium
superior
supeior
under
one
Example
anteayer - yesterday
antibiótico - antibotic
autobiografía - autobiography
bicicleta - bicycle
centésimo - 100th
contradecir - contradict
conmigo - with me
desplegar - unfold
entreabierta - half opened
excluir - exclude
intercambio - interchange
maltratar - abuse
monociclo - unicycle
paralelo - parallel
previa - previous
prometer - to promise
psicología - psycology
repaso - review
semicírculo - semicircular
sobrenatural - supernatural
supermercado - supermarket
submarino - submarine
unificar - to unite
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Miscellaneous 295
SPANISH SUFFIXES
SUFIJOS ESPAÑOLES
SPANISH SUFFIXES
Suffix
-ada
-ado, ido
-aje
-al
-ancia
-anza
-ario
-arquía
-atico
-azo
-ble
-cida, -cidio
-ción
-cracia
-crata
-dad
-dero
-dor
-dura
-ear
-ense
-ería
-ero, -era
-és
-esa
-eza
-fico, -fica
-filo, -fila
-fobia
-fono
-ificar
-imo
-izo
-or
-osa, -oso
Meaning
-ful
indicates similarity to root
-age
tree or grove
-ancy
makes noun forms of verbs
profession or place
-archy
-atic
a blow from the root word
-ble
-cide
-tion
-cracy
-crat
-ity
means or capacity
-er
effect of an action
verb from an adj.
place of origin
place where items are sold
or made
related to root word
place of origin
female form
abstract nouns from adj.
-fic
-phile
-phobia
-phone
-ify
-ism
-ish
-or
-ous
Example
cucharada - spoonful
dolorido - painful
porcentaje - percentage
naranjal - orange tree
discrepancia - discrepancy
enseñanza - education
bibliotecario - librarian
monarquía - monarchy
lunatic - lunatic
estacazo - a hit with a stick
manejable - manageable
suicidio - suicide
agravacion - aggravation
democracia - democracy
burócrata - bureaucrat
pomposidad - pomposity
lavandero - laundry
jugador - player
picadura - puncture
pasear - to pass
estadounidense - of the U.S.
zapatería - shoe store
vaquero - cowboy
inglés - English
tigresa - female tiger
pureza - purity
horrífico - horrific
pedofilo - pedophile
claustrophobia - claustrophobia
teléfono - telephone
dignificar - to dignify
budismo - Buddhism
rojizo - reddish
actor - actor
maravilloso - marvelous
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296
PRETERIT AND IMPERFECT VERB TENSES
UNIT 16
Unit Sixteen Table of Contents..................................................................... 296
Phrases Associated with the Pretérito and Imperfecto................................ 297
Pretérito or Imperfecto................................................................................. 299
Pretérito and the Imperfecto in the Same Sentence.................................... 301
Changes in Meaning When in the Pretérito or Imperfecto.......................... 303
Practice with Words with Slight Changes in Meaning When Used in the
Pretérito or Imperfecto................................................................................. 305
Estar or Ser with the Pretérito or Imperfecto............................................... 307
El Grito de Dolores, a speech given by Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810, is
considered the beginning point of the Mexican War of Independence, and that
date is recognized as Mexican Independence Day. The Virgin of Guadalupe became
a rallying point for the revolution. Cinco de Mayo celebrates the Mexican army’s
victory over the much larger French army at the Battle of Puebla in 1862, and is
widely celebrated in the United States, but is not a national holiday in Mexico.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 297
PHRASES ASSOCIATED WITH THE PRETERIT OR THE IMPERFECT
FRASES VINCULADAS CON EL PRETÉRITO O EL IMPERFECTO
Pretérito or imperfecto:
 Pretérito and imperfecto are past-indicative verb tenses.
 It is necessary to know the context of the statement in order to be able to determine if
the statement should use the pretérito verb tense or the imperfecto verb tense.
 Phrases used by the speaker will relay this information to the listener.
Pretérito:
 Phrases associated with the pretérito will indicate that the statement is an action
statement.
 Phrases associated with the pretérito will indicate that there is a clear beginning to the
action, or a clear ending of the action, or a specified period of time for the action.
1.
2.
3.
Defined starting point [→
Defined ending point
→]
Defined period of time [↔]
Words And Phrases Associated With The Pretérito de Indicativo
ayer
(yesterday)
ayer por la mañana
(yesterday morning)
anoche
(last night)
desde el primer momento (from the first moment)
después
(after)
durante dos años
(for two years)
el año pasado
(last year)
el otro día
(the other day)
en aquel momento
(in that moment)
entonces
(then)
esta mañana
(this morning)
hace tres días
(three days ago)
la semana pasada
(last week)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 298
Imperfecto:
 Phrases associated with the imperfecto will indicate that the statement is an informative
statement.
 Phrases associated with the imperfecto will indicate that there is no clear beginning to
the action, no clear ending of the action, or an unspecified time period for the action.
1.
2.
3.
No defined starting point ↔
No defined ending point ↔
No defined period of time ↔
Words and Phrases Associated With The Imperfecto De Indicativo
a menudo
(often)
a veces
(sometimos)
cada día
(every day)
con frecuencia
(often)
de vez en cuando
(sometimos)
en aquella época
(during that period)
frecuentemente
(frequently)
generalmente
(generally)
muchas veces
(many times)
mucho
(a lot)
nunca
(never)
por un rato
(for a little while)
siempre
(always)
tantas veces
(often times)
todas las semanas (every week)
todos los veranos
(every summer)
todos los días
(everyday)
todo el tiempo
(all the time)
varias veces
(different times)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 299
PRETERIT OR IMPERFECT
PRETÉRITO O IMPERFECTO
Pretérito de indicative = action:
 The pretérito verb tense is used in action statements which meet one of the following
conditions points.
1.
2.
3.
Defined starting point [→
Defined ending point
→]
Defined period of time [↔]
Imperfecto de indicative = information:
 The imperfecto verb tense is used in informative statements without a clear beginning
or ending.
1.
2.
3.
No defined starting point ↔
No defined ending point ↔
No defined period of time ↔
Choose pretérito for action or imperfecto for information:
1.
It began to rain.
Empezó a llover. [→
2.
It rained a lot.
Llovía mucho. ↔
3.
You called at one.
Llamaste a la una. [→
4.
He called often.
Él llamaba con frecuencia. ↔
5.
I called you two times.
Te llamé dos veces. →] →]
6.
Last year they went to Mexico for vacation.
El año pasado fueron a México para las vacaciones. →]
7.
Every year they went to Mexico for vacation.
Cada año iban a México para las vacaciones. ↔
8.
We left the airport at six in the morning.
Salimos del aeropuerto a las seis de la mañana. [→
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Pretérito and Imperfecto 300
9.
Sometimes I get up early.
A veces me despertaba temprano. ↔
10.
You (pl.) lived in Spain for many years (informal in Spain).
Vivíais en España muchos años. ↔
11.
He lived there for five years.
El vivió allí por cinco años. [→]
12.
Did you read the book?
¿Leíste el libro? →]
13.
Did you always study?
¿Siempre estudiabas? ↔
14.
It was very windy.
Hacía mucho viento. ↔
15.
Yesterday they walked to the beach.
Ayer caminaron a la playa. [→]
16.
I walked every day.
Yo caminaba cada día. ↔
17.
The professor was thirty years old.
La profesora tenía treinta años. ↔
18.
I bought a hat, sat on a bench and fell asleep.
Compré un sombrero, me senté en banco, y me dormí. →] →] →]
19.
They did not get along well.
No se llevaban muy bien. ↔
20.
She went to the store before class.
Ella fue a la tienda antes de clase. →]
21.
She went to the store every afternoon.
Ella iba a la tienda cada tarde. ↔
22.
Did you (pl.) look for your friends in Barcelona? (informal in Spain)
¿Buscabais a vuestros amigos en Barcelona? ↔
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 301
PRETERIT AND IMPERFECT IN THE SAME SENTENCE
PRETÉRITO Y IMPERFECTO EN LA MISMA ORACIÓN
Pretérito = action:
 Defined starting point [→
 Defined ending point →]
 Defined period of time [→]
Imperfecto = information:
 No defined starting point ↔
 No defined ending point ↔
 No defined period of time ↔
Practice with pretérito and imperfecto in the same sentences:
1.
He said that he was going to arrive late.
Él dijo que iba a llegar tarde.
(“he said” →], “going to arrive late” ↔)
2.
She started to cry when she opened the envelope and read the letter.
Ella comenzó a llorar cuando abrió el sobre y leyó la carta.
(“started to cry” ]→, “opened the envelope” →], “read the letter” →])
3.
When they were young, they lived in Spain.
Cuando estaban joven, vivían en España.
(“were young” ↔, “lived in Spain” ↔)
4.
I woke up when the rooster crowed.
