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A geographical study of the united nations peacekeeping
force in Cyprus, 1964 - 1984
Grundy - Warr, Carl E. R.
How to cite:
Grundy - Warr, Carl E. R. (1984)
1964 - 1984,
A geographical study of the united nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus,
Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online:
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2
cs.
c
A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE UNITED NATIONS
PEACEKEEPING
FORCE I N CYPRUS. 1964 - T984.
by
CARL E.R. GRUNDY = WARR.
The copyright of this thesis rests with the author
No quotation from it should be published without
his prior written consent and information derived
from it should be acknowledged
An M.A. D i s s e r t a t i o n submitted to the U n i v e r s i t y
o f Durham f o r t h e Degree o f Master o f A r t s .
December T984.
I h MAR 2003
F i g u r e s 0:1 and 0:2 show T u r k i s h mosques i n the Greek
Cypriot
Nicosia.
q u a r t e r o f the o l d w a l l e d c i t y o f c e n t r a l
F i g u r e 0:2 i l l u s t r a t e s the two main
r e l i g i o n s o f Cyprus - a s m a l l mosque and C h r i s t i a n
c h u r c h l o c a t e d around 8 October Square only
metres from the Green L i n e .
fifty
B e f o r e the i n t e r -
communal t r o u b l e s o f December 1963 - August T964
the two communities l i v e d s i d e - b y - s i d e
of the i s l a n d .
i n many p a r t s
There a r e numerous p h y s i c a l r e m i n d e r s
of t h i s i n s o u t h e r n Cyprus where i t i s not u n u s u a l to
f i n d a T u r k i s h mosque i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y
to a Greek
Orthodox c h u r c h .
r
Pi<3
0:1
-
7' -Y
i
0
IU
••••
i
ABSTRACT.
The main aim o f t h i s s t u d y i s to examine the r o l e o f the U n i t e d N a t i o n s
Peacekeeping F o r c e i n Cyprus i n r e l a t i o n to fundamental changes to t h e
human and p o l i t i c a l geography o f the i s l a n d .
to
The p o l i t i c a l
background
t h e s e changes i s g i v e n some a n a l y s i s but the major f o c u s o f t h e study
i s on the s p a t i a l a s p e c t s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t , and t h e problems
c r e a t e d f o r c i v i l i a n l i f e by a r t i f i c i a l
e t h n i c b a r r i e r s , barbed w i r e -
f e n c e s , s e n t r y - p o s t s , r o a d b l o c k s , and o t h e r p h y s i c a l l i n e s
the
s e p a r a t i o n o f the Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
symbolizing
0
A f t e r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n p r i o r to Independence, the
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s d i v i d i n g the two communities and r e s u l t i n g i n t h e
formation of Turkish Cypriot enclaves are d i s c u s s e d .
I n the l i g h t o f
t h e s e major changes U.N.P.I.CYP. had to cope w i t h many c o m p l i c a t e d
p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s on the ground r e l a t i n g to the s e p a r a t e de f a c t o
t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n p a r t s o f the R e p u b l i c o f Cyprus by the
Turkish Cypriots.
T h i s study s t r e s s e s the economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n
d u t i e s o f what i s b a s i c a l l y a m i l i t a r y peacekeeping f o r c e .
out
of
I n carrying
t h e s e d u t i e s t h e r e a r e many l i n k a g e s between the n o n - m i l i t a r y
tasks
U.N.F.I.CYP. and the human geography o f the i s l a n d , ,
Finally,
the p e r i o d s i n c e the forming o f the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n
line
between the two communities i s c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l , and p a r t i c u l a r
a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to U.N.F.I.CYP.*s a c t i v i t i e s between t h e two Forward
Defence L i n e s o f the N a t i o n a l Guard and T u r k i s h Army, i . e . i n the U.N.controlled Buffer
Zone.
The s t u d y then a t t e m p t s to draw some c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the l i k e l y
f u t u r e r o l e o f U.N.F.I.CYP., and to h i g h l i g h t the problems posed by t h e
p o l i t i c a l deadlock between the two communities.
There i s a l s o a s h o r t
c o n c l u s i o n on the geography o f p e a c e k e e p i n g , which i s based e n t i r e l y on
t h i s d e t a i l e d case study.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
I would l i k e to e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e to the f o l l o w i n g people f o r t h e i r
h e l p i n my p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s work.
To both my s u p e r v i s o r s —
Mr M i c h a e l
P. Drury f o r h i s encouragement,
p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m , and f o r h i s knowledge and l o v e o f C y p r u s .
Dr. G e r a l d H. Blake f o r h i s f r i e n d l y support
and c o n c e r n
And to
a t every
stage
o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n .
I am a l s o i n d e b t e d
to Mr J.D. Norton, l e c t u r e r i n T u r k i s h and D i r e c t o r
o f the Centre f o r Middle E a s t e r n and I s l a m i c S t u d i e s , 1982-'83, whose
k i n d a s s i s t a n c e i s most a p p r e c i a t e d .
To a l l members o f U.N.F.I.CYP. who g e n e r o u s l y
f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n A p r i l 1984.
S p e c i a l thanks
cooperated
w i t h me during
to Mr Stephen Whitehouse,
U.N.P.I.CYP. Spokesman; Mr Gary S. Brown, S t a t i o n Commander, A u s t r a l i a n
Federal P o l i c e ( A u s t . c i v . p o l . ) ; L t . Colonel Ferdinand
Pelzer, Chief
H u m a n i t a r i a n O f f i c e r ( U.N.F.I.CYP. ) ; S g t . Major Jones,
Second B a t t a l i o n ,
The R o y a l A n g l i a n Regiment
Officer,
Contingent,
; and David B a y l i s , O p e r a t i o n s
British
S e c t o r Two :
To Mr George K a r o u z i s , Head o f the Land C o n s o l i d a t i o n S e r v i c e ;
Mr
Andreas I . A r i s t i d e s , E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e ; and
Mr Gregory Theophanides, A d m i n i s t r a t i o n O f f i c e r , M i n i s t r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r ,
Government o f C y p r u s .
To Antonis
Y. A n t o n i a d i s
making my v i s i t
and h i s f a m i l y f o r t h e i r k i n d n e s s
and warmth,
to Cyprus both memorable and e n j o y a b l e .
To R i c h a r d N. S c h o f i e l d , J o n M i t c h e l l , Rosemary Stone, K l a u s D i e t e r Kreher,
and Chng K i n Noi f o r t h e i r h e l p i n v a r i o u s ways during the l a t t e r
s t a g e s o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n and f o r t h e i r f r i e n d l y
F i n a l l y , s p e c i a l thanks
encouragement.
to my f a t h e r f o r i n t r o d u c i n g me to Cyprus and
to my mother f o r h e r c o n s t a n t
support.
iii
D
CONTENTS
D
Page
i
Abstract
Acknowledgements
ii
«
iii
Contents
CHAPTER ONE
: AIMS. APPROACH. AND INTRODUCTION TO THE
CYPRUS PROBLEM.
D
D
S e c t i o n One: Aims and Approach
1
S e c t i o n Two; The Cyprus Problem
5
(ii):
D
D
Footnotes
CHAPTER TWO
The G e o p o l i t i c a l Dimension
9
I n t r a - Regional Level
9
The Super-Power L e v e l
13
The C o l o n i a l L e v e l
14
17
and R e f e r e n c e s
: CONSTITUTIONAL C R I S I S AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL
OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOTS ..
20
( i ) : The Independence C o n s t i t u t i o n . . .
20
DISTRIBUTION
( i i ) : Was t h e r e any g e o g r a p h i c a l
b a s i s f o r bicommunalism and
partition
Footnotes
D
D
D
!•
?
. .0.0.0
and R e f e r e n c e s
22
37
CHAPTER THREE : THE SPATIAL ASPECTS OF INTERCOMMUNAL
CONFLICT AND THE FORMATION OF TURKISH
CYPRIOT ENCLAVES
39
S e c t i o n One: The Outbreak o f Intercommunal
Violence
39
S e c t i o n Two: " C o n f r o n t a t i o n L i n e s " and
43
Enclaves
43
0
( i ) : The "Green L i n e "
45
(ii):
D
D
G u e n y e l i - A g h i r d a E n c l a v e ....
( i i i ) : Refugee Movements and E n c l a v e
Formation i n Other D i s t r i c t s .„
( i v ) : The T u r k i s h Q u a r t e r s o f
Famagusta, L a r n a c a , and Paphos.
( v ) : The B a t t l e f o r T y l l i r i a and the
Kokklna E n c l a v e
52
58
59
iv
S e c t i o n T h r e e ; The E x t e n t of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
T e r r i t o r i a l C o n t r o l , and the
A r r i v a l o f U..N.F.I.CYP.
S e c t i o n Four!
U.N.F.I.CYP. and the P o l i t i c a l
Geography o f Cyprus. 1964 - '74
F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s
CHAPTER FOUR :
S e c t i o n Two;
74
What i s Peacekeeping and What i s
a Peacekeeping F o r c e ?
74
U.N.F.I.CYP.Vs Mandate ....„...„
78
U.N.F.I.CYP. and t h e Use o f
Force
S e c t i o n Three; U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Composition and
Deployment
S e c t i o n Four;
P o l i t i c a l Geography and F o r c e
Deployment
86
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Freedom o f
Movement
95
97
PEACEKEEPING IN PRACTICE :
S e c t i o n One;
S e c t i o n Two;
U.N.F.I.CYP.*s
100
P o l i t i c a l Background. August
1964 to November 1967
U.N.F.I.CYP.'a F i r s t
(ii):
100
Phase.
1964 to November T967
(i):
82
85
FIRST DECADE.
P a r t One
82
P h y s i c a l Geography and F o r c e
Deployment
...... o
Footnotes and R e f e r e n c e s
CHAPTER F I V E :
65
71
PEACEKEEPING IN PERSPECTIVE
S e c t i o n One;
60
Pacification Activities
102
.......
102
Normalization A c t i v i t i e s
Economic c o n d i t i o n s of the two
communities
111
Economic Blockade
113
Freedom o f Movement
115
Civilian
118
Services
112
Agriculture
120
I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic
activity
122
V
U.N.F.I.CYP. measures to
a s s i s t refugees
P a r t Two
123
S e c t i o n T h r e e : P o l i t i c a l Background. November
1967 to J u l y 1974
S e c t i o n Four:
(i):
(ii):
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s
T25
Second Phase.
November 1967 to J u l y 1974 ....
127
Pacification Activities
129
Normalization A c t i v i t i e s
132
S e p a r a t e economic development
.
Freedom o f Movement
0
132
134
C i v i l i a n Services
136
Agriculture
137
I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic
activity
138
The refugee problem, 1968 - '74
138
Some C o n c l u s i o n s
: T968 to 1974 and the r o l e
of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s
F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s
CHAPTER S I X :
140
143
THE THIN BLUE LINE AND THE "ATTILA LINE" ..
S e c t i o n One:
149
The Demographic and Economic
Consequences o f P a r t i t i o n
....
