Chapter XII: Spain

CHAPTER XII
Spain
VICTOR GARCIA HOZ
EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH in Spain prior to 1956 was summarized in
Reυìsta Española de Pedagogía (1958). This chapter concentrates on research published since that review. An exhaustive listing of educational
publications in Spain was offered each December by the journal Bordón
(1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960). Bibliographies were published on specific subjects, such as scholastic and professional orientation (Alcaraz Lledo,
1 9 5 9 ) ; bibliographical selection and orientation (Tutor, 1960a) ; educational psychology (Garcia Yague, 1958); and family education (Tutor,
1960b).
Philosophical and Historical Literature
The increasing complexity of educational problems, combined with the
application of new educational-research techniques to only parts of these
problems, has produced fragmented work which is difficult to systematize.
As a result, an increasing amount of attention has been devoted to finding
a systematic approach to educational problems. Garcia Hoz (1960) developed the principles of such a systematic approach, which takes the characteristics of the human being as its starting point. The principles resulted
from some years of reflection and from interchanges of points of view
among those working at the Instituto de Pedagogía del Consejo Superior
de Investigaciones Científicas (Institute of Pedagogy of the Superior Council of Scientific Investigation).
Redondo (1959) wrote a rigorous philosophical investigation of education viewing communication as the central phenomenon in the educational
process. It included a historical study of the evolution of Western thought
from the Hellenic mind through existentialism. The author considered
both cognitive and affective aspects of communication and included not
only communication with others, but also communication with one's self
(which in the American literature would be referred to as development of
the self-concept). Redondo suggested four means by which self-knowledge
is gained: reflection (introspection), the experiencing of one's activities,
examination of one's behavior and works, and the perceptions others hold
of one.
Redondo examined communications with others by starting with the
mediating role of three categories of symbols: (a) words, (b) gestures in
sign language, and (c) acts and works. He noted some of the conditions
necessary to communication, concentrating particularly on the intention
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of the initiator of the message to communicate and the intention of the
receiver to understand.
Historical investigations centering around the Colegios Mayores, which
gave life to the Spanish universities, are gaining new vigor today (Ajo G.
Sainz de Zuñiga, 1958; Simon Diaz, 1959; Febrero, 1960). The first volume of a fundamental history of education by Galino Carrillo (I960)
was published. The volume, which was limited to the ancient and middle
ages, included several representative cultures and began with the history
of each of the cultures (largely old Eastern ones). The author described
the development of education, more through religion, politics, and folklore
than through schools. This opens a wide area to investigation, since the
school, particularly as a pervasive influence, is a relatively late comer on
the educational scene. The author argued that education, perceived as
assimilation of the standards and styles of life of the adults of the culture
by the younger generation, appears in all societies regardless of how
primitive they are.
Educational Psychology
The relation of psychology to methods of teaching appeared to be an
attractive field to the studious. Palmes (1958) contributed to knowledge
of how an understanding of the pupil is fundamental to a determination
of his educational treatment. Sanchez Jimenez (1961) emphasized techniques of diagnosis and control in contributing to the same topic. Ercilla
(1958) studied the adaptation of standardized tests from other countries
to the Spanish environment. Garmendia de Otaola (1959) studied the use
of the Szondi Test in the diagnosis of complex personality problems. Pinillos (1960) studied the reliability and validity of the C.E.P. Personality
Questionnaire. Garcia Hoz (1961) and Garcia Manzano and others (1959)
described the validation and standardization of tests designed for guidance purposes.
Rodriguez (1959) published an important study of the aesthetic value
of infants' plastic creations. Through studying children's art in several
countries, the author developed an understanding of these works as an
expression of the infant's mind and drew implications for infants' education.
Diaz Arnal (1959) also studied art, but concentrated on the possibilities
of drawing for diagnosis and treatment of the mentally handicapped. The
author contrasted drawings of the mentally handicapped with drawings
of children of normal intelligence, noting the extent to which normals were
better able to express dynamic ideas with much greater reality and lively
expression, despite limitations in artistic skill. The mentally handicapped
students' drawings were duller than those of normals. They included
reminiscences of experience, but were less lively intellectually. The drawings also showed the desolation that prevails in the psyche of many normal
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children living in orphanages, where they are deprived of the affective
tone which gives warmth and life.
Educational Sociology
Although few published works were concerned with the study of social
factors relating to education, those which did appear were largely of an
introductory nature (Garcia Hoz, 1959; Fraga, 1959). Bousquet (1960)
studied some of the political and economic factors of education. Montoya
(1961) examined the educational possibilities of Moreno's sociogram, for
which the data were gathered by interviews rather than questionnaires.
Garcia Hoz (1959) described the development of paidocenosis, a new
concept to facilitate the study of the different influences on education.
Paidocenosis, derived from the Greek words meaning "to teach" and
"common," refers to the whole series of educational stimulations that
attempt to develop a particular way of living and reacting in the pupil.
