sondas1969
Transcripción
sondas1969
Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 1 Cronología de Lanzamientos Espaciales Año 1969 Copyright © 2009 by Eladio Miranda Batlle. All rights reserved. Los textos, imágenes y tablas que se encuentran en esta cronología cuentan con la autorización de sus propietarios para ser publicadas o se hace referencia a la fuente de donde se obtuvieron los mismos . Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 2 Contenido 1969 Enero 05.01.69 08.01.69 10.01.69 12.01.69 14.01.69 15.01.69 20.01.69 22.01.69 22.01.69 23.01.69 25.01.69 30.01.69 Venera 5 (V-69 #1) Kosmos (263) (Meteor-1 #(9a)) Venera 6 (V-69 #2) Kosmos 263 (Zenit-2 #63) Soyuz 4 Soyuz 5 Zond (7a) (L1 11) OSO 5 KH-8 19 Kosmos 264 (Zenit-4M #2, Rotor #2) Kosmos (265) (US-A Test #5) Isis 1 Febrero 04.02.69 Kosmos (265) (Meteor-1 #(9b)) 05.02.69 KH-4B 6 / SSF-C 2 KH-4B 1106 Subsatellite 05.02.69 07.02.69 09.02.69 09.02.69 19.02.69 21.02.69 25.02.69 25.02.69 26.02.69 26.02.69 Intelsat-3 2/ INTELSAT 3 F-3 Kosmos 265 (DS-P1-Yu #18) TACSAT 1 1969-013B Luna (15a) /(Lunokhod (1)) (E-8 #1) L1S #1 L3 Model #1 Kosmos 266 (Zenit-2 #64) Mariner 6 Kosmos 267 (Zenit-4 #48) ESSA 9 Marzo 03.03.69 Apollo 9 (CSM 104) LEM 3 /Apollo 9 SIVB 04.03.69 KH-8 20 05.03.69 Kosmos 268 (DS-P1-Yu #19) 05.03.69 Kosmos 269 (Tselina-O #4) 06.03.69 Kosmos 270 (Zenit-4 #49) 15.03.69 Kosmos 271 (Zenit-4 #50) 17.03.69 Kosmos 272 (Sfera #4) 18.03.69 OV1 17 (P69-1(a)) OV1 18 (P69-1(b)) OV1 19 (P69-1(c)) Orbiscal 2 (OV1 17A, P69-1(d)) 18.03.69 1969-025E / 1969-025F 19.03.69 KH-4A 50 SSF-B 14 / KH-4A 1050 Subsatellite 22.03.69 Kosmos 273 (Zenit-2 #65) 24.03.69 Kosmos 274 (Zenit-4 #51) 26.03.69 Meteor-1 1 27.03.69 Mariner 7 27.03.69 Mars (2b) (M-69 #1) 28.03.69 Kosmos 275 (DS-P1-I #5) Abril 02.04.69 04.04.69 04.04.69 09.04.69 11.04.69 13.04.69 14.04.69 Mars (2c) (M-69 #2) Kosmos 276 (Zenit-4 #52) Kosmos 277 (DS-P1-Yu #20) Kosmos 278 (Zenit-2 #66) Molniya-1 11 Canyon 2 Nimbus 3 SECOR 13 (S69-2) 15.04.69 Kosmos 279 (Zenit-4 #53) 15.04.69 KH-8 21 23.04.69 Kosmos 280 (Zenit-4M #3, Rotor #3) Mayo 02.05.69 KH-4A 51 SSF-B 15KH-4A 1051 Subsatellite 08.05.69 Apollo 10 (CSM 106) LEM 4 13.05.69 Kosmos 281 (Zenit-2 #67) 20.05.69 Kosmos 282 (Zenit-4 #54) 22.05.69 Intelsat-3 4 23.05.69 Vela 9 Vela 10 OV5 5 (ERS 29, S68-3(a)) OV5 6 (ERS 26, S68-3(b)) OV5 9 (S68-3(c)) 27.05.69 Kosmos 283 (DS-P1-Yu #21) 27.05.69 Kosmos 284 (Zenit-4 #55) Junio 03.06.69 KH-8 22 03.06.69 Kosmos 285 (DS-P1-Yu #22) 04.06.69 Luna (15c) Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 3 05.06.69 14.06.69 15.06.69 21.06.69 24.06.69 27.06.69 28.06.69 OGO 6 Luna (15b) (E-8-5 #1) Kosmos 286 (Zenit-4 #56) Explorer 41 (IMP G) Kosmos 287 (Zenit-2 #68) Kosmos 288 (Zenit-4 #57) Biosat 3 (Bios 3) Julio 03.07.69 L1S #2 L3 Model #2 03.07.69 STV 2 10.07.69 Kosmos 289 (Zenit-4 #58) 13.07.69 Luna 15 (E-8-5 #2) 16.07.69 Apollo 11 (CSM 107) LEM 5 Apollo 11 SIVB 22.07.69 Kosmos 290 (Zenit-2 #69) 22.07.69 Molniya-1 12 23.07.69 DMSP-4B F3 23.07.69 1969-062B 23.07.69 Kosmos (291) (DS-P1-Yu #23) 24.07.69 KH-4B 7 25.07.69 Intelsat-3 5 31.07.69 Ferret 14 o 13 Agosto 06.08.69 Kosmos 291 (IS-M-GVM) 07.08.69 Zond 7 (L1 12) 09.08.69 OSO 6 PAC 1 12.08.69 ATS 5 13.08.69 Kosmos 292 (Tsiklon #3) 16.08.69 Kosmos 293 (Zenit-2M #4, Gektor #4) 19.08.69 Kosmos 294 (Zenit-4 #59) 22.08.69 Kosmos 295 (DS-P1-Yu #24) 23.08.69 KH-8A 1KH 8-23 27.08.69 Pioneer E TTS 3 /TETR-C 29.08.69 Kosmos 296 (Zenit-4 #60) Septiembre 02.09.69 15.09.69 18.09.69 22.09.69 Kosmos 297 (Zenit-4 #61) Kosmos 298 (OGCh #21) Kosmos 299 (Zenit-4 #62) KH-4A 52 SSF-B 16KH-4A 1052 Subsatellite 22.09.69 Ohsumi (#4) 23.09.69 Kosmos 300 (Luna (16a)) (E-8-5 #3) 24.09.69 Kosmos 301 (Zenit-2 #70) 30.09.69 Poppy 6A (NRL-PL 161) 1969-082A Poppy 6B (NRL-PL 162) 1969-082C Poppy 6C (NRL-PL 163)… Poppy 6D (NRL-PL 164)…. Timation 2 Tempsat 2 SOICAL Cone (S69-4(a))… SOICAL Cylinder (S69-4(b))…. NRL-PL 176 SSF-B 17 Octubre 01.10.69 06.10.69 11.10.69 12.10.69 13.10.69 14.10.69 17.10.69 18.10.69 21.10.69 22.10.69 24.10.69 24.10.69 24.10.69 ESRO 1B (Boreas) Meteor-1 2 Soyuz 6 Soyuz 7 Soyuz 8 Interkosmos 1 (DS-U3-IK #1) Kosmos 302 (Zenit-4 #63) Kosmos 303 (DS-P1-Yu #25) Kosmos 304 (Tsiklon #4) Kosmos 305 (Luna (16b)) (E-8-5 #4) Kosmos 307 (DS-P1-Yu #26) Kosmos 306 (Zenit-2M #5, Gektor #5) KH-8A 2 Noviembre 04.11.69 07.11.69 12.11.69 14.11.69 Kosmos 308 (DS-P1-I #6) Azur Kosmos 309 (Zenit-2 #71) Apollo 12 (CSM 108) LEM 6 15.11.69 Kosmos 310 (Zenit-4 #64) 22.11.69 Skynet 1A 22.11.69 1969-103B 24.11.69 Kosmos 311 (DS-P1-Yu #27) 24.11.69 Kosmos 312 (Sfera #5) 28.11.69 Kosmos (311) (L1E 1) Diciembre 03.12.69 04.12.69 11.12.69 11.12.69 20.12.69 23.12.69 23.12.69 23.12.69 25.12.69 25.12.69 27.12.69 Kosmos 313 (Zenit-2M #6, Gektor #6) KH-4B 8 Kosmos 314 (DS-P1-Yu #28) 1969-106B Kosmos 315 (Tselina-O #5) Kosmos 317 (Zenit-4MK #1, Germes #1) 1969-108C Kosmos 316 (I2P #3) Interkosmos 2 (DS-U1-IK #1) 1969-110B Kosmos (318) (Ionosfernaya) Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 4 Enero 1969 Kosmos (263) (Meteor-1 #(9a)) Intento fallido Venera 5 (V-69 #1) Venera 6 (V-69 #2) Venera 5. Otros nombres: 1969-001A, Venus 5, 03642. Lanzamiento: 5 de enero de 1.969 a las 06:28:00 GMT. Masa seca en órbita: 1130 kg. La sonda Venera 5 fue lanzada desde la nave Tyazheliy Sputnik (en órbita terrestre y denominada también 69-001C) hacia Venus para obtener datos atmosféricos. La nave era muy similar a la Venera 4 pero tenía un diseño más robusto. Cuando se aproximaba a la atmósfera de Venus, una cápsula de 405 kgs. conteniendo instrumentos científicos fue expulsada de la nave principal. Durante el descenso hacia la superficie de Venus, se desplegó un paracaídas para frenar en lo posible la caída. El 16 de mayo de 1.969 durante un total de 53 minutos, la sonda envió a la Tierra datos de la atmósfera venusiana desde su cara nocturna. La nave portaba un medallón donde se encontraba grabado el escudo de armas de la URSS y un bajorrelieve de Lenin. Venera 6. Otros nombres: 1969-002A , Venus 6, 03648. Lanzamiento: 10 de enero de 1.969 a las 05:52:00 GMT. Masa seca en órbita: 1130 kg. La sonda Venera 6 fue lanzada desde la nave Tyazheliy Sputnik (en órbita terrestre y denominada también 69-002C) hacia Venus para obtener datos atmosféricos. La nave era muy similar a la Venera 4 pero tenía un diseño más robusto. Cuando se aproximaba a la atmósfera de Venus, una cápsula de 405 kgs. conteniendo instrumentos científicos fue expulsada de la nave principal. Durante el descenso hacia la superficie de Venus, se desplegó un paracaídas para frenar en lo posible la caída. El 17 de mayo de 1.969 durante un total de 51 minutos, la sonda envió a la Tierra datos de la atmósfera venusiana desde su cara nocturna. 10 January 1969 Venera 6 Program: Venera. Launch Site: Baikonur . Launch Vehicle: Molniya 8K78M. Mass: 1,128 kg. Venera 6 was launched towards Venus to obtain atmospheric data. When the atmosphere of Venus was approached, a capsule weighing 405 kg was jettisoned from the main spacecraft. This capsule contained scientific instruments. During descent towards the surface of Venus, a parachute opened to slow the rate of descent. For 51 min on May 17, 1969, while the capsule was suspended from the parachute, data from the Venusian atmosphere were returned. The spacecraft also carried a medallion bearing the coat of arms of the U.S.S.R. and a basrelief of V.I. Lenin to the night side of Venus. 17 May 1969 Venera 6 lands on Venus Manned flight: Apollo 10. Kamanin notes in his diary that the twin Venus missions mark a new triumph of the USSR in space, but pale in comparison with the American launch of Apollo 10. Kamanin notes there is not one word about the Apollo 10 mission in Pravda. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 5 Kosmos 263 (Zenit-2 #63) Cosmos 263 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-01-12 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4000.0 kg Soyuz 4 Crew No. 1 Surname Given name Shatalov Vladimir Aleksandrovich Job Commander Flight Launch, orbit and landing data Launch date: Launch time: Launch site: Launch pad: Altitude: Inclination: Landing date: Landing time: Landing site: 14.01.1969 07:30 UT Baikonur 31 173 - 225,3 km 51,72° 17.01.1969 06:50 UT 40 km NW of Karaganda Launch from Baikonur; landing 40 km northwest of Karaganda Planned launch on January 13, was scrubbed due of bad weather. That was the first time in Soviet space history. Docking with Soyuz 5 (Soyuz 4 had the active part). The two spacecrafts were electrical and mechanically connected , but there was no direct way from one spaceship to the other. It was the first docking of manned spacecrafts. Soyuz 5cosmonauts Khrunov and Yeliseyev entered the Soyuz 4, in a spacewalk. After pressurisation of the Soyuz 4-capsule they were greeted by Shatalov. All three cosmonauts landed with the Soyuz 4spacecraft. Scientific (medical and biological) and technical experiments were also performed, but all in all it were tests of lunar landing techniques. The landing was 40 km far from the planned point. Photos Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 6 Crew N o. 1 2 3 Surna me Volyn ov Yelis eyev Khru nov Given name Job Boris Valentinovich Aleksei Stanislavovich Yevgeni Vasiliyevich Commande r Flight Engineer Research Engineer Flight Launch from Baikonur; landing 200 km southwest of Kustanay / 25 km southeast of Zhitikara. Soyuz 5 Launch, orbit and landing data Launch date: 15.01.1969 Launch time: 07:04 UT Launch site: Baikonur Launch pad: 1 Altitude: 198,7 - 230,2 km Inclination: 51,69° Landing time: 18.01.1969 Landing time: 07:59 UT Landing site: 200 km SW of Kustanay Docking with Soyuz 4, which had the active part. The two spacecrafts were electrical and mechanically connected , but there was no direct way from one spaceship to the other. It was the first docking of manned spacecrafts. Soyuz 5-cosmonauts Khrunov and Yeliseyev entered the Soyuz 4 in a spacewalk on 16.01.1969 (0h 37m). After pressurisation of the Soyuz 4-capsule they were greeted by cosmonaut Shatalov in the Soyuz 4-capsule. Soyuz 4 and 5 separated after 4 hours and 35 minutes docked together. All three cosmonauts landed with the Soyuz 4spacecraft. Scientific (medical and biological) and technical experiments were also performed, but all in all it were tests of lunar landing techniques. Volynov remained on Soyuz 5. During the reentry the service module failed to separate after retrofire resulting in nose-first re-entry, which would have meant a sure death of the cosmonaut. So to say in the last moment the bolts connecting the service module to the reentry capsule finally burned through and the capsule turned around, heat shield forward, just before the forward hatch melted. All capsule propellant was exhausted and the cosmonaut made a 9-g uncontrolled re-entry, landing hundreds of kilometres short. It was one of the hardest landings in space history and Volynov broke his jaw and lost several teeth. Note Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 7 Yeliseyev and Khrunov landed on 17.01.1969 at 06:50 UT with Soyuz 4. command system provided for 155 groundbased commands. For more information, see A. W. L. Ball, Spaceflight, v. 12, p. 244, 1970. Launch Date: 1969-01-22 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 645.0 kg KH-8 19 Zond (7a) (L1 11) Zond 1969ª Intento fallido This mission was intended to be similar to the Zond 5 and Zond 6 missions, consisting of a lunar flyby and return to Earth, an unmanned test of the lunar capsule. The craft was presumably equipped with automatic cameras. One of the SL-12/D-1-e stage 2 engines shut down 25 seconds early, causing the emergency system to abort the flight. The escape tower brought the Zond cabin down safely. OSO 5 The objectives of the OSO satellite series were to perform solar physics experiments above the atmosphere during a complete solar cycle and to map the entire celestial sphere for direction and intensity of UV, X-ray and gamma radiation. The OSO 5 platform consisted of a sail section that pointed two experiments continually toward the sun and a wheel section that spun about an axis perpendicular to the pointing direction of the sail and carried six experiments. Attitude adjustments were performed by gas jets and a magnetic torquing coil. Pointing control permitted the pointed experiments to scan the region of the solar disk in a 40- by 40-arc-min raster pattern. In addition, the pointed section could be commanded to select and scan a 7.5- by 7-arc-min region near the solar disk. Data were simultaneously recorded on tape and transmitted by PCM/PM telemetry. A This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft Launch Date: 1969-01-22 Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIB-Agena D Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 3000.0 kg Kosmos 264 Rotor #2) (Zenit-4M #2, Cosmos 264 was a third generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The spacecraft carried radio astronomy and gamma ray experiments. It was maneuverable. Launch Date: 1969-01-23 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4000.0 kg Kosmos (265) (US-A Test #5) Intento fallido Isis 1 ISIS 1 was an ionospheric observatory instrumented with sweep- and fixedfrequency ionosondes, a VLF receiver, energetic and soft particle detectors, an ion mass spectrometer, an electrostatic probe, an Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 8 electrostatic analyzer, a beacon transmitter, and a cosmic noise experiment. The sounder used two dipole antennas (73 and 18.7 m long). The satellite was spin-stabilized at about 2.9 rpm after antenna deployment. Some control was exercised over the spin rate and attitude by using magnetically induced torques to change the spin rate and to precess the spin axis. A tape recorder with 1-h capacity was included on the satellite. The satellite could be programmed to take recorded observations for four different time periods for each full recording period. The recorder data were dumped only at Ottawa. For non-taperecorded observations, data for the satellite and subsatellite regions could be acquired and telemetered when the spacecraft was in the line of sight of telemetry stations. The selected telemetry stations were in areas that provided primary data coverage near the 80deg-W meridian and in areas near Hawaii, Singapore, Australia, the UK, Norway, India, Japan, Antarctica, New Zealand, and Central Africa. NASA support of the ISIS project was terminated on October 1, 1979. A significant amount of experimental data, however, was acquired after this date by the Canadian project team. ISIS 1 operations were terminated in Canada on March 9, 1984. The Radio Research Laboratories (Tokyo, Japan) then requested and received permission to reactivate ISIS 1. Regular ISIS 1 operations were started from Kashima, Japan, in early August 1984. ISIS 1 was deactivated effective January 24, 1990. A data restoration effort began in the late 1990s and successfully saved a considerable portion of the high-resolution data before the telemetry tapes were discarted. Foto:Isis 1 Launch Date: 1969-01-30 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 241.0 kg Febrero 1969 Kosmos (265) (Meteor-1 #(9b)) Intento fallido KH-4B 6 / SSF-C 2 KH-4B 1106 Subsatelite This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was KH-4B (Key Hole-4B) type spacecraft. This spacecraft had the best image quality to date. Launch Date: 1969-02-05 Launch Vehicle: Thor Augmented DeltaAgena D Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 1700.0 kg Intelsat-3 2 INTELSAT 3 F-3 INTELSAT 3F-3 was launched by NASA for Communcations Satellite Corporation. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 9 Foto: Intelsat-3 [Intelsat] Launch Date: 1969-02-06 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 642.0 kg satellite communication repeaters with small surface terminal communication equipment for highly mobile land, sea and air forces. This project was led by the USAF Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO). It was a cylindrical shaped aluminum structure with passive thermal control. It was spin stabilized (54 rpm) to 0.1 deg using new gyrostat technique. Body mounted solar cells generated 980 W max. The vehicle carried two transponders, one at X-band and one at UHF. The X-band transponder had a bandwidth of 10 Mhz and a maximum RF power of 30 watts. The UHF transponder has a bandwidth of 10Mhz and a maximum RF output of 230 watts. Provision was made for cross strapping the UHF and Xband up and downlinks with a reduced usable bandwidth of 425 kHz. Earth coverage horn antennas were used at X-band, bifilar helices were used at UHF. Kosmos 265 (DS-P1-Yu #18) Cosmos 265 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-02-07 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 400.0 kg TACSAT 1 TacSat was designed to experimentally test and develop tactical communications concepts for all US military services. The mission evaluated the feasibility of using Foto:TACSAT [Boeing BSS Launch Date: 1969-02-09 Launch Vehicle: Titan III-C Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 640.0 kg Nominal Power: 980.0 W Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 10 1969-013B Lifetime: Launch Date: 1969-02-09 Launch Vehicle: Titan Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Kosmos 266 (Zenit-2 #64) Luna (15a) (Lunokhod (1)) (E-8 #1) Luna 15 was placed in an intermediate earth orbit after launch and was then sent toward the Moon. The spacecraft was capable of studying circumlunar space, the lunar gravitational field, and the chemical composition of lunar rocks. It was also capable of providing lunar surface photography. After completing 86 communications sessions and 52 orbits of the Moon at various inclinations and altitudes, the spacecraft impacted the lunar surface on July 21, 1969. Launch Date: 1969-07-13 Launch Vehicle: Proton Booster Plus Upper Stage and Escape Stages Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 2718.0 kg L1S #1 / L3 Model #1 Foto; Zond (L1S) Nation: Type / Application: Operator: Contractors: Equipment: Configuration: Propulsion: U.S.S.R. Lunar orbit and return 7K-L1S KTDU-53 Cosmos 266 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-02-25 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4000.0 kg Mariner 6 Mariner 6 and 7 comprised a dual-spacecraft mission to Mars, the sixth and seventh missions in the Mariner series of spacecraft used for planetary exploration in the flyby mode. The primary objectives of the missions were to study the surface and atmosphere of Mars during close flybys to establish the basis for future investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for extraterrestrial life, and to demonstrate and develop technologies required for future Mars missions and other long-duration missions far from the Sun. Mariner 6 also had the objective of providing experience and data which would be useful in programming the Mariner 7 encounter 5 days later. Each spacecraft carried a wide- and narrow-angle television camera, an infrared spectroscope, an infrared radiometer, and an ultraviolet spectroscope. The spacecraft were oriented entirely to planetary data acquisition, and no data were obtained during the trip to Mars or beyond Mars. Spacecraft and Subsystems The Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft were identical, consisting of an octagonal magnesium frame base, 138.4 cm diagonally and 45.7 cm deep. A conical superstructure mounted on top of the frame held the highgain 1 meter diameter parabolic antenna and four solar panels, each measuring 215 x 90 cm, were affixed to the top corners of the frame. The tip-to-tip span of the deployed solar panels was 5.79 m. A low-gain omnidirectional antenna was mounted on a Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 11 2.23 m high mast next to the high-gain antenna. Underneath the octagonal frame was a two-axis scan platform which held scientific instruments. Overall science instrument mass was 57.6 kg. The total height of the spacecraft was 3.35 m. The spacecraft was attitude stabilized in three axes (referenced to the sun and the star, Canopus) through the use of 3 gyros, 2 sets of 6 nitrogen jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels, a Canopus tracker, and two primary and four secondary sun sensors. Propulsion was provided by a 223 N rocket motor mounted within the frame which used monopropellant hydrazine. The nozzle with 4jet vane vector control protruded from one wall of the octagonal structure. Power was supplied by 17,472 photovoltaic cells covering an area of 7.7 square meters on the four solar panels. These could provide 800 W of power near Earth and 449 W at Mars. The maximum power requirement was 380 W at Mars encounter. A 1200 W-hr rechargeable silver-zinc battery was used to provide backup power. Thermal control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers on the sides of the main