150
The T u r k i s h 'Peacekeeping
Operation or 'Invasion'
151
Demographic consequences and
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p o s i t i o n a f t e r
the August 1 6 t h c e a s e - f i r e ....
156
Economic consequences
164
1
South ...
166
i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t North .
171
S e c t i o n Two:
U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n
175
( i):
P a c i f i c a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s , 19741984
.
177
H u m a n i t a r i a n and Economic
A c t i v i t i e s , 1974 - 1984 . . . ,
180
i)
(ii):
The Greek C y p r i o t
The promotion o f economic
a c t i v i t y i n t h e U.N. B u f f e r
Zone
0
o
182
vi
I
I
S e c t i o n Three;
Case Study - U.N.F.I.CYP.
S e c t o r Two: BRIT.CON,
I
S e c t i o n Four:
I
Footnotes and R e f e r e n c e s
CHAPTER SEVEN :
I
I
Some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s second decade ..
CONCLUSION :
191
193
POLITICAL IMPASSE AND
U.N.F.I.CYP. TWENTY YEARS ON
....<,
197
211
The Geography o f Peacekeeping .
I
I
186
F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s
....»
2T4
Some n o t e s on primary s o u r c e s
216
BIBLIOGRAPHY
217
225
I
I
Order
I
1.
MAPS . FIGURES.
F i g . 0:1
AND TABLES.
Page
Photograph o f a T u r k i s h mosque i n the Greek
sector of central Nicosia
..<,....
2.
F i g . 0:2
T u r k i s h mosque and Greek c h u r c h
I
3.
Map. T:1
The p o s i t i o n of Cyprus i n r e l a t i o n to Turkey
and Greece
<,..<>....<>
I
4.
I
5.
1
1
e
The d e c l i n e o f mixed c e n t r e s i n Cyprus, 1891
to T970
F i g . 2:T
6.
Map. 2:1
23
The p r o g r e s s i v e s e g r e g a t i o n o f the C y p r i o t
e t h n i c communities,
189T - 1970
„
7.
T a b l e 2:2
The Growth o f Greek Orthodox
T a b l e 2:3
Map. 2:2
26
and Muslim
communities i n Cyprus
8.
24
Suggested e t h n i c b o u n d a r i e s i n Cyprus p r i o r
to the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n i n T974
9.
i
T a b l e 2:1
10
„.
28
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
by D i s t r i c t i n 1973
29
The d i s p e r s i o n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n T960 ..
30
vii
TO.
Table
2:4
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
ownerships
11.
Map. 2:3
land
..„
31
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriot
ownerships i n c l u d i n g s t a t e l a n d
T2.
Table
2:5
Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t H o l d i n g s , 1960 .......
T3.
Table
2:6
D i s t r i b u t i o n of holdings
14.
Map.2:4
Karouzis
Cyprus
by D i s t r i c t
map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
32
33
33
„....
"regions" i n
36
.»..<,
T5.
Map. 3:1
The
"Green L i n e " through the o l d c i t y o f N i c o s i a
44
16.
Map.
The
Guenyeli
46
17.
P i g . 3:1
T8,
Table
3:2
.
Block diagram o f the K y r e n i a - N i c o s i a Pass
Population
3:1
- Aghirda Enclave
d i s t r i b u t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t s
....
47
i n the
K y r e n i a P l a i n and P e n t a d a k t y l o s
„
49
D e t a i l s o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t and Mixed v i l l a g e s i n
T9.
Table
3:2
50
the K y r e n i a P l a i n and P e n t a d a k t y l o s
P a t r i c k map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d
20.
Map. 3:3
in
areas
T970
„
53
Kolodny map of T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s i n Cyprus i n
21
c
Map.
3:4
1970
54
Turkish Cypriot enclaves
22.
Map. 3:5
23.
Map. 3:6
i n Paphos D i s t r i c t
American map showing T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s
P a t r i c k map showing T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
24.
Map.
3:7
....
government o r g a n i s a t i o n ,
..
55
63
local
66
T964 to 1974
U.N.P.I.CYP. S i z e and Composition, A p r i l 1964 to
25.
26.
Table
4: t
P i g . 4:1
May
1984
The
s i z e o f U.N.P.I.CYP. i n r e l a t i o n to o t h e r
83
armed f o r c e s i n Cyprus i n June T972
I n i t i a l U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l
27.
Map. 4:1
May
1964
84
boundaries,
....„
87
U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l zones, December 1964 to
28.
Map.
4:2
July
1965
91
U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l zones, December 1965 ..
29.
Map. 4:3
30.
Map.
4:4
O f f i c i a l United
N a t i o n s map of U.N.P.I.CYP.
deployment i n November 1964. ( Taken from
U.N.
92
1
viii
I
«.
93
o....
94
Doc. S/6102, December 1964 )
31o
Map. 4:5
O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations
map
o f U.N.P.I.CYP.
deployment i n December 1965. ( Taken from
U.N. Doc. S/7001, December 1965 )
I
32.
Map.
5:1
Chatos e n c l a v e and roads i n the r e g i o n
33.
Map.
5:2
O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations map o f U.N.P.I.CYP.
deployment i n December T968 ( Taken from
34.
Map.
5:3
35.
P i g . 6:1
36.
Map. 6:1
37 o
Map. 6:2
106
U.N. Doc. S / 8 9 H , December T968 ) . „
131
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s i n the L e f k a Region .
135
T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y s l o g a n daubed on the T u r k i s h
Cypriot
s i d e of a w a l l along
the Green L i n e . . .
149
T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y advance p o s i t i o n s J u l y August, T974
152
Giines P l a n f o i r T u r k i s h cantons
proposed a t the Geneva C o n f e r e n c e i n August
1974
before
the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n of the
island
I
i n Cyprus,
<,.... « o .
38.
Map.
6:3
Denktas P l a n , Geneva, August 1974
39.
Map.
6:4
D r u r y map
40.
Tabl© 6:1
I
Table
6:2
I
155
„...<,
158
H y p o t h e t i c a l Exchange o f P o p u l a t i o n s
on the p r e s e n t s e p a r a t i o n l i n e
41.
„
Area occupied
- based
.. .<,..<,.. o....
0
Table
6:3
I
Table
6:4
I
T63-i
D i s t r i b u t i o n of p r i v a t e l a n d by D i s t r i c t
the T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n
43.
Property
land-use
after
.ooooo......
community before and a f t e r the T u r k i s h i n t e r -
44o
Map.
6:5
163' ii
The L o u r o u j i n a p e n i n s u l a b i s e c t i n g the o l d
N i c o s i a - L a r n a c a road
1
45:
P i g . 6:2
Showing
167
„
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t g a i n s i n l e n g t h o f
c o a s t l i n e a f t e r the T6 August c e a s e - f i r e o f '74
1
T63 * *
of the T u r k i s h Cypriote
vention
1
159
by the Turks b e f o r e and a f t e r the
Turkish m i l i t a r y intervention
42.
154
showing demographic consequences o f
the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n
I
..<><,..<,,
46.
Map.
6:6
O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations
deployment i n June 1976
map
170
o f UoN.P.I.CYP.
176
ix
47.
Map„ 6:7
N i c o s i a s i n c e 16 August
U.N.
48.
Map.
6:8
T974 - showing the
B u f f e r Zone w i t h i n the o l d c i t y
....
179
U.N„P.I.CYP. Sector-Two. Showing p a r t o f
the U.N.
B u f f e r Zone
T87
49.
Map.
6:9
H y d r o l o g i c a l survey a r e a s i n Cyprus s i n c e '74.
50.
Map.
7:1
T u r k i s h boundary proposed by Greek C y p r i o t s i n
1977
51.
Map.
7:2
200
T u r k i s h proposed t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s i n
r981
52.
P i g . 7:T
190
202
Cartoon o f Rauf Denktas c u t t i n g a T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t branch o f f the t r e e of Cyprus
Geography
53.
Map.
7:3
Political
54.
Map.
7:4
O f f i c i a l United N a t i o n s map of U.N.F.I.CYP.
deployment i
Y 1984. ( Taken from U.N. Doc.
n
S/T6596,
o f Cyprus, 1960 - 1984
206
...
209
M a
June 1984
)
210
T h i s work i s d e d i c a t e d to the memory o f
E r n e s t Joseph Woodhouse - my
-
1905-1979.
grandfather
CHAPTER
AIMS. APPROACH'. AND
ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE
T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o two
CYPRUS PROBLEM.
sections.
The
first
deals with
the main aims and approach adopted i n t h i s s t u d y .
The
second
gives
d e t a i l s of the complexity of the Cyprus Problem as n e c e s s a r y background
to
the r e s t of the
Section
dissertation.
One.
The p r i n c i p a l aim of the d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to emphasize the
aspects"" of the United Nations peacekeeping
o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus.
f a c t t h a t Cyprus i s an i s l a n d of o n l y 9,251 s q . km.
o n l y 650
"geographical
The
w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of
- 700,000 makes the i s l a n d a manageable s i z e f o r a d e t a i l e d
study of t h i s type.
The
compact, e a s i l y d e f i n e d heterogenous space
of
the i s l a n d p r o v i d e s a v a l u a b l e " t e s t i n g ground" f o r a n a l y s i s of the
s p a t i a l dimensions
of intercommunal c o n f l i c t
r o l e " of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping
and
"the
interpositionary
f o r c e between the p r o t a g o n i s t s .
There have been o t h e r d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of the United Nations F o r c e i n
Cyprus ( U.N.F.I.CYP. ) o p e r a t i o n s , but none have f o c u s e d on the
a s p e c t s of peacekeeping
of Cyprus.
i n r e l a t i o n to the p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l geography
F o r i n s t a n c e , C h a r l e s C.Moskos, 1976,
the m i l i t a r y s o c i o l o g y of peacekeeping,
of n o n c o e r c i o n
c a r r i e d out a study of
a n a l y s i n g "whether the i m p e r a t i v e s
and i m p a r t i a l i t y r e q u i r e a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l
m i l t i a r y s o c i o l i z a t i o n and a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of s t a n d a r d
organization."
spatial
(1)
B r i g a d i e r Michael H a r b o t t l e , 1970,
military
examines the-
o r g a n i s a t i o n and deployment of U.N.F.I.CYP. and p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t s
into
p a r t i c u l a r i n c i d e n t s from the s t a n d p o i n t of a former c h i e f - o f - s t a f f of
the F o r c e , 1966-68.
Another-comprehensive and c r i t i c a l account
U.N.F.I.CYP. i n i t s f i r s t
of
decade i s p r o v i d e d by James A.Stagenga,
q u e s t i o n s whether or not the U.N.
Force helped
to " f r e e z e and
who
perpetuate"
an anomalous and dangerous patchwork p a r t i t i o n between the communities. (2
Other s t u d i e s have c o n c e n t r a t e d on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l dimension
of United
Nations peacekeeping and the i n t r i c a c i e s o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s mandate,
comparing i t to o t h e r United Nations peacekeeping v e n t u r e s . ( 3 )
L i t t l e attempt i s made i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to make comparisons w i t h
or g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping a s a means o f
r e g u l a t i n g c i v i l war o r intercommunal c o n f l i c t
i s not being
situations.