Me desperté cuando el gallo cantó.
(“woke up” →], “crowed” →])
5.
The rooster crowed all night so I could not sleep.
El gallo cantó toda la noche entonces no podía dormir.
(“crowed all night” [→], “I could not sleep” ↔.)
6.
The Moors invaded Spain in 711 and left in 1492.
Los moros invadieron España en 711 y salieron en 1492.
(“Invaded” [→, “left” →])
7.
Raymond went to the library and studied for two hours.
Ramón fue a la biblioteca y estudió por dos horas.
(“went” (one time) →], “studied for two hours” [→])
8.
When we went on vacations to the mountains, it was cold everyday.
Cuando íbamos de vacaciones en las montañas, hacía frío todos los días.
(“went on vacations” ↔, “it was cold” ↔)
9.
He called two times, but no one answered.
Él llamó dos veces, pero nadie contestó.
(“called twice” →] →], “no one answered” →])
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 302
10.
They didn’t speak for long because the girls had to be at Caroline’s house at five.
No hablaron por mucho tiempo porque las chicas tenían que estar en casa de
Catalina a las cinco.
(“speak” (stopped when they left for Caroline’s house) →], “had to be at home” ↔)
11.
They said goodbye and George told Ellen that he was going to call her later.
Ellos se despidieron y Jorge le dijo a Elena que iba a llamarle más tarde.
(“said goodbye” →], “told” →], “was going to call” ↔)
12.
When she arrived, she was a little nervous, but very quickly became accustomed to the
lifestyle.
Cuando ella llegó, estaba un poco nerviosa, pero muy pronto se acostumbró al estilo de
vida.
(“arrived” →], “was nervous” ↔, “became accustomed” →])
13.
The coach became angry when the team lost the championship game.
El entrenador se enojó cuando el equipo perdió el partido de campeonato.
(“became anger” [→, “lost the game” →])
14.
This afternoon I invited my friend Paulina to have dinner with us, but she said that she
could not come.
Esta tarde invité a mi amiga Paulina a cenar con nosotros, pero dijo que no podía
venir.
(“invited” →], “said no” →], “could not come” ↔)
15.
The sky was blue when it suddenly began to rain.
El cielo estaba azul cuando de repente comenzó a llover.
(“was blue” ↔, “began to rain” [→)
16.
I just arrived when Anthony called me.
Acabé de llegar cuando Antonio me llamó.
(“just arrived” →], “called” →])
17.
They did not call Julie, but they wrote her an email.
A Julia no le llamaron, sino le escribieron un correo electrónico.
(“called” →], “wrote” →])
18.
I told my father that we went to the beach.
Le dije a mi padre que íbamos a la playa.
(“told” →], information ↔)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 303
CHANGES IN MEANING WHEN IN THE PRETERIT OR IMPERFECT
CAMBIOS EN SENTIDO CUANDO EN EL PRETÉRITO O IMPERFECTO
Information or action:
 Some words have slightly different meanings when in the pretérito or imperfecto.
Pretérito = action:
 Defined starting point [→
 Defined ending point →]
 Defined period of time [→]
Imperfecto = information:
 No defined starting point ↔
 No defined ending point ↔
 No defined period of time ↔
Conocer:
I met Luis. →]
Yo conocí a Luis.
I knew Pedro. ↔
Yo conocía a Pedro.
I found out the truth. →]
Yo supe la verdad.
I knew the truth. ↔
Yo sabía la verdad.
Saber:
Poder:
I managed to do the homework. →]
Yo pude hacer la tarea.
I had the ability to do the homework. ↔
Yo podía hacer la tarea.
Querer:
I tried to eat twenty tacos. →]
Yo quise comer veinte tacos.
I wanted to eat twenty tacos. ↔
Yo quería comer veinte tacos.
I refused to eat twenty tacos. →]
Yo no quise comer veinte tacos.
I gave a party. →]
Tuve una fiesta.
I had many friends. ↔
Tenía varios amigos.
Tener:
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 304
Tener que:
I had to (must) go home. →]
Tuve que ir a casa.
I was supposed to go home. ↔
Tenía que ir a casa.
Deber:
I had to (committed to) go home.→]
Debí ir a casa.
I should have gone home. ↔
Debía ir a casa.
Pensar:
It dawned on me that he was innocent. [→ Pensé que él era inocente.
I thought that he was innocent. ↔
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pensaba que él era inocente.
Pretérito and Imperfecto 305
PRACTICE WITH WORDS WHICH HAVE SLIGHT MEANING CHANGES WHEN USED IN THE
PRETÉRITO OR IMPERFECTO
Pretérito = action:
 Exact starting point [→
 Exact ending point →]
 Exact period of time [→]
Imperfecto = information:
 No exact starting point ↔
 No exact ending point ↔
 No exact period of time ↔
1.
We wanted to bring it, but could not.
Queríamos traerlo, pero no pudimos.
(“wanted to” ↔, tried but were unable →])
2.
I wasn’t able to remember his name.
No podía recordar su nombre.
(“wasn’t able” ↔)
3.
Albert succeeded in reading the whole book.
Alberto pudo leer el libro entero.
(could and did →])
4.
The man refused to speak when the policeman asked him about the accident.
El hombre no quiso hablar cuando el policía le preguntaba del accidente.
(“refused” →], “when asked” ↔)
5.
The man did not want to speak.
El hombre no quería hablar.
(“Wanted to” ↔)
6.
They found out the news yesterday.
Ellos supieron las noticias ayer.
(“found out” →])
7.
The boy knew that she was coming.
El chico sabía que ella venía.
(knowledge ↔)
8.
I met John five years ago.
Hace cinco años yo conocí a Juan.
(met [→)
9.
Carmen used to have a house in Acapulco.
Carmen tenía una casa en Acapulco.
(used to have ↔)
10.
Arthur tried to leave, but stayed all night.
Arturo quiso salir, pero se quedó toda la noche.
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Pretérito and Imperfecto 306
(tried” →] , stayed until the next day →])
11.
George met his wife in Acapulco.
Jorge conoció a su esposa en Acapulco.
(“met” →])
12.
We knew the city well.
Conocíamos muy bien la ciudad.
(knowledge ↔)
13.
My grandmother had faith in God.
Mi abuelita tenía fe en Dios.
(“had faith” ↔)
14.
Veronica had an accident this morning.
Verónica tuve un accidente está mañana.
(“had an accident” →])
15.
I had to work in the office yesterday.
Tuve que trabajar en la oficina ayer.
(completed action →])
16.
I had to study a lot for that class.
Tenía que estudiar mucho para esa clase.
(information ↔)
17.
Suddenly it dawned on me that you were different.
De repente yo pensé que eras diferente.
(definite starting point for the idea [→)
18.
I thought it was your birthday.
Pensaba que era tu cumpleaños.
(thoughts ↔)
19.
We should not have won the game.
No debíamos haber ganado el partido.
(information ↔)
20.
It should have been my opportunity.
Debía ser mi oportunidad.
(information ↔)
21.
I met my roommate.
Conocí a mi compañero de cuarto.
(met →])
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Pretérito and Imperfecto 307
ESTAR OR SER WITH THE PRETERIT OR IMPERFECT
ESTAR O SER CON EL PRETÉRITO O IMPERFECTO
Estar:
 Estar introduces a clause which describes a temporary condition, situation, or
circumstance which can easily change.
 Estar refers to a location which may be either temporary or permanent, except where
an event takes place.
Ser:
 Ser introduces a clause which identifies.
 The identifying quality or characteristic tends to be long-lasting or permanent.
 The indentifying quality or characteristic is not likely to change.
 Time always uses ser in the imperfecto, but never in the pretéito.
Pretérito:
 Exact starting point [→
 Exact ending point →]
 Exact period of time [→]
Imperfecto:
 No exact starting point ↔
 No exact ending point ↔
 No exact period of time ↔
Practice with estar or ser for actions (pretérito) or information (imperfecto):
1.
I was home all day.
Estuve en casa todo el día.
(location = estar [→])
2.
I was a good student.
Era buen estudiante.
(identifying quality not likely to change = ser ↔)
3.
I was a good student in high school.
Fui buen estudiante en la escuela secundaria.
(indentifying quality not likely to change = ser [→])
4.
I was home.
Estaba en casa.
(location = estar ↔)
5.
It was three in the afternoon.
Eran las tres de la tarde.
(time = ser and is always in the imperfecto)
6.
Luz was sick yesterday.
Luz estuvo enferma ayer.
(sickness is temporary = estar [→])
7.
I was sick often when I was a child.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Pretérito and Imperfecto 308
A menudo estaba enfermo cuando era niño.
(childhood is not considered a temporary condition, it is long-lasting = ser ↔ ↔)
8.
The sky was covered with clouds.
El cielo estaba cubierto de nubes.