compartment. Three telemetry channels were available for telecommunications. Channel A carried engineering data at 8 1/3 or 33 1/3 bps, channel B carried scientific data at 66 2/3 or 270 bps and channel C carried science data at 16,200 bps. Communications were accomplished via the high- and low-gain antennas via dual S-band travelling wave tube 10/20 W amplifiers for transmission and a single receiver. An analog tape recorder with a capacity of 195 million bits could store television images for subsequent transmission. Other science data was stored on a digital recorder. The command system, consisting of a central computer and sequencer (CC&S), was designed to actuate specific events at precise times. The CC&S was programmed with a standard mission and a conservative backup mission befire launch, but could be commanded and reprogrammed in flight. It could perform 53 direct commands, 5 control commands, and 4 quantitative commands. Mission Profile Mariner 6 was launched from Launch Complex 36B at Cape Kennedy (Mariner 7 was launched 31 days later). It represented the first mission launched on the Atlas/Centaur, (AC20, spacecraft 69-3) consisting of a 1 1/2 stage Atlas SLV-3C and a restartable Centaur stage. The main booster was jettisoned 4 min. 38 sec. after launch followed by a 7.5 minute Centaur burn to inject the spacecraft into Mars directascent trajectory. After Mariner 6 separated from the Centaur the solar panels were deployed. A midcourse correction involving a 5.35 second burn of the hydrazine rocket occurred on 1 March 1969. A few days later the explosive valves were deployed to unlatch the scan platform. Some bright particles released during the explosion distracted the Canopus sensor, and attitude lock was lost temporarily. It was decided to place the spacecraft on inertial guidance for the Mars flyby to prevent a similar occurrence. On 29 July, 50 hours before closest approach, the scan platform was pointed to Mars and the scientific instruments turned on. Imaging of Mars began 2 hours later. For the next 41 hours, 49 approach images (plus a 50th fractional image) of Mars were taken through the narrow-angle camera. At 05:03 UT on 31 July the near-encounter phase began, including collection of 26 close-up images. Due to a cooling system failure, channel 1 of the IR spectrometer did not cool sufficiently to allow measurements from 6 to 14 micrometers so no infrared data were obtained over this range. Closest approach occurred at 05:19:07 UT at a distance of 3431 km from the martian surface. Eleven minutes later Mariner 6 passed behind Mars and reappeared after 25 minutes. X-band occultation data were taken during the entrance and exit phases. Science and imaging data were played back and transmitted over the next few days. The spacecraft was then returned to cruise mode which included engineering and communications tests, star photography TV tests, and UV scans of the Milky Way and an area containing comet 1969-B. Periodic tracking of the spacecraft in its heliocentric orbit was also done. As a historical note, 10 days before the scheduled launch of Mariner 6 while it was mounted on top of the Atlas/Centaur booster, a faulty switch opened the main valves on the Atlas stage. This released the pressure which supported the Atlas structure, and as the booster deflated it began to crumple. Two Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 12 ground crewman started pressurizing pumps, saving the structure from further collapse. The Mariner 6 spacecraft was removed, put on another Atlas/Centaur, and launched on schedule. The two ground crewman, who had acted at risk of the 12-story rocket collapsing on them, were awarded Exceptional Bravery Medals from NASA. Science Results The total data return for Mariners 6 and 7 was 800 million bits. Mariner 6 returned 49 far encounter and 26 near encounter images of Mars, and Mariner 7 returned 93 far and 33 near encounter images. Close-ups from the near encounter phases covered 20% of the surface. The spacecraft instruments measured UV and IR emissions and radio refractivity of the Martian atmosphere. Images showed the surface of Mars to be very different from that of the Moon, in some contrast to the results from Mariner 4. The south polar cap was identified as being composed predominantly of carbon dioxide. Atmospheric surface pressure was estimated at between 6 and 7 mb. Radio science refined estimates of the mass, radius and shape of Mars. Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million. Launch Date: 1969-02-24 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 411.8 kg Nominal Power: 449.0 W Foto:Mariner 6 [NASA] Kosmos 267 (Zenit-4 #48) Cosmos 267 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-02-26 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4000.0 kg ESSA 9 ESSA 9 was a sun-synchronous meteorological satellite designed to take and record daytime earth cloudcover pictures on a global basis for subsequent playback to a ground acquisition facility. The spacecraft was also capable of providing worldwide measurements of reflected solar and longrange radiation leaving the earth. The spacecraft has essentially the same configuration as that of a TIROS spacecraft, i.e., an 18-sided right prism, 107 cm across opposite corners and 56 cm high, with a reinforced baseplate carrying most of the subsystems and a cover assembly (hat). Electric power was provided by approximately 10,000 solar cells 1- by 2-cm that were mounted on the cover assembly and by 21 nickel-cadmium batteries. Two redundant Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS) cameras were mounted on opposite sides of the spacecraft, with their optical axes perpendicular to the spin axis. Two sets of flat plate radiometers were also suspended on opposite sides of the satellite, beneath the edge of the baseplate. A pair of crosseddipole command receiver antennas projected out and down from the baseplate. A monopole telemetry and tracking antenna extended out from the top of the cover assembly. The satellite spin rate was controlled by means of a Magnetic Attitude Spin Coil (MASC), with the spin axis maintained normal to the orbital plane (cartwheel orbit mode) to within plus or minus 1 deg. The MASC was a current-carrying coil mounted in the cover assembly. The magnetic field induced by the current Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 13 interacted with the earth's magnetic field to provide the torque necessary to maintain a desired spin rate of 9.225 rpm. The spacecraft performed normally after launch. The radiometer experiment was terminated in May 1970. Following the successful launch of ITOS 1, ESSA 9 was temporarily deactivated. It was reactivated after ITOS 1 ended its operations. ESSA 9 was again turned off in November 1972, with the launching of NOAA 2. Launch Date: 1969-02-26 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 145.0 kg Marzo 1969 Apollo 9 (CSM 104) Tripulantes: James A. McDivitt (CDR), Russell L. Schweickart (LMP) y David R. Scott (CMP). Lanzamiento: 3 de marzo de 1969. Aterrizaje: 13 de marzo de 1969. Esta misión orbitó únicamente alrededor de la Tierra, para comprobar principalmente el buen funcionamiento del módulo lunar y su capacidad de navegación. El Apollo 9 (AS-504), el primer vuelo tripulado equipado con el módulo lunar (LM-3), fue lanzado desde la plataforma A del complejo de lanzamiento 39 del Kennedy Space Center (KSC) en un cohete Saturn V a las 11:00 a.m. EST (Eastern Standard Time, Hora Estándar de la Costa Este) del día 3 de marzo. Originalmente previsto para el 28 de febrero, el despegue había sido retrasado para permitir a los tripulantes James A. McDivitt, David R. Scott y Russell L. Schweickart recuperarse de una enfermedad respiratoria vírica poco severa. Después de una fase de lanzamiento normal, la etapa SIVB colocó a la nave en una órbita de 192'3 por 189'3 kilómetros. Después de las comprobaciones rutinarias tras la puesta en órbita, el CSM 104 se separó de la etapa SIVB, dio la vuelta y se acopló con el módulo lunar (LM). A las 3:08 p.m. EST, el conjunto de la nave se separó del S-IVB, que fue colocado después en una órbita de escape de la Tierra. El 4 de marzo, la tripulación realizó el seguimiento de distintos puntos geográficos, llevó a cabo maniobras de actitud de la nave (cabeceo, balanceo y guiñada) e incrementó el apogeo de la órbita mediante el sistema de propulsión del módulo de servicio. Al día siguiente, McDivitt y Schweickart entraron en el módulo lunar a través del túnel de acoplamiento, evaluaron los sistemas del LM, emitieron la primera de dos series de retransmisiones, y encendieron el motor de descenso del LM. Después, volvieron al módulo de comando. McDivitt y Schweickart volvieron al LM el 6 de marzo. Después de la segunda retransmisión, Schweickart realizó un paseo espacial o EVA (extravehicular activity) de 37 minutos, pasando entre las escotillas del LM y del CSM, maniobrando con los pasamanos, sacando fotografías y describiendo las nubes de lluvia que había sobre KSC en Florida. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 14 El 7 de marzo, con McDivitt y Schweickart de nuevo en el módulo lunar, Scott separó el CSM del LM y encendió los retropropulsores del sistema de control a reacción hasta situarse a unos 5'5 kilómetros del LM. Entonces, McDivitt y Schweickart llevaron a cabo la maniobra de acoplamiento activo del módulo lunar. El LM atracó sin problemas con el CSM después de haber estado distanciados hasta 183'5 kilómetros durante seis horas y media. Después de que McDivitt y Schweickart volvieran al CSM, la etapa de ascenso del módulo lunar fue desprendida. Durante el resto de la misión, la tripulación siguió la pista del Pegasus III, un satélite de detección de meteoritos de la NASA, lanzado el 30 de julio de 1965; tomaron fotografías multiespectrales de la Tierra; probaron los sistemas de la nave y se prepararon para la reentrada. El módulo de comando del Apollo 9 amerizó en el Océano Atlántico, a 290 kilómetros al este de las islas Bahamas a las 12:01 p.m. EST. La tripulación fue recogida mediante un helicóptero y llevada a bordo del barco de rescate U.S.S. Guadalcanal menos de una hora después del amerizaje. Los objetivos principales de la misión habían sido completados con éxito. Fragmento traducido del relato de la misión Apollo 9 proveniente del libro Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft, de Courtney G Brooks, James M. Grimwood, Loyd S. Swenson, publicado como NASA SP-4205 en NASA History Series, 1979. Para presenciar el vuelo número 19 de astronautas norteamericanos al espacio, el vicepresidente Spiro T. Agnew, representando a la nueva administración de Richard Nixon, se sentó en el área de observación de la sala de control del despegue, el 3 de marzo de 1969. Él y otros invitados escucharon la cuenta atrás del gigante cohete Saturn-Apollo a varios kilómetros de distancia cerca de la playa de Florida. Completamente recuperados de sus cargadas cabezas y moqueantes narices, McDivitt, Scott y Schweickart estaban en la cabina de atmósfera mixta del CSM-104. Respirando oxígeno puro mediante su traje espacial, intentaban ajustar una válvula de entrada que parecía tener dos variaciones de temperatura: demasiado caliente o demasiado frío. Ése era su único problema. Menos de un segundo después de la hora prevista para el lanzamiento (11:00 a.m. EST), el Apollo 9 comenzó a elevarse espectacularmente. En Houston, donde más de 200 periodistas se habían acreditado para cubrir la misión, el director de vuelo Eugene F. Kranz y el director de la misión George H. Hage observaban las pantallas de sus consolas mientras McDivitt y el CapCom Stuart Roosa nombraban los eventos de la secuencia de lanzamiento. Se produjeron las vibraciones habituales pero, en general, la etapa S-IC del cohete Saturn V proporcionó a la tripulación lo que McDivitt llamó "el paseo de una vieja señora": un vuelo sin problemas. La sorpresa llegó cuando sus cinco motores se apagaron. Sintiéndose como si fueran empujados de nuevo a la Tierra, la tripulación se precipitó hacia delante, casi en el panel de instrumentos. Los motores de la segunda etapa (S-II) interrumpieron esa situación, y los apretó de nuevo en sus asientos. Todo fue bien durante los primeros siete minutos, cuando el viejo problema de la aceleración pogo surgió de nuevo. De todas formas, a pesar de que las vibraciones eran mayores que las del vuelo de Borman, la tripulación de McDivitt no tuvo quejas. A los 11 minutos y 13 segundos del lanzamiento, la tercera etapa S-IVB entró en ignición, y el conjunto fue colocado en una órbita terrestre de unos 190 kilómetros de altura. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 15 Después de alcanzar la fase orbital, los tres astronautas recordaron el aviso de Borman de no salir de sus asientos demasiado rápidamente y flotar en la cabina. Evitaron hacer movimientos repentinos con la cabeza, se movían lentamente de forma deliberada y tomaron medicamentos, aunque todavía se sintieron mareados. A pesar de ello, fueron capaces de realizar sus tareas, comprobando los instrumentos y extendiendo la sonda de acoplamiento. Después de varias órbitas, 2 horas y 43 minutos tras el despegue, Scott activó los cargas explosivas que separaban el módulo de comando y servicio de la etapa S-IVB, y comenzaron uno de los pasos más importantes del viaje lunar. Encendió los propulsores de actitud y alejó al CSM Gundrop, lo dio la vuelta y volvió a encender los propulsores, y se acercó de nuevo al que llamó el "gran tipo" ("big fellow"). Entonces se dio cuenta de que el morro del módulo de comando estaba desalineado con el del módulo lunar. Scott intentó usar uno de los propulsores del módulo de servicio para girar a la izquierda, pero no estaba en funcionamiento. Los astronautas operaron varios botones que permitieron usar ese propulsor y, a las 3 horas y 2 minutos, la sonda del módulo de comando se introdujo en el puerto del módulo lunar, siendo capturado y sujetado fuertemente mediante pestillos especiales. Después del acoplamiento, McDivitt y Schweickart empezaron a prepararse para su entrada al módulo lunar. En primer lugar, abrieron una válvula para presurizar el túnel entre las dos naves. Mientras Scott leía en voz alta la lista de comprobaciones, McDivitt y Schweickart quitaron la escotilla del módulo de comando y comprobaron los 12 pestillos de seguridad del anillo de acoplamiento para verificar la hermeticidad. Después conectaron los cables eléctricos, llamados umbilicales, que proporcionarían energía del módulo de comando al LM durante el tiempo que ambos permanecieran unidos. McDivitt comprobó cuidadosamente el puerto y no encontró ninguna anomalía ni grieta. Mientras tanto, Schweickart echó un vistazo por la ventana de la nave y no pudo ver el módulo lunar debido a que no se encontraba iluminado por la luz del Sol, lo que le asustó. "¡Oh, Dios mío!" gritó, "Acabo de mirar por la ventana y no estaba el LM." Scott se rió y dijo que sería "bastante difícil [que no] tuviéramos el LM ahí fuera... con Jim en el túnel." McDivitt colocó de nuevo la escotilla en su lugar hasta que llegara el momento de volver al módulo lunar. Aproximadamente una hora después, un mecanismo de extracción sacó la nave (CSM-LM) de la etapa S-IVB. El Apollo 9 retrocedió, y la tercera etapa del cohete Saturn, después de encender sus motores dos veces, fue colocada rumbo a una órbita solar. La tripulación de McDivitt se dedicó entonces a otra tarea fundamental, encender el sistema de propulsión del módulo de servicio. Los astronautas habían usado en otras misiones un vehículo para colocar a otro en una órbita más alta, pero nunca una nave tan grande como el módulo lunar. Unas seis horas después del comienzo de la misión, hicieron la primera ignición de prueba, que duró cinco segundos. Los controladores del vuelo en Houston consideraron éste como el más crítico de los encendidos del motor del módulo de servicio. Scott debió de estar de acuerdo con ellos, porque dijo, "¡El LM está todavía ahí, por Dios!" El motor se había encendido de forma abrupta, dijo posteriormente McDivitt; de todas formas, dada la tremenda masa del complejo, la aceleración no fue muy importante: llevó los cinco segundos incrementar 11 metros por segundo la velocidad de la nave. Dieciséis horas después de esta corta ignición, realizaron un segundo encendido del motor, con una duración de 110 segundos, incluyendo el giro de la tobera para comprobar que el piloto automático del sistema de navegación y guiado era capaz Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 16 de estabilizar la nave. El piloto automático contuvo el movimiento en menos de cinco segundos. Los astronautas vieron incrementada su confianza en poder manejar su nave. Y esto era una buena noticia, dado que tenían que realizar un encendido de 280 segundos de duración, para incrementar la velocidad en 783 metros por segundo. Esta maniobra aligeró la carga de combustible del módulo de servicio en 8.462 kilogramos, lo que facilitó la tarea de girar el CSM-LM con los retropropulsores de actitud. También alteró la trayectoria de la nave y aumentó el apogeo de la órbita de 357 a 509 kilómetros, para conseguir un mejor seguimiento desde tierra y una iluminación óptima durante el acoplamiento. Scott dijo posteriormente que tenían la sensación de que los dos vehículos estaban ligeramente inclinados el uno del otro en la zona del túnel, pero la maniobra sólo produjo oscilaciones de menor intensidad de lo esperado por los entrenamientos (de un tercio a un medio menores). Los astronautas se estaban acostumbrando tanto al sistema de propulsión que apenas mencionaron su cuarto encendido. Tal vez estuviesen pensando ya en su siguiente tarea importante, en la que dos de ellos pasarían al módulo lunar Spider y comprobarían sus sistemas. Después de levantarse por la mañana y tomarse el desayuno, McDivitt y Schweickart se colocaron sus trajes presurizados. Schweickart vomitó de repente. Afortunadamente, cerró la boca hasta poder coger una bolsa. A pesar de que no sentía especialmente náuseas, tanto él como McDivitt quedaron ligeramente desorientados al colocarse sus trajes. Durante unos segundos, no pudieron distinguir entre arriba y abajo, lo que les produjo un poco de mareo. Scott, ya en su traje, abrió la escotilla que comunicaba con el LM, y quitó la sonda y el puerto del túnel, para que sus compañeros pudieran pasar al módulo lunar. Schweickart se deslizó fácilmente a través del túnel, de 81 centímetros; abrió la última escotilla que comunicaba con el LM y entró en él, realizando el primer transbordo entre dos vehículos espaciales. Después de pulsar todos los botones necesarios, Schweickart informó de que el LM era ciertamente ruidoso, especialmente su sistema de control ambiental. McDivitt siguió a Schweickart en el módulo lunar una hora después. Pasado un corto rato, habían sacado una cámara de televisión y estaban retransmitiendo sus actividades a la Tierra. Después cerraron la escotilla que les comunicaba con Scott, a la vez que éste hacía lo propio con la escotilla del CM. Uno de los eventos clave de las misiones lunares sería el despliegue del tren de alunizaje del módulo lunar. Un segundo o dos después de que Schweickart pulsara el botón, las patas del módulo lunar se desplegaron rápidamente en posición. Tras la separación de los dos vehículos, el LM rotaría para que el piloto del módulo de comando pudiera asegurarse de que las cuatro patas se encontraban en su posición adecuada. Schweickart se puso enfermo de nuevo, y McDivitt pidió una charla privada con el servicio médico en tierra. Aunque los medios Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 17 de comunicación fueron rápidamente informados sobre el problema de Schweickart, la petición de una discusión "privada" era como hacer ondear una bandera roja, lo que tuvo repercusiones, como una serie de historias poco amistosas. En esta segunda ocasión, las ganas de vomitar le vinieron tan de repente como la primera vez, mientras Schweickart estaba ocupado en el panel de mandos. Después, se sintió mucho mejor y se pudo mover por la cabina sin dificultad, aunque perdió el apetito (a excepción de líquidos y fruta) para el resto de la misión. Tan pronto como estuvo seguro de que los sistemas estaban operando adecuadamente, McDivitt pidió a Scott que pusiera al módulo de comando en control neutral (sin piloto automático), para que pudiera comprobar el sistema de dirección del módulo lunar. McDivitt utilizó los pequeños retropropulsores para colocar el CSM-LM en la posición correcta para encender el motor de descenso regulable del módulo lunar. Segundos después de encender el motor de descenso, McDivitt exclamó, "Mirad esa bola de actitud; Dios mío, prácticamente no tenemos errores." 