U.N.P.I.CYP.
used a s a 'model' f o r f u t u r e peacekeeping v e n t u r e s ,
some u s e f u l l e s s o n s have a l r e a d y been l e a r n t from the Cyprus
regarding
although
operation
such c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s a s mounting and forming an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
peacekeeping f o r c e , f i n a n c i n g i t , i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e arrangements and
l o g i s t i c a l support
machinery.
As Stagenga p o i n t s o u t : -
" U.N.P.I.CYP. was t a i l o r e d to cope w i t h Cyprus c r i s i s
than to conform to any s t a n d a r d
pattern or doctrine
rather
derived
from U.N.E.P. o r O.N.U.C.',' two e a r l i e r peacekeeping f o r c e s . ( 4 )
I n so f a r a s t h e r e may be s i m i l a r i t i e s between the s i t u a t i o n i n Cyprus and
o t h e r s t a t e s t o r n by i n t e r - e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s , o r t r i b a l
antagonisms
combined w i t h r e g i o n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g c e n t r i f u g a l l y to s p l i n t e r the s t a t e s ,
U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e x p e r i e n c e s
may provide
valuable information
a s to the^
e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t h i r d party i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t
situations.
Such l e s s o n s may be p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to t h i r d
c o u n t r i e s where the n e g a t i v e
weaker than "the m u l t i t u d e
Cyprus i s s h a r e d
a n t i c o l o n i a l aspects of nationalism are
of p a r t i c u l a r i s t
tendencies'.' ( 5 )
by Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , y e t due to a v a r i e t y o f
i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c e n t r i f u g a l f a c t o r s they p e r c e i v e d
space d i f f e r e n t l y and mutually
their
exclusive g e o p o l i t i c a l goals.
combination o f t h e s e g o a l s and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l / m i l i t a r y
helped
The
world
shared
The
initiatives
to f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r the p o l i t i c a l and human geography o f C y p r u s .
m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s took p l a c e i n 1974 w i t h the complete
most dramatic
s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities i n t o mono-ethnic a r e a s d i v i d e d by a
de f a c t o boundary.
The- s p a t i a l a s p e c t s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t
an understanding
and r e s u l t i n g changes t a
o f U.N.P.I.CYP. deployment, o p e r a t i o n s ,
achievements, and
the c o n s t r a i n t s working a g a i n s t " a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s " a s
-
3
-
envisaged by e i t h e r community and by U.N.P.I.CYP., a l l of whom had d i f f e r e n t
p e r c e p t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n and of why the Force was c r e a t e d .
Richard
Patrick's
r e s e a r c h on the g e o g r a p h i c a l a s p e c t s of intercommunal c o n f l i c t ,
i . e . "the l o c a t i o n a l a s p e c t s of each i n c i d e n t , where i t o c c u r r e d and
why,
how the l o c a t i o n a f f e c t e d each i n c i d e n t and v i c e v e r s a , where- r e f u g e e s
went, the l o c a t i o n a l consequences of both e v a c u a t i o n and r e c e p t i o n
v i l l a g e s and t h e i r economies", ( 6 ) h i g h l i g h t e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the
s p a t i a l environments of each community. F o r - i n s t a n c e , the T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t e c r e a t e d t h e i r own space by forming p r o t e c t e d e n c l a v e s and q u a r t e r s
i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of the i s l a n d , which l e f t the map of Cyprus dotted w i t h
" i s l a n d s " of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l f o r o v e r a decade, December 1963 to
J u l y 1974.
I n t h i s way the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a l t e r e d t h e i r ' s p a t i a l
environments, became i n c r e a s i n g l y c u t - o f f from the Greek C y p r i o t s , and
i n t r o v e r t e d i n t h e i r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y c o n f i n e d s t r o n g h o l d s which t h e i r
l e a d e r s were determined to h o l d onto r a t h e r than l e t them f a l l undpr the
i n f l u e n c e of the Cyprus Government. On the o t h e r hand the Greek C y p r i o t s
m a i n t a i n e d c o n t r o l of o v e r n i n e t y per cent of the t e r r i t o r y of Cyprus,
remained r e l a t i v e l y comfortable i n t h e i r economic p r o s p e r i t y , and were
unable o r u n w i l l i n g to e n t e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a r e a s , a l l of which produced
a dangerous complacency about the p l i g h t of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s and the
p o l i t i c a l deadlock. The " i s o l a t e d s t a t e " of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community
tended to enhance the p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s and phobias s e p a r a t i n g t h e
two communities.
From the above comments i t can be i n f e r r e d t h a t the " b u f f e r "
of U.N.F.I.CYP. i n m a i n t a i n i n g
accepted
s t a t u s quo
p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s and
on the i s l a n d s p l i t
cease-fire lines,
the
by intercommunal s t r i f e , h e l p e d to
c o n s o l i d a t e a de f a c t o s e p a r a t i o n of the two
t h i s context
activities
main C y p r i o t
much of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s devoted
communities.
In
to:-
( T ) U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r o l e as a " b u f f e r f o r c e " between the b e l l i g e r e n t s .
( 2 ) I t s e f f o r t s to break down the b a r r i e r s s e p a r a t i n g Greek from T u r k i s h
Cypriot
island.
by a t t e m p t i n g to " n o r m a l i z e "
socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s i n the
- 4 -
(3)
An a n a l y s i s o f t h e f o r c e s b e h i n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f d i s t i n c t
community-
defined behavioural environments i n o r d e r t o determine o t h e r
c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l t e n d e n c i e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e e m a n a t i n g
f r o m U.N.F.I.CYP.'s
(4)
activities.
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e numerous d i s t r i b u t i o n a l i n e q u a l i t i e s
not
arising
f r o m t h e h e t e r o g e n o u s space o f t h e i s l a n d b u t f r o m " m a n - c r e a t e d
space", and U.N.P.I.CYP.'s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s .
Twice" i n t h e l a s t
two decades Cyprus has undergone
m a j o r changes i n i t s
p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y , c r e a t i n g massive
s o c i o - e c o n o m i c , demographic and
political
f o c u s on t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o b l e m s
upheavals.
This study w i l l
caused by a r b i t r a r y e t h n i c d i v i d i n g l i n e s drawn a c r o s s t h e l a n d s c a p e o f
C y p r u s , such as t r u n c a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , d i s r u p t e d f r e e d o m o f movement,
d i v i d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f l a n d - u s e , m i s a l l o c a t i o n
of
economic
r e s o u r c e s , w e l f a r e f a c i l i t i e s , movement o f goods and p e o p l e ,
c o n s t r a i n t s on human^and p o l i t i c a l
i n t e r a c t i o n / cooperation.
As R i c h a r d
P a t r i c k o b s e r v e d :" The p r o c e s s e s o f c o n f l i c t
a l t e r t h e phenomenal e n v i r o n m e n t
i n w h i c h and upon w h i c h t h e y a c t .
Geographers
have
t r a d i t i o n a l l y been i n t e r e s t e d i n such r e s u l t s as boundary
changes,
population migrations, resource r e d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
s h i f t s o f l o c a t i o n s , a l t e r a t i o n s t o spheres o f i n f l u e n c e
g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g o u r f o c u s has been on how c o n f l i c t
the
—
affects
s p a t i a l p a t t e r n o f phenomena; w h i c h , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s ,
we v i e w as s i g n i f i c a n t . " ( 7 )
Two b r o a d p e r i o d s w i l l
1974
be c o v e r e d i n d e t a i l ,
t o 1984. F o r t h e f i r s t
1964 t o J u l y T974 and J u l y
decade o f U.N.P.I.CYP. p e a c e k e e p i n g I w i l l
q u e s t i o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e F o r c e may have h e l p e d t o p r o t e c t a
s e p a r a t i s t movement i n Cyprus by c a r r y i n g o u t i t s d i v e r s e a c t i v i t i e s as
( i ) an i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y f o r c e , and ( i i ) a c o m m u n i c a t i o n b r i d g e between t h e
two c o m m u n i t i e s a t a t i m e o f l i t t l e
o r no p r o g r e s s i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l
n e g o t i a t i o n s t o w a r d s a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m .
p e r i o d d e a l s s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e consequences
The second
o f and p e a c e k e e p i n g
c r e a t e d by an e n f o r c e d a r t i f i c i a l d i v i s i o n o f a s m a l l i s l a n d .
problems
Particular
-
5 -
attention w i l l
be g i v e n t o t h e p e c u l i a r g e o g r a p h i c a l
United Nations
B u f f e r Zone, u t i l i z i n g
and
recent f i e l d w o r k observations
i n t e r v i e w s w i t h U.N.P.I.CYP. p e r s o n n e l .
p o l i t i c a l and s p a t i a l s t a l e m a t e
will
problems o f t h e
F i n a l l y , the current
be d i s c u s s e d
i n r e l a t i o n to the
c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e o f a U.N. F o r c e i n C y p r u s .
S e c t i o n Two:
The Cyprus P r o b l e m .
" Cyprus was t h e c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r i n a l o n g Turko-Greek
s t r u g g l e and d i s e n t a n g l e m e n t ,
attitude
and t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' s
t o i t was c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e c u r i t y f e a r s as much
as w i t h t h e T u r k i s h m i n o r i t y : f e a r s d a t i n g f r o m
previous
T u r k o - G r e e k e n c o u n t e r s . . . a s w e l l as t h e n i g h t m a r e
e n c i r c l e d by a c o a l i t i o n o f p a n - H e l l e n i s m
o f being
and Great Powers
such as B r i t a i n , France o r R u s s i a . " ( 8 )
" The Cyprus P r o b l e m ( s ) must n o t be v i e w e d s i m p l y as
'a p r o b l e m o f Greeks and T u r k s ' .
Nor i s i t t r u e t o say
' t h a t b u t f o r - t h e i n f l u e n c e o f B r i t a i n and l a t e r t h e
U.S.A. t h e Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d t o t h i s day
be
living
t o g e t h e r i n harmony.'" ( 9 )
" C l e a r l y , b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s were u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f
o u t s i d e f a c t o r s o v e r w h i c h t h e y had v e r y l i t t l e
there i s every i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , d i v o r c e d from
political
influence;
the- w i d e r
a r g u m e n t , harmony c o u l d have p r e v a i l e d . " (TO)
These t h r e e - q u o t a t i o n s , s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , a r e t a k e n
t h r e e e x p e r t s on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s
illustrate
from
o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m , and t h e y
the- c o m p l e x i t y o f t h i s m u l t i f a c e t e d i s s u e .
Indeed
i t is
u s e f u l t o l o o k a t t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m f r o m v a r i o u s l e v e l s and
perspectives.
( i ) I n t e r c o m m u n a l C o e x i s t e n c e and C o n f l i c t .
The
i s l a n d o f Cyprus i s s h a r e d
by two m a j o r c o m m u n i t i e s —
t h e Greek
and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , f o r m i n g about 80 and 18 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
respectively.
There a r e a l s o s m a l l numbers o f M a r o n i t e s ,
more r e c e n t l y , Lebanese.