(past participle = estar ↔)
9.
Argentina was not the only country in chaos.
Argentina no era el único país en caos.
(identifying = ser ↔)
10.
Paraguay was under control of a dictator.
Paraguay estaba bajo control de un dictador.
(temporary condition = estar ↔)
11.
The dictator was in charge of the country for twenty-six years.
El dictador estuvo a cargo del país por veintiséis años.
(temporary condition = estar [→])
12.
I thought he was innocent.
Pensaba que era inocente.
(thought ↔, innocent is not considered a temporary condition = ser ↔)
13.
The twenty-ninth of August was my birthday.
El veintinueve de agosto era el día de mi cumpleaños.
(time is always ser in the imperfecto)
14.
I was eating an apple.
Yo estaba comiendo una manzana.
(progressive action = estar in the imperfect)
15.
Mercedes and Carla were good friends.
Mercedes y Carla eran buenas amigas.
(friendship is not a temporary condition = ser ↔)
16.
The book was written by Cervantes.
El libro fue escrito por Cervantes.
(passive voice = ser, →])
17.
My first exam was at nine.
Mi primer examen era a las nueve.
(time is always ser in the imperfecto)
18.
He was going to ask Caroline if she knew the date of the party.
El estaba yendo a preguntarle a Carolina si ella sabía la fecha de la fiesta.
(progressive action = estar in the imperfect)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
309
OVERVIEW OF SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES
UNIT 17
Unit Seventeen Table of Contents................................................................ 309
Overview of Subjunctive Clauses.................................................................. 310
Subjunctive Conjugation............................................................................... 314
José de San Martín (1778-1850) of Argentina is recognized as the military leader of
southern South America’s battle for independence from Spanish rule, and played a vital
role in the battle for independence of Chile and Peru. He was the Peru’s first president.
(1821). Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) of Venezuela, “El Liberador,” led northern South
America’s battle for independence from Spanish rule. Bolívar was also an influential
politician and, although his democratic ideology of a federation of independent republics
never came to pass, he is referred to as the “George Washington of South America.”
Painting of José de San Martín and Bernardo Higgins crossing the Andes by Julio Vila y
Prades.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Subjunctive Overview 310
SUBJUNCTIVE CLAUSES OVERVIEW
VISIÓN GENERAL DE LAS CLÁUSULAS SUBJUNTIVAS
THE USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE VERB TENSE
Subjunctive indicators:
 When the subjunctive verb tense is used, it is almost always in the subordinate clause of
one of the following types of sentences:
1. Noun-clause sentence
2. Adjective-clause sentence
3. Adverbial-clause sentence

Once you learn to recognize these three types of sentences as well as the triggers which
make the verb tense subjunctive, you will be able to correctly use the subjunctive verb
tense.
NOUN-CLAUSE SENTENCES
Noun-clause sentences consist of three components:
1. A main clause
2. The subordinate conjunction que (that) connecting a subordinate clause to the main
clause
3. A subordinate clause which will be the direct-object noun of the main clause
The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if these conditions are met:
1. An emotion, desire, denial, or doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take
place is expressed in the main clause.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main
clause of the sentence.
I hope that he has the money.
Espero que él tenga el dinero.
Main clause: I hope
Subordinate clause: he has the money.
The subjunctive verb tense is used in subordinate clause because the action may
or may not happen.
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if these conditions are met:
1. Certainty that the action in the subordinate clause will take place is expressed in the
main clause.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Subjunctive Overview 311
o The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main
clause of the sentence.
I am sure that he has the money.
Estoy seguro que él tiene el dinero.
The infinitive is used in the subordinate clause if the following condition is met:
 There is one agent of action. The agent that controls the action in the main clause is
the same agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que is dropped, so there is no longer a
subordinate clause and the sentence is no longer a noun-clause sentence.
I hope that I have the money.
× Yo espero que yo tenga el dinero. → √ Espero tener el dinero.
ADJECTIVE-CLAUSE SENTENCES
Adjective-clause sentences consist of three components:
1. A main clause
2. The relative pronoun que (that) immediately following the noun and introducing a
subordinate-adjective clause
3. A subordinate-adjective clause which adds information about the undefined person,
place, or thing
The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if either of these conditions is
met:
 An unknown or unspecified direct object
We are looking for someone that knows the city.
Estamos buscando a alguien que conozca la ciudad.

A nonexistent negative expression
No hay nadie que . . . (there is nobody that . . . )
No hay nada que . . . (there is nothing that . . . )
No existe la cosa que . . . (the thing doesn’t exist . . . )
I haven’t seen anybody who can do it.
No he visto a nadie que pueda hacerlo.
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if either of these conditions is
met:
 A known or specified direct object
She is looking for her friend that is lost.
Ella está buscando a su amigo que está perdido.
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
The definite article “the” is used to specify the direct object.
I am looking for the person that has my wallet.
Estoy buscando a la persona que tiene mi billetera.
ADVERBIAL-CLAUSE SENTENCES
Adverbial-clause sentences consist of three components:
1. A main clause
2. A subordinate conjunction connecting a subordinate adverbial clause to the main clause
of the sentence
3. A subordinate adverbial clause explaining the action of the verb in the main clause in
more detail: how, when, why, etc.
The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if the following conditions are
met:
1. There is doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take place.
o If the action in the main clause is either anticipated or hypothetical, there is
doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take place.
o “Will,” “would,” and “going to” are commonly used in the main clause to
introduce an anticipated action.
o “Wanted to,” “thought of,” and “planned to” are commonly used in the main
clause to introduce a hypothetical action.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
I am going to speak with my lawyer without my boss knowing it.
Voy a hablar con mi abogado sin que mi jefe lo sepa.
I wanted to speak with my lawyer without my boss knowing.
Querría hablar con mi abogado sin que mi jefe supiera.
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if the following conditions are
met:
1. There is no doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take place.
o The sentence is a statement of a fact.
o The action in the main clause is a completed action.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
He wrote carefully so that everybody was able to read it.
Escribió con cuidado de manera que todos lo podían leer.
He stayed in his house until the storm ended.
Se quedó en su casa hasta que terminó la tormenta.
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The infinitive is used in the subordinate clause under the following condition:
 There is one agent of action. The agent that controls the action in the main clause is the
same agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o In this case, que is omitted from the subordinate conjunction.
o Omitting que changes the subordinate conjunction to a preposition.
o The preposition introduces a prepositional noun and any modifying clause (a
verb in the infinitive form may be the prepositional noun).
I will speak with my lawyer without speaking with my boss.
Hablaré con mi abogado sin hablar con mi jefe.
I will go home after eating.
Iré a casa después de comer.
Exceptions to the infinitive use rules for adverbial-clause sentences:
 If the subordinate conjunction does not include que, the infinitive cannot be used. In
this case, the appropriate indicative or subjunctive verb tense is used.
I will go to France as soon as I have the money.
Iré a Francia tan pronto como tenga el dinero.

If dropping que from the subordinate conjunction changes the meaning of the phrase,
the infinitive cannot be used. In this case the appropriate indicative or subjunctive verb
tense is used.
de manera que = so that
de manera
= in the style
I will arrange things so that I will not have problems.
Arreglaré las cosas de manera que no tenga problemas.
Learn to play the guitar in the easiest way.
Aprende a tocar la guitarra de la manera más fácil.
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SUBJUNCTIVE CONJUGATION
CONJUGACIÓN DE SUBJUNTIVOS
Present-subjunctive (presente de subjuntivo) conjugation rules.
 The present-subjunctive stem comes from the first-person present-indicative yo stem.
Hablar:
First-person present indicative: hablo
Present subjunctive: hable, hables, hable, hablemos, habléis, hablen
Comer:
First-person present indicative: como
Present subjunctive: coma, comas, coma, comamos, comáis, coman
Vivir:
First-person present indicative: vivo
Present subjunctive: viva, vivas, viva, vivamos, viváis, vivan
Irregularly conjugated verbs:
 The present-subjunctive stem comes from the first-person present-indicative yo stem
even when it is irregularly conjugated.
 For stem-changing verbs, the single-vowel stem changes to a double-vowel stem, except
the nosotros and vosotros stems never change from a single-vowel to a double-vowel
stem.
Pensar:
First-person present indicative: pienso
Present subjunctive: piense, pienses, piense, pensemos, penséis, piensen

For verbs with spelling changes such as -GO verbs, or -ZCO verbs, the presentsubjunctive stem comes from the irregular first-person present-indicative yo stem.
Tener:
First-person present indicative: tengo
Present subjunctive: tenga, tengas, tenga, tengamos, tengáis tengan

Spelling changes may be required to maintain the correct phonetic sound of the word.
Buscar is an example of a verb requiring a spelling change in the present-subjunctive
stem in order to maintain the correct phonetic sound.