Some experiences disappear with the passing of time, leaving little trace
behind. Others continue to work in exceptionally deep ways—a conversation, a perusal, a word of courage, or a scolding which we know "we will
remember forever." Paidocenosis considers experiences lying between
these extremes which, joined with other stimulations, form a series or a
constellation to make up the educational process. Thus, each family or
group of playmates can be considered, from the educational point of view,
as a series of stimulations leading to the development of particular behaviors different from other families or other groups of playmates. The
influence of paidocenosis does not appear as specific learnings or particular features of the personality; its influence, which is deeper and more
difficult to delineate, affects the whole personality. In a sense, every paidocenosis is a social environment or community permanently influencing
those involved in it. The family, the school, the profession, and the nation
can be considered as paidocenosis (Garcia Hoz, 1960).
Methods of Teaching
Work in the area of teaching methods centered on the teaching of language and mathematics. Studies of vocabulary in the teaching of reading,
which have a certain tradition in Spain, have been carried to the point
of describing the specific vocabulary used at different stages of life (Serrano Vaquero, 1957). Perez Vazquez (1958) studied the relationship
between the commonly used vocabulary and a specific one; in this instance,
that of history. Palau (1960) contributed one of the series of studies initiated by the emphasis on the eradication of illiteracy in Spain.
An investigation was begun of the use of the child's intuitive notions to
initiate mathematics teaching until the formation of what might be more
properly considered mathematical thought. The leader of this work in
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Spain, Puig Adam (1960), unfortunately disappeared, but his work was
edited last year. Teaching calculation has been studied very carefully by
Junquera Mune (1961) in a voluminous work.
Guidance
In Spain the concept of guidance is increasing in both importance and
scope. It is perceived as a means through which students should come to
know themselves so that they may be better adjusted to society and can contribute to the social life. Two bibliographies in the field of guidance, those
of Alcaraz Lledo (1959) and Tutor (1960b), have already been mentioned.
Mallart (1959) continued the study of certain problems in which psychotechniques, professional orientation, professional study, and certain work
opportunities are reciprocally interrelated. A series of interesting investigations from the point of view of Roman Catholic guidance were gathered
together by Valencia (1958).
School Administration
Investigations of the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Institute of Statistics) continued to be the best source of facts and statistics on
Spanish education. The Institute published studies of the general statistics
of education in Spain (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1958) and specialized
studies of primary education (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1959a) and
higher education (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1959b). The higher-education
study showed the absolute and relative increase in both teaching staff and
pupils, noting especially the increasing role of women. Male students increased two-thirds since 1940 (from 31,000 to 52,000), while female students increased almost three times (from 4000 to 12,000). Male teachers
increased one and a half times (from 1800 to 4400), while female teachers
increased six times (from 66 to 3 9 4 ) . Garcia y Garcia (1958) studied
the secondary-school inspection which has recently been organized in Spain.
Family Education
There have been several investigations in this area, probably due to the
influence of international organizations for the protection of children,
which have highlighted the influence of the family in education and the
damage to the child's development that results in deficiencies in family
life. Bibliographies by Garcia Yague (1958) and Tutor (1960a) gave
evidence of this concentration of effort. Sanchez Vizcaino (1961) studied
the problem of family maladjustments and noted the influence of conjugal
harmony on family life. One of the most important works in this area was
by Tusquets (1958), who dealt with the question of family influence on
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1962
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education under four headings (historical, ethical, psychological, and
methodological) and treated each with the careful documentation and
brave judgment that distinguish him. Among others, he dealt with such
questions as these: (a) What basis has the assertion by one of our wellknown authors that the horde existed before the family and the club before
the home? (b) To what extent are psychiatric methods applicable to the
familial institution? (c) How should parents use their authority?
Two Important Areas of Investigation
Among the most important works being carried on by the Instituto de
Pedagogía del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Institute
of Pedagogy of the Superior Council of Scientific Investigations) are two
which will be briefly described: the systematic historical work and the
studies of language.
The problem of systematizing the study of educational problems is an
old question for the Institute staff. The two usual ways of arranging educational questions and studies have been carefully examined: the alphabetical form used mainly by encyclopedias of education and the systematic
one which attempts to order educational doctrine according to the relations
among the different educational questions. Despite the interest which an
alphabetical inventory of educational knowledge might hold, it seemed
more useful to undertake the problem of systematization. After many meetings, the Institute group arrived at a classification of educational problems
which has a double utility. On one hand, it has served as a plan for the
systematic classification of educational documents, and, on the other, it
has served to establish the general lines along which systematic work in
the educational sciences may be planned.
Of the systematic studies stemming from this classification system, those
most advanced are in the area of historical research; one of these, by
Galino Carrillo (1960), has already been published. Though this volume
was conceived within the classical system, which orders educational problems chronologically and geographically, a new arrangement will be forthcoming which should allow the study of each of the principal educational
subjects through different times.
The studies of language that were initiated in 1943 aimed at an exhaustive
study of the sociological, psychological, and pedagogical aspects of language. Initial studies concentrated on the quantitative, sociological, and
psychological aspects. Teaching methods have been the subject of many
studies published in Revista Española de Pedagogía and in Bordón. These
studies permitted the development and validation of tests of vocabulary
necessary to the research. Vocabulary has also been used in the study of
various personality aspects, using the technique of word qualification to
study emotional-sentimental reaction. Studies of social diagnosis through
language have also been initiated but are still in an embryonic state.
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