A r m e n i a n s , and
To a l a r g e e x t e n t t h i s b i p a r t i s a n p o p u l a t i o n i s
1
- 6 -
t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m . Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l ,
r e l i g i o u s and l i n g u i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d s w h i c h h e l p e d t o f o s t e r d i v e r s e
n a t i o n a l i s m s , a p o l a r i z a t i o n o f community p o l i t i c s and a s p a t i a l
s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s . S t r e s s i n g t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e
two ' C y p r i o t ' c o m m u n i t i e s has l e d some^ a u t h o r i t i e s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n
t h a t " t h e T u r k s and t h e Greeks c a n n o t , g e t on t o g e t h e r ". ( 1 T ) I f t h e
p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s o r so a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n i s o l a t i o n many o b s e r v e r s w o u l d
p r o b a b l y a g r e e w i t h such a s t a t e m e n t .
B u t as C h r i s t o p h e r H i t c h e n s , 1984,
p u t s i t :-
" I n order to c r i t i c i z e
this t r i t e
i s the psychological counterpart
and c y n i c a l v i e w , w h i c h
• o f p a r t i t i o n , one has t o
wage a b a t t l e a g a i n s t amnesia." ( T 2 )
T h i s means t a k i n g a w i d e r v i e w o f C y p r u s ' h i s t o r y and t h e development o f
intercommunal c o n f l i c t i n Cyprus.
P r i o r - t o t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e C o n s t i t u t i o n t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s were
d i s t i n g u i s h e d along
r e l i g i o u s r a t h e r than r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s $ 3 ) a
was s i m p l y an a d h e r e r t o O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y and a " T u r k " an
of Islam.
Bicommunal d e f i n i t i o n s were o f f i c i a l l y
enshrined
"Greek"
upholder
i n Article
Two o f t h e 1960 C o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h s t a t e s :" . . . t h e Greek Community c o m p r i s e s a l l c i t i z e n s o f t h e R e p u b l i c
who a r e o f Greek o r i g i n and whose m o t h e r t o n g u e i s Greek o r
who a r e members o f t h e Greek O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ;
the Turkish
Community c o m p r i s e s a l l c i t i z e n s o f t h e R e p u b l i c
who a r e o f
T u r k i s h o r i g i n and whose m o t h e r tongue i s T u r k i s h o r who
1
s h a r e t h e T u r k i s h c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o r who a r e M u s l i m s ;
C i t i z e n s o f t h e Republic
provisions
who do n o t come w i t h i n
( these )
. . . s h a l l , w i t h i n t h r e e months...opt t o belong
t o e i t h e r t h e Greek o r T u r k i s h community." ( 1 4 )
These c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s e n c o u r a g e d e t h n i c p o l a r i z a t i o n and t h e
development o f community c o n s c i o u s n e s s as opposed t o a C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l
consciousness.
The p r o v i s i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d
political
d i v i s i o n s t h a t were t a k i n g p l a c e as a r e s u l t o f t h e Independence Movement.
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e Greek C y p r i o t s h a d f o r g e d t h e i r
sentiments
w i t h demands f o r E n o s i s ( U n i o n w i t h G r e e c e ) .
anticolonial
E n o s i s was
- 7 -
more t h a n an e x p r e s s i o n o f P a n - H e l l e n i s m t o Greek C y p r i o t s , as P e t e r L o i z o s
e x p l a i n s , " i t was some k i n d o f s e a r c h f o r a l l i e s , r o o t s , and d i g n i t y by
c l a i m i n g a c o n n e c t i o n t o a more p r e s t i g i o u s c u l t u r e - , t h a t o f m a i n l a n d
Greece". ( 1 5 ) W i t h t h e - g r o w t h o f t h e E n o s i s s t r u g g l e ^ ther T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
became i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t s h o u l d t h e i s l a n d become a n o t h e r '
d i s t a n t p r o v i n c e o f Greece t h e y w o u l d be e i t h e r e x p e l l e d f r o m C y p r u s , o r
become an u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d and d o w n t r o d d e n m i n o r i t y w i t h i n G r e a t e r Greece.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s became more aware o f t h e i r e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , v u l n e r a b l e
m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i n C y p r u s , and more v o c i f e r o u s i n p u s h i n g f o r t h e i r r i g h t s
i n Cypriott a f f a i r s .
B r i t a i n a c t i v e l y encouraged t h i s p o l i t i c i z a t i o n o f
communal d i f f e r e n c e s and used the' T u r k i s h m i n o r i t y t o p r o p up t h e c o l o n i a l
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . (T6) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were even used as a u x i l i a r y p o l i c e men i n t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t E.O.K.A. ( E t h n i k i O r g a n o s i s K y p r i o n A g o n i s t o n —
N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Freedom F i g h t e r s ) i n t h e l a t e - • F i f t i e s , w h i c h
caused i n t e r c o m m u n a l b l o o d s h e d .
As M i c h a e l A t t a l i d e s p o i n t s o u t :-
The
r e a l intercommunal
r o o t s l e v e l when k i l l i n g
b i t t e r n e s s o n l y extended
started."
Before the outbreak o f intercommunal
(T7)
v i o l e n c e i n the late-T950s there
had been a h i g h degree o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
r e l a t i o n s i n C y p r u s . (T8)
i n economic and c e r t a i n
On
ritual
I f one goes back t o t h e Ottoman p e r i o d b e f o r e
t h e development o f Greek n a t i o n a l i s m t h e i p w e r e few s i g n s o f
communal a n i m o s i t y .
t o the grass
widespread
t h e c o n t r a r y , d i s t i n c t i o n s between "Greeks" and
" T u r k s " were o f t e n b l u r r e d by i n s t a n c e s o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e , and a
number o f c o n v e r s i o n s f r o m C h r i s t i a n i t y t o I s l a m .
v i l l a g e s o f Greek-speaking
Muslims.
T h e r e were even w h o l e
Many C y p r i o t s b o r e the- nickname o f
Linobambaki ( Linen C o t t o n ) , s i g n i f y i n g
a l s o s e v e r a l mixed peasant
substantial
t h e i r "mixed" o r i g i n s .
There
r e v o l t s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o h i g h e r t a x e s imposed
by t h e Church o r Ottoman G o v e r n o r .
U n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s t h e r e was
(T9)
much c o o p e r a t i o n i n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
thff o r d i n a r y p e o p l e n e v e r f i n d i n g i t d i f f i c u l t
to l i v e
the i s l a n d , p l a c e s o f work, v i l l a g e s ,
c o f f e e s h o p s , and
suburbs,
life,
together, to
share
wedding
festivities.
W o r k i n g - c l a s s members o f b o t h
communist-led Pan-Cypriot Labour F e d e r a t i o n
T u r k i s h members b e f o r e
(P.E.O.), w h i c h h a d 4,000
t h e Turks formed " s e p a r a t i s t " t r a d e unions i n
response t o intercommunal
Professor
c o m m u n i t i e s j o i n e d the-
conflict.
C o u f o u d a k i s , 1 9 7 6 , t r i e d t o a n a l y s e ""the dynamics o f p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i t i o n and d i v i s i o n i n C y p r u s " .
He h i g h l i g h t e d some i m p o r t a n t
i n t e r n a l a»\d
e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s leading t o t h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e communities.
One o f t h e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s d u r i n g Ottoman r u l e was t h e r e v i t a l i s a t i o n
o f t h e O r t h o d o x Church u n d e r t h e M i l l e t
into
system, t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e Archbishop
" t h e u n c h a l l e n g e d spokesman i n p o l i t i c a l ,
s o c i a l , e d u c a t i o n a l and
r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t community."' ( 2 0 ) D u r i n g
the a n t i -
c o l o n i a l movement t h e c a l l f o r E n o s i s was "spearheaded by O r t h o d o x c h u r c h men, p a s s i o n a t e l y
r i g h t - w i n g , and l a c k i n g i n s i g h t i n t o T u r k i s h
thinking."
( 2 T ) Another^ s o u r c e o f d i v i s i o n was t h e s e g r e g a t e d
educational
s y s t e m , w h i c h s t r e n g h e n e d community t i e s t o t h e i r
"mother l a n d s " ,
Cypriot
respective
and f o s t e r e d t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f e t h n i c d i f f e r e n c e s .
As>
P a t r i c k o b s e r v e d :" T h i s system o f e d u c a t i o n
has n o t o n l y p r o d u c e d
strong
Greek and T u r k i s h p a t r i o t i s m r a t h e r t h a n any sense o f
C y p r i o t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t i t has a l s o m a i n t i n e d and
emphasized t h e v i l l a i n o u s r o l e s i n t o w h i c h Greeks and
T u r k s have h i s t o r i c a l l y c a s t each o t h e r . " ( 2 2 )
Economic d i s p a r i t i e s between t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s were a n o t h e r
s o u r c e o f communal s e p a r a t i o n .
potential
A t I n d e p e n d e n c e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had an
a v e r a g e p e r c a p i t a income some t w e n t y
p e r cent
b e l o w t h a t o f Greek C y p r i o t s .
F u r t h e r m o r e , most o f t h e i s l a n d ' s l u c r a t i v e b u s i n e s s e s were i n Greek h a n d s .
These d i s p a r i t i e s were m a i n l y
due t o s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s as
opposed t o any p o l i c y o f " e x p l o i t a t i o n " by Greek C y p r i o t s .
(23)
Unfortunate-
l y t h e s e economic d i f f e r e n c e s were t o be "used" by t h e l e a d e r s
o f both
communities i n order t o achieve t h e i r separate p o l i t i c a l goals
after
December 1963.
H i t h e r t o e x t e r n a l causes o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriots
-
Have- o n l y been h i n t e d a t , b u t
one
c o m m e n t a t o r has
put
9
-
t h e y w i l l now
be g i v e n more w e i g h t ,
f o r as
i t —
At a l m o s t e v e r y s t a g e i n t h e drama...the weaknesses o r
e r r o r s o f C y p r i o t s were e x p l o i t e d o r compounded by
intervention."
(24)
Others also s t r e s s the m a n i p u l a t i o n
o f and
by i n t e r e s t e d o u t s i d e powers as b e i n g
interference i n Cypriot
the p r i c i p a l
f a c t o r i n "the
movement t o w a r d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n on t h e i s l a n d " . (25>)
Greek
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p h o b i a s a b o u t each o t h e r have n o t o n l y been
by i n t e r n a l
external
affairs
gradual
and
intensified
p o l i t i c a l r i v a l r i e s b u t by t h e complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
internal
and
( i i ) The
G e o p o l i t i c a l D i m e n s i o n o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m .
Cyprus has
of
e x t e r n a l power p o l i t i c s .
an a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n a t t h e e a s t e r n m o s t end
of
the
Mediterranean, near the t r o u b l e d Levant, a valuable p o s i t i o n f o r " a l l
f o r m s o f advance, economic, m i l i t a r y
and
cultural."
(26)
The s t r a t e g i c
p o s i t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d i s l a r g e l y t h e cause o f o u t s i d e ^ i n t e r f e r e n c e i n
Cypriot a f f a i r s .
are at v a r i o u s
The
l i n k a g e s between Cyprus and
Graeco-Turkish R i v a l r y .
d e f i n i n g t h e c h i e f p r o t a g o n i s t s i n Cyprus as
thff Turkish Nation
t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m becomes one
r e g i o n a l r i v a l r y between Greece and
d e f i n e d as a g r o u p o f p e o p l e who
cultural
external intprests
levels.