26 segundos después, con el motor a plena potencia, informó de que los errores eran todavía prácticamente inexistentes. De hecho, todo se estaba desarrollando tan bien a mitad del ejercicio (de 371'5 segundos de duración), que el comandante tuvo hambre (lo que no era poco común en él). Así que comió un poco antes de volver al módulo de comando. Schweickart permaneció detrás de él para apagar todo y ordenar la cabina antes de volver con los otros al Gumdrop. El LM parecía ser una máquina fiable. Después de que Schweickart hubiera vomitado en dos ocasiones, McDivitt dudaba que el piloto del módulo lunar fuera capaz de hacerse cargo de sus tareas fuera de la nave. El comandante recomendó a control de vuelo que su ejercicio se limitara a la despresurización de la cabina. El control de vuelo acordó que la actividad extravehicular consistiría en una salida a la luz del Sol, con Schweickart llevando el traje espacial y los tubos umbilicales del módulo lunar, y con las escotillas del módulo lunar y de comando abiertas. En el cuarto día del vuelo, mientras iba hacia el módulo lunar para ponerlo a punto, Schweickart se sintió más animado de lo esperado. Cuando se había colocado la mochila del traje espacial, McDivitt estaba listo para dejarle hacer más; permanecer en la entrada, al menos. El control de vuelo le dijo al comandante que decidiera por sí mismo. Así que McDivitt aseguró a Schweickart a la cuerda de nylon que evitaría que se alejase de la nave. Una vez que Schweickart había entrado en esta "tercera nave", como si fuera una unidad independiente, el control de vuelo realizó una prueba de comunicaciones con el PLSS (Portable Life Support System), como lo llamaron. La conversación a cuatro (entre el Spider, Gumdrop, el PLSS de Schweickart y el centro de control en Houston) era mucho más clara de lo que habían esperado. La despresurización del módulo lunar se realizó sin problemas. Schweickart comunicó que su mochila espacial estaba operando, ya que podía oír el agua fluyendo mientras miraba su indicador de presión. Estaba bastante cómodo. McDivitt tuvo que hacer más fuerza de la prevista para girar el mecanismo de la escotilla, y más fuerza aún para moverla de su posición. Tenía cuidado de mantener la escotilla abierta hacia dentro, para evitar que pudiera cerrarse dejando a Schweickart fuera. Una vez abierta la escotilla del módulo lunar, Scott empujó hacia afuera la escotilla del CM. Schweickart, que ahora se llamaba a sí mismo Red Rover por su pelo un tanto pelirrojo, disfrutaba de la vista y estaba tan bien en los pasadores dorados del exterior de la plataforma que McDivitt decidió dejarle Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 18 probar los pasamanos. Aguantando con una mano mientras se movía de aquí para allá, tomó fotografías y descubrió que los pasamanos lo hacían todo más fácil que en las simulaciones, incluso en el entrenamiento subacuático. No fue a visitar a Scott en el módulo de comando, pero ambos astronautas recuperaron muestras de experimentos colocados en el casco de la nave. Scott y Schweickart también tomaron fotografías el uno del otro, como turistas en un país extraño (dos de las cuales han sido reproducidas aquí). Aunque originalmente estaba previsto que durase más de dos horas, la excursión al exterior acabó en menos de una hora, en parte debido a que no querían cansar a Schweickart después de sus problemas y también porque tenían mucho que hacer para estar listos para las importantes actividades del día siguiente, el evento principal de la misión: la separación y el acoplamiento del módulo lunar y el módulo de comando. Con la escotilla cerrada y su equipo espacial quitado, McDivitt y Schweickart recargaron la mochila del traje, ordenaron la cabina y volvieron al módulo de comando. En las dos ocasiones en las que habían pasado al LM, los astronautas llevaban retraso con respecto al horario previsto. El 7 de marzo, se levantaron una hora antes de lo normal. También obtuvieron permiso del control de vuelo para pasar al módulo lunar sin cascos ni tubos de oxígeno, lo que facilitó el seguimiento de la lista de procedimientos y la preparación del módulo para las maniobras previstas. Poco después, ambas naves estaban listas. De todas formas, cuando Scott intentó soltar el módulo lunar, siguió unido a los mecanismos de captura. Tras presionar el botón de nuevo, el LM se soltó del CSM. Mientras, McDivitt observaba la separación por una de las ventanillas. El Spider cabeceó entonces 90 grados y guiñó 360º (es decir, dio una vuelta completa), para que Scott pudiera ver las patas del módulo. Después de alejarse del CSM progresivamente un máximo de 4 kilómetros durante 45 minutos, McDivitt encendió el motor de descenso del módulo lunar para incrementar la distancia a casi 23 kilómetros. El funcionamiento del motor fue suave hasta que alcanzó un empuje del 10%. Cuando McDivitt incrementó el empuje al 20%, el motor comenzó a oírse bastante. McDivitt dejó de aumentar el empuje y esperó. En unos pocos segundos, el resoplido del motor dejó de oírse. Aceleró hasta el 40% antes de apagarlo, y no surgieron más problemas. McDivitt y Schweickart revisaron los sistemas de la nave y encendieron de nuevo el motor de descenso, a un 10% de empuje; esta vez funcionó de manera uniforme. Mientras se colocaban en una órbita casi circular 23 kilómetros por encima del módulo de comando, no tuvieron problemas para localizar al Gumdrop, incluso al alejarse hasta 90 kilómetros. Desde el CSM, Scott pudo ver al módulo lunar hasta una distancia de 160 kilómetros con la ayuda de un sextante. Estimar la distancia entre ellos era difícil, pero el radar proporcionaba datos precisos. Esta nueva órbita, más alta que la del CSM, creaba la paradoja asociada con la mecánica orbital de acelerar para ir más despacio. Al estar a mayor altura sobre la Tierra (es decir, más lejos de ella) que el módulo de comando, el LM tardaba más en dar una vuelta completa alrededor del planeta. Spider se fue alejando gradualmente, rezagado unos 185 kilómetros por detrás de Gumdrop. Para comenzar el acoplamiento, McDivitt y Schweickart dieron la vuelta al módulo y encendieron el sistema de propulsión en dirección contraria a la del movimiento orbital para disminuir su velocidad lo suficiente como para descender por debajo de la órbita del CSM. Por debajo y por detrás del módulo de comando, podrían empezar a alcanzarlo de nuevo. Accionaron el sistema pirotécnico para deshacerse de la etapa de descenso del LM. Esta operación produjo una nube de restos e hizo que su piloto intermitente de seguimiento fallara. McDivitt comentó que la separación de la etapa fue "como una patada en el trasero... pero todo fue bien." La distancia entre el módulo lunar y el CSM descendió pronto por debajo de los 124 kilómetros. McDivitt encendió el motor de ascenso durante tres segundos para circularizar su órbita y comenzar una persecución que duraría más de dos horas. Mientras la distancia entre las dos naves descendía, McDivitt divisó un muy pequeño Gumdrop a unos 75 kilómetros. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 19 Aproximadamente una hora después del encendido del motor de ascenso, McDivitt y Schweickart encendieron los retropropulsores de su nave, que brillaron como fuegos artificiales. "Parece el 4 de julio", comentó McDivitt (haciendo referencia a la fiesta nacional de EEUU), y Scott respondió que podía verlos perfectamente. Sin embargo, cuando pararon los propulsores, el Spider, con su luz de seguimiento averiada, era difícil de ver por Scott. En ese punto, recordando el problema que tuvieron durante el desacople, McDivitt le dijo a Scott que se asegurase de que el módulo de comando estaba listo para el atraque. Mientras se aproximaba al CSM, el comandante giró el módulo en todas las direcciones para que Scott pudiera inspeccionar su exterior. Más de seis horas después de abandonar al módulo de comando, McDivitt colocó firmemente al LM en el puerto de atraque, y después informó, "Tengo captura (I have capture)." Los 12 pestillos del puerto de atraque del CM asieron al LM y lo sujetaron con fuerza. Otra etapa en el camino hacia la Luna había sido completada. El módulo lunar podía separarse del CSM, volver a él y acoplarse sin problemas. Antes incluso de pasar al módulo de comando, McDivitt dijo estar cansado, y listo para unas vacaciones de tres días. Todavía pasarían 140 horas antes del amerizaje en el Océano Atlántico, pero la tripulación había conseguido ya más del 90% de los objetivos de la misión. Todavía había tareas por realizar, como llevar a cabo más encendidos del motor del módulo de servicio (un total de ocho durante el vuelo), y desprender la etapa de ascenso del LM. El control en tierra envió después al módulo lunar una señal de encendido del motor para colocarlo en una órbita de 6.965 por 235 kilómetros de altura. Los astronautas observaron el alejamiento de la nave durante un tiempo, y después se pusieron a trabajar en tareas más mundanas como comprobar los sistemas, realizar observaciones de navegación y tomar fotografías. Después de 151 revoluciones alrededor de la Tierra, en 10 días, 1 hora y 1 minuto, el Apollo 9 amerizó sin problemas en el Océano Atlántico, al noreste de Puerto Rico, el 13 de marzo de 1969, completando un vuelo de 6 millones de kilómetros que había costado aproximadamente 340 millones de dólares. Menos de una hora después, la tripulación fue llevada mediante helicóptero a bordo del barco de rescate U.S.S. Guadalcanal. Posteriormente, se llevaron a cabo las celebraciones y los informes de la misión. En una ceremonia llevada a cabo en Washington, con un discurso del vicepresidente Agnew, los líderes del proyecto de desarrollo del módulo lunar, Carroll Bolender, del Manned Spacecraft Center y Llewellyn Evans, de la empresa Grumman, fueron reconocidos con la medalla del servicio excepcional de la NASA y el premio al servicio público de la NASA, respectivamente. Los funcionarios de la NASA se vieron estimulados por la misión Apollo 9. Ahora estaban listos para el ensayo final, una misión que llevaría al programa Apollo de vuelta a las inmediaciones de la Luna. LEM 3 Apollo 9 SIVB Foto:LEM 3[NASA] KH-8 20 This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft. Launch Date: 1969-03-04 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 20 Kosmos 268 (DS-P1-Yu #19) Cosmos 268 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from Kapustin Yar. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests Launch Date: 1969-03-05 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R Mass: 400.0 kg Kosmos 269 (Tselina-O #4) Cosmos 269 was a Soviet ELINT (Electronic and Signals Intelligence) satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. From 1965 to 1967 two dedicated ELINT systems were tested: the Tselina and the Navy's US. Both reached service, since the Ministry of Defence could not force a single system on the military services. Tselina was developed by Yuzhnoye and consisted of two satellites: Tselina-O for general observations and Tselina-D for detailed observations. ELINT systems for Tselina were first tested under the Cosmos designation in 1962 to 1965. The first TselinaO was launched in 1970. The Tselina-D took a long time to enter service due to delays in payload development and weight growth. The whole Tselina system was not operational until 1976. Constant improvement resulted in Tselina-O being abandoned in 1984 and all systems being put on Tselina-D. Foto:Tselina-O [Yuzhnoye] Launch Date: 1969-03-05 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-5 (SKean IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 875.0 kg Kosmos 270 (Zenit-4 #49) Cosmos 270 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-03-06 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Kosmos 271 (Zenit-4 #50) Cosmos 271 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket Launch Date: 1969-03-15 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 21 Kosmos 272 (Sfera #4) Cosmos 272 was a Soviet geodetic satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Cosmos 11 rocket. The Sfera geodetic system covered a broad development for solving problems in geodetics, continental drift, and precise location of cartographic points. The spacecraft was equipped with measurement and signalling apparatus, providing assistance in measuring astronomicalgeodetic points of military topographical research for the Red Army General Staff. The satellite allowed improved accuracy for long range weapons. Reshetnev was the Chief Designer. Flight tests were from 1968 to 1972. Series flights were from 1973 to 1980. The Kosmos 3M launcher was used. Colonel Ye S Shchapov was in charge of Sfera development. Sfera used the basic KAUR-1 bus, consisting of a 2.035 m diameter cylindrical spacecraft body, with solar cells and radiators of the thermostatic temperature regulating system mounted on the exterior. Orientation was by a single-axis magnetogravitational (gravity gradient boom) passive system. The hermetically sealed compartment had the equipment mounted in cruciform bays, with the chemical batteries protecting the radio and guidance equipment mounted at the centre. Foto:Sfera [NPO PM] Launch Date: 1969-03-17 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-5 (SKean IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 600.0 kg OV1 17 (P69-1(a)) OV1 18 (P69-1(b)) OV1 19 (P69-1(c)) Orbiscal 2 (OV1 17A, P69-1(d)) OV1-17 was one of four research satellites injected into orbit simultaneously from a single launch vehicle. The spacecraft was an 81-cm-long cylinder measuring 69 cm in diameter and was fitted with hemispheric multifaced solar panel domes on either end. Proper satellite orientation was maintained by a gravity-gradient stabilization system consisting of three 15.5-m-long horizontal booms forming a 'y' and two 19-m-long vertical booms. OV1-17 carried a variety of experiments to measure incoming solar electromagnetic radiation and the reaction of such radiation with the earth's outer atmosphere. Included were instrumentation for making (1) solar x-ray, particle, and electric field measurements, (2) horizontal dayglow and nightglow measurements, and (3) extremely low-frequency radio propagation studies. The spacecraft was also fitted with a meteor trail calibration beacon and a panel of 14 cadmium-sulfide solar cells to evaluate the performance and radiation resistance of such cells in a space environment. The spacecraft failed to achieve proper stabilization, thereby reducing the applicability of data from many of the experiments. OV1-17 reentered the earth's atmosphere on March 5, 1970. This battery powered satellite was actually the propulsion module of OV1-17. After separation from OV1-17, this module was repositioned and was designated OV1-17A. This spin-stabilized spacecraft, also referred to as ORBIS CAL 2 carried one experiment comprising two 6.45-m-long transmitting antenna beacons and a 6.45-m-long inertia boom. The two beacons operated at 13.23 and 8.98 MHz and were used by ground station personnel to study unusual transmission by radio waves through the ionosphere. The spacecraft operated normally until reentering the earth's atmosphere on March 24, 1969. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 22 OV1 18: Ionospheric effects, large dish antenna, auroral electrons detector, VertistatLAV OV1 19: Radiation belt detectors Launch Date: 1969-03-18 Launch Vehicle: Atlas Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 142.0 kg 1969-025E / 1969-025F Launch Date: 1969-03-18 Launch Vehicle: Atlas Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Kosmos 274 (Zenit-4 #51) Cosmos 274 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The spacecraft also carried a science package. Launch Date: 1969-03-24 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Meteor-1 1 KH-4A 50 SSF-B 14KH-4A 1050 Subsatelite This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was a KH-4A (Key Hole-4A) type spacecraft. Due to abnormal rotational rates after revolution 22, the mission was terminated after a total of three days of collecting photography. Launch Date: 1969-03-19 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Kosmos 273 (Zenit-2 #65) Cosmos 273 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-03-22 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Meteor 1-1 was the first fully operational Russian meteorological satellite and the ninth meteorological satellite launched from the Plesetsk site. The satellite was placed in a near-circular, near-polar prograde orbit to provide near-global observations of the earth's weather systems, cloud cover, ice and snow fields, and reflected and emitted radiation from the dayside and nightside of the earth-atmosphere system for operational use by the Soviet Hydrometeorological Service. Meteor 1 was equipped with two vidicon cameras for dayside photography, a scanning high-resolution IR radiometer for dayside and nightside photography, and an actinometric instrument for measuring the earth's radiation field in the visible and infrared regions. The satellite was in the form of a cylinder 5 m long and 1.5 m in diameter with two large solar panels attached to the sides. The solar panels were automatically oriented toward the sun to provide the spacecraft with the maximum amount of solar power. Meteor 1 was oriented toward the earth by a gravity-gradient triaxial stabilization system consisting of flywheels whose kinetic energy was dampened by the use of controlled electromagnets on board that interacted with the magnetic field of the earth. The instruments were housed in the base of the satellite, which pointed toward the earth, while the solar sensors were mounted in the top section. The operational 'Meteor' weather satellite system ideally consists of at least two satellites spaced at 90-deg intervals in longitude so as to observe a given area of the Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 23 earth approximately every 6 hr. When within a communication range, the data acquired by Meteor 1 were transmited directly to the ground receiving center in Moscow, Novosibirsk, or Vladivostok. Over regions beyond communication range, Meteor 1 recorded the TV and IR pictures and actinometric data and stored them on board until the satellite passed over the receiving centers. The meteorological data received at these centers were processed, reduced, and sent to the Hydrometeorological Center in Moscow where they were analyzed and used to prepare various forecast and analysis products. Some of the TV and IR pictures and analyzed actinometric data were then distributed to various meteorological centers around the world. It is believed the satellite terminated operations in July 1970, when the transmissions of video and IR data from Moscow to the United States via the 'cold line' facsimile link ceased. Launch Date: 1969-03-26 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 1st Generation Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 1400.0 kg Mariner 7 Mariner 6 and 7 comprised a dual-spacecraft mission to Mars, the sixth and seventh missions in the Mariner series of spacecraft used for planetary exploration in the flyby mode. The primary objectives of the missions were to study the surface and atmosphere of Mars during close flybys to establish the basis for future investigations, particularly those relevant to the search for extraterrestrial life, and to demonstrate and develop technologies required for future Mars missions and other long-duration missions far from the Sun. Mariner 6 also had the objective of providing experience and data which would be useful in programming the Mariner 7 encounter 5 days later. Each spacecraft carried a wide- and narrow-angle television camera, an infrared spectroscope, an infrared radiometer, and an ultraviolet spectroscope. The spacecraft were oriented entirely to planetary data acquisition, and no data were obtained during the trip to Mars or beyond Mars. Spacecraft and Subsystems The Mariner 6 and 7 spacecraft were identical, consisting of an octagonal magnesium frame base, 138.4 cm diagonally and 45.7 cm deep. A conical superstructure mounted on top of the frame held the highgain 1 meter diameter parabolic antenna and four solar panels, each measuring 215 x 90 cm, were affixed to the top corners of the frame. The tip-to-tip span of the deployed solar panels was 5.79 m. A low-gain omnidirectional antenna was mounted on a 2.23 m high mast next to the high-gain antenna. Underneath the octagonal frame was a two-axis scan platform which held scientific instruments. Overall science instrument mass was 57.6 kg. The total height of the spacecraft was 3.35 m. The spacecraft was attitude stabilized in three axes (referenced to the sun and the star, Canopus) through the use of 3 gyros, 2 sets of 6 nitrogen jets mounted on the ends of the solar panels, a Canopus tracker, and two primary and four secondary sun sensors. Propulsion was provided by a 223 N rocket motor mounted within the frame which used monopropellant hydrazine. The nozzle with 4jet vane vector control protruded from one wall of the octagonal structure. Power