Phonetic rules: C < A/O [K sound], C < E/I [S sound], QU < E/I [K sound].
The present-subjunctive stem changes from CE to QUE to maintain the K sound /k/.
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Buscar:
First-person present indicative: busco
Present subjunctive: busque, busques, busque, busquemos, busquéis, busquen
Past-subjunctive (imperfecto de subjuntivo) conjugation rules:
 The past-subjunctive stem comes from the third-person preterit él/usted and
ellos/ustedes stem.
 The past-subjunctive verb tense has two forms: the -ra form and the -se form.
 The -ra form is more widely used, especially in Latin America.
 In the examples, past subjunctive 1 is the -ra form, and past subjunctive 2 is the -se
form.
Hablar:
Third-person preterit: habló, hablaron
Past subj. 1: hablara, hablaras, hablara, habláramos, hablarais, hablaran
Past subj. 2: hablase, hablases, hablase, hablásemos, hablaseis, hablasen
Comer:
Third-person preterit: comió, comieron
Past subj. 1: comiera, comieras, comiera, comiéramos, comierais, comieran
Past subj. 2: comiese, comieses, comiese, comiésemos, comieseis, comiesen
Vivir:
Third-person preterit: vivió, vivieron
Past subj. 1: viviera, vivieras, viviera, viviéramos, vivierais, vivieran
Past subj. 2: viviese, vivieses, viviese, viviésemos, vivieseis, viviesen
Irregularly conjugated verbs:
 The past-subjunctive stem comes from the third-person preterit él/usted and
ellos/ustedes stem even when it is irregularly conjugated.

For stem-changing -IR verbs, the stem change takes place in the present indicative and
in the third-person preterit él/usted and ellos/ustedes stem.
Dormir, (O → UE/U, stem-changing -IR verb):
Third-person preterit: durmió, durmieron
Past subj. 1: durmiera, durmieras, durmiera, durmiéramos, durmierais, durmieran
Past subj. 2: durmiese, durmieses, durmiese, durmiésemos, durmieseis, durmiesen

Some verbs are irregularly conjugated in the preterit verb tense only.
Estar, (irregularly conjugated ER verb which changes from A to U in the preterit verb
tense only).
Third-person preterit: estuve, estuvieron
Past subj. 1: estuviera, estuvieras, estuviera, estuviéramos, estuvierais, estuvieran
Past subj. 2: estuviese, estuvieses, estuviese, estuviésemos, estuvieseis, estuviesen
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NOUN CLAUSES
UNIT 18
Unit Eighteen Table of Contents................................................................... 316
The Subjunctive Verb Tense with Noun Clauses.......................................... 317
Practice with Noun Clauses.......................................................................... 320
Noun Clauses for Actions Which Have Already Taken Place........................ 322
Practice with Noun Clauses in the Present and Past Tenses......................... 324
Conditional or Future Verb Tense in Noun-Clause Sentences...................... 326
Practice with the Conditional or Future Verb Tense in Noun Clauses.......... 327
Advice with Noun-Clause Sentences............................................................. 328
Practice with Advice in Noun-Clause Sentences........................................... 330
Cuban Revolutionaries Fidel Castro (far left) and Ernesto “Che” Guevara (center). Castro
was imprisoned from 1953 to 1955 for his failed attack on the Moncada, and during that
time wrote “History Will Absolve Me.” In 1959 he led the Cuban Revolution which
ousted Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista, and Castro’s government became the
Communist Party of Cuba in 1965. Argentinian Che Guevara (1928-1967) fought with
Castro in Cuba and was a socialist who, even today, is considered a hero by many. One
of his most famous quotes: “If you tremble in indignation at every injustice, then you
are a comrade of mine.”
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Noun Clauses 317
THE SUBJUNCTIVE VERB TENSE WITH NOUN CLAUSES
EL SUBJUNTIVO CON PROPOSICIONES NOMINALES
Noun-clause sentences consist of three components:
1. A main clause
2. The subordinate conjunction que connecting a subordinate clause to the main clause
3. A subordinate clause which is the direct-object noun of the main clause
The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if these conditions are met:
1. An emotion, desire, denial, or doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take
place is expressed in the main clause.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main
clause of the sentence (except the subordinate conjunctions ojalá and por favor
do not require que).
I hope that he has the money.
Espero que él tenga el dinero.
I hope to God that they don’t have problems with my luggage.
Ojalá no tengan problemas con mi equipaje.
It’s possible that she will come with me.
Es posible que ella venga conmigo.
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if these conditions are met:
1. Certainty that the action in the subordinate clause will take place is expressed in the
main clause.
2. There are two agents of action in the sentence. The agent that controls the action in the
main clause is not the agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main
clause of the sentence.
I am sure that he has the money.
Estoy seguro que él tiene el dinero.
I cannot believe how expensive the hotel is.
¡No puedo creer lo caro que es el hotel!
It’s obvious that you all play well.
Es obvio que ustedes juegan bien.
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The infinitive is used in the subordinate clause if this condition is met:
 There is one agent of action: The agent that controls the action in the main clause is the
same agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que is dropped, so there is no longer a subordinate
clause and the sentence is no longer a noun-clause sentence.
I hope that I have the money.
× Yo espero que yo tenga el dinero. → √ Espero tener el dinero.
The infinitive is used in an impersonal statement of fact:
 The infinitive verb is the subject noun in an impersonal statement of fact.
It’s not possible to win here.
No es posible ganar aquí.
It’s important to read the book.
Es importante leer el libro.
Variation of a noun-clause sentence using lo que rather than que:
 Lo que means “what” when not a question.
I don’t care what they may do.
No me importa lo que hagan. (I do not know what they may do = subjunctive).
I don’t care what they are doing.
No me importa lo que hacen. (I know what they are doing = indicative).
WEDDING is an acronym to help remember some of the most common words which trigger
the use of the subjunctive verb tense in the subordinate clause:
W = wish, E = emotion, D = doubt, D = denial, I = impersonal expression, N = need,
G = God

Wish:
desear
esperar
querer
pedir

(to desire)
(to hope)
(to want)
(to ask)
Emotion:
alegrarse
agonizarse
avergonzarse
calmarse
confundirse
(to be happy)
(to antagonize)
(to be ashamed)
(to calm)
(to confuse)
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preferir (to prefer)
rogar (to beg)
suplicar (to beg)
dañarse
(to hurt)
deplorarse
(to deplore)
desilusionarse (disenchanted)
enfermarse (to become sick)
enojarse
(to become angry)
Noun Clauses 319
entristecerse
fatigarse
frustrarse
gustar
lamentarse
marearse
molestarse

(to be sad)
(to fatigue)
(to frustrate)
(to like)
(to lament)
(to be motion sick)
(to bother)


no es claro
(it’s not clear)
no estar seguro (to be unsure)
no pensar
(to not think)
Denial:
es falso
(it’s false)
no creer
(to not believe)
no es cierto (it’s not true)

(to motivate)
(to worry)
(resign to)
(to feel)
(to surprise)
(to be afraid)
(to calm)
Doubt:
dudar
(to doubt)
es dudoso (it’s doubtful)
no creer (to not believe)

motivarse
preocuparse
resignarse
sentirse
sorprenderse
tener miedo
tranquilizarse
negar
(to deny)
no es seguro (to not be sure)
no es verdad (it’s not true)
Impersonal Expression:
es absurdo
(it’s absurd)
es agradable (it’s agreeable)
es bueno
(it’s good)
es difícil
(it’s difficult)
es fácil
(it’s easy)
es fantástico (it’s fantastic)
es importante (it’s important)
es justo
(it’s fair)
es una lástima
es malo
es mejor
es posible
es preciso
es raro
es ridículo
es terrible
Necessary or obligatory:
es necesario (is necessary)
necesitar
(to need)
insistar en (to insist on)
mandar (to order)
ordenar (to order)
obligar (to obligate)
(it’s a shame)
(it’s bad)
(it’s better)
(it’s possible)
(it’s urgent)
(it’s strange)
(it’s ridiculous)
(it’s terrible)
God:
ojalá (I pray to God)
Words or phrases used in the main clause which trigger the use of the indicative verb tense in
the subordinate clause:
creer que
es cierto
es claro
es evidente
es obvio
(to believe)
(it’s certain)
(it’s clear)
(it’s evident)
(it’s obvious)
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es seguro (it’s a fact)
es verdad (it’s true)
no hay duda (there’s no doubt)
pensar
(to think)
saber
(to know)
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PRACTICE WITH NOUN CLAUSES
1.
I hope that Robert finds his ring.
Esperamos que Roberto encuentre su anillo.
2.
What do they want do to?
¿Qué desean hacer?
3.
It’s clear we will arrive late.
Es claro que llegamos tarde.
4.