Intra-Regional Level:
By
vested
heritage
Turkey.
feel
element o f the
I n t h i s context
As R i c h a r d
Greece- a r e i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e
systems o v e r l a p p i n g
boundaries."
For
intra-
"Nation"
Patrick
of s e v e r a l connected
t h e Greek and
Turkish
could
conflict
National
(27)
t h r e e hundred years
( f r o m 157T
t o 1878) Cyprus was
p a r t of" t h e
Ottoman E m p i r e , a l t h o u g h
t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n were Greek
settlers.
from
Nevertheless,
is
explains
community
b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s , t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m
be v i e w e d as o n l y one
and
t h e m s e l v e s l i n k e d by a common
(hence t h e E n o s i s Movement).
^ I f T u r k e y and
t h e Greek N a t i o n
the time o f the f i r s t
influx of
Turkish
10
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CO
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/
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LU
f 18
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f
UJ
0
I
I
I
I
I
GttfCf
Muslims
r
f r o m t h e m a i n l a n d t h e seeds o f " C y p r u s s c o n t i n u i n g
conflict
between a Greek C h r i s t i a n m a j o r i t y and a T u r k i s h M u s l i m m i n o r i t y
were sown. (n."U27)
I n 182T,
t h e m a i n l a n d Greeks r o s e a g a i n s t
"
their
T u r k i s h o v e r l o r d s , m o t i v a t e d by t h e " M e g a l i I d e a " o r G r e a t I d e a
H e l l e n i s m , i . e . t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f a l l Greeks e v e r y w h e r e
of
and,
u l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e c o v e r y o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e as t h e c a p i t a l o f a u n i f i e d
and r e s u r g e n t B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e .
the
F o l l o w i n g a R u s s o - T u r k i s h war i n
T u r k s handed Cyprus o v e r - t o F r i t a i n i n r e t u r n f o r a d e f e n c e
ment.
On
t h e day B r i t i s h r u l e began, J u l y 8, 1878, t h e new
H i g h Commissioner was welcomed by t h e B i s h o p o f C i t i u m , who
t o Greece as an inducement
agree-
British
expressed
hope t h a t Cyprus w o u l d soon be r e u n i t e d w i t h "Mother Greece".
B r i t a i n o f f e r e d Cyprus
1877
I n T915
to that country to
e n t e r war on t h e s i d e o f t h e A l l i e s a g a i n s t Germany, A u s t r i a , Hungary
and T u r k e y . A t h e n s r e f u s e d t h e o f f e r ,
d e c i d i n g to remain n e u t r a l .
A f t e r t h e r i s e o f Kemal A t l / a t u r k , t h e f o u n d e r o f modern T u r k e y ,
was
t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e T r e a t y o f Lausanne i n J u l y
r e d r a w i n g o f t h e Greaco-Turkish boundary
creating —
"a
there
1923, w h i c h l e d t o a
and an exchange o f p o p u l a t i o n s ,
l i n e a r i n t e r f a c e between two s t a t e s i n t h e f o r m o f a
b o u n d a r y w h i c h p r o m i s e d t o be s t a b l e because i t was
by b o t h p a r t i e s and was
m o s t l y drawn t h r o u g h sea,
because m i n o r i t i e s were l a r g e l y c l e a r e d f r o m t h e
agreed
and
territories
which i t separated." (28)
As B r i a n B e e l e y , 1977, p o i n t s out; t h i s T r e a t y m e r e l y s h i f t e d the- l o c a t i o n
of
a p o t e n t i a l l y h o s t i l e i n t e r f a c e t o t h e Aegean and t o C y p r u s ,
officially
became a "Crown C o l o n y " i n 1925.
The
which
drawing o f the
boundary
i n T h r a c e and t h e e a s t e r n Aegean A c h i e v e d t h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f Greeks
and T u r k s c o n s i d e r e d v i t a l
W i t h i n Cyprus
to s t a b i l i t y a t the p o l i t i c a l
t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s d e v e l o p e d p o l a r i z e d p o l i t i c a l
p u l l e d by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e "mother l a n d s " .
TakBim ( i . e .
interface.
positions
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t demands f o r
P a r t i t i o n ) were* s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e p o l i t i c a l and
s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r ' Greece i n the? e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and b y i t s
p r o x i m i t y t o Cyprus.
(29)
To- the- l a r g e r p o w e r s , Greece and T u r k e y ,
military
closeCyprus
- 12 -
became an i m p o r t a n t
t e r r i t o r i a l / s t r a t e g i c issue
c o n n e c t e d w i t h an
i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t resource-cum-boundary d i s p u t e
Sea.
S i n c e 1'923 t h i s sea has v i r t u a l l y
c o m p l e t e d i n 1947 w i t h t h e a n n e x a t i o n
I s l a n d s o n l y afew k i l o m e t r e s f r o m
been sc "Greek Lake", a p r o c e s s
t o Greece o f t h e Dodecanese
the Turkish coastline.
o v e r t h e Aegean has m u l t i p l i e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y
i n t h e seabed.
i n t h e Aegean
The r i v a l r y
o f o i l and gas d e p o s i t s
I n 1973/74 T u r k e y made u n i l a t e r a l d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a
c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f b o u n d a r y i n t h e Aegean by g r a n t i n g e x p l o r a t i o n c o n c e s s i o n s
t o t h e T u r k i s h P e t r o l e u m Company — an a c t i o n w h i c h b r o u g h t Greece and
Turkey close
t o war i n 1^976.
Ankara* w o u l d l i k e a Median L i n e
established
i n t h e Aegean t o a l l o w T u r k i s h e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t , b u t
the^ Greeks a r e u n w i l l i n g t o l o s e access t o l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e seabed
or
t o a l l o w Greek I s l a n d s t o be t u r n e d i n t o
zone.
"enclaves"
w i t h i n a Turkish
(30)
I n t h e summer o f T974 T u r k e y i n t e r v e n e d i n Cyprus f o l l o w i n g a Greek coup
a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y the^ i s l a n d was d i v i d e d .
Turkish'
propaganda e x p r e s s e s h e r f e a r s : " T u r k e y was b e i n g
e n c i r c l e d ; Greece was t r y i n g t o make t h e
Aegean a Greek Lake.
U n i o n o f Cyprus w i t h Greece w o u l d
c o m p l e t e t h e c i r c l e . . . t h e T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f Cyprus
w o u l d be f o r c e d o u t . . . "
(3T)
S i n c e t h a t p a r t i t i o n many Greek C y p r i o t s a r e w e l l aware o f t h e i r " m i n o r i t y
status" i n the eastern
M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n and a r e w o r r i e d t h a t one day
the Turks w i l l
t o annex t h e whole i s l a n d .
attempt
t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m t h u s r e p r e s e n t s
( 3 2 ) I n many
a "'double m i n o r i t y p r o b l e m " .
C y p r i o t s have been w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e i i r m i n o r i t y p o s i t i o n w i t h i n
and
domination
Turkish
Cyprus
by t h e Greeks, whereas w i t h t h e w e i g h t o f T u r k e y a t t h e i r
backs t h e Greek C y p r i o t s a r e a " s t r a t e g i c m i n o r i t y " .
past
respects
Unfortunately, the
h i s t o r y o f G r a e c o - T u r k i s h r i v a l r y has proved t h a t t h e r e a d j u s t m e n t
o r c r e a t i o n o f de f a c t o p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o r e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s has
merely s h i f t e d t h e arena o f c o n f l i c t
existence
r a t h e r than solved
it,
and t h e
o f such a p h y s i c a l p a r t i t i o n i n Cyprus has n o t e r a s e d t h e
- 13 -
p o s s i b i l i t y o f a Graeco-Turkish war over the
The
Super-Power- L e v e l
island.
: Cyprus a n d N.A.T.O.
C y p r u s , l i k e Lebanon, h a s s u f f e r e d f r o m i t s g e o p o l i t i c a l
T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t , one
position.
o f Washington's
c o n c e r n s h a s been t o m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k o f N.A.T.O.,
o v e r r i d i n g any c o n c e r n f o r C y p r i o t i n d e p e n d e n c e o r C y p r i o t a s p i r a t i o n s .
As A d a l b e r t W e i n s t e i n
p u t s i t :-
" How does i t happen t h a t t h i s e c o n o m i c a l l y
meaningless
and m i l i t a r i l y n o n - e x i s t e n t s m a l l Cyprus w i t h i t s 650,000
i n h a b i t a n t s have such an i n f l u e n c e on t h e w o r l d scene ?
The
answer i s s i m p l e .
anchored a i r c r a f t
Geographically
i t i s a securely
c a r r i e r a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t o f
t h e l i n e s o f t e n s i o n o f the g r e a t n u c l e a r powers. " ( 3 3 )
The
B r i t i s h Sovereign
Base A r e a s , D h e k e l i a
their original faction —
Suez, J o r d a n ,
and A k r o t i r i , no l o n g e r
that o f safeguarding
British control
serve
over
and I r a q , b u t t h e y a r e k e y bases c o n t r o l l e d by an i m p o r t a n t
member o f N.A.T.O., a l t h o u g h n o t d i r e c t l y u n d e r N.A.T.O. command. U n i t e d
S t a t e s s t r a t e g i s t s v i e w Cyprus as a base f o r e a r l y - w a r n i n g
installations
and
P r i o r t o ther
f o r a e r i a l s u r v e i l l a n c e o f the A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t .
T974 coup d'e'tat a g a i n s t P r e s i d e n t M a k a r i o s W a s h i n g t o n were c o n c e r n e d
about the i s l a n d ' s independent,
non-aligned
s t a t u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n view
o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a r g e s t p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n Cyprus was A.K.E.L., t h e
C y p r i o t communist p a r t y , w h i c h was t o t a l l y a g a i n s t any- s o l u t i o n b i n d i n g
tVi*t
Cyprus t o N.A.T.O.
GivenVthe U n i t e d S t a t e s has s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y
p l u s the S i x t h F l e e t i n the Mediterranean
was
a r e a , Cyprus u n d e r M a k a r i o s
seen as a p o t e n t i a l "Cuba i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n " , ( 3 4 )
p o i n t has l e d numerous academic o b s e r v e r s
bases,
Such a s t a n d -
t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s p l a y e d on i n t r a - r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s and i n t e r c o m m u n a l
conflict
i n o r d e r t o produce a s i t u a t i o n more f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e N.A.T.O. A l l i a n c e .