was supplied by 17,472 photovoltaic cells covering an area of 7.7 square meters on the four solar panels. These could provide 800 W of power near Earth and 449 W at Mars. The maximum power requirement was 380 W at Mars encounter. A 1200 W-hr rechargeable silver-zinc battery was used to provide backup power. Thermal control was achieved through the use of adjustable louvers on the sides of the main compartment. Three telemetry channels were available for telecommunications. Channel A carried engineering data at 8 1/3 or 33 1/3 bps, channel B carried scientific data at 66 2/3 or 270 bps and channel C carried science data at 16,200 bps. Communications were accomplished via the high- and low-gain antennas via dual S-band travelling wave tube 10/20 W amplifiers for transmission and a single receiver. An analog tape recorder with a capacity of 195 million bits could store television images for subsequent transmission. Other science data was stored on a digital recorder. The command system, Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 24 consisting of a central computer and sequencer (CC&S), was designed to actuate specific events at precise times. The CC&S was programmed with a standard mission and a conservative backup mission befire launch, but could be commanded and reprogrammed in flight. It could perform 53 direct commands, 5 control commands, and 4 quantitative commands. Mission Profile Mariner 7 was launched on a direct-ascent trajectory to Mars from Cape Kennedy Launch Complex 36A on an Atlas SLV3C/Centaur (AC19, spacecraft 69-4) 31 days after the launch of Mariner 6. On 8 April 1969 a midcourse correction was made by firing the hydrazine moter for 7.6 seconds. On 8 May Mariner 7 was put on gyro control to avoid attitude control problems which were affecting Mariner 6. On 31 July telemetry from Mariner 7 was suddenly lost and the spacecraft was commanded to switch to the low-gain antenna. It was later successfully switched back to the high-gain antenna. It was thought that leaking gases, perhaps from the battery which later failed a few days before encounter, had caused the anomaly. At 09:32:33 UT on 2 August 1969 Mariner 7 bagan the far-encounter sequence involving imaging of Mars with the narrow angle camera. Over the next 57 hours, ending about 5 hours before closest approach, 93 images of Mars were taken and transmitted. The spacecraft was reprogrammed as a result of analysis of Mariner 6 images. The new sequence called for the spacecraft to go further south than originally planned, take more near-encounter pictures, and collect more scientific data on the lighted side of Mars. Data from the dark side of Mars were to be transmitted directly back to Earth but there would be no room on the digital recorder for backup due to the added dayside data. At closest approach, 05:00:49 UT on 5 August, Mariner 7 was 3430 km above the martian surface. Over this period, 33 nearencounter images were taken. About 19 minutes after the flyby, the spacecraft went behind Mars and emerged roughly 30 minutes later. X-band occultation data were taken during the entrance and exit phases. Science and imaging data were played back and transmitted over the next few days. The spacecraft was then returned to cruise mode which included engineering and communications tests, star photography TV tests, and UV scans of the Milky Way and an area containing comet 1969-B. Periodic tracking of the spacecraft in its heliocentric orbit was also done. Science Results The total data return for Mariners 6 and 7 was 800 million bits. Mariner 6 returned 49 far encounter and 26 near encounter images of Mars, and Mariner 7 returned 93 far and 33 near encounter images. Close-ups from the near encounter phases covered 20% of the surface. The spacecraft instruments measured UV and IR emissions and radio refractivity of the Martian atmosphere. Images showed the surface of Mars to be very different from that of the Moon, in some contrast to the results from Mariner 4. The south polar cap was identified as being composed predominantly of carbon dioxide. Atmospheric surface pressure was estimated at between 6 and 7 mb. Radio science refined estimates of the mass, radius and shape of Mars. Total research, development, launch, and support costs for the Mariner series of spacecraft (Mariners 1 through 10) was approximately $554 million. Foto:Mariner 7 [NASA] Launch Date: 1969-03-27 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 411.8 kg Nominal Power: 449.0 W Mars (2b) (M-69 #1) Intento fallido Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 25 Esta misión nunca fue anunciada oficialmente. Tras el lanzamiento, a los 51 segundos la cofia que debía dejar al aire la sonda no se abrió. Además, después de la correcta evolución de las dos primeras etapas del cohete, la tercera etapa del Proton SL-12/D-1-e (también llamado 8K82K, #24001 + 11S824) experimentó un fallo en un rotor lo que causó que la turbo bomba saliera ardiendo. El motor dejó de funcionar a los 438,66 segundos y explotó, cayendo los restos en las montañas Altai. Foto:DS-P1-I [Yuzhnoye] Abril 1968 Mars (2c) (M-69 #2) Kosmos 275 (DS-P1-I #5) Cosmos 275 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-03-28 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 400.0 kg This Soviet Mars mission was never officially announced but has since been identified as a planned orbiter. The first stage of the Proton SL-12/D-1-e (8K82K, #233-01 + 11S824) launcher failed almost immediately. At 0.02 seconds after liftoff, one of the six 11D43 first stage rockets exploded. The control system initially compensated for the lost engine and the launch proceeded on 5 engines until 25 seconds after liftoff at approximately 1 km altitude the rocket began to tip over to a horizontal position. The five engines shut down and the rocket impacted and exploded 41 seconds after liftoff approximately 3 km from the launch pad. Spacecraft and Subsystems This mission was one of two identical probes launched in the spring of 1969. The payload was an M-69 class probe (#522) with a launch mass of 4850 kg. The probe was built around a spherical propellant compartment with an inner baffle to separate it into two isolated partitions. Two solar panel wings with a total surface area of 7 square meters were mounted on either side of the compartment. A 2.8 m diameter parabolic dish antenna was mounted near the top of the probe, along with three pressurized compartments, the top compartment holding electronics, the second the radio and navigation systems, and the third cameras, a battery, and telemetry devices. Also mounted on the outside of the spacecraft were two conical antennas and a suite of scientific sensors. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 26 The main engine was mounted at the bottom of the probe and used a turbopump to run on the nitrogen tetroxide and unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH) contained in the main propellant compartment. Eight thrusters with their own fuel tanks and 9 helium pressurization tanks controlled pitch (2 thrusters), yaw (2), and roll (4). Three-axis stabilization and orientation were achieved using 2 Sun sensors, 2 Earth sensors, 2 Mars sensors, a Canopus sensor, gyros, and small thrusters using pressurized nitrogen gas stored in ten tanks. Power at 12 amps was supplied by the solar panels and used to run the spacecraft directly and charge a hermetically sealed cadmium-nickel 110 amphour storage battery. Communications were via two transmitters in the centimeter band (6 GHz) which operated at 25,000 W and transmitted at 6000 bits/s and two transmitters and three receivers in the decimeter band (790-940 MHz) at 100 W and 128 bits/s and a 500 channel telemetry system. The parabolic dish was a directional high-gain antenna for use as the spacecraft neared Mars and the low-gain conical antennas were semi-directional. Thermal control was achieved through passive screenvacuum insulation and through an active system in the pressurized compartments which consisted of a ventilation and air circulation unit which could run through radiators exposed to sunlight or in shadow. The spacecraft scientific payload consisted primarily of three television cameras designed to image the surface of Mars. The cameras had three color filters and two lenses, a 50-mm lens with a nominal field of view of 1500 x 1500 km and a 350-mm lens which had a field of 100 x 100 km. An image was 1024 x 1024 pixels for a maximum resolution of 200 to 500 meters. The camera system consisted of film, a processing unit, an exposure unit, and a data encoder to prepare the images for transmission. The camera could store 160 images. The spacecraft also carried a radiometer, water vapor detector, ultraviolet and infrared spectrometers, a radiation detector, gamma spectrometer, hydrogen/helium mass spectrometer, solar plasma spectrometer, and a low-energy ion spectrometer. Planned Mission Profile The nominal mission plan was to use the first three stages of the Proton booster and the Block-D upper stage to place the spacecraft into earth parking orbit. The upper stage would then be reignited after one orbit to begin the escape sequence. The spacecraft main engine would then be used for the final boost to put the spacecraft into Mars trajectory. The main engine would also be used for two trajectory correction maneuvers during the 6 month cruise to Mars. The main engine would then be used to put the spacecraft into a 1700 x 34,000 km capture orbit around Mars with an inclination of 40 degrees and a period of 24 hours. Photography and other experiments would take place from this orbit. Then the periapsis would be lowered to 500 to 700 km for a nominal three month session of imaging and data collection from orbit. Foto:Mars 69 (Videokosmos) Launch Date: 1969-04-02 Launch Vehicle: Proton Booster Plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), Russia Mass: 4850.0 kg Kosmos 276 (Zenit-4 #52) Cosmos 276 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-04-04 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 27 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Kosmos 277 (DS-P1-Yu #20) Cosmos 277 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-04-04 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 400.0 kg Kosmos 278 (Zenit-2 #66) Cosmos 278 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-04-09 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Molniya-1 11 Molniya 1/11 was a first-generation Russian communications satellite orbited to test and perfect a system of radio communications and television broadcasting using earth satellites as active transponders and to experiment with the system in practical use. The basic function of the satellite was to relay television programs and long-distance twoway multichannel telephone, phototelephone, and telegraph links from Moscow to the various standard ground receiving stations in the 'Orbita' system. The satellite was in the form of a hermetically sealed cylinder with conical ends -- one end contained the orbital correcting engine and a system of microjets, and the other end contained externally mounted solar and earth sensors. Inside the cylinder were (1) a high-sensitivity receiver and three 800-MHz 40-w transmitters (one operational and two in reserve), (2) telemetering devices that monitored equipment operation, (3) chemical batteries that were constantly recharged by solar cells, and (4) an electronic computer that controlled all equipment on board. Mounted around the central cylinder were six large solar battery panels and two directional, high-gain parabolic aerials, 180 deg apart. One of the aerials was directed continually toward the earth by the highly sensitive earth sensors. The second aerial was held in reserve. Signals were transmitted in a fairly narrow beam ensuring a strong reception at the earth's surface. The satellite received telemetry at 1000 MHz. Television service was provided in a frequency range of 3.4 to 4.1 GHz at 40 w. Molniya 1/11, whose cylindrical body was 3.4 m long and 1.6 m in diameter, was much heavier than corresponding U.S. COMSATs, and it had about 10 times the power output of the Early Bird COMSAT. In addition, it did not employ a geosynchronous equatorial orbit as have most U.S. COMSATs because such an orbit would not provide coverage for areas north of 70 deg n latitude. Instead, the satellite was boosted from a low-altitude parking orbit into a highly elliptical orbit with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere -- one over Russia and one over North America -and relatively low perigees over the southern hemisphere. During its apogee, Molniya 1/11 remained relatively stationary with respect to the earth below for nearly 8 of every 12 hr. By placing three or more Molniya 1 satellites in this type of orbit, spacing them suitably, and shifting their orbital planes relative to each other by 120 deg, a 24-hr/day communication system could be obtained. Launch Date: 1969-04-11 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation Upper Stage + Escape Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 998.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 28 Canyon 2 Canyon was the first series of near geostationary ELINT/SIGINT satellites launched under the designation AFP-827. Reportedly they consist of a large (ca. 10 m diameter) antenna and are three axis stabilized. The purpose of the Canyon series is to pinpoint radar locations. For that purpose they are deployed into a 24 h orbit, which is not geostationary, so that triangulations can be made from different points. They were succeeded by the Chalet / Vortex series. As the orbital data reported is not quite consistent, it is unclear, if the Canyons were deployed directly into the final orbit by the Agena-D or if they used a apogee kick motor. Recent analysis by Jonathan McDowell hints to the first theory, with the Agena-D remaining attached to the spacecraft during the first three missions. Launch Date: 1969-04-13 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Agena D Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 700.0 kg Nimbus 3 / SECOR 13 (S69-2) Nimbus 3, the third in a series of secondgeneration meteorological research-anddevelopment satellites, was designed to serve as a stabilized, earth-oriented platform for the testing of advanced meteorological sensor systems and the collecting of meteorological data. The polar-orbiting spacecraft consisted of three major elements: (1) a sensory ring, (2) solar paddles, and (3) the control system housing. The solar paddles and the control system housing were connected to the sensory ring by a truss structure, giving the satellite the appearance of an ocean buoy. Nimbus 3 was nearly 3.7 m tall, 1.5 m in diameter at the base, and about 3 m across with solar paddles extended. The torus-shaped sensory ring, which formed the satellite base, housed the electronics equipment and battery modules. The lower surface of the torus ring provided mounting space for sensors and telemetry antennas. An H-frame structure mounted within the center of the torus provided support for the larger experiments and tape recorders. Mounted on the control system housing, which was located on top of the spacecraft, were sun sensors, horizon scanners, gas nozzles for attitude control, and a command antenna. Use of the attitude control subsystem (ACS) permitted the spacecraft's orientation to be controlled to within plus or minus 1 deg for all three axes (pitch, roll, and yaw). Primary experiments consisted of (1) a satellite infrared spectrometer (SIRS) for determining the vertical temperature profiles of the atmosphere, (2) an infrared interferometer spectrometer (IRIS) for measuring the emission spectra of the earthatmosphere system, (3) both high- and medium-resolution infrared radiometers (HRIR and MRIR) for yielding information on the distribution and intensity of infrared radiation emitted and reflected by the earth and its atmosphere, (4) a monitor of ultraviolet solar energy (MUSE) for detecting solar UV radiation, (5) an image dissector camera system (IDCS) for providing daytime cloudcover pictures in both real-time mode, using the real time transmission system (RTTS), and tape recorder mode, using the high data rate storage system, (6) a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), SNAP-19, to assess the operational capability of radioisotope power for space applications, and (7) an interrogation, recording and location system (IRLS) experiment designed to locate, interrogate, record, and retransmit meteorological and geophysical data from remote collection stations. Nimbus 3 was successful and performed normally until July 22, 1969, when the IRIS experiment failed. The HRIR and SIRS experiments were terminated on January 25, 1970, and June 21, 1970, respectively. The remaining experiments continued operation until September 25, 1970, when the rear horizon scanner failed. Without this horizon scanner, it was impossible to maintain proper spacecraft attitude, thus making most experimental observations useless. All spacecraft operations were terminated on January 22, 1972. More detailed information can be found in "The Nimbus III User's Guide" (TRF B03409), available from NSSDC. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 29 Launch Date: 1969-04-15 Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIB-Agena D Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 3000.0 kg Kosmos 280 (Zenit-4M #3, Rotor #3) Cosmos 280 was a third generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The spacecraft carried weather experiments. It was maneuverable. Foto:Nimbus B [NASA] SECOR 13 provided geodetic position determination measurements. It was launched from the White Sands Missile Center on the same Thor-Agena rocket with Nimbus 3. Launch Date: 1969-04-14 Launch Vehicle: Thor-Agena Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 575.6 kg Kosmos 279 (Zenit-4 #53) Cosmos 279 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-04-15 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg KH-8 21 This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft. Launch Date: 1969-04-23 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 6300.0 kg Mayo 1969 KH-4A 51 SSF-B 15 / KH-4A 1051 Subsatelite This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was a KH-4A (Key Hole-4A) type spacecraft. Imagery of both pan camera records is soft and lacks crispness and edge sharpness. Launch Date: 1969-05-02 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Apollo 10 (CSM 106) / LEM 4 Crew Eugene Cernan / John Young Thomas Stafford Lift Off Saturn V May 18, 1969 / 12:49 a.m. EDT KSC, Florida Complex 39-B Splash-down May 26, 1969 12:52 p.m. EDT Pacific Ocean Duration 8 days, 0 hours, 3 min., 23 seconds Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 30 Module were tested during the separation including communications, propulsion, attitude control and radar. The Lunar Module and Command Module rendezvous and redocking occurred 8 hours after separation on May 23. Thirty-one lunar orbits were achieved. All systems on both spacecraft functioned nominally, the only exception being an anomaly in the automatic abort guidance system aboard the Lunar Module. In addition to extensive photography of the lunar surface from both the Lunar Module and Command Module, television images were taken and transmitted to Earth. The Apollo 10 Command Module "Charlie Brown" is on display at the Science Museum, London, England. Kosmos 281 (Zenit-2 #67) Cosmos 281 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. This spacecraft was the second Apollo mission to orbit the Moon, and the first to travel to the Moon with the full Apollo spacecraft, consisting of the Command and Service Module, named "Charlie Brown," and the Lunar Module, named "Snoopy." The primary objectives of the mission were to demonstrate crew, space vehicle and mission support facilities during a human lunar mission and to evaluate Lunar Module performance in cislunar and lunar environment. The mission was a full "dry run" for the Apollo 11 mission, in which all operations except the actual lunar landing were performed. On May 22, Thomas Stafford and Eugene Cernan entered the Lunar Module and fired the Service Module reaction control thrusters to separate the Lunar Module from the Command Module. The Lunar Module was put into an orbit to allow low-altitude passes over the lunar surface, the closest approach bringing it to within 8.9 kilometers (5.5 miles) of the Moon. All systems on the Lunar Launch Date: 1969-05-13 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Kosmos 282 (Zenit-4 #54) Cosmos 282 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-05-20 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Intelsat-3 4 INTELSAT 3F-4 was launched by NASA for Communications Satellite Corporation. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 31 Intelsat 3 spacecraft were used to relay commercial global telecommunications including live TV. Three of the 8 satellites in the series (F1, F5, F8) were unusable due to launch vehicle failures, and most of the remainder did not achieve their desired lifetimes. F2 operated for 1.5 years, F3 was partially operational for 7 years, F4 lasted 3 years, F6 survived 2 years, and F7 remained usable for 16 years. Intesat-3 spacecraft were spin stabilized with a despun antenna structure (34 inch tall antenna). Hydrazine propulsion system with 4 thrusters and 4 tanks. Passive thermal control. Body mounted solar cells produced 178 W peak, 9 AHr NiCd batteries. The payload consisted of two transponders using 12 watt TWTA amplifiers for multiple access, 1500 voice circuits or 4 TV channels. Vela 9 / Vela 10 OV5 5 (ERS 29, S68-3(a)) OV5 6 (ERS 26, S68-3(b)) OV5 9 (S68-3(c)) Vela 5A was one of two spin-stabilized, polyhedral satellites that comprised the fifth launch in the Vela program. The orbits of the two satellites on each launch were basically circular at about 17 earth radii, inclined at 60 deg to the ecliptic, and spaced 180 deg apart, thus providing a monitoring capability of opposite sides of the earth. The objectives of the satellites were (1) to study solar and cosmic X rays, extreme ultraviolet radiation (EUV), solar protons, solar wind, and neutrons, (2) to carry out research and development on methods of detecting nuclear explosions by means of satellite-borne instrumentation, and (3) to provide solar flare data in support of manned space missions. Vela 5A, an improved version of the earlier Vela series satellites, had better command capabilities, increased data storage, improved power requirements, better thermal control of optical sensors, and greater experimentation weight. Power supplies of 120 W were provided by 22,500 solar cells mounted on 24 of the spacecraft's 26 faces. A rotation rate of 78 rpm during transfer orbits and 1 rpm after final orbit insertion maintained nominal attitude control. Eight whip antennas and four stub antenna arrays at opposite ends of the spacecraft structure were used for ground commands and telemetry. Foto:Intelsat-3 [Intelsat] Launch Date: 1969-05-22 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 647.0 kg Foto:Vela 9, Vela 10 and spin module [USAF] Launch Date: 1969-05-23 Launch Vehicle: Titan III-C Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 259.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 32 OV5 5: Boom mounted magnetometer, 7 particle detectors, LVF receiver OV5 6: Solid state detectors, Faraday cup, magnetic spectrometer, fluxgate magnetometer OV5 7: Solar X-ray detectors OV5 8: Vacuum friction experiments OV5 9: VLF receiver, solar X-ray detector, 4 particle detectors This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft. Launch Date: 1969-06-03 Launch Vehicle: Titan Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 3000.0 kg Kosmos 285 (DS-P1-Yu #22) Kosmos 283 (DS-P1-Yu #21) Cosmos 283 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-05-27 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 250.0 kg Kosmos 284 (Zenit-4 #55) Cosmos 284 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-05-29 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Junio 1969 KH-8 22 Cosmos 285 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-06-03 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Luna (15c) Intento fallido OGO 6 OGO 6 was a large observatory instrumented with 26 experiments designed to study the various interrelationships between, and latitudinal distributions of, high-altitude atmospheric parameters during a period of increased solar activity. The main body of the spacecraft was attitude controlled by means of horizon scanners and gas jets so that its orientation was maintained constant with respect to the earth and the sun. The solar panels rotated on a horizontal axis extending transversely through the main body of the spacecraft. The rotation of the panels was activated by sun sensors so that the panels received maximum sunlight. Seven experiments were mounted on the solar panels (the SOEP package). An additional Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 33 axis, oriented vertically across the front of the main body, carried seven experiments (the OPEP package). Nominally, these sensors observed in a forward direction in the orbital plane of the satellite. The sensors could be rotated more than 90 deg relative to the nominal observing position and more than 90 deg between the upper and lower OPEP groups mounted on either end of this axis. On June 22, 1969, the spacecraft potential dropped significantly during sunlight operation and remained so during subsequent sunlight operation. This unexplained shift affected seven experiments which made measurements dependent upon knowledge of the spacecraft plasma sheath. During October 1969, a string of solar cells failed, but the only effect of the decreased power was to cause two experiments to change their mode of operation. Also during October 1969, a combination of manual and automatic attitude control was initiated, which extended the control gas lifetime of the attitude control system. In August 1970, tape recorder (TR) no. 1 operation degraded, so all recorded data were subsequently taken with TR no. 2. By September 1970, power and equipment degradation left 14 experiments operating normally, 3 partially, and 9 off. From October 14, 1970, TR no. 2 was used only on Wednesdays (world days) to conserve power and extend TR operation. In June 1971, the number of "on" experiments decreased from 13 to 7, and on June 28, 1971, the spacecraft was placed in a spin-stabilized mode about the yaw (Z) axis and turned off due to difficulties with spacecraft power. OGO 6 was turned on again from October 10, 1971, through March 1972, for operation of experiment 25 by The Radio Research Laboratory, Japan. For additional information see J. E. Jackson and J. I. Vette, OGO Program Summary, NASA SP-7601, Dec. 1975. 969 a las 04:00:47 GMT · Masa seca en órbita: 5.700 kg. Se trataba de una nueva misión para traer muestras de vuelta desde la Luna pero siguió un destino similar a la sonda anterior. El aterrizador o Moonscooper estaba formado por una etapa de descenso con una base de 3,96 metros de diámetro que contenía los retrocohetes, la instrumentación y los tanques de combustible, así como un brazo robotizado. En la parte superior se encontraba una unidad con forma cilíndrica donde estaban los instrumentos principales y en la parte superior estaba situada la etapa de ascenso. Esquema de las sonda de retorno lunares soviéticas Esta etapa de ascenso contenía los cohetes de ascenso y la cápsula esférica de retorno con el contenedor de muestras hermético. El compartimento tenía una apertura por donde el brazo robótico colocaría las muestras lunares. El conjunto de descenso tenía una altura total de 4 metros y un peso de 1880 kilogramos. Por razones desconocidas el cohete Proton encargado de lanzamiento explotó en el lanzamiento. Launch Date: 1969-06-05 Launch Vehicle: Thor-Agena Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 631.8 kg Kosmos 286 (Zenit-4 #56) Luna (15b) (E-8-5 #1) Cosmos 286 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. · Fecha de lanzamiento: 14 de junio de 1. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 34 Launch Date: 1969-06-15 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Explorer 41 (IMP G) Explorer 41 (IMP-G) was a spin-stabilized spacecraft placed into a high-inclination, highly elliptic orbit to measure energetic particles, magnetic fields, and plasma in cislunar space. The line of apsides and the satellite spin vector were within a few degrees of being parallel and normal, respectively, to the ecliptic plane. Initial local time of apogee was about 1300 h. Initial satellite spin rate was 27.5 rpm. The basic telemetry sequence was 20.48 s. The spacecraft functioned very well from launch until it decayed from orbit on December 23, 1972. Data transmission was nearly 100% for the spacecraft life except for the interval from November 15, 1971, to February 1, 1972, when data acquisition was limited to the vicinity of the magnetotail neutral sheet. launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-06-27 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Biosat 3 (Bios 3) Biosatellite 3 was flown to conduct intensive experiments to evaluate the effects of weightlessness with a pigtail monkey on board. The spacecraft deorbited after 9 days because the monkey's metabolic condition was deteriorating rapidly. The monkey expired 8 hours after the spacecraft recovery, presumably from a massive heart attack brought on by dehydration Launch Date: 1969-06-29 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 1546.0 kg Launch Date: 1969-06-21 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 175.0 kg Kosmos 287 (Zenit-2 #68) Cosmos 287 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-06-24 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Foto:Biosat 3 [NASA] Julio 1969 L1S #2 / L3 Model #2 Intento fallido STV 2 Kosmos 288 (Zenit-4 #57) Cosmos 288 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 35 Luna 15 fue colocada en una órbita de aparcamiento terrestre tras el lanzamiento y posteriormente enviada hacia la Luna mediante la cuarta etapa del cohete ProtonK. La nave se colocó en órbita lunar el 16 de julio y comenzó a estudiar el espacio circumlunar, el campo gravitatorio y la composición química de la superficie. Además portaba una cámara para realizar fotografías de la superficie. Tras completar 86 sesiones de comunicaciones con la Tierra y 52 órbitas a diferentes alturas e inclinaciones, la nave impactó contra la superficie el 21 de julio de 1969, posiblemente en un intento por tomar tierra para traer muestras lunares. Justo el mismo día de la llegada de la misión tripulada Apollo 11. Foto:STV 1 STV (Satellite Test Vehicle) Nation: Type / Application: Operator: Contractors: Europe Vehicle evaluation ELDO Fiat Aviazione Kosmos 289 (Zenit-4 #58) Cosmos 289 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-07-10 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Foto: Módulo de ascenso devolviendo las muestras a la Tierra Apollo 11 (CSM 107) LEM 5 /Apollo 11 SIVB Luna 15 (E-8-5 #2) · Otros nombres: 1969-058A, Lunik 15, 04036 · Fecha de lanzamiento: 13 de julio de 1.969 a las 02:54:42 GMT · Masa seca en órbita: 5.718 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 36 Apolo 11 es el nombre de la misión espacial que los Estados Unidos enviaron al espacio el 16 de julio de 1969; fue la primera misión tripulada en llegar a la superficie de la Luna. El Apolo 11 fue impulsado por un cohete Saturno V, desde la plataforma LC 39A; y lanzado a las 9:32 hora local del complejo de Cabo Kennedy, en Florida (Estados Unidos). Oficialmente se conoció a la misión como AS-506. Nombre de la misión: Apolo 11 Nombre de los módulos: Módulo de mando: Columbia Módulo lunar: Eagle Número de tripulantes: 3 Rampa de lanzamiento: Centro Espacial Kennedy, Florida LC 39A Despegue: 16 de julio de 1969 13:32:00 UTC Alunizaje: 20 de julio de 1969 20:17:40 UTC Mar de la Tranquilidad 0° 40' 26.69" N, 23° 28' 22.69" E Tiempo AEV lunar: 2 h 31 min 40 s Tiempo en la superficie de la Luna: 21 h 36 min 20 s Cantidad de muestras: 21.55 kg Aterrizaje: 24 de julio de 1969 16:50:35 UTC 13°19′N 169°9′O / 13.317, -169.15 Duración: 195 h 18 min 35 s Tiempo en órbitas lunares: 59 h 30 min 25.79 s Masa: MC: 30,320 kg ML: 16,448 kg Foto de la Tripulación La tripulación del Apolo 11 estaba compuesta por el comandante Neil A. Armstrong, de 38 años y comandante de la misión; Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., de 39 años y piloto del LEM, apodado Buzz; y Michael Collins, de 38 años y piloto del módulo de mando. La denominación de las naves, privilegio del comandante, fue Eagle para el módulo lunar y Columbia para el módulo de mando. El comandante Neil Armstrong fue el primer ser humano que pisó la superficie de nuestro satélite el 20 de julio de 1969 al Sur de Mar de la Tranquilidad, (Mare Tranquilitatis). Este hito histórico se retransmitió a todo el planeta desde las instalaciones del Observatorio Parkes (Australia). Inicialmente el paseo lunar iba a ser retransmitido a partir de la señal que llegase a la estación de seguimiento de Goldstone (California, Estados Unidos), perteneciente a la Red del Espacio Profundo, pero ante la mala recepción de la señal se optó por utilizar la señal de la estación Honeysuckle Creek, cercana a Canberra (Australia).[1] Ésta retransmitió los primeros minutos del paseo lunar, tras los cuales la señal del observatorio Parkes fue utilizada de nuevo durante el [2] resto del paseo lunar. Las instalaciones del MDSCC en Robledo de Chavela (Madrid, España) también pertenecientes a la Red del Espacio Profundo, sirvieron de apoyo durante [3] [4] todo el viaje de ida y vuelta. El 24 de julio, los tres astronautas amerizaron en aguas del Océano Pacífico poniendo fin a la misión. Armstrong, Collins y Aldrin Cronología del vuelo Despegue del Apolo 11 Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 37 El 18 de junio, tres semanas antes del lanzamiento, comienza la carga de queroseno tipo RP-1 en la primera etapa del Saturno V, un trabajo que termina seis días después. El 15 de julio, ocho horas antes de la hora prevista para el lanzamiento y para evitar pérdidas por evaporación, se procede al bombeo de oxígeno líquido (LOX) e hidrógeno líquido (LH2) en los tanques de las tres etapas del cohete. Estos últimos propelentes, son almacenados a altas presiones y a bajas temperaturas, por lo que se los denomina genéricamente criogénicos. una vez consumían su combustible. Esto es lo que ocurrió durante el despegue del Apolo 11: Cuando los cinco motores F-1 de la primera etapa se encienden, los sistemas de refrigeración se encargan de arrojar varias toneladas de agua sobre la estructura metálica del cohete para protegerla del calor. Con la enorme vibración, se desprende la escarcha que recubre el cohete, por efecto de las bajísimas temperaturas a las que se mantienen los propergoles dentro de los tanques. Cuando el Saturno V alcanza el 95% de su empuje total, los cuatro ganchos que retienen el cohete saltan hacia atrás; con una ligera sacudida el cohete se despega de la plataforma y comienza a elevarse, mientras los cinco últimos brazos de la plataforma se desplazan hacia un lado para no entorpecer el lanzamiento del cohete. Para entonces los motores F-1 ya consumen quince toneladas de combustible por segundo. A las 10:32 de la mañana en Cabo Kennedy el Saturno V abandona la rampa de lanzamiento. Durante la misión la tripulación establecerá contacto verbal con el centro de control en Houston ya que una vez que el Saturno V despega, Cabo Kennedy traspasa el control a Houston. El Saturno V despega El 16 de julio, los astronautas Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin y Michael Collins, son llevados hasta la nave para proceder a su posterior lanzamiento. Mientras, el ordenador del Complejo 39 realiza las últimas comprobaciones y verifica que todos los sistemas funcionan. El director de vuelo, Gene Kranz, verifica las recomendaciones del ordenador y consulta a los miembros de su equipo. Entonces comienza la secuencia de ignición. Ciento sesenta segundos después, los motores de cebado de la segunda etapa se ponen en marcha ya que los cinco potentes F-1 de la primera etapa han agotado su combustible y se desprende del cohete, iniciándose la segunda etapa que consta de cinco motores J-2, cuya tarea es que el Saturno V sigua ganando altura cada vez a mayor velocidad. También se produjo la separación de la torre de escape de emergencia situada junto con la cubierta protectora del módulo de mando, ya que el Saturno V no presentaba problemas técnicos y podía continuar con su salida del campo gravitacional terrestre. Los cohetes Saturno V, constaban de varias fases que se iban desprendiendo de la nave Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 38 Nueve minutos después del lanzamiento, los cinco motores J-2 de la segunda etapa se encuentran separándose del resto de la nave. Después las turbo bombas de la tercera etapa envían combustible a su único motor, el mecanismo de ignición se dispara y el cohete vuelve a acelerar. Doscientos segundos después el motor se apaga y los astronautas comienzan a notar la ausencia de gravedad; el Apolo 11 está en órbita. pequeños detonadores explosivos similares a los que se usan para separar las sucesivas etapas agotadas. El LEM se separa del S-IV B y tras una complicada maniobra que ejecuta la tripulación utilizando los propulsores de posición quedan los dos vehículos ensamblados. Esta maniobra dura alrededor de una hora. Después se desprende la tercera etapa y se prosigue con la misión. De la Tierra a la Luna El Apolo 11 realizará durante tres días la supervisión de los aparatos de navegación, correcciones de medio rumbo y comprobaciones de los diversos instrumentos. Durante dos días, el Apolo 11 va perdiendo velocidad regularmente debido a la atracción de la Tierra y cuando llega a la gravisfera lunar, situada a las cinco sextas partes del recorrido entre la Tierra y la Luna, el vehículo, que avanza a una velocidad de 3.700 km/h comienza de nuevo a acelerar hasta los 9.000 km/h, impulsada por la gravedad lunar. El Apolo 11 se encamina a esta velocidad hacia la Luna en una trayectoria denominada trayectoria de regreso libre, la cual permite a la nave pasar orbitando por detrás de la Luna y volver a la Tierra sin que sea necesario efectuar un encendido de motor. El módulo de mando y el módulo lunar permanecen unidos todavía a la tercera etapa denominada S-IV B. Según las normas de las misiones lunares, las naves Apolo deben permanecer tres horas en una órbita llamada órbita de aparcamiento a 215 km de altura. La tripulación emplea este tiempo en estibar los equipos, calibrar instrumentos y seguir las lecturas de navegación para comprobar que la trayectoria que siguen es la correcta. En el control de misión verifican la localización de la nave, dan instrucciones a los astronautas y reciben los datos de quince estaciones de rastreo repartidas por todo el planeta, que han de estar perfectamente coordinadas. Una vez que el Apolo 11 completa la segunda órbita a la Tierra y los astronautas terminan de realizar sus tareas, Houston da la orden para poner rumbo a la Luna. Después de orientarse de forma precisa, la tercera etapa pone en marcha su motor con las sesenta toneladas de combustible que aún permanecen en los tanques. El cohete acelera gradualmente hasta alcanzar los 45.000 km/h esta maniobra recibe el nombre inyección trans-lunar, y por su dificultad es el segundo punto crítico de la misión. Cuando se agota el combustible de la tercera etapa, comienza otra parte crítica de la misión. El módulo lunar permanece oculto bajo un carenado troncocónico entre la tercera etapa y el módulo de servicio. Hay que iniciar la maniobra de transposición y colocar al LEM delante del módulo de mando. El carenado que protege al LEM se fragmenta en cuatro paneles usando El cuarto punto crítico de la misión es la ejecución de una maniobra conocida como inserción en órbita lunar o LOI. La trayectoria de regreso libre es útil cuando hay problemas al efectuar la LOI. Esta maniobra se realiza en la cara oculta de la Luna cuando no hay comunicación posible con Houston y consiste en un encendido de motor para efectuar una frenada y colocarse así en órbita lunar. Desde tres inyectores distintos, comienzan a fluir tres productos químicos distintos para mezclase en la cámara de combustión e iniciar el frenado denominado frenado hipergólico. Estos tres productos (hidracina, dimetilhidrazina y tetróxido de nitrógeno) se llaman hipergólicos por su tendencia a detonar siempre que se mezclan. A diferencia del combustible sólido, el combustible criogénico o el keroseno que necesitan una chispa o ignición para liberar la energía que almacenan sus enlaces moleculares, el combustible hipergólico Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 39 obtiene su energía de una reacción catalítica de repulsión que tienen los productos entre sí. Este combustible es empleado por el Apolo 11 para todas sus maniobras una vez ha perdido la tercera etapa que utiliza combustible criogénico (LOX y LH2). El motor funciona durante cuatro minutos y medio, y luego se apaga automáticamente. El comandante Neil Armstrong verifica en el panel de control del módulo de mando la lectura de Delta-v que se refiere al cambio de velocidad y observa que el frenado hipergólico ha situado al Apolo 11 a una velocidad correcta para abandonar la trayectoria de regreso libre y situarse en órbita lunar. También comprueba las lecturas del pericintio, esto es el máximo acercamiento a la superficie lunar y el apocintio que es el máximo alejamiento. Las lecturas