It’s false that they are going to suspend classes.
Es falso que vayan a suspender clases.
5.
I am sure that he has the money.
Estoy seguro que él tiene el dinero.
6.
It’s important to study.
Es importante estudiar.
7.
It’s possible that she will come with me.
Es posible que ella venga conmigo.
8.
It bothers me that you speak of him.
Me molesta que hables de él.
9.
It’s incredible how mature Johnny is!
¡Increíble lo maduro que es Juanito!
10.
I hope to have the money.
Espero tener el dinero.
11.
It’s urgent that you help me. (informal)
Es urgente que me ayudes.
12.
It’s obvious that you (pl.) play well.
Es obvio que ustedes juegan bien.
13.
It’s not possible to win here.
No es posible ganar aquí.
14.
It’s strange that the dogs and cats play together.
Es raro que los perros y gatos jueguen juntos.
15.
I can’t believe that it’s going to rain.
No creo que vaya a llover hoy.
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16.
They want to start a business.
Ellos quieren iniciar un negocio.
17.
Please stop calling!
¡Por favor deje de llamar!
18.
We like to win.
Nos gusta ganar.
19.
It’s not true that the exams will be easy.
No es verdad que los examines sean fáciles.
20.
It will be necessary that they read it.
Será preciso que lo lean.
21.
I like that you are here. (informal)
Me cae bien que estés aquí.
22.
Is it true that the world will end in 2012?
¿Es verdad que se acaba el mundo en 2012?
23.
The businessmen are afraid of failing.
Los hombres de negocios tienen miedo de fracasar.
24.
Please no smoking here.
Por favor no fume aquí.
25.
It’s obvious that we need an economical car.
Es obvio que necesitamos un carro económico.
26.
I would like you to think of something else. (informal)
Quiero que pienses en algo más.
27.
I love roses.
Me encantan las rosas.
28.
You (pl.) know that the textbook is terrible. (informal in Spain)
Vosotros sabéis que el libro de texto es terrible.
29.
Do you believe Miguel is sick?
¿Crees tú que Miguel está enfermo?
30.
I don’t think that he is sick.
No pienso que esté enfermo.
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NOUN CLAUSES FOR ACTIONS WHICH HAVE ALREADY TAKEN PLACE
PROPOSICIONES NOMINALES POR ACCIONES COMPLETADAS
The present-perfect verb tense is used if:
 The action in the main clause takes place in the present.
 The action in the subordinate clause has already taken place in relationship to the
present.
Perfecto de subjuntivo:
 The main clause expresses an emotion, desire, denial, or doubt.
 Perfecto de subjuntivo used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action in the
subordinate clause may or may not have taken place in relation to the present.
I hope that they have arrived.
Espero que ellos hayan llegado.
It’s possible that she has won.
Es posible que ella haya ganado.
Perfecto de indicativo:
 The main clause expresses certainty that the action in the subordinate clause has taken
place.
 Perfecto de indicativo used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action in the
subordinate clause has taken place in relation to the present.
I am sure that they have arrived.
Estoy seguro que ellos han llegado.
It’s obvious that we have worked hard.
Es obvio que hemos trabajado duro.
The past-perfect verb tense is used if:
 The action in the main clause took place in the past.
 The action in the subordinate clause took place before the action in the main clause.
Pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo:
 The main clause expresses an emotion, desire, denial, or doubt.
 Pluscuamperfecto de subjuntivo used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action
in the subordinate clause may or may not have taken place before the action in the
main clause.
They doubted that we had eaten.
Dudaban que hubiéramos comido.
The boss did not believe that we could have finished the project on time.
El jefe no creía que hubiéramos podido terminar el proyecto a tiempo.
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Pluscuamperfecto de indicativo:
 The main clause expresses certainty that the action in the subordinate clause has taken
place.
 Pluscuamperfecto de indicativo used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action
in the subordinate clause has taken place.
We knew that you had worked there.
Sabíamos que usted había trabajado allí.
Pretérito anterior:
 Pretérito anterior used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action in the
subordinate clause has been completed immediately before the action in the main
clause took place.
 The pretérito anterior is not commonly used in modern Spanish. It has been substituted
by the pluscuamperfecto de indicativo.
As soon as he had found his road, he drove away.
En cuanto hubo encontrado su camino, él se fue manejando.
The past verb tense is used if:
 The action in the main clause took place in the past.
 The action in the subordinate clause took place in the past.
Imperfecto de subjuntivo:
 The main clause expresses an emotion, desire, denial, or doubt.
 Imperfecto de subjuntivo used in the subordinate clause expresses that the action in the
subordinate clause may or may not have taken place.
She doubted that the others knew the answers.
Ella dudaba que los otros supieran las repuestas.
What a shame that you had no patience with the dog.
Que lastima que tú no tuvieras paciencia con el perro.
Pretérito o Imperfecto de indicativo:
 The main clause expresses certainty that the action in the subordinate clause has taken
place.
 The past-indicative verb tense (pretérito or imperfecto de indicativo) used in the
subordinate clause expresses that the action in the subordinate clause has taken place.
You always insisted that David gave you money.
Tú siempre insististe en que David te daba dinero.
I am sure that they locked the door with the key.
Estoy seguro que ellos cerraron la puerta con llave.
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PRACTICE WITH NOUN CLAUSES IN THE PRESENT AND PAST TENSES
1.
I wanted you to go with me.
Quería que fuera conmigo.
2.
I doubt that they have arrived.
Dudo que ellos hayan llegado.
3.
There is no doubt that they have arrived.
No es dudoso que ellos han llegado.
4.
I hoped I had won.
Esperaba haber ganado.
5.
They doubted that we had eaten.
Dudaban que hubiéramos comido.
6.
It would frustrate me to not have enough time.
Me frustraría no tener bastante tiempo.
7.
She was happy that you had called. (informal)
Se alegraba que hubieras llamado.
8.
I am happy that the weather is nice today.
Me alegro que haga buen tiempo hoy.
9.
We hope that you have slept. (informal)
Esperamos que hayas dormido.
10.
Is it true that she is going to marry that lowlife?
¿Es verdad que ella va a casarse con ese tipo?
11.
It would bother me that the opposition won.
Me molestaría que ganara la oposición.
12.
It bothered the professor that the students did not study.
Al profesor le molestaba que los estudiantes no estudiaran.
13.
I am happy to be here.
Estoy encantado de estar aquí.
14.
He wants us to follow him.
Él quiere que lo sigamos.
15.
I am not sure that you have seen the movie. (informal)
No estoy seguro de que hayas visto la película.
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16.
I believe that you have told me the truth. (informal)
Creo que me has dicho la verdad.
17.
I didn’t think that he would have had so many problems finding the parts.
No creía que él hubiera tenido tantos problemas para encontrar los repuestos.
18.
She doubts that the others know the answers.
Ella duda que los otros sepan las repuestas.
19.
I hoped that you washed the clothes.
Esperaba que lavara la ropa.
20.
They worried that the package had not arrived.
Se preocupaban que el paquete no hubiera llegado.
21.
They don’t believe that he has finished.
No creen que él haya terminado.
22.
I wish to God I could go with you.
Ojalá pudiera ir con ustedes.
23.
Peter wanted me to call him at his house.
Pedro quería que yo le llamara a su casa.
24.
I become sad each time you go. (informal)
Me pongo triste cada vez te vas.
25.
It makes me sad when you go. (informal)
Me pone triste que te vayas.
26.
There is no doubt that the girl is pretty.
No hay duda que la chica es bonita.
27.
I hope the plumber has finished.
Ojalá que haya terminado el plumero.
28.
I hoped the plumber had finished.
Ojalá que hubiera terminado el plumero.
29.
I was against advertising tobacco.
Estaba en contra de que se hiciera publicidad del tabaco.
30.
We are in favor of investigating the effects of the alternative medicines.
Estamos a favor de que se averigüen los efectos de los medicamentos alternativos.
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CONDITIONAL OR FUTURE VERB TENSE IN NOUN-CLAUSE SENTENCES
LA POTENCIAL SIMPLE O FUTURO SIMPLE EN PROPOSICIONES NOMINALES
Conditional verb tense used in the main clause of a noun-clause sentence.
 The main clause expresses an emotion, desire, or feeling in the conditional verb tense.
 There are two agents of action in the sentence.
o The agent that controls the action in the main clause is not the agent that
controls the action in the subordinate clause.
 The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main clause.
 The past-subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause.
I would prefer that it was in your language.
Preferiría que fuera en su idioma.
It would be bad that Peter broke his word.
Malo sería que Pedro faltara a su palabra.
Future verb tense used in the main clause of a noun-clause sentence:
 The main clause expresses an emotion, desire, or feeling in the future verb tense.
 There are two agents of action in the sentence.
o The agent that controls the action in the main clause is not the agent that
controls the action in the subordinate clause.