Cyprus became a " t a c t i c a l pawn" r a t h e r t h a n an i n d e p e n d e n t " c o u n t r y w i t h
a complex i n d i v i d u a l i t y . "
(35)
As
P o l i v i o s P o l y v i o u , 1980,
points out,
once t h e T u r k s h a d l a n d e d
s u b s t a n t i a l m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n Cyprus i n J u l y
-
T974, " A m e r i c a n p o l i c y
tilted
T u r k e y a s i t was t h o u g h t
T4 -
decisively
that
and c o n s c i o u s l y i n favour o f
o n l y i n t h i s way c o u l d l o s s e s
N.A.T.O. be m i n i m i z e d a n d A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i c
Some c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e gone e v e n f u r t h e r
directed
in
the tragic
the island,
of
N.A.T.O.
with
Level
interests
: Britain's
Cyprus' s t r a t e g i c
anticolonial
of
i t s northern part
that
headquarters,
o f the Western d e f e n s i v e
Strategic
Interests
system i n the region.(37)
and 'Divide and R u l e ' .
i m p o r t a n c e to B r i t a i n r e a c h e d i t s peak d u r i n g t h e
1954, t h e i s l a n d
t h e 1950s.
Following
became B r i t a i n ' s
and a base to p r o t e c t
vital
the evacuation
Middle E a s t
o i l supplies.
tide
of Enotist
Throughout t h e c o l o n i a l
sentiment
period,
h e l p e d t o p r o p up t h e c o l o n i a l
effectively neutralized
atives
amongst G r e e k
1 8 7 8 - T960,
administration.
by a c o a l i t i o n
i n the Legislative
Council.
t h e Cyprus
movement.
riots
i n T931. ( 3 8 ) L i t t l e
consciousness.
I n fact,
and T u r k i s h
policies
were
represent-
sentiments
and t h e p r o - E n o s i s
repression after- pro-Enosis
w a s done t o p r o m o t e C y p r i o t
t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e
-
national
treated
as "a natural
horizontal
d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e "
were broken.
Crisis
to counter
underestimated the
e x t e n s i o n o f G r e e c e a n d t h e Ottoman T u r k s r e s p e c t i v e l y . . . t h e
bonds t h a t
Question
Cypriots.
Greek C y p r i o t s
B r i t a i n also
T h i s was d e m o n s t r a t e d by p o l i t i c a l
strategic
'divide and r u l e '
of B r i t i s h
s t r e n g t h o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l i s t
military
These
e n c o u r a g i n g T u r k e y ' s i n v o l v e m e n t , w h i c h was a move d e s i g n e d
rising
rebellion
for-ming a p a r t i t i o n
c o n c e r n s provoked Anthony Eden to " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e "
the
States
u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a k e y member
movement i n C y p r u s d u r i n g
Suez, i n J u l y
by
the United
the Junta-backed
intervention
(36)
safeguarded."
Some W a s h i n g t o n s t r a t e g i s t s may h a v e v i e w e d t h i s r e s u l t a s
being i n the best
Colonial
to suggest
e v e n t s o f 1974, s u p p o r t i n g
Cyprus and t h e T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y
of
interests
within
(39)
point
was r e a c h e d i n t h e T 9 5 0 s when t h e a g i t a t i o n
d e t e r m i n a t i o n and f o r E n o s i s
for
self-
r e a c h e d a c l i m a x u n d e r two c h a r i s m a t i c
A r c h b i s h o p M a k a r i o s and C o l o n e l George G r i v a s .
I n April
leaders,
1 9 5 5 , E.O.K.A.
- 15 -
( i . e . E t h n l k i Organosis Kyprion Agoniston. N a t i o n a l O r g a n i e a t i o n o f
Freedom F i g h t e r s ) s t a r t e d i t s campaign o f s a b o t a g e a g a i n s t t h e B r i t i s h .
I n T956 M a k a r i o s was d e p o r t e d , s u p p o s e d l y f o r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h E.O.K.A.
At t h e end o f 1956 B r i t a i n a t t e m p t e d a s e t t l e m e n t drawn up by L o r d
Radcliffe.
He p r o p o s e d t h a t f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , d e f e n c e , i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y
s h o u l d r e m a i n w i t h t h e G o v e r n o r , whereas i n o t h e r m a t t e r s C y p r i o t s s h o u l d
be g r a n t e d maximum s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y .
I n a c t u a l f a c t t h e Greek
C y p r i o t s were o f f e r e d more power t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , b u t t h e y r e j e c t e d
the p r o p o s a l s s i n c e no m e n t i o n was made o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
I n the
House o f Commons, t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , Lennox-Boyd, made t h e f i r s t
p u b l i c reference t o p a r t i t i o n , arguing t h a t the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would
choose t o j o i n T u r k e y i f g i v e n s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n .
Meanwhile t h e T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s a d o p t e d T a k s i m ( P a r t i t i o n ) as a c o u n t e r - s l o g a n t o E n o s i s . On
a v i s i t t o T u r k e y i n 1*957 Dr Kiicuk, T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r , commented
t h a t Ankara would c l a i m n o r t h e r n Cyprus.
-
The
off
murder o f a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u x i l i a r y p o l i c e m a n
a s e r i e s o f s e r i o u s intercommunal
clashes, causing
C y p r i o t s t o e v a c u a t e homes and v i l l a g e s .
the
i n 1957 t r i g g e r e d
some T u r k i s h
I n r e s p o n s e t o E.O.K.A. a t t a c k s
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f o r m e d t h e i r own d e f e n c e o r g a n i s a t i o n c a l l e d T.M.T.
( i . e . T u r k Mudafa T e s k i l a t
(40)
) , a p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e a s s i s t e d by A n k a r a .
Apart from p r o v o k i n g intercommunal
e m n i t y E.O.K.A. h a d f o r c e d
B r i t a i n t o r e t h i n k i t s Cyprus s t r a t e g y . As R o b e r t Stephens p u t i t :" W i t h 28,000 B r i t i s h t r o o p s t i e d down c h a s i n g
t h r e e h u n d r e d E.O.K.A. t e r r o r i s t s ,
a military
In
was
liability."
mid-1'958 A r c h b i s h o p
prepared
two o r
Cyprus h a d become
(4T)
Makarios i n d i c a t e d f o r the f i r s t
t o f o r g o E n o s i s and s e t t l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e .
t i m e t h a t he
He was
c o n c e r n e d t h a t p a r t i t i o n w o u l d e i t h e r be imposed by B r i t a i n o r won by
the
Turks i n a c i v i l
ment was r e a c h e d .
little
war should B r i t a i n leave before^ a guaranteed
A t t h e same t i m e B r i t a i n d e c i d e d
Cyprus was no l o n g e r c r u c i a l t o h e r s t r a t e g i c
settle-
that sovereignty
requirements.
over
-
T6
-
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e was c o n c e r n o v e r t h e g r o w i n g r i f t w i t h i n N.A.T.O.
between Greece and T u r k e y o v e r C y p r u s . A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s l e d t o
t r i p a r t i t e t a l k s between B r i t a i n , Greece and T u r k e y c u l m i n a t i n g i n
t h e Z u r i c h - L o n d o n Agreements o f F e b r u a r y 1959.
Although Archbishop
M a k a r i o s and a l a r g e d e l e g a t i o n f r o m Cyprus were p r e s e n t a t t h e s e
t a l k s t h e p r o v i s i o n s were imposed f r o m o u t s i d e Cyprus by t h e t h r e e
i n t e r e s t e d p o w e r s . Thus t h e C y p r i o t l e a d e r s were p r e s e n t e d w i t h a
f a i t a c c o m p l i , a s e t t l e m e n t t h e y were o b l i g e d t o a c c e p t .
Unfortunately
f o r C y p r i o t u n i t y n e i t h e r E n o s i s n o r T a k s i m were dead, b o t h p o l i c i e s
reemerged a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e .
For a more t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f t h e Cyprus
Problem the r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y a t the back.
p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n i s o n l y i n t e n d e d as a summary o f some o f t h e
s t r a n d s o f t h e P r o b l e m and n o t a d e f i n i t i v e
account.
The~
major
-
17 -
F o o t n o t e s and References.
(1)
Moskos.C.C.Jnr. 1976, Peace s o l d i e r s
: the sociology o f a United
Nations m i l i t a r y
force.
( Chicago
University
Press ) , p.35.
(2)
Stagenga,J.A. 1968, The U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o r c e i n C y p r u s . ( Ohio
State
U n i v e r s i t y Press ) .
(3)
Luard.E. ( E d i t o r
) , 1972, The i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n o f c i v i l
w a r s . ( New York U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) ;
R i k h y e , H a r b o t t l e , & Egge, 1974, The t h i n b l u e l i n e
:international
p e a c e k e e p i n g and i t s f u t u r e . ( Y a l e
University
Press )
Adams,T.W. & C o t t r e l l , A . J .
1968, 'American f o r e i g n p o l i c y and the-
U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i n C y p r u s ' , i n
O r b i s , v o l . T 2 , n o . 2 ( summer T968 ),pp.490 - 503.
(4)
Stagenga, op. c i t . .
r e f e r t o ch.4.
(5)
Stagenga,J.A. 1970, 'U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g : t h e Cyprus v e n t u r e ' i n t h e
J o u r n a l o f Peace R e s e a r c h . V o l . 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p.12.
(6)
P a t r i c k , R . A . 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t . 19631971 . ( U n i v e r s i t y o f W a t e r l o o , Canada ) , r e f e r
to
t h e Forward.
(7)
ibid.,
p.411.
(8)
Stephens,R. T966, Cyprus a p l a c e o f arms, power p o l i t i c s and e t h n i c
1
conflict
i n the eastern Mediterranean. ( P a l l Mall ) ,
q u o t e d i n M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, 1976,
p.3.
(9)
L o i z o s , P . 1976, i n M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30.Cyprus. P a r t 2.
(TO)
Drury.M.P. J a n u a r y T977, 'Western C y p r u s : Two decades
o f population
u p h e a v a l , T956 - 1976', p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t
t h e I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers
Annual
C o n f e r e n c e , J a n u a r y 1977.
(1T)
O b e r l i n g . P . 1982, The Road t o B e l l a p a i s .
( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) ,
see c h a p t e r s 10 & 1 1 .
(12)
H i t c h e n s . C . 1984, C y p r u s . ( Q u a r t e t Books ) , p.27.
(13)
F o r more on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s between o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f 'Greek O r t h o d o x '
and
'Muslim' r e f e r t o S t . J o h n - J o n e s , 1983, The P o p u l a t i o n o f Cyprus.
( U n i v e r s i t y o f London,
I n s t i t u t e o f Commonwealth S t u d i e s , 23 ) .
(1-4) The Cyprus C o n s t i t u t i o n , H.M.S.O. Cmnd. 1093, R e p r i n t e d 1964.
(15)
L o i z o s . P . T976, M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , o p . c i t . . p. 1 2 .
(16)
O t h e r c o l o n i a l powers i n t h e r e g i o n have used m i n o r i t y g r o u p s i n t h i s
way.
Syria,
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e F r e n c h used t h e Druzes and t h e A l a w i i n
t h e B e r b e r s i n t h e Maghreb, and t h e C h r i s t i a n s
i n t h e Lebanon.
-
T8 -
The B r i t i s h had p r e v i o u s l y used t h e A s s y r i a n s i n I r a q . R e f e r t o :
A t t a l i d e s . M . 1976, ' R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n Greeks and T u r k i s h
Cypriots
i n P e r s p e c t i v e ' , i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium
on
P o l i t i c a l Geography. P r o c e e d i n g s ( Cyprus Geographi c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 27 - 29 Feb., N i c o s i a ) , p.58.