indicaban que el Apolo 11 orbitaba la Luna con un pericintio de 110 km y un apocintio de 313 km. En un par de revoluciones ajustarán la órbita hasta convertirla en una circunferencia casi perfecta. Poco más de media hora después de desaparecer por el hemisferio oculto del satélite, las comunicaciones con Houston se restablecen y la tripulación confirma que el Apolo 11 se encuentra orbitando la Luna. ―El Águila ha alunizado‖ El comandante Neil Armstrong y el piloto del LEM Buzz Aldrin pasan del módulo de mando al LEM. Completada la decimotercera órbita lunar y cuando están en la cara oculta con las comunicaciones con Houston interrumpidas, Mike Collins, piloto del Columbia, acciona el mecanismo de desconexión y el Eagle comienza a separarse de su compañero de viaje. Con unos cuantos disparos de los propulsores de posición, el Columbia se retira, permitiendo al Eagle realizar la complicada maniobra de descenso hacia la superficie lunar. Esta maniobra comienza con un encendido de quince segundos con el motor trabajando al 10%, seguido de quince segundos más al 40%. Con este encendido consiguen abandonar la órbita de la Luna e iniciar una lenta caída hacia la superficie. El LEM sigue ahora una trayectoria de Hohmann casi perfecta y en unos cuantos minutos llegan a la vertical del lugar previsto para el alunizaje. A quince kilómetros de la superficie, control de misión indica que todo está listo para la maniobra de descenso final o PDI, consistente en activar por segunda vez el motor del LEM. El Eagle se aleja del Columbia Todos los sistemas funcionan con normalidad. Neil Armstrong dispara una corta ráfaga de impulsos con los propulsores de posición para realizar un proceso que se repite en todos los encendidos hipergólicos. Los propulsores de posición son accionados para empujar el combustible hipergólico al fondo del depósito y así eliminar burbujas o bolsas de aire en un proceso llamado merma. Tres segundos después el motor principal del LEM entra en ignición y este funciona al 10% durante veintiséis segundos mientras el sistema de control automático estabiliza correctamente la nave. Después el motor del LEM despliega toda su potencia. El ordenador trabaja ahora según su programa 63 que es el modo totalmente automático. Siete minutos después de iniciada la secuencia de descenso y a una altura aproximada de seis kilómetros de la superficie, Neil Armstrong introduce en el ordenador el programa número 64. Con este programa, el empuje del motor desciende hasta un 57% y el LEM se sitúa en posición Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 40 horizontal. El sitio exacto de alunizaje, se encuentra a menos de veinte kilómetros al Oeste. Aproximadamente en esos momentos, el oficial de guiado comunica al director de vuelo que el LEM viaja a más velocidad de la programada. Este hecho podía causar el aborto del alunizaje pero el director de vuelo decide seguir con los procedimientos de alunizaje. Debido a esto el LEM sobrepasa el lugar donde debería haber alunizado. Al parecer, el ordenador les está conduciendo hacia un gran cráter con rocas esparcidas a su alrededor que causarían serios daños al módulo si el alunizaje se produjese en esa zona. Armstrong desconecta el programa 64 e introduce el 66. Este programa de control semiautomático controla el empuje del motor pero deja en manos de la tripulación el movimiento de traslación lateral del LEM. El comandante desliza el módulo lunar en horizontal por la superficie buscando un lugar adecuado para el alunizaje mientras Aldrin le va leyendo los datos del radar y el ordenador. El LEM pierde altura gradualmente. A menos de dos metros de la superficie, una de las tres varillas sensoras que cuelgan de las patas del LEM, toca el suelo. El Eagle recorre el último metro en una suave caída gracias a la débil gravedad lunar. El terreno ha resistido bien el peso del aparato y todos los sistemas funcionan. Houston…aquí base tranquilidad, el Águila ha alunizado Al sur del Mare Tranquilitatis y a unos noventa kilómetros al este de dos cráteres casi gemelos denominados Ritter y Sabine, concretamente en las coordenadas 0º40'27" Norte y 23º28'23" Este; es donde se halla en estos momentos la base lunar, denominada Tranquillitatis Statio, consistente en el LEM y su tripulación. Realizadas las comprobaciones pertinentes, Armstrong solicita permiso para efectuar los preparativos de la primera actividad extravehicular o EVA. Houston lo autoriza. La única posibilidad de peligro para la misión era la sonda automática Luna 15, que, lanzada el 13 de julio, había estado en órbita lunar de 100 por 129 km y 25º de inclinación y corría riesgo de interferir en la órbita del Apolo, que era de 112 por 314 km y posteriormente de 99,4 por 121 km y 78º de inclinación. La misión de esta sonda era el alunizaje suave y recogida de muestras que luego enviaría de forma automática a la Tierra. Cinco horas y media después del alunizaje, los astronautas están preparados para salir del LEM. El primero en hacerlo es Armstrong, quien mientras desciende por las escaleras activa la cámara de televisión que retransmitirá imágenes a todo el mundo. Una vez hecho esto, describe a Houston lo que ve, y al pisar el suelo a las 2:56 del 21 de julio de 1969 (hora internacional UTC), dice la famosa frase: "Un pequeño paso para un hombre, un gran salto para la Humanidad". En Houston son las 15:17 del 20 de julio de 1969. El Eagle está posado sobre la superficie del satélite. En el momento del contacto el motor de descenso posee sólo unos 30 segundos de combustible restante, alunizando a 38 m de un cráter de 24 m de diámetro y varios de profundidad. Un gran salto Grabación de la famosa frase que pronunció Armstrong al pisar la luna por primera vez: «It's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind» (Un pequeño paso para un hombre, un gran salto para la humanidad). Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 41 sin cierta dificultad para clavarla en el suelo selenita e inician una conversación telefónica con el presidente de los Estados Unidos Richard Nixon: Aldrin saluda la bandera El reloj de Houston señala las 22:56. En un primer momento por seguridad los astronautas iban unidos a un cordón enganchado al LEM. Al ver que no corrían ningún peligro se deshicieron de él. Armstrong toma fotografías del paisaje aledaño y más tarde muestras del suelo lunar. Entretanto Buzz Aldrin se prepara para salir del LEM de la misma manera que su comandante, el segundo de a bordo baja por la escala, y establece diálogo con Houston: - ―Quizás para Neil fuera un pequeño paso, pero para mí ha sido un bonito salto.‖ Mientras en Houston ríen, Buzz Aldrin contempla a su alrededor y continúa hablando: ―Bonito…bonito... Una magnífica desolación‖ Los astronautas se percatan de la baja gravedad y comienzan a realizar las tareas que les han encomendado, instalar los aparatos del ALSEP, descubrir una placa con una inscripción que conmemora la efemérides, después el comandante instala una cámara de televisión sobre un trípode a veinte metros del LEM. Mientras tanto Aldrin instala un detector de partículas nucleares emitidas por el Sol, esto es una especie de cinta metalizada sobre la que incide el viento solar que posteriormente deberán trasladar al LEM para poder analizarla en la Tierra al término de la misión. Más tarde ambos despliegan una bandera norteamericana, no Huella del astronauta Buzz Aldrin. - ―Hola Neil y Buzz, les estoy hablando por teléfono desde el despacho oval de la Casa Blanca y seguramente esta sea la llamada telefónica más importante jamás hecha, porque gracias a lo que han conseguido, desde ahora el cielo forma parte del mundo de los hombres y como nos hablan desde el Mar de la Tranquilidad, ello nos recuerda que tenemos que duplicar los esfuerzos para traer la paz y la tranquilidad a la Tierra. En este momento único en la historia del mundo, todos los pueblos de la Tierra forman uno solo. Lo que han hecho los enorgullece y rezamos para que vuelvan sanos y salvos a la Tierra‖ Armstrong contesta a su presidente: - ―Gracias señor presidente, para nosotros es un honor y un privilegio estar aquí. Representamos no solo a los Estados Unidos, sino también a los hombres de paz de todos los países. Es una visión de futuro. Es un honor para nosotros participar en esta misión hoy‖. Por último instalan a pocos metros del LEM un sismómetro para conocer la actividad Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 42 sísmica de la Luna y un retrorreflector de rayos láser para medir con precisión la distancia que hay hasta nuestro satélite. Mientras esto sucede, Michael Collins sigue en órbita en el módulo de mando y servicio con un ángulo muy rasante. Cada paso en órbita, de un horizonte a otro, sólo dura 6 minutos y medio pero desde semejante altura no es capaz de ver a sus compañeros. Cada dos horas ve como cambia la Luna y también observa como orbita debajo de su cápsula la sonda soviética Luna 15 en dos ocasiones. cristal destinado a efectuar mediciones desde nuestro planeta de la distancia Tierra-Luna, un sismómetro para registrar terremotos lunares y la caída de meteoritos, así como una pantalla de aluminio de 15 por 3 dm destinada a recoger partículas del viento solar. El primero en regresar al módulo lunar es Aldrin, al que sigue Armstrong. Después los dos astronautas duermen durante 4:20 h, Después de 13 horas el comandante se produce el despegue, el motor de la etapa de ascenso entra en ignición abandonando su sección inferior en la superficie, y se dirige hacia el Columbia A las 19:34 del 21 de julio, el módulo de ascenso se eleva desde la Luna hacia su cita con C.S.M. Siete minutos después del despegue, el Eagle entra en órbita lunar a cien kilómetros de altura y a quinientos kilómetros del Columbia. Lentamente y utilizando los propulsores de posición, se van acercando ambos vehículos hasta que tres horas y media después vuelan en formación. El comandante efectúa la maniobra final con el Eagle y gira para encararse con el Columbia. Se acerca hasta que los garfios de atraque actúan y ambos módulos quedan acoplados. El módulo de ascenso es abandonado, cayendo sobre la superficie lunar. Armstrong después del histórico paseo La EVA dura más de 14 horas, durante las cuales los astronautas realizan importantes experimentos científicos: instalan un ALSEP con varios experimentos, una bandera norteamericana de 100 por 52 cm, dejan un disco con los mensajes y saludos de todas las naciones del mundo, las medallas recibidas de las familias de Yuri Gagarin y Vladímir Komarov, las insignias del Apolo en recuerdo de Virgil Grissom, Edward White y Roger Chaffee, fallecidos en el incendio de la nave Apolo 1, sellan con un tampón el primer ejemplar del nuevo sello de correos de 10 centavos y recogen 22 kg de rocas lunares. Los aparatos que han llevado son: un reflector láser con más de 100 prismas de Regreso a casa El transbordo de las muestras y la desconexión de parte de los sistemas del módulo Eagle, ocupa a la tripulación durante dos horas, y cuando se sitúan en sus puestos, se preparan para abandonar al Eagle en la órbita de la luna. A las 6:35 del 22 de julio encienden los motores del módulo iniciando el regreso a la Tierra. Es la maniobra denominada inyección trans-tierra, que consiste en un encendido hipergólico de dos minutos y medio y que sitúa al Columbia en una trayectoria de caída hacia la Tierra que concluirá en sesenta horas. Durante el viaje de regreso se realizan leves correcciones de rumbo. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 43 meteoro sobre la atmósfera terrestre alcanzando temperaturas de 3000 °C. Unos minutos después de la pérdida de comunicaciones, se reciben en Houston las primeras señales procedentes de la nave. A ocho kilómetros se abren los dos primeros paracaídas para estabilizar el descenso. A tres kilómetros, estos son reemplazados por tres paracaídas piloto y los tres paracaídas principales de veinticinco metros de diámetro. Por fin consiguen amerizar a las 18:50 del 24 de julio, exactamente 8 días, 3 horas, 18 minutos y 35 segundos después de que el Saturno V abandonó la rampa del Complejo 39. La cápsula en el Pacífico Houston les informa de que hay posibilidades de temporal en la zona prevista para el amerizaje y redirigen al Apolo 11 a una zona con tiempo estable, concretamente a 1.500 km al sudoeste de las islas Hawai, donde serán recogidos en el Océano Pacífico por los tripulantes del portaaviones USS Hornet, un veterano de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, tras efectuar 30 órbitas a la Luna. Los equipos de recuperación se preparan para recoger a la tripulación del Apolo 11. A unos kilómetros por encima, el módulo de mando con la tripulación en él, se ha separado del módulo de servicio y se preparan para la reentrada. En esta parte de la misión no hacen falta motores de frenado puesto que es el rozamiento el que se encarga de disminuir la velocidad de la cápsula desde los 40.000 km/h actuales a unos pocos cientos, de modo que puedan abrirse los paracaídas sin riesgo de rotura. Hay que tener en cuenta que la reentrada es un proceso en el que la inmensa energía cinética de la cápsula se disipa en forma de calor haciendo que esta alcance una elevadísima temperatura. Por efecto de esta elevada temperatura, se forma una pantalla de aire ionizado que interrumpe totalmente las comunicaciones con la nave. Ésta se precipita como un Esta misión fue un rotundo éxito para el gobierno estadounidense comandado por el Presidente Richard Nixon, y un homenaje a su inductor, el Presidente John Kennedy que no pudo disfrutar del mismo tras ser asesinado en 1963. Kosmos 290 (Zenit-2 #69) Cosmos 290 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-07-22 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Molniya-1 12 Molniya 1/12 was a first-generation Russian communications satellite orbited to test and perfect a system of radio communications and television broadcasting using earth satellites as active transponders and to experiment with the system in practical use. The basic function of the satellite was to relay television programs and long-distance twoway multichannel telephone, phototelephone, and telegraph links from Moscow to the various standard ground receiving stations in the 'Orbita' system. The satellite was in the form of a hermetically sealed cylinder with Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 44 conical ends -- one end contained the orbital correcting engine and a system of microjets, and the other end contained externally mounted solar and earth sensors. Inside the cylinder were (1) a high-sensitivity receiver and three 800-MHz 40-w transmitters (one operational and two in reserve), (2) telemetering devices that monitored equipment operation, (3) chemical batteries that were constantly recharged by solar cells, and (4) an electronic computer that controlled all equipment on board. Mounted around the central cylinder were six large solar battery panels and two directional, high-gain parabolic aerials, 180 deg apart. One of the aerials was directed continually toward the earth by the highly sensitive earth sensors. The second aerial was held in reserve. Signals were transmitted in a fairly narrow beam ensuring a strong reception at the earth's surface. The satellite received telemetry at 1000 MHz. Television service was provided in a frequency range of 3.4 to 4.1 GHz at 40 w. Molniya 1/12, whose cylindrical body was 3.4 m long and 1.6 m in diameter, was much heavier than corresponding U.S. COMSATs, and it had about 10 times the power output of the Early Bird COMSAT. In addition, it did not employ a geosynchronous equatorial orbit as have most U.S. COMSATs because such an orbit would not provide coverage for areas north of 70 deg n latitude. Instead, the satellite was boosted from a low-altitude parking orbit into a highly elliptical orbit with two high apogees daily over the northern hemisphere -- one over Russia and one over North America -and relatively low perigees over the southern hemisphere. During its apogee, Molniya 1/12 remained relatively stationary with respect to the earth below for nearly 8 of every 12 hr. By placing three or more Molniya 1 satellites in this type of orbit, spacing them suitably, and shifting their orbital planes relative to each other by 120 deg, a 24-hr/day communication system could be obtained. The satellite probably ceased trransmitting in December 1970. It reentered teh atmosphere on June 18, 1971, after 696 days in orbit. Launch Date: 1969-07-22 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation Upper Stage + Escape Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 1750.0 kg DMSP-4B F3 The cylindrically shaped Block 4 satellites incorporated two new one-inch diameter vidicon cameras, video (2), a large capacity tape recorder, and an all-digital command subsystem with magnetic core memory, giving fully progammable coverage of either direct readout or readout of recorded data without interference. Nominal satellite spin rate was decreased to reduce smear, permitting a higher resolution TV system for improved picture quality. Dual cameras and a high capacity recorder provided complete daily coverage of the entire northern hemisphere and tactical coverage anywhere on the earth. An improved IR 'C' system was incorporated on this spacecraft. The Defence Meteorological Satellite Program's Block 4 space segment consisted of satellites in 450 nautical mile sun-synchronous polar orbits each carrying a payload of meteorological sensors. Primary cloud imaging sensors capable of globally viewing the earth in the visible and infrared spectrums were carried by every satellite. The ascending node of the satellites was either in the early morning time period or at mid-day. THe final data product was a film product directly usable for imagery analysis. Originally part of a classified system of USAF weather satellites, the spacecraft mission was not revealed until March 1973. Launch Date: 1969-07-22 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 195.0 kg 1969-062B Launch Date: 1969-07-23 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Kosmos (291) (DS-P1-Yu #23) Lanzamiento fallido Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 45 KH-4B 7 This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was a KH-4B (Key Hole-4B) type spacecraft. The forward camera failed on pass 1 and remained inoperative throughout the rest of the mission. Cosmos 291 was one of a series of Soviet earth satellites whose purpose was to study outer space, the upper layers of the atmosphere, and the earth. Scientific data and measurements were relayed to earth by multichannel telemetry systems equipped with space-borne memory units. Although Cosmos 291 was a maneuverable satellite, it did not move out of its initial low orbit. Launch Date: 1969-07-24 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Launch Date: 1969-08-06 Launch Vehicle: Tsiklon Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4000.0 kg Intelsat-3 5 Zond 7 (L1 12) Intelsat 3 F-5 was launched by NASA for Communications Satellite Corporation. It was the 4th increment of COMSAT's operational commercial communications satellite system. The 3rd stage malfunctioned and the satellite did not achieve the desired orbit. Launch Date: 1969-07-26 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 647.0 kg Ferret o 13 This US Air Force electronics intelligence satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. The Ferrets catalogued Soviet air defence radars, eavesdropped on voice communications, and taped missile and satellite telemetry. Launch Date: 1969-07-31 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 1500.0 kg Agosto 1969 Kosmos 291 (IS-M-GVM) Zond 7 was launched towards the moon from a mother spacecraft (69-067B) on a mission of further studies of the moon and circulmunar space, to obtain color photography of the earth and the moon from varying distances, and to flight test the spacecraft systems. Earth photos were obtained on August 9, 1969. On August 11, 1969, the spacecraft flew past the moon at a distance of 1984.6 km and conducted two picture taking sessions. Zond 7 reentered the earth's atmosphere on August 14, 1969, and achieved a soft landing in a preset region south of Kustanai. Launch Date: 1969-08-07 Launch Vehicle: Proton Booster Plus Upper Stage and Escape Stages Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 5979.0 kg OSO 6 / PAC 1 OSO 6 was the sixth in a series of satellites designed to conduct solar physics experiments above the earth's atmosphere during a complete solar cycle. The primary objectives of OSO 6 were the acquisition of high spectral-resolution data within the 1 to 1300 A range, the observation of solar X-rays in the 20 to 200 keV range, and the Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 46 observation of high-energy neutron flux in the 20 to 130 MeV range. Seven experiments were carried on the spacecraft. Two of