 The subordinate conjunction que connects the subordinate clause to the main clause.
 The present-subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause.
I will hope that it is good weather tomorrow.
Me esperará que haga buen tiempo mañana.
It will be bad that we are not able to reach an agreement.
Malo será que no lleguemos a un acuerdo.
The infinitive verb form is used in the subordinate clause if:
 There is one agent of action: the agent that controls the action in the main clause is the
same agent that controls the action in the subordinate clause.
o The subordinate conjunction que is dropped, so there is no longer a subordinate
clause and the sentence is no longer a noun-clause sentence.
I would like to be the president.
Me gustaría ser el presidente.
I would love to go to Florida.
Me encantaría ir a la Florida.
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PRACTICE WITH THE CONDITIONAL OR FUTURE TENSE IN NOUN CLAUSES
1.
It will be better that you do not return here.
Lo mejor será que aquí no vuelvas.
2.
We told them that we would prefer that they gave a short speech.
Les dijimos que preferíamos que dijeran un discurso corto.
3.
It will hurt her to know that you lie to me.
A ella, le dolerá saber que me mientas.
4.
I would wish that someone like that existed.
Desearía que existiera alguien así.
5.
It would frustrate me that things did not go like I wanted.
Me frustraría que las cosas no salieran como quisiera.
6.
I will not be afraid to fail.
No tendré miedo de fallar.
7.
It would bother me that the opposition won.
Me molestaría que ganara la oposición.
8.
It will be important that we are together.
Importante será que estemos juntos.
9.
It would frustrate me to not have enough time.
Me frustraría no tener tiempo suficiente.
10. I would hope that they had tried the vegetables before complaining.
Esperaría que hubieran probado las legumbres antes de quejarse.
11. How good it would be that young people were not in a hurry to be adults.
Qué agradable sería que los jóvenes no tuvieran prisa en ser adultos.
12. I will pray que they arrive safely.
Rezaré que lleguen de manera segura.
13. I would wish that they had arrived before the party was over.
Desearía que hubieran llegado antes de la fiesta se acabara.
14. They told me that they would be delighted to be there.
Me dijeron que les encantarían estar allí.
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ADVICE WITH NOUN-CLAUSE SENTENCES
CONSEJO CON PROPOSICIONES NOMINALES
A noun-clause sentence giving advice consists of three components:
1. A main clause giving advice
2. The subordinate conjunction que connecting a subordinate clause to the main
clause
3. A subordinate clause which will be the direct-object noun of the main clause
Words which are commonly used to express advice:
advertir (to warn)
aconsejar (to advise)
decir
(to tell)
motivar (to motivate)
pedir
proponer
recomendar
sugerir
(to ask)
(to propose)
(to recommend)
(to suggest)
The subjunctive verb tense in the subordinante clause:
 The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause to indicate an anticipated
action which may or may not take place.
I suggest that you forget it.
Te aconsejo que lo olvides.
He recommends that I wait.
Me recomienda que espere.
They proposed that I closed the store.
Ellos propusieron que cerrara la tienda.
Martha said that you should have gone to the store.
Marta dijo que fueras a la tienda.
The indicative verb tense in the subordinate clause:
 The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause to emphasize the certainty of
a specified fact which is known by the speaker to be true.
 The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause when repeating something
which was said.
We say that they are innocent.
Decimos que son inocentes.
I am warning you that I don’t have the answer.
Te advierto que no tengo la repuesta.
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Mary says that they know the store.
María dice que ellos conocen la tienda.
You suggested to them that they were taking too long.
Usted les sugiere que iban tardando mucho.
The infinitive in the subordínate clause:
 The infinitive may be used in the subordinate clause to make a statement.
 The subordinate conjunction que is dropped, so there is no longer a subordinate clause
and the sentence is no longer a noun-clause sentence.
The doctor advised him to rest.
El médico le aconsejó descansar.
Mary told you to go to the store.
María te dijo ir a la tienda.
She recommended that we sweep the floor.
Nos recomendó barrer el suelo.
They asked me to give an explanation.
Se me preguntó una explanación.
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PRACTICE WITH ADVICE IN NOUN CLAUSES
1.
No one proposes that you stay here. (informal)
Nadia te propone que te quedes aquí.
2.
Mary suggests that you go to the store.
María sugiere que vayas a la tienda.
3.
Eloisa said that she went to the store.
Eloisa dijo que fue a la tienda.
4.
He told us that we should go to Don Mario’s wake.
Nos dijo que vayamos al velorio de Don Mario.
5.
He told us to go Don Mario’s wake.
Nos dijo ir al velorio de Don Mario.
6.
I recommend that you buy the car. (informal)
Te recomiendo que compres el carro.
7.
My parents recommend that I not go to the fiesta.
Mis padres me recomiendan que no vaya a la fiesta.
8.
They said that they would make sacrifices.
Dijeron que hicieran sacrificios.
9.
Oscar told you to go to the store.
Oscár te dijo ir a la tienda.
10.
I warned him that he should be careful.
Le advertí que tuviera cuidado.
11.
I’m warning you!
¡Te lo advierto!
12.
The professor told George that he should speak Spanish in the classroom.
El profesor le dijo a Jorge que hablara español en el aula.
13.
The professor suggested that the students should turn off their cell phones.
El profesor sugirió que los estudiantes apagaran los móviles.
14.
The professor suggests that you do the homework. (informal)
El profesor sugiere que hagas la tarea.
15.
We proposed to him that we would have a meeting.
Le propusimos que hiciéramos una reunión.
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16.
The professor asked us to do the homework.
El profesor nos pidió a hacer la tarea.
17.
Why not ask them to call you in the afternoon?
¿Por qué no les pides que te llamen por la tarde?
18.
The professor warned that he would grade the reports.
El profesor nos advirtió que calificara los informes.
19.
This past month you were motivated to go to the gym. (informal)
El mes pasado te motivaste a ir al gimnasio.
20.
This past month you motivated us to go to the gym. (informal)
El mes pasado tú nos motivaste a ir al gimnasio.
21.
She says that you should call when you get there.
Dice que llames cuando llegues.
22.
She recommended that I sweep the floor.
Me recomendó barrer el suelo.
23.
I said that I sent her some flowers.
Dije que le mandé unas flores.
24.
I said that I would send her some flowers.
Dije que mandara unas flores.
25.
He asks that we do it.
Él pide que lo hagamos.
26.
She says that she is innocent.
Ella dice que es inocente.
27.
I suggest that you go with the others.
Te sugiero que vayas con los otros.
28.
You warned them that the job was difficult.
Tú les advertiste que el trabajo es difícil.
29.
They asked me to bring them more money.
Me pidieron que yo les trajera más dinero.
30.
I advised Maria that she should visit her doctor as soon as possible.
Le aconseje a María que visite a su médico tan pronto como.
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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
UNIT 19
Unit Nineteen Table of Contents.................................................................. 332
Adjective Clauses.......................................................................................... 333
Practice with Adjective Clauses.................................................................... 335
Relative Pronouns Connecting Adjective Clauses......................................... 337
Practice with Relative Pronouns Connecting Adjective Clauses................... 339
Practice with Según, Independientemente, and Depender de/en................. 341
Unspecified Relatives................................................................................... 342
Practice with Unspecified Relatives............................................................. 344
The Sagrada Familia Basílica in Barcelona Spain was designed by
acclaimed Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí (1852-1926).
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ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
Adjective-clause sentences consist of:
1. A main clause
2. The relative pronoun que (that) immediately following a noun and introducing a
subordinate-adjective clause
3. A subordinate-adjective clause which adds information about the person, place, or thing
(noun)
The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if either of these conditions is
met:
1. An unknown or unspecified direct object
We are looking for someone that knows the city.
Estamos buscando a alguien que conozca la ciudad.
2. A nonexistent negative expression
No hay nadie que . . .
(there is nobody that . . . )
No hay nada que . . .
(there is nothing that . . . )
No existe la cosa que . . . (the thing doesn’t exist . . . )
I haven’t seen anybody who can do it.
No he visto a nadie que pueda hacerlo.
There is nothing that could make me change my opinion.
No hay nada que pudiera hacerme cambiar de opinión.
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if either of these conditions is met:
 A known or specified direct object
She is looking for her friend that is lost.
Ella está buscando a su amigo que está perdido.

The definite article “the” is used to specify the direct object.
I am looking for the person that has my wallet.
Estoy buscando a la persona que tiene mi billetera.
Variations of the adjective clause using relative pronouns other than que:
 A relative pronoun other than que may introduce the subordinate-adjective clause.
 The subordinate-adjective clause adds information about the person, place, or thing.
 Relative pronouns connecting the subordinate-adjective clause function as descriptive
adjectives and immediately follow the noun.