(17)
i b i d . , p.59.
(18)
i b i d . . p.56.
(19)
Drury.M.P. Jan.1977, op. c i t .
and a l s o r e f e r t o :
t
K y r r i s . C . 1976, ' S y m b i o t i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e two
communities o f Cyprus', i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l
op.
Symposium,
c i t . . p.130.
He a r g u e s t h a t t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l " s y m b i o s i s " was " t h e most v a l u a b l e
v i c t i m o f t h e v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n o f T u r k i s h chauvanism t o t h e Greek
C y p r i o t s • a n t i - c o l o n i a l s t r u g g l e . " p.150.
(20)
C o u f o u d a k i s , V . 1976, 'The Dynamics o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i t i o n and D i v i s i o n
i n M u l t i e t h n i c and M u l t i r e l i g i o u s S o c i e t i e s
—
The Case o f C y p r u s ' , i n Essays on t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t ,
( e d . C o u f o u d a k i s ) , ( P e l l a P u b l i s h i n g Co.,
New
York ) , p.3T.
(2T)
L o i z o s . P . T976, M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op.
clt.
(22)
P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.13.
(23)
i b i d . . p.15.
(24)
H i t c h e n s . C . op. c i t . . p.159.
(25)
C o u f o u d a k i s , V . 1976, op. c i t . . pp.33 - 39.
(26)
Drury.M.P. 1981, 'The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f C y p r u s ' , i n Change and
Development i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t , ( e d i t o r s , C l a r k e
Bowen-Jones
(27)
&
) , (Methuen), p.291.
Patrick,R.Ac. op. c i t . . p.327.
n.b. see a l s o Stephens,R. i n B r i t i s h E m p i r e Magazine. 1973, p.2578.
(28)
Beeley.B.W. 1978, 'The G r e e k - T u r k i s h b o u n d a r y : c o n f l i c t
at the
i n t e r f a c e ' , i n I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers
Transactions
( New
s e r i e s , v o l . 3 , no.3 ) ,
(29)
ibid.,
p.351.
(30)
R e f e r t o : Blake,G.H. 1'981, ' O f f s h o r e p o l i t i c s and r e s o u r c e s i n t h e
M i d d l e E a s t ' , i n Change and Development , op. c i t . ,
pp.124 - 128.
and
R o z a k i s . C . L . 1975, 'The G r e e k - T u r k i s h d i s p u t e o v e r t h e Aegean
continental s h e l f .
Rhode I s l a n d , Law o f t h e
Sea I n s t i t u t e , Paper no.27, pp.1-17.
(31)
This quotation i s from a booklet e n t i t l e d
'The F a c t s on t h e T u r k i s h
I n t e r v e n t i o n i n C y p r u s ' , p r e p a r e d by a p r i v a t e g r o u p o f T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s i n 1974.
(32)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, T984 e d i t i o n , C y p r u s , p . 1 5 .
(33)
W e i s t e i n . A . 1974,
'Zyperns S t r a t i g i s c h e Bedeutung', i n F r a n k f u r t e r
Allegemeine Zeitung.
(34)
19 J u l y
1974.
R e f e r t o : A t t a l i d e s . M . 1"979, C y p r u s . ( Q P r e s s L t d . , E d i n b u r g h ) ,
p.121.
He
q u o t e s f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t . 3 March
1964,
" . . . t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f M a k a r i o s t o C a s t r o goes beyond t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e y b o t h wear b e a r d s .
H e e d l e s s o f consequences
each has
f l o u t e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f o t h e r s , and each has a p p e a r e d t o be t h e
p r i s o n e r o f more e x t r e m e
factions."
(35)
H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . .
(36)
P o l y v i o u . P . G . 1980, C y p r u s : C o n f l i c t and N e g o t i a t i o n .
p.163.
1960 - 1980.
( D u c k w o r t h ) , p.20T.
(37)
One n o t a b l e r e c e n t example i s t h e book by C h r i s t o p h e r H i t c h e n s ,
op. c i t . ,
i n w h i c h he a r g u e s " t h a t t h e r e was c o l l u s i o n
u n e v e n l y matched and d i f f e r e n t l y m o t i v a t e d f o r c e s , who
r e a s o n s d i s l i k e d an i n d e p e n d e n t C y p r u s " , pp.164 - 165.
(38)
Stephens,R. 1966,
(39)
C o u f o u d a k i s . V . 1976,
(40)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , 1984, op. c i t . .
(41)
Stephens,S. 1973, B r i t i s h Empire Magazine
op. c i t . .
pp.60 - 120.
op. c i t . .
p.33.
p.7.
, p.2596.
1984,
between
f o r varying
-
CHAPTER
On
14
TURKISH
March
1971,
-
TWO
CONSTITUTIONAL C R I S I S
GREEK AND
20
AND
THE
GEOGRAPHICAL D I S T R I B U T I O N
CYPRIOTS.
President
Makarios
s t a t e d i n a public broadcast
"' C y p r u s i s a G r e e k I s l a n d .
o f h i s t o r y and
taken
it
At
a press
Cypriot
i t as
conference
leader,
on
this
community
little
during
on
the
the
questions
criteria
de
(i)
The
The
Independence
reasons
f o r the
London A c c o r d s
laid
Treaty
absolute
this
the
of
1960
see
that
Turkish
two
save
) from f u t u r e h a r a s s m e n t . "
(2)
reconciliation
This Chapter
C o n s t i t u t i o n , and
just
any
how
concentrates
(ii)
intermixed
different
Cyprus
from Greek C y p r i o t s ,
geographical
basis f o r
was
and
a
communities.
the
i s only
to
Enosis
first
military
square
of
Guarantee,
Constitution.
the
enabling
99
and
Republic
are
The
well
Zurich-
C o n s t i t u t i o n and
drew
:-
o v e r two
uphold
Cypriot
a skeleton outline.
b a s i c framework o f
Establishment,
Treaty
intervene
proviso
the
so
totalling
( 2 ) Under the
could
to
c o l l a p s e of
sovereignty
Dhekelia,
, the
separation w i l l
'Sixties.
t h e r e was
international treaties
( 1 ) The
hand
Constitution.
documented e l s e w h e r e
three
the
the
we
v i e w s e a c h community adopted ( 3 ) ,
Independence
s e p a r a t i o n " of
have
:-
f a c t o s e p a r a t i o n of T u r k i s h
"geographical
dawn
shall
until
moved t o w a r d s p o l i t i c a l
i n order
whether o r not
Island,
we
T972, R a u f D e n k t a s
opposite
decade o f
the
and
We
:-
(T)
( Turkish Cypriot
b o t h s i d e s had
c o l l a p s e of
geographical
before
Greek
the
forever.
Island
of geographical
r e v e a l the
turbulent
( i ) the
undivided
b l u n t l y commented
Both statements
how
Greek
22 F e b r u a r y
short
Greek from
remain Greek
a wholly
an
I t was
o v e r to Mother G r e e c e . "
"...nothing
and
i t shall
i t over as
preserve
OF
the
Britain
bases,
to
retain
Akrotiri
and
miles.
Britain,
independence
Greece, or
of
Turkey
Cyprus with
T a k s i m were p r o h i b i t e d ,
and
to
the
restore
up
-
-
21
( 3 ) The T r e a t y o f A l l i a n c e p r o v i d e d
9 5 0 t r o o p s a n d ' t u r k e y 6 5 0 t r o o p s on
I
I n d e p e n d e n c e was
three
years
suffered
paralysis.
The
Constitution
rights
proved
but
the
a constitutional crisis
and
virtual
preserve
to
be
The
was
for
The
instance,
civil
gave
Cypriots
powers out
"ethnic
and
Turkish
safeguard
Vice-President
foreign
affairs,
had
defence,
claimed
cent
that
the
of
or
Constitution
them and
ident
should
i m p o s e d on
be
subject
Kuijuk p r o p o s i n g
implemented
into
a state
Turkish
the
ruled
rather
by
who
C h r i s t m a s week
to
the
Cypriot
Cypriot
t h e i r numbers.
than
"majority
r a t i o s were
per
cent
to
of a l l
the~
relating
enhance
along
bicommunal
Makarios argued
he
on
the
that
to
be
as
for
scene
the
for
Turkish
unacceptable
"co-founders" of
Ankara h a s t i l y
the
If
Republic
to
the
rejected
intercommunal
Cypriot
with
Vice-Pres-
the
w h i c h was
idea
the
transformed
principles,
the
lines,
a l t e r a t i o n s would have
s e t t i n g the
thus
consultation
wrote
to
inter-
(6)
group.
Turkish
Another example were
people without
treated
unfair,
B i c o m m u n a l i s m was
revision. Therefore
a minority
and
Turkish
Cons^ution.
to
the
two
the
wanted
1963
the
c o n s t i t u t i o n based
President
the
majority
than as
Makarios' proposals,
(5)
level.
t h i r t e e n amendments t o
suggested
Cypriots
Republic
of
only organ of
separation".
was
political
into
Cypriot
moreover,
nothing
municipalities organized
territorial
the
which did
legitimized
of
to
thirty
internal security.
at
the
the
ethnic
army p o s t s ;
communal c o o p e r a t i o n
""thereby b e c o m i n g
Turkish
veto powers o v e r a l l l e g i s l a t i o n
in a Constitution
separate
that
first
governmental
polarizing
were e n t i t l e d to
f o r t y per
Cypriot
Republic's
balances written
a l l proportion
argued
Cypriots
service posts;
of
station
b a l a n c e " BC h i g h e r p r i o r i t y
Greek C y p r i o t s
instutionalized
checks
b i c o m m u n a l i s m and
Greek
granted
Constitution
rule".(4)
August
a major c e n t r i f u g a l force
community l e a d e r s h i p s .
"minority"
on
complex s y s t e m of
to
could
1'960,
gained
16
that Greece
Cyprus.
withdrawal
clashes
from
Government.
Turkish
Cypriot
leaders
have
susequently
drawn a t t e n t i o n
to
the
activities
-
of
the
M i n i s t e r of
circulated
whereby
the
the
Interior,
Akritas Plan.
Polykarpos Yorgadis,
This plan
of
s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n to
i f Turkish
Cypriots
resisted
they
E.O.K.A. men
took o v e r from the
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s who
to
Peter
"...the
were
to
were
the
by
hostilities...This
It
It
military
led directly
of
groups
Cypriot
political
(ii)
Was
there
any
every
to
to
the
that
urban
there
c e n t r e s had
Cypriots
record
as
f o r such
attacks
an
m i s t a k e was
event
Greek
(7)
ex-
on
occurrence.
of
to
form
intercommunal
extremists'
to
provoke
claims
partition.