these were located in the sail portion and were designed to point toward the sun. The remaining five experiments were mounted in compartments of the nine-sided rotating wheel section and scanned the solar disk every 2 s when the spacecraft was in sunlight. The spacecraft measured approximately 112 cm in diameter and about 96 cm in height. The spacecraft was spinstabilized after launch, and gas jets mounted on the sail section kept the spacecraft positioned so that its spin axis was normal to the sun vector within plus or minus 3.5 deg. Servomotors drove the sail in a direction opposite to the spinning wheel so that the sail faced the sun during the sunlight portion of the orbit. OSO 6 was the first in the series that could offset point to any one of 16,384 points on a 128 by 128 point grid. With the spacecraft pointing at the sun center, large rasters of 46 by 46 arc-min could be performed. Small rasters, 7.5 by 7 arc-min, could be performed on any offset point but not outside the bounds of the 46 by 46 arcmin. The spacecraft was launched on August 9, 1969. All seven experiments were turned on for continuous operation by orbit 75 on August 14, 1969. The spacecraft was retired on December 31, 1972. For more information, see R. N. Watts, Sky and Teles., v. 38, p. 230, 1969. PAC-A (Package Attitude Control) was a NASA satellite launched from Cape Canaveral aboard a Delta N rocket along with OSO 6. It performed semi-active gravity gradient stabilization tests. Launch Date: 1969-08-09 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 647.0 kg ATS 5 ATS 5 was an equatorial-orbiting, synchronous-altitude technology satellite intended to test various communications and earth observational systems. Also included on board were particle, electric field, and magnetic field experiments. Because of a malfunction, the intended gravity-gradient stabilization mechanism could not be deployed, and ATS 5 was stabilized in a spinning mode about the spacecraft Z axis at approximately 71 rpm. All experiments that depended on the planned gravity-gradient stabilization were adversely affected to varying degrees, and the mission was declared a failure. However, some of the science experiments, including the magnetic field monitor and the particle experiments, returned usable data. ATS 5 was positioned at about 105 deg W longitude over the eastern Pacific Ocean ATS-5, the last spacecraft in the Hughes/NASA ATS program, was launched August 12, 1969, in a near-perfect trajectory for insertion into synchronous orbit. Although injected successfully into orbit, the spacecraft's reverse spin (counterclockwise) prevented successful deployment of the 124 foot gravity gradient booms for the stabilization experiment. However nine of the other 13 experiments aboard the spacecraft returned useful data. ATS-5 was retired in March 1984. Launch Date: 1969-08-12 Launch Vehicle: Atlas-Centaur Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 821.0 kg Kosmos 292 (Tsiklon #3) Cosmos 292 was a prototype Soviet navigation satellite. The shipboard installation consisted of the Tsunami system, composed of the Sirius radio station, the Signal antenna stabilisation platform, the Konus-4 omnidirectional antenna, and the Kvant-L antenna. First trial were conducted with a Project 680 vessel of the Black Sea fleet and showed a position error of 3 km, which was intolerable. A large part of the problem was with inaccuracies in the software models available for predicting the spacecraft ephemerides. Work by the KIK Centre resulted in a 10 to 30 times improvement in this accuracy, incorporating new information on the gravitational anomalies and geoid of the earth. Use of the revised software in 1969 showed an average error of 100 m over a five day period. Further improvement required a better mapping of the earth's gravitational anomalies. Testing of Tsiklon would continue Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 47 through 1972 before an adequate operational system could be designed. The Parus/Tsiklon-B production system began flight tests in 1974. Tsiklon used the basic KAUR-1 bus, consisting of a 2.035 m diameter cylindrical spacecraft body, with solar cells and radiators of the thermostatic temperature regulating system mounted on the exterior. Orientation was by a single-axis magneto-gravitational (gravity gradient boom) passive system. The hermetically sealed compartment had the equipment mounted in cruciform bays, with the chemical batteries protecting the radio and guidance equipment mounted at the centre). Launch Date: 1969-08-14 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-3 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 775.0 kg Kosmos 293 Gektor #4) (Zenit-2M Kosmos 295 (DS-P1-Yu #24) Cosmos 295 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-08-22 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg KH-8A 1 / KH 8-23 #4, This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft. Cosmos 293 was a third generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The spacecraft carried a science package . Launch Date: 1969-08-16 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 5900.0 kg Kosmos 294 (Zenit-4 #59) Cosmos 294 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-08-19 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Foto:KH-8A 26 [USAF] Launch Date: 1969-08-23 Launch Vehicle: Titan IIIB-Agena D Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 3000.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 48 Pioneer E / TTS 3 /TETR-C Otros nombres: PIONE Fecha de lanzamiento: 27 de agosto de 1.969 a las 21:59:00 GMT La sonda Pioneer E fue la quinta misión de esta serie de orbitadores solares de giro estabilizado que permitían obtener mediciones de los fenómenos interplanetarios en puntos distantes del espacio. Entre sus experimentos se encontraban estudiar los iones positivos y los electrones del viento solar, la densidad de electrones interplanetarios (experimentos de propagación de radio), los rayos cósmicos solares y galácticos, el campo magnético interplanetario, el polvo cósmico y los campos eléctricos. Debido a un fallo hidráulico en la primera etapa del cohete la nave nunca llegó hasta la órbita, por lo que se decidió destruirlo a los 484 segundos del lanzamiento. Cosmos 296 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-08-29 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Septiembre 1969 Kosmos 297 (Zenit-4 #61) Cosmos 297 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-09-02 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Kosmos 298 (OGCh #21) Cosmos 298 was a Soviet Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) system test satellite launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome aboard a Tsiklon rocket. It contained a nuclear warhead launched into orbit, where it could remain until deorbited onto target with little warning. Foto:Pioneer 6 [NASA] Launch Date: 1969-08-27 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 148.0 kg Kosmos 296 (Zenit-4 #60) Launch Date: 1969-09-15 Launch Vehicle: Tsiklon Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 5000.0 kg Kosmos 299 (Zenit-4 #62) Cosmos 299 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 49 Launch Date: 1969-09-18 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg KH-4A 52 / SSF-B 16KH-4A 1052 Subsatelite This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was a KH-4A (Key Hole-4A) type spacecraft. This was the last of the KH-4A missions. All camera systems operated satisfactorily. Launch Date: 1969-09-22 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Ohsumi (#4) Kosmos 300 (Luna (16a)) (E-85 #3) · Otros nombres: 1969-080A, 04104 · Fecha de lanzamiento: 23 de septiembre de 1969 a las 14:07:36 GMT · Masa seca en órbita: 5.600 kg De nuevo otro intento por conseguir una sonda que se posara en la Luna suavemente para enviar muestras de vuelta a la Tierra. Tras llegar hasta la órbita terrestre con aparente normalidad, la etapa Block D del cohete lanzador Proton SL-12/D-1-e falló y la nave quedó en órbita terrestre. La sonda era similar a las misiones anteriores. La nave tenía cuatro tanques de combustibles esféricos, toberas y patas de aterrizaje, colocadas en una base de 4 metros de anchura. La cápsula de retorno era esférica y la etapa de ascenso estaba colocada en la parte superior. Un brazo robótico (posiblemente dotado de taladrador) debía coger las muestras y almacenarlas en la cápsula para su envío a la Tierra. Tras quedar en órbita terrestre fue bautizada como Cosmos 300. Kosmos 301 (Zenit-2 #70) Cosmos 301 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. Launch Date: 1969-09-24 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Foto:Ohsumi [ISAS] Nation: Japan Type / Technology Application: Operator: ISAS Poppy 6A (NRL-PL 161) /1969-082A Poppy 6B (NRL-PL 162) /1969-082C Poppy 6C (NRL-PL 163)/ Poppy 6D (NRL-PL 164)…./Timation 2 Tempsat 2/SOICAL Cone (S694(a))…/SOICAL Cylinder (S694(b))…. NRL-PL 176/SSF-B 17 Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 50 Poppy was the follow-on ELINT system, which succeeded the "Galactic Radiation and Background" (Grab) ELINT satellite system. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) proposed and developed Poppy, an electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite system in 1962. Poppy's mission was to collect radar emissions from Soviet naval vessels. The primary organizations that supported the Poppy Program included NRO, NSA, NRL, the Naval Security Group, the Air Force Security Service, the Army Security Agency and the Office of Naval Intelligence. The Poppy Program was a component of the NRO Program C and NRL designed, developed, and operated Poppy satellites within Program C. NRO Program A provided launch support for Poppy. NSA received, analyzed, and reported findings derived from the intercepted radar signals from Poppy. The Naval Security Group, with support from Air Force Security Service and Army Security Agency, coordinated field operations and maintained and operated Poppy ground sites. The Poppy Program operated from December 1962 through August 1977. A total of seven Poppy satellites launched into space from 1962 to 1971. The launch dates are as follows: Dec. 13, 1962, June 15, 1963, Jan. 11, 1964, March 9, 1965, May 31, 1967, Sept. 30, 1969, and Dec. 14, 1971. Poppy's average useful life on orbit was 34 months. The Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Naval Center for Space Technology (NCST) conceived the Timation (Time / Navigation) program in 1964 and launched the Timation 1 satellite in 1967 and the Timation 2 satellite in 1969. Timation proved that a system using a passive ranging technique, combined with selected high-performance crystal oscillator clocks, could provide the basis for a new and revolutionary navigation system with threedimensional coverage (longitude, latitude, and altitude) throughout the world. NCST's Timation program paved the way for what eventually became the Global Positioning System (GPS). Foto:Timation 1 [NRL] SOICAL was a military surveillance calibration spacecraft launched by the US Air Force from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena-D rocket. Launch Date: 1969-09-30 Launch Vehicle: Thor Augmented DeltaAgena D Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 60.0 kg Octubre 1969 ESRO 1B (Boreas) Foto:Poppy (later Version) [NRO] ESRO 1/Boreas was an 80 kg, cylindrically shaped, solar cell powered spacecraft carrying eight scientific experiments chosen Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 51 to measure a comprehensive range of auroral effects. The measurements included auroral luminosity, ionospheric composition and temperature, and the flux and energy spectra of trapped and precipitated energetic particles (electrons from 1 to 400 KeV, protons from 1 KeV to 30 MeV). The satellite was magnetically stabilized and was launched into a low nearly circular orbit on October 1, 1969, resulting in a rather short lifetime of only 52 days. Even so, during this period, a large amount of onboard tape recorder and realtime data were recovered. These data are particularly valuable in correlative studies with the identical satellite ESRO 1/Aurorae that was launched October 3, 1968, into a similar orbit, and operated until June 26, 1970. Foto:ESRO 1A (Aurorae) [ESA] Launch Date: 1969-10-01 Launch Vehicle: Scout Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 80.0 kg Meteor-1 2 Meteor 1-2 was the second fully operational Russian meteorological satellite and the tenth meteorological satellite launched from the Plesetsk site. The satellite was placed in a near-circular, near-polar prograde orbit to provide near-global observations of the earth's weather systems, cloud cover, ice and snow fields, and reflected and emitted radiation from the dayside and nightside of the earth-atmosphere system for operational use by the Soviet Hydrometeorological Service. This was the first satellite of the Meteor series to be placed in a high orbit -about 240 km higher than most other Metero launches. Other high orbit flights were made by Meteor 10, 11, and 12. Meteor 2 was equipped with two vidicon cameras for dayside photography, a scanning highresolution IR radiometer for dayside and nightside photography, and an actinometric instrument for measuring the earth's radiation field in the visible and infrared regions. The satellite was in the form of a cylinder 5 m long and 1.5 m in diameter with two large solar panels attached to the sides. The solar panels were automatically oriented toward the sun to provide the spacecraft with the maximum amount of solar power. Meteor 1 was oriented toward the earth by a gravitygradient triaxial stabilization system consisting of flywheels whose kinetic energy was dampened by the use of controlled electromagnets on board that interacted with the magnetic field of the earth. The instruments were housed in the base of the satellite, which pointed toward the earth, while the solar sensors were mounted in the top section. The operational 'Meteor' weather satellite system ideally consists of at least two satellites spaced at 90-deg intervals in longitude so as to observe a given area of the earth approximately every 6 hr. When within communications range, the data acquired by Meteor 1 were transmitted directly to the ground receiving centers in Moscow, Novosibirsk, or Vladisvostok. Over regions beyond communication range, Meteor 1 recorded the TV and IR pictures and actinometric data and stored them on board until the satellite passed over the receiving centers. The meteorological data received at these centers were processed, reduced, and sent to the Hydrometeorological Center in Moscow where they were analyzed and used to prepare various forecast and analysis products. Some of the TV and IR pictures and analyzed actinometric data were then distributed to various meteorological centers around the world. Launch Date: 1969-10-06 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 1st Generation Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 1440.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 52 spacecraft with Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8 but no rendezvous, due to a failure in the rendezvous electronics in all three spacecraft, so there was only an approaching. First vacuum welding in space by Kubasov using welding construction "VULKAN". The crew tested three different methods of welding. The weld quality was said to be in no way inferior to that of Earth based welds. Several scientific und technical experiments were also performed. Soyuz 6 Launch, orbit and landing data Launch date: Launch time: Launch site: Launch pad: Altitude: Inclination: Landing date: Landing time: Landing site: Crew No . 1 2 11.10.1969 11:10 UT Baikonur 31 186,2 - 222,8 km 51,68° 16.10.1969 09:53 UT 180 km NW of Karaganda Surnam e Shonin Kubaso v Given name Georgi Stepanovic h Valeri Nikolayevic h Job Comm ander Flight Enginee r Flight Soyuz 6 was piloted by cosmonaut G. Shonin, Commander, and cosmonaut V. Kubasov, Flight Engineer. The announced mission objectives included (1) checkout and flight test of space borne systems and the modified structure of the Soyuz craft, (2) further inprovement of the control, orientation, and orbital stabilization systems and navigation aids, (3) debugging the piloting systems by orbital maneuvering of the spaceships in relation to one another, (4) testing of a system for control of the simultaneous flight of three spacecraft, (5) scientific observations and photographing of geological-geographical subjects and exploration of the earth's atmosphere, (6) studying circumterrestrial space, and (7) conducting experiments of engineering research and biomedical importance. Stable two-way radio communications was maintained between the spaceships and the ground stations, and TV coverage was broadcast from the ships during flight. The most significant objective was testing alternate methods for welding using remote handling equipment in the high vacuum and weightless conditions of outer space. In Soyuz 6, the welding unit had the name Vulcan and was controlled remotely by electric cable. Of the three types of welding tried (low pressure compressed arc, electron beam, and arc with a consumable electrode), electron beam was the most successful. Soyuz 6 also performed group flight with Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8, but it did not dock with either spacecraft. Launch from Baikonur; landing 180 km northwest of Karaganda. It was to have rendezvoused with Soyuz 7 and Soyuz 8 and to have taken spectacular motion pictures of the Soyuz 7 - Soyuz 8 docking. It became a joint mission of three Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 53 Crew Foto:Soyuz 6 Launch Date: 1969-10-11 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 6577.0 kg Soyuz 7 Launch, orbit and landing data Launch date: 12.10.1969 Launch time: 10:44 UT Launch site: Baikonur Launch pad: 1 Altitude: 207,4 - 225,9 km Inclination: 51,68° Landing date: 17.10.1969 Landing time: 09:25 UT Landing site: 155 km NW of Karaganda No. Surname Given name Job 1 Filipchenko Anatoli Vasiliyevich Commander 2 Volkov Vladislav Nikolayevich Flight Engineer 3 Gorbatko Viktor Vasiliyevich Research Engineer Flight Launch from Baikonur; landing 155 km northwest of Karaganda. The main goals of this mission in the official version were to test spacecraft systems and designs, manoeuvring of space craft with respect to each other in orbit, and to conduct scientific, technical and medico-biological experiments in a group flight Group flight wih Soyuz 6 and Soyuz 8; no docking, only approaching (until 500 m to Soyuz 8). The planned docking maneuver with Soyuz 8 was not accomplished (failure of rendezvous electronics). The landing was without any problems, even a warning light panel showed 'ASP' automatic landing sequence. Soyuz 7 was launched one day after Soyuz 6. On board were cosmonauts A. Filipchenko, Commander, Flight Engineer V. Volkov, and Research Engineer V. Gorbatko. The ship was involved in group flight with Soyuz 6 and Soyuz 8. Docking did not occur, and the ship landed 5 days after launch. The announced mission objectives included (1) checkout of the Soyuz craft, (2) further improvement of the control, orientation, and orbital stabilization systems and navigation aids, (3) debugging the piloting systems by orbital Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 54 maneuvering of the spaceships in relation to one another, (4) testing of a system for control of the simultaneous flight of three spacecraft, (5) scientific observations and photographing of geological-geographical subjects and exploration of the earth's atmosphere, (6) studying circumterrestrial space, and (7) conducting experiments of engineering research and biomedical importance. Stable two-way radio communications was maintained between the spaceships and the ground stations, and TV coverage was broadcast from the ships during flight. Launch Date: 1969-10-12 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 6000.0 kg Soyuz 8 Crew N o. Surname 1 Shatalov Vladimir Aleksandrovich Commander 2 Yeliseyev Aleksei Stanislavovich Flight Engineer Given name Job Flight Launch, orbit and landing data Launch date: Launch time: Launch site: Launch pad: Altitude: Inclination: Landing date: Landing time: Landing site: 13.10.1969 10:19 UT Baikonur 31 204,5 - 223,7 km 51,68° 18.10.1969 09:09 UT 145 km N of Karaganda Launch from Baikonur; landing 145 km north of Karaganda. The main goals of this mission in the official version were to test spacecraft systems and designs, manoeuvring of space craft with respect to each other in orbit, and to conduct scientific, technical and medico-biological experiments in a group flight. Group flight with Soyuz 6 and Soyuz 7; no docking, only approaching (until 500 m to Soyuz 7); planned docking maneuver with Soyuz 