 The relative pronoun matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
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The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if the adjective clause describes
an unknown or unspecified person, place, or thing.
I want to work in a place where the coworkers are friends.
Quiero trabajar en un lugar donde los compañeros de trabajo sean
amigos.
I need to know a friend in whom I can have confidence.
Necesito conocer un amigo con quien pueda confiar.
Would you like to live in a place where there were fewer people?
¿Te esperarías vivir en un lugar donde hubiera menos gente?
The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if the adjective clause describes a
known person, place, or thing.
I work in a place where the coworkers are friends.
Trabajo en un lugar donde los compañeros de trabajo son amigos.
My pants, the ones that are old, are very comfortable.
Mis pantalones los que son viejos son cómodos.
The hotel [from which] we are leaving is old.
El hotel del que salimos es viejo.
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PRACTICE WITH ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
1.
They wanted to find someone that had more information.
Querían encontrar a alguien que tuviera más información. (unknown person)
2.
We have a boss that comes to the office every day.
Tenemos un jefe que viene a la oficina cada día. (known person)
3.
We are looking for someone that knows the city.
Estamos buscando a alguien que conozca la ciudad. (unknown person)
4.
There is nothing there that is worth it.
Allí no hay nada que valga la pena. (nonexistent negative expression)
5.
I haven’t seen anybody who can do it.
No he visto a nadie que pueda hacerlo. (unknown person)
6.
You should see the doctor that knows what to do. (informal)
Debes ver el médico que sabe lo que hace. (specified person)
7.
You should have had a doctor who had more experience.
Debías tener un medico que tuviera más experiencia. (unspecified person)
8.
There were a lot of people who go to the park in order to see the race.
Había mucha gente que iba al parque para ver la carrera. (specified group of people)
9.
Do you know a doctor that is good and works Saturdays?
¿Conoces a algún doctor que sea bueno y trabaje los sábados? (unspecified person)
10.
We found the driver that knew the streets well.
Encontramos al chófer que conocía las calles bien. (specified person)
11.
Was there someone there that was not busy right then?
¿Había alguien allí que no estuviera ocupado en ese momento? (unknown person)
12.
There is nothing here I like.
No hay nada aquí que me guste. (nonexistent negative expression)
13.
There was no one who could answer that question.
No había nadie que pudiera contestar esa pregunta. (unknown person)
14.
The investigator did not find anything that explained the cause of the fire.
El inspector no encontró nada que explicara la causa del incendio. (unknown object)
15.
Luisa had a friend that loved training dogs.
Luisa tenía una amiga que le encantaba entrenar los perros. (specified person)
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16.
We spoke with some little old women that knew how to make lace handkerchiefs.
Hablábamos con unas viejecitas que sabían hacer pañuelos de encaje. (specified person)
17.
We are looking for a hotel that was cheap.
Buscamos un hotel que sea barato. (unspecified hotel)
18.
I know the person who can help us.
Conozco a la persona que puede ayudarnos. (known person)
19.
There is no one like her.
No hay nadie que sea como ella. (nonexistent negative expression)
20.
The prosecutor wanted to speak with the witness that had seen the attack.
El fiscal quería hablar con el testigo quien había visto el ataque. (specified person)
21.
A house that they like doesn’t exist.
No existe una casa que les guste. (unspecified house)
22.
I am listening to the music that my boyfriend recorded for me.
Estoy escuchando la música que me grabó mi novio. (specified music)
23.
I would like to live in a country where there are not so many laws.
Me gustaría vivir en un país donde no haya tantas leyes. (unknown location)
24.
The ones that returned from Honduras speak Spanish well.
Los que regresaron de Honduras hablan bien el español. (specified group of people)
25.
It’s imperative that I find someone who knows biology.
Es imperativo que encuentre alguien quien sepa biología. (unspecified person)
26.
The restaurant where we ate was fantastic.
El restaurante donde comimos era fantástico. (specified restaurant)
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RELATIVE PRONOUNS CONNECTING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
PRONOMBRES RELATIVOS CONECTANDO CLÁUSULAS ADJETIVAS
Relative pronouns may connect subordinate-adjective clauses:
 A relative pronoun connects a subordinate-adjective clause to the main clause of the
sentence.
 The subordinate-adjective clause adds information about the person, place, or thing.
 Relative pronouns connecting subordinate-adjective clauses function as descriptive
adjectives and will immediately follow the noun.
 The relative pronoun matches the gender and number of the noun it relates to.
The subjunctive verb tense in the subordinate-adjective clause:
 The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate-adjective clause if it describes an
unknown or unspecified person, place, or thing.
These suggestions are for those who could lose their benefits.
Esas sugerencias son para quienes pudieran perder sus beneficios.
I want to live in a place where the government is not corrupt.
Quiero vivir en un lugar donde el gobernó no sea corrupto.
This demonstration is for the ones who may have doubts about buying it.
Esta demonstración es para los que tengan dudas en comprárselo.
The indicative verb tense is in the subordinate-adjective clause:
 The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate-adjective clause if it describes a
known or specified person, place, or thing.
The boys whom you (pl.) met last night are my friends.
Los chicos a quienes conocieron anoche son mis amigos.
I bought a car that is elegant.
Compré un carro el que es elegante.
Freedom is worth more than you imagine.
Libertad vale más de lo que te imaginas.
Según, independientemente, and depender de/en used with relative pronouns:
 Según translates to “according to.”
 Independientemente de translates to “regardless of.”
 Depender de/en translates to “depending on” or “depending in.”
 These prepositions plus a relative pronoun form a subordinate conjunction which
connects a subordinate adverbial clause to the main clause of the sentence.
 The relative pronoun que can only be used after single-syllable prepositions.
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An example of a preposition plus a relative pronoun connecting a subordinate adverbial
clause to the main clause of the sentence:
We modified our plans [according to how things went].
Modificábamos nuestros planes [según cómo iban las cosas].
Subordinate conjunction: preposition + relative pronoun: según cómo.
Subordinate adverbial clause which helps explain the action of the verb in the
main clause in more detail: según cómo iban las cosas.
The indicative verb tense is used because there is no doubt that the action took
place.
The subjunctive verb tense in the subordinate clause:
 The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if there is doubt that the
action in the subordinate clause will take place:
o If the action in the main clause is either anticipated or hypothetical, there is
doubt that the action in the subordinate clause will take place.
The negotiations should not depend on a solution of the design problem.
Las negociaciones no deben depender de que se solucione el problema del
designo.
Consumers will choose regardless of what the producers do.
Los consumidores elegirán independientemente de lo que hagan los productores.
You should save more regardless of how much you earn.
Debes ahorrar más independientemente de cuanto ganes.
You can move and scale the photo according to how it suits you.
Puede mover y escalar la foto según convenga.
The indicative verb tense in the subordinate clause:
 The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate clause if there is no doubt that the
action in the subordinate clause will take place.
o The sentence is a statement of a fact.
o The action in the main clause is a completed action.
You should have saved more regardless of how much you earned.
Debes habido ahorrado más independientemente de cuanto ganaste.
It’s a guarantee of service to the public, irrespective of where they live.
Es una garantiza de servicio al público, independientemente de dónde
vivan.
You seem to rewrite history according to how it suits you.
Parece que usted reescribe la historia según le conviene.
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PRACTICE WITH RELATIVE PRONOUNS CONNECTING ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
1.
I will vote for the one who gives a good speech.
Votaré por el que diga un buen discurso. (unknown person)
2.
I will vote for the one who gave a good speech.
Voté por el que dijo un buen discurso. (known person)
3.
I will go to the meeting with the ones that I will feel comfortable with.
Iré a la reunión con los que me sienta a gusto. (unknown group)
4.
You should buy a house that has three bedrooms.
Deberías comprar una casa que tenga tres dormitorios. (unspecified house)
5.
You should buy the house that has three bedrooms.
Deberías comprar la casa que tiene tres dormitorios. (specified house)
6.
I work in a place where the students are like friends.
Trabajo en un lugar en el que los estudiantes son como amigos. (known place)
7.
We don’t remember any park that allows overnight stays.
No recordamos ningún parque en el que se permita pasar la noche. (unspecified park)
8.
You always do whatever you want.
Siempre haces lo que quieres. (specified action)
9.
Do whatever you want.
Haz lo que quieras. (unknown action)
10.
The dog will bark a lot during the night, which may make the neighbors mad.
El perro ladrará mucho por lo noche, lo cual se enojen los vecinos.(unknown result)
11.
Tell me what you want to tell me.
Dime lo que quieras decirme. (unknown conversation)
12.
My mother came to visit us which surprised me.
Mi madre vino a visitarnos lo cual me sorprendió. (known result)
13.
I can't describe what I saw in the street this morning.
No puedo describir lo que vi en la calle esta mañana. (known event)
14.
The crowing of the rooster woke up the drunk, which made him mad.
El canto de gallo despertó al borracho, lo cual se enojó. (known reaction)
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15.
The noisy party will last all night, which may bother his neighbors.
La fiesta ruidosa durará toda la noche, lo cual les moleste a sus vecinos. (unknown
reaction)
16.
A year ago he received a wound which now gives him a lot of pain.
Hace un año recibió una herida la cual ahora le da mucho dolor. (known result)
17.
My book is for the ones who do not understand what is happening here.
Mi libro es para los que no comprenden lo que está pasando aquí. (specified group)
18.
She needs a person with whom she can speak English.
Ella necesita una persona con la que pueda hablar inglés. (unknown person)
19.
She is looking for a book that is interesting.
Ella está buscando un libro que sea interesante. (unspecified book)
20.
Tell me what he told you
Dime lo que él te decía. (known action)
21.
We know what you did was bad.
Sabemos lo que hiciste era malo. (known action)
22.
Tell me with whom you walk and I will tell you who you are. (Spanish colloquial
expression)
Dime con quien andas y te diré quien eres. (known person)
23.
I know the person with whom you are speaking.
Yo sé la persona con quien estás hablando. (known person)
24.
I’ve heard the view from where we are going is spectacular.
He escuchado la vista de donde vamos es espectacular. (specified location)
25.
I will do everything that is in my power.
Haré todo lo que esté en mi mano. (unspecified ability)
26.
He hated everyone that was different from him.
Él odiaba a todos los que eran diferentes a él. (specified group)
27.
What happens with the ones who don’t qualify?
¿Qué pasa con los que no califican? (specified group)
28.
The used clothes are for the ones that don’t have support from the government.
La ropa reunida (ropa usada y acumulada) es para los que no tienen apoyo del
gobierno. (specified group)
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PRACTICE WITH SEGÚN, INDEPENDIENTEMENTE AND DEPENDER DE/EN CONNECTING
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES
1.
Everything depended on where you lived.
Todo dependía de donde vivías. (dependia + completed action)
2.
It depends on where you’re going to go.
Depende de donde vayas. (depende + anticipated action)
3.
We will modify our plans according to how much the hurricane grows.
Modificaremos nuestros planes según como crezca el huracán. (según + anticipated
action)
4.
We modified our plans according to how thing went.
Modificábamos nuestros planes según cómo iban las cosas. (según + completed action)
5.
We decided that we would modify our plans according to how things went.
Decidimos que modificaríamos nuestros planes según como fueran las cosas.
(según + hypothetical action)
6.
They recuperated in a month or two, depending on how much they smoked.
Les repusieron en un mes o más, según cuanto fumaron. (según + completed action)
7.
The doctor said that you would recuperate in a month or two depending on how much
you smoked.
El médico dijo que te repondrías en un mes o más según cuanto fumaras. (según +
hypothetical action)
8.
He wanted to find a good neighborhood because everything depended on where they
lived.
Quería encontrar un buen barrio porque todo dependía en donde vivieran. (dependia +
hypothetical action)
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UNSPECIFIED RELATIVES
RELATIVOS INESPECÍFICOS
Unspecified relatives used to connect subordinate-adjective clauses consist of three
components:
1. A main clause
2. An unspecified relative and the subordinate conjunction que
3. A subordinate-adjective clause which adds information about the undefined person,
place, or thing
Unspecified relatives:
 Unspecified relatives are compound words composed of a relative and –quiera, the
present subjunctive form of querer (to want).
 The verb form of –quiera cannot change forms, so the plural -es is placed in the middle
of the word
o Cualquiera → cualesquiera: the plural -es is placed in the middle of the word.
o Quienquiera → quienesquiera: the plural -es is placed in the middle of the word.
 All unspecified relatives follow the same rules to determine whether to use the
subjunctive or indicative verb tense in the subordinate clause.
Unspecified Relatives
adondequiera (to wherever)
dondequiera (wherever)
cuandoquiera (whenever)
comoquiera
(however)
quienquiera
(whoever)
quienesquiera (whoever plural)
cualquiera
(whichever/whatever singular)
cualesquiera (whichever/whatever plural)
The subjunctive verb tense in the subordinate clause:
 The subjunctive verb tense is used in the subordinate-adjective clause if it describes an
unknown or unspecified person, place, or thing.
The leaders will have the opportunity to make changes whenever and wherever
they are necessary.
Los líderes tendrán la oportunidad de hacer cambios cuandoquiera y dondequiera
que sean necesarios.
I was sure that my wife would come with me wherever I went.
Estaba seguro que mi esposa vendría conmigo adondequiera que yo
fuera.
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The indicative verb tense in the subordinate clause:
 The indicative verb tense is used in the subordinate-adjective clause if it describes a
known or specified person, place, or thing
However she dressed, she always looked good.
Comoquiera que ella se vestía, lucia bien.
They preached wherever they went.
Ellos predicaban dondequiera que iban.
Unspecified relatives may also be indefinite pronouns:
 Words which may be used as unspecified relatives may also be used as indefinite
pronouns.
Wherever I went I found very good food.
Dondequiera yo iba, encontraba muy buena comida.
Whenever they saw us, they would greet us.
Cuandoquiera nos veían, no saludaban.
Anybody can do it.
Cualquiera puede hacerlo.
Cualquiera as an indefinite adjectives:
 Cualquiera is commonly used as an indefinite adjective.
Anyone can make an error.
Cualquiera persona puede cometer un error.
Earthquakes can happen at any moment.
Los terremotos pueden ocurrir en cualquier momento.
Relative adverbs with the verb querer:
 The base words for unspecified relatives are commonly used as adverbs with the verb
querer.
Make a click on the paragraph where you want to have a capital letter.
Haga clic sobre el párrafo donde quiera tener una letra mayúscula.
When I graduated, I could use the gym when I wanted.
Cuando me gradué, podía usar el gimnasio cuando quería.
We will meet where you like. (informal)
Nos juntemos donde quieras.
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PRACTICE WITH UNSPECIFIED RELATIVES
1.
Whenever you go you will find oppressed peasants.
Adondequiera que vayas encontrarás campesinos oprimidos. (unknown location)
2.
Wherever we went, we found oppressed peasants.
Adondequiera que íbamos, encontrábamos campesinos oprimidos. (known location)
3.
We will help wherever we can.
Ayudaremos dondequiera que podamos. (unknown location)
4.
We helped wherever we could.
Ayudábamos dondequiera que podíamos. (known location)
5.
They will fight intolerance wherever it’s found.
Combatirán la intolerancia dondequiera que se encuentre. (unknown location)
6.
They fought intolerance wherever it was found.
Combatieron la intolerancia dondequiera que se encontraba. (known location)
7.
Terrorism is unacceptable whatever its form.
El terrorismo es inaceptable cualquiera que sea su forma. (unknown form)
8.
She will not give it to him, whoever he may be.
Ella no se lo dará, quienquiera que sea. (unknown person)
9.
I stayed wherever I felt a warm welcome, or I left quickly.
Me quedé dondequiera que sentía una calurosa acogida, o salί de prisa. (known
location)
10.
Whoever comes to the school will be well received.
Quienquiera que venga a la escuela será bien recibido. (unknown person)
11.
I will accept whichever job that they offer me.
Yo aceptaré cualquier trabajo que me ofrezcan. (unknown type of work)
12.
I will interpret the dances however that my teacher wants me to dance them.
Interpretaré las danzas comoquiera que mi maestra quiera que yo las baile. (unknown
method)
13.
Whatever his motives are, his behavior is not acceptable.
Cualesquiera que sean sus motivos, su comportamiento no es aceptable. (unknown
motives)
14.
Whoever did this is going to pay.
Quienquiera que hiciera esto va a pagar. (unknown person)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide
Adjective Clauses 345
15.
Whenever my son needs my help, I will help him.
Cuandoquiera que mi hijo necesite mi ayuda, le ayudaré. (unknown time)
16.
Whenever my daughter needed my help, I helped her.
Cuandoquiera que mi hija necesitaba mi ayuda, le ayudé. (known time)
17.
They have the right to express their preferences, whatever they are.
Ellos tienen derecho a expresar sus preferencias, cualesquiera que sean. (unknown
preferences)
18.
Wherever Nicolas goes, his dog follows him.
Adondequiera que vaya Nicolás, su perro lo sigue. (unknown location)
19.
Whoever buys the house will be content there.
Quienquiera que compre la casa estará contenta allí. (unknown buyer)
20.
The United States will work with whoever becomes the next President.
Los Estados Unidos trabajarán con quienquiera que llegue al mandatorio. (unknown
person)
21.
Whoever those men were, they were waiting for the train.
Quienesquiera que fueran esos hombres, estaban esperando por el tren. (unknown
persons)
Yetter’s Better Spanish Guide