7 was not accomplished (failure of rendezvous electronics). The landing proceeds normally. Photos Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 55 Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 6646.0 kg Interkosmos 1 (DS-U3-IK #1) Soyuz 8 was piloted by V. Shatalov, Commander, and A. Yeliseyev, Flight Engineer. The announced mission objectives included (1) checkout and flight test of space borne systems and the modified structure of the Soyuz craft, (2) further improvement of the control, orientation, and orbital stabilization systems and navigation aids, (3) debugging the piloting systems by orbital maneuvering of the spaceships in relation to one another, (4) testing of a system for control of the simultaneous flight of three spacecraft, (5) scientific observations and photographing of geological-geographical subjects and exploration of the earth's atmosphere, (6) studying circumterrestrial space, and (7) conducting experiments of engineering research and biomedical importance. Stable two-way radio communication was maintained between the spaceships and the ground stations, and TV coverage was broadcast from the ships during flight. Soyuz 8 was a part of the group flight of Soyuz 6, 7, and 8, and resembled Soyuz 6 in that it was an active ship designed to move toward the passive Soyuz 7. Soyuz 8 was equipped with full docking apparatus and for some hours flew very close to Soyuz 7. No docking occurred. The flight was safely terminated. Launch Date: 1969-10-13 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-6 (Sapwood) with 2nd Generation (Longer) Upper Stage Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Intercosmos 1 was designed to study solar ultraviolet and x-ray radiation and the effects of these types of radiation on the structure of the earth's upper atmosphere. This spacecraft, a cooperative effort, carried instruments supplied by the German Democratic Republic, the U.S.S.R., and the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Scientists from the People's Republic of Bulgaria, the Hungarian People's Republic, the Polish People's Republic, and the Socialist Republic of Romania participated in the receipt and interpretation of data. Launch Date: 1969-10-14 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R Mass: 400.0 kg Foto:Interkosmos 1 Kosmos 302 (Zenit-4 #63) Cosmos 302 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-10-17 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 56 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Kosmos 303 (DS-P1-Yu #25) Cosmos 303 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-10-18 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Kosmos 304 (Tsiklon #4) Cosmos 304 was a prototype Soviet navigation satellite. The shipboard installation consisted of the Tsunami system, composed of the Sirius radio station, the Signal antenna stabilisation platform, the Konus-4 omnidirectional antenna, and the Kvant-L antenna. First trial were conducted with a Project 680 vessel of the Black Sea fleet and showed a position error of 3 km, which was intolerable. A large part of the problem was with inaccuracies in the software models available for predicting the spacecraft ephemerides. Work by the KIK Centre resulted in a 10 to 30 times improvement in this accuracy, incorporating new information on the gravitational anomalies and geoid of the earth. Use of the revised software in 1969 showed an average error of 100 m over a five day period. Further improvement required a better mapping of the earth's gravitational anomalies. Testing of Tsiklon would continue through 1972 before an adequate operational system could be designed. The Parus/Tsiklon-B production system began flight tests in 1974. Tsiklon used the basic KAUR-1 bus, consisting of a 2.035 m diameter cylindrical spacecraft body, with solar cells and radiators of the thermostatic temperature regulating system mounted on the exterior. Orientation was by a single-axis magneto-gravitational (gravity gradient boom) passive system. The hermetically sealed compartment had the equipment mounted in cruciform bays, with the chemical batteries protecting the radio and guidance equipment mounted at the centre Launch Date: 1969-10-21 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-3 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 795.0 kg Kosmos 305 (Luna (16b)) (E-85 #4) · Otros nombres: 1969-092A, 04150 · Fecha de lanzamiento: 22 de octubre de 1969 a las 14:09:59 GMT · Masa seca en órbita: 5600 kg Siguiente intento por conseguir una sonda que se posara en la Luna suavemente para enviar muestras de vuelta a la Tierra. Tras lograr llegar hasta la órbita terrestre con aparente normalidad, la etapa Block D del cohete lanzador Proton SL-12/D-1-e falló y la nave quedó en la órbita de nuestro planeta. La nave era similar a las misiones anteriores. Tenía cuatro tanques de combustibles esféricos, toberas y patas de aterrizaje, colocadas en una base de 4 metros de anchura. La cápsula de retorno era esférica y la etapa de ascenso estaba colocada en la parte superior. Un brazo robótico (posiblemente dotado de taladrador) debía coger las muestras y almacenarlas en la cápsula para su envío a la Tierra. Tras quedar en órbita terrestre fue bautizada como Cosmos 305. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 57 Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 5600.0 kg Kosmos 307 (DS-P1-Yu #26) Esquema del retorno de muestras a la Tierra This flight was an attempted lunar sample return mission. After successful insertion into Earth orbit, the block D rockets of the SL12/D-1-e Proton launcher failed, leaving the spacecraft in geocentric orbit. The design was similar to the other Luna sample return, or "Moonscooper" missions. The craft consisted of four spherical fuel tanks and nozzles, thrusters, and landing legs set in a 4 meter wide base. A spherical sample return capsule and ascent stage sat atop the structure. A robot arm to collect samples (perhaps with a drill) and then place them in a hatch in the return capsule was attached to the base. After failing to leave Earth orbit, the mission was designated Cosmos 305. Beginning in 1962, the name Cosmos was given to Soviet spacecraft which remained in Earth orbit, regardless of whether that was their intended final destination. The designation of this mission as an intended planetary probe is based on evidence from Soviet and non-Soviet sources and historical documents. Typically Soviet planetary missions were initially put into an Earth parking orbit as a launch platform with a rocket engine and attached probe. The probes were then launched toward their targets with an engine burn with a duration of roughly 4 minutes. If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed, the probes would be left in Earth orbit and given a Cosmos designation. Launch Date: 1969-10-22 Launch Vehicle: Proton Cosmos 307 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Kapustin Yar. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-10-24 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R Mass: 250.0 kg Kosmos 306 Gektor #5) (Zenit-2M #5, Cosmos 306 was a third generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-10-24 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 5700.0 kg KH-8A 2 This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Titan 3B rocket. It was a KH-8 (Key Hole-8) type spacecraft. Launch Date: 1969-10-24 Launch Vehicle: Titan Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 3000.0 kg Noviembre 1969 Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 58 Kosmos 308 (DS-P1-I #6) Cosmos 308 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-11-04 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Azur The magnetically aligned spacecraft GRS-A, launched into a near-polar orbit in November of 1969, was a product of a joint effort by NASA-GSFC and the German Bundesministerium fur Wissenschaftliche Forschung (BMWF) and had as its primary purpose the acquisition of terrestrial radiation belt data. Specifically, the scientific mission of the spacecraft was as follows: (1) to scan the energy spectra of inner zone protons and electrons, (2) to measure the fluxes of electrons of energy greater than 40 keV that are parallel, antiparallel, and perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force over the auroral zone and to measure associated optical emission, and (3) to record solar protons on alert. After about 24 hours in orbit, a command system instability developed and persisted intermittently throughout the flight. The tape recorder failed on December 8, 1969. Prior to this failure, the German project office estimated that 85-90% of the expected data had been obtained. All experiments were operating normally until the spacecraft telemetry system malfunctioned in early July 1970. Foto:Azur [NASA] Launch Date: 1969-11-08 Launch Vehicle: Scout Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 70.7 kg Kosmos 309 (Zenit-2 #71) Cosmos 309 was a first generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The film capsule was recovered after 8 days. The first flight was with a Nauka external experiment container. The spacecraft deployed a science capsule Launch Date: 1969-11-12 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 5900.0 kg Apollo 12 (CSM 108) /LEM 6 Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 59 Estadísticas de la Misión Nombre de la misión:Apolo 12 Nombre de los módulos: Módulo de mando:Yankee Clipper Módulo lunar:Intrepid Número de tripulantes:3 Rampa de lanzamiento: Centro Espacial Kennedy, Florida LC 39A Despegue:14 de noviembre de 1969 16:22:00 UTC Alunizaje:19 de noviembre de 1969 06:54:35 UTC 3° 0' 44.60" S 23° 25' 17.65" W Oceanus Procellarum/Mare Cognitium Tiempo AEV lunar: 1º: 3 h 56 min 03 s 2º: 3 h 49 min 15 s Total: 7 h 45 min 18 s Tiempo en la superficie de la Luna: 31 h 31 min 11.6 s Cantidad de muestras: 34.35 kg (75.729 lb) Amerizaje:24 de noviembre de 1969 20:58:24 UTC 15°47′S 165°9′O / -15.783, -165.15 Duración:10 días 4 h 36 min 24 s Número de órbitas lunares:45 Tiempo en órbitas lunares:88 h 58 min11.52s Apogeo:189.8 km Perigeo:185 km Apoluna:257.1 km Periluna:115.9 km Periodo:88.16 min Inclinación órbita:32.54° Masa:CSM 28.838 kg;LM 15.235 kg Foto de la Tripulación I-D: Conrad, Gordon y Bean Apolo 12 fue la sexta misión tripulada del programa Apolo de la NASA, y la segunda que alunizó en la Luna. Lanzada unos meses después del Apolo 11, el Apolo 12 alunizó en el Oceanus Procellarum, muy cerca de la sonda estadounidense Surveyor 3, posada en la Luna desde abril de 1967, y los astronautas trajeron algunas piezas de esta sonda de vuelta a la Tierra para su estudio, entre ellas la cámara fotográfica. Tripulación Charles Conrad (Voló en las Gemini 5, Gemini 11, Apolo 12 y Comandante. Richard Gordon Gemini 11 y Apolo 12), Piloto. Alan Bean (Voló en: Apolo 12 y Piloto del módulo lunar. misiones: Skylab 2), (Voló en: Skylab 3), Tripulación de Reemplazo David Scott, Comandante. Alfred Worden, Piloto. James Irwin, Piloto del Módulo Lunar. Tripulación de soporte Gerald Carr (voló en Skylab 4) Edward Gibson (voló en Skylab 4) Paul Weitz (voló en Skylab 2, STS-6) Directores de Vuelo Gerald Griffin, Equipo dorado (Gold team) Pete Frank, Equipo naranja (Orange team) Cliff Charlesworth, Equipo verde (Green team) Milton Windler, Equipo marrón (Maroon team) Parámetros de la Misión Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 60 Sitio de alunizaje: W 3.01239 S - 23.42157 W o 3° 0' 44.60" S - 23° 25' 17.65" W Acople LM — CSM [ Desacople: 19 de noviembre, 1969 – 04:16:02 UTC Reacople: 20 de noviembre, 1969 – 17:58:20 UTC EVAs [editar] Comienzo del 1er EVA: 19 de noviembre, 1969, 11:32:35 UTC Conrad — EVA 1 Salida a la superficie: 11:44:22 UTC Regreso al LM: 15:27:17 UTC Bean — EVA 1 Salida a la superficie: 12:13:50 UTC Regreso al LM: 15:14:18 UTC Final del 1er EVA: 19 de noviembre, 15:28:38 UTC Duración: 3 horas, 56 minutos, 03 segundos Comienzo del 2º EVA: 20 de noviembre, 1969, 03:54:45 UTC Conrad — EVA 2 Salida a la superficie: 03:59:00 UTC Regreso al LM: 07:42:00 UTC Bean — EVA 2 Salida a la superficie: 04:06:00 UTC Regreso al LM: 07:30:00 UTC Final del 2º EVA: 20 de noviembre, 07:44:00 UTC Duración: 3 horas, 49 minutos, 15 segundos Anecdotario Se cuenta que en su primer descenso Pete Conrad: 'Uau tío, esto ha sido un (paso) pequeño para Neil, pero sin embargo ha sido un paso muy grande para mi' ('Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me. — Pete Conrad (era un poco más pequeño de estatura que Armstrong) expresión que lanzó al pisar la luna por primera vez. Conrad mencionó "su frase" a la periodista Oriana Fallaci un tiem Fopto:LEM 6 ascent stage [NASA] Kosmos 310 (Zenit-4 #64) Cosmos 310 was a second generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Baikonur cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-11-15 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 4730.0 kg Skynet 1A Skynet, a British military satellite, was launched from Cape Canaveral on a Delta rocket. It was placed in a geostationary orbit and was designed to provide secure voice, telegraph and fax links between UK military headquarters and ships and bases in the Middle and Far East. The 422 kg satellite was cylindrical in shape, 810 mm high and 1370 mm in diameter. It was spin stabilized with an despun antenna platform. It was believed to have operated for less than one year. Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 61 Kosmos 312 (Sfera #5) Foto:Skynet 1A Launch Date: 1969-11-22 Launch Vehicle: Delta Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States Mass: 535.0 kg 1969-103B Launch Date: 1969-11-24 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-5 (SKean IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 1500.0 kg Kosmos 311 (DS-P1-Yu #27) Cosmos 311 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Cosmos 312 was a Soviet geodetic satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Cosmos 11 rocket. The Sfera geodetic system covered a broad development for solving problems in geodetics, continental drift, and precise location of cartographic points. The spacecraft was equipped with measurement and signalling apparatus, providing assistance in measuring astronomicalgeodetic points of military topographical research for the Red Army General Staff. The satellite allowed improved accuracy for long range weapons. Reshetnev was the Chief Designer. Flight tests were from 1968 to 1972. Series flights were from 1973 to 1980. The Kosmos 3M launcher was used. Colonel Ye S Shchapov was in charge of Sfera development. Sfera used the basic KAUR-1 bus, consisting of a 2.035 m diameter cylindrical spacecraft body, with solar cells and radiators of the thermostatic temperature regulating system mounted on the exterior. Orientation was by a single-axis magnetogravitational (gravity gradient boom) passive system. The hermetically sealed compartment had the equipment mounted in cruciform bays, with the chemical batteries protecting the radio and guidance equipment mounted at the centre. Launch Date: 1969-11-24 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-3 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 600.0 kg Kosmos (311) (L1E 1) Intento fallido Launch Date: 1969-11-24 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 62 1969-106B Diciembre 1969 Kosmos 313 Gektor #6) (Zenit-2M #6, Cosmos 313 was a third generation, low resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. Launch Date: 1969-12-03 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 5700.0 kg KH-4B 8 This US Air Force photo surveillance satellite was launched from Vandenberg AFB aboard a Thor Agena D rocket. It was a KH-4B (Key Hole-4B) type spacecraft. The cameras operated satisfactorily and the mission carried 811 ft. of aerial color film added to the end of the film supply. Launch Date: 1969-12-04 Launch Vehicle: Thor Launch Site: Vandenberg AFB, United States Mass: 2000.0 kg Kosmos 314 (DS-P1-Yu #28) Cosmos 314 was a Soviet DS type military satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) were small satellites built by Yangel's OKB-586 / KB Yuzhnoye in the Ukraine for launch by the same KB's Kosmos launch vehicles. They were used for a wide range of military and scientific research and component proving tests. Launch Date: 1969-12-11 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-2I Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Launch Date: 1969-12-11 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 1500.0 kg Kosmos 315 (Tselina-O #5) Cosmos 315 was a Soviet ELINT (Electronic and Signals Intelligence) satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome. From 1965 to 1967 two dedicated ELINT systems were tested: the Tselina and the Navy's US. Both reached service, since the Ministry of Defence could not force a single system on the military services. Tselina was developed by Yuzhnoye and consisted of two satellites: Tselina-O for general observations and Tselina-D for detailed observations. ELINT systems for Tselina were first tested under the Cosmos designation in 1962 to 1965. The first TselinaO was launched in 1970. The Tselina-D took a long time to enter service due to delays in payload development and weight growth. The whole Tselina system was not operational until 1976. Constant improvement resulted in Tselina-O being abandoned in 1984 and all systems being put on Tselina-D. Launch Date: 1969-12-20 Launch Vehicle: Kosmos-3 Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg Kosmos 317 (Zenit-4MK #1, /Germes #1) Cosmos 317 was a third generation, high resolution Soviet photo surveillance satellite launched from the Plesetsk cosmodrome aboard a Soyuz rocket. The spacecraft carried charged particle experiments. It was maneuverable Launch Date: 1969-12-23 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: 6300.0 kg Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 63 electron temperature probes, and Langmuir probes. 1969-108C Launch Date: 1969-12-23 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-9 (SCARP) or SS-13 (SCRAG) with Orbital and Maneuverable Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Kosmos 316 (I2P #3) Cosmos 316 left some debris in its intermediate orbit, and its carrier rocket and payload maneuvered to an extremely eccentric orbit. It decayed naturally, but major portions of the spacecraft fell in the American midwest in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Texas. Some of these pieces were several feet in maximum dimension, weighed scores of pounds, and were of very great thickness. In accordance with international agreements that call for the mutual return of recovered objects, the pieces were offered to the Soviet Union but not accepted. Launch Date: 1969-12-23 Launch Vehicle: Tsiklon Launch Site: Tyuratam (Baikonur Cosmodrome), U.S.S.R Mass: 3640.0 kg Interkosmos 2 (DS-U1-IK #1) This spacecraft was in the shape of a short right cylinder less than one meter in height and diameter. One end of the cylinder was terminated with a hemispherical structure and the other with a curved surface (approximately one-quarter of a sphere). Various appendages protruded from the spacecraft. Battery power was used to eliminate electromagnetic effects from the solar cells. Attitude was not controlled, but was detected by magnetic field and optical (sun) detectors. Real or recorded data were available. The spacecraft operated for 56 days collecting data from a total of 109 orbits. The spacecraft carried an ionospheric beacon, spherical ion probes, high-frequency Foto:Interkosmos 8 Launch Date: 1969-12-25 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R Mass: 325.0 kg 1969-110B Launch Date: 1969-12-25 Launch Vehicle: Modified SS-4 (Sandal IRBM) plus Upper Stage Launch Site: Kapustin Yar, U.S.S.R Mass: 1500.0 kg Kosmos (318) (Ionosfernaya) Intento fallido Launch Date: 1969-12-27 Launch Vehicle: Soyuz Launch Site: Plesetsk, U.S.S.R Mass: Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 64 Referencias (1) http://Sondasespaciales.com (2) http://notesp.blogspot.com/ (3) http://space.skyrocket.de/home.htm (4) http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Portada (5) http://www.nasa.gov/ Bibliogafia The Complete Book of Spaceflight / David Darling / John Wiley & Sons, Inc. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/shuttleoperations/archives/2005.html http://www.planet4589.org/space/jsr/jsr.html http://www.spacefacts.de/english/flights.htm http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misiones_del_Programa_STS http://claudelafleur.qc.ca/Spacecrafts-2008.html http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0812/25glonass/ Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected] Cronología de lanzamientos espaciales 65 Edición: Eladio Miranda Batlle Nro. 165 2009 Nro. 165 2009 Edición: Eladio Miranda Batlle Eladio Miranda Batlle [email protected]