(8)
up
para-
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l deadlock,
an
outbreak
of
their
mutually
exclusive-
that
b a s i s f o r b i c o m m u n a l i s m and
i n every
were
of
a dramatic
the
District
only
inhabited
villages
was
of
cent
i n which
1*960, i t was
" In
essentially
the
G r e e k and
village
( 25,000
i n no
Michael
) of
the
ethnic ratio
thus
'normal' to
and
towns the
one
population.
the
monoglot
six district
and
( refer
d e c l i n e i n the
e v e n p r i o r t o D e c e m b e r 1'963.
seven per
town and
11'4 " m i x e d " v i l l a g e s
mixed p o p u l a t i o n s ,
was
the
and
Turkish
often
in
(9)
form a m a j o r i t y
there
f
partition
...
f r u i t - c a k e i n which
were m i x e d up
street."
Independence
five
force.
both communities b u i l t
villages
In
to
survival
geographical
ethnographical
currants
Turkish
suggested
A " s e c r e t army" o f
intercommunal v i o l e n c e . . . "
argue
been d e s c r i b e d
" an
all
to
to
owing
uBe
goals.
Cyprus has
At
gave f u e l
i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of
v i o l e n c e , and
I t also
organizing
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were going
s e e m s more a c c u r a t e
steps
:-
most s e r i o u s T u r k i s h
the
of
s u b d u e d by
broke out.
armed g r o u p s f o r p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e
that
be
themselves preparing
Loizos
clandestinely
C o n s t i t u t i o n and
Enosis.
to
politicians
who
down a s e r i e s
achieve
2T D e c e m b e r i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e
According
lays
G r e e k s w o u l d make a d j u s t m e n t s
concept
that
On
the
the
-
22
Table
region
It is
2.1
did
fell
rural
below
Paphos
population
2:1.
inhabit a village
quarters
the
mixed
Drury found i n the
total
),
interesting
number o f
mono-religious."
ethnic
to
which
(TO)
were
clearly
define
- 23 -
TABLE 2.1
THE DECLINE OF MIXED COMMUNITIES IN CYPRUS, 1891-1970
Date
Total
Villages
1891
702
342
114
346
49.4%
1931
694
358
84
252
36.3%
1960
623
392
117
114
18.3%
1970
602
444
no
48
7.9%
Sources:
Greek
Cypriot
Turki sh
Cypriot
Mixed
Villages
M.R.G. Report,
, 1976, No.30, Cyprus, p.28.
P a t r i c k , R. 1976, p.12. i see Fig. 2:1 I
Mixed as
percentage
of t o t a l
- 24 -
P.G_ I
S !
PROGRESSIVE SEGREGATION OF THE
CYPRIOT ETHNIC COMMUNITIES,
1891-1970
Totals
702
694
623
602
1S91
1931
1960
1970*
(* based on
field research)
Census Years
PATRICK ' 76
Greek-Cypriot
Turk-Cypriot
Mixed A centre was considered to be mixed if ten
or more people of a second ethnic group were
residents.
If the centre's total
population was l e s s than 100, the minority ethnic
group had to comprise at least 10% of that total.
-
though b o u n d a r y - l e s s .
segregation
and
Villages
increasing
Geographical
of the
turned
backing
In
an
into
article
of
C y p r i o t ' s and
was
entitled
the
of
British
partition
Turkish
T977,
argues
of
one
of
contact."
was
(1T)
mooted i n P a r l i a m e n t
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i t h
geographically justifiable
', A l e x a n d e r
2.1.
Definition
the
suggested
).
He
the
or
( half
"population
close
Six )
Nevertheless,
the
United
from
to
Greek
the
exchange
of
40,000 T u r k s
actual
coast
)
( half
(T2)
numbers o f d i s p l a c e d
through
cent of the
Kucuk p r e s e n t e d
Mediator,
s e p a r a t i o n of
under United
They c l a i m e d
m i l e s o r 38 p e r
Fazil
Nations
proposed a d i v i d i n g
east.
involve
from T u r k i s h
territory."
I n T965 D r
"voluntary exchange" of people
T,084 s q u a r e
to
for a geographical
the n o r t h w e s t e r n
definition
exchange-" f o l l o w i n g t h e T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n
( R e f e r to Chapter
had
"
the Greek p o p u l a t i o n of Cyprus
) from Greek
are extremely
boundary
suggestion w i l l
a g a i n s t about
in
:-
same number o f T u r k s
the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n
t o Famagusta? i n t h e
concluded
involve a population
of
exercise
the T u r k i s h
distribution
and
the Turks
by
of the boundary a c c o r d i n g
memorandum t o S e n o r G a l o P l a z a , t h e
Initially
lines
exchange o f about 60,000 Greeks
a g a i n s t about
I t argued
: A class
Melamid d i s c u s s e d the
from T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y
i n the
February.
Cyprus
population
suggestion w i l l
latter figures
on
Drury,
at a l l levels
' Partitioning
( R e f e r t o Map
200,000 G r e e k s
T974.
—
the i s l a n d ' s
territory.
Yalia
of e t h n i c
a t i n d e p e n d e n c e was
the boundary f o l l o w i n g the B r i t i s h
territory
a
levels
Communities.
the proposed p a r t i t i o n
a population
and
As
i d e a of p a r t i t i o n
Geography
" Owing t o
in
high
?
definitions
people
the
of
a g e o p o l i t i c a l g o a l by
Applied P o l i t i c a l
The
had
situation
Distribution
of Ankara, but
feasible
also
ethnic polarisation
P r i o r to Independence
and
-
d u p l i c a t i o n of functions.
" the r e a l i t y
The
25
the
the
line
the
on
two
a
22
communities
Nations s u p e r v i s i o n .
from the v i l l a g e
of
'Green L i n e ' o f N i c o s i a ,
zone n o r t h o f
total
area of
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were p r e p a r e d
the
to r e d u c e
this
line,
Republic.
the
area
and
some
- 26 -
10
(D
0
0
0
CD
0
to
eg
CO
E
E
s
•
a
a
a
a
a
a
0
63
a
a
a
0
a
a
a
to
I
CO
a.
<
a
-
originally
(1'3)
Republic.
Turkish
the
in
claimed
The
about
1974,
T a k s i m had
for
i n the
Mainland Turkey
the
firstly
had
I t could
much t o g a i n
a
by
cent
population
from
goal
the
the
military action
m a s s e , and
( see
of
of
I n p r a c t i c e , when
Turkish
December 1 9 7 5 .
political
20
the
a l l but
a
Chapter Six
)
Turkish
Cypriots
strongly
opposed
an
be
argued
terrorists;
Enosis,
equilibrium
insisting
that
of t e r r i t o r i a l
"any
settle-
interests
in
(T4)
that p o l i t i c a l l y
from p a r t i t i o n ,
the
Turkish
which would e f f e c t i v e l y
Cypriot
give
leaders
them
charge
mini-state^.
Political
motives
divisions
of
of Tables
2.1
r a t h e r than geographical
two p e o p l e s
( l «ap# i a -is)
distribution;
2.6
to
land
a b a s i s f o r the
f o r m a t i o n of
and
Cypriots,
Turkish
Cypriots.
population
remaining
highest
During
the
dispersed
Cypriot
of N i c o s i a old
three
settlements
the
1
cantons
had
) , and
I n d e e d an
patterns
the
23.1
as T u r k i s h
p e r c e n t a g e s f o r any
there
l e t alone
analysis
size
and
not
even
was
two
de
facto
d i s t r i b u t i o n s of
Greek
l a r g e s t percentage
of
T977, r e v e a l s t h a t
( Ktima
% of
3T.4
the
Cypriot,
part
of
% of
the
population
these
the
of
being
island
the
the
with
the
town.
years
of
island's settlements
throughout
l i e b e h i n d most p h y s i c a l
b a s i s of p o p u l a t i o n
to D i s t r i c t
Paphos D i s t r i c t
rural
the
artificial
were c l a s s i f i e d
first
on
settlement
M i c h a e l Dmiry,
district
the
and
According
o f P a p h o s town
u r b a n and
exception
of
(T5)
sense
a common t e r r i t o r y .
show t h a t
ownership;
zones.
Turkish
sharing
will
mono-ethnic
38 %
per
a decade.
moved en
Greek C y p r i o t
must m a i n t a i n
also
about
Cypriot
take
refugees
the
eastern Mediterranean."
iii)
Greek
or
:-
Physical safety against
ment
the
N o r t h by
developed i n t o
s e v e r a l reasons
ii)
square miles
b r u t a l l y enforced
Greek C y p r i o t
remained
-
estimated
p o l i c y o f p a r t i t i o n was
minority
of
750
t r a n s f e r of
zone w o u l d , i t was
August
i)
to
27
the
Independent
Republic
were e i t h e r T u r k i s h
countryside,
form a m a j o r i t y .
and
i n no
approximately
o r mixed.
district
did
Only i n s m a l l p a r t s of
These
the
each
were
Turkish
district
-
TABLE 2.2
28 -
THE GROWTH OF GREEK ORTHODOX AND MUSLIM COMMUNITIES
Census of
Greek Orthodox
Musiim
1891
158,585
47,926
1901
182,739
51,309
1921
244,887
61,339
1931
276,572
64,238
1946
361,199
80,548
1960
442,363
104,333
*1973
482,000
1976
1978
(approximate)
480-488,000
-
(approx.)
145,000
Source: S t . J o h n - J o n e s , 1983, The Population of Cyprus, I n s t i t u t e
Commonwealth S t u d i e s , 23, p.19.
*Notes:
of
(1)
The Census data from 1891-1960, gave "above-average
q u a l i t y d a t a " , whereas the f i g u r e s f o r 1973 and 1976
are l e s s r e l i a b l e , few questions were asked in the
enumerations. As f o r the 1978 population estimate of
the Turkish Cypriot community, St.John-Johns questions
i t s accuracy. He argues that "the t o t a l of 145,000 was
not only p e r f e c t l y f e a s i b l e on demographic grounds but
could have been much higher i f some immigration i s
assumed".
(2)
On the foundation of the Independent Republic of Cyprus
in 1960 the categories of population change from "Greek
Orthodox" and Muslim to "Greek Cypriot" and "Turkish
C y p r i o t " , thus the Greek Cypriot category may be i n f l a t e d
due to the i n c l u s i o n of Maronites and other groups under
the terms of Community d e f i n i t i o n w r i t t e n into the
Constitution.
- 29 -
TABLE 2.3
District
DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOTS BY DISTRICT IN 1973
Total
Population
Greeks
%
Turks
%
Nicosia
230,278
184,441
80.09
45,837
19.91
Kyrenia
33,400
28,828
86.31
4,572
13.69
127,135
106,112
83.46
21,023
16.54
Larnaca
61,821
48,568
78.56
13,253
21.44
Limassol
118,600
103,725
87.46
14,875
12.54
63,420
48,020
75.72
15,400
24.28
634,654
519,694
Famagusta
Paphos
TOTAL
81.9
114,960
18.1
Source : K a r o ^ i s , G. 1976, p.16.
N.B. He used the r e s u l t s of the Census of Population and A g r i c u l t u r e ,
1960, together with those of the Demographic Report for the
year 1970, Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , N i c o s i a .
30
5
I
I
* 1
I
s
I
to
2
CO
•r-
0)
to
in
at
I
CO
UJ
I
A
I
I
9
9
I
(0
0)
I
I
• H2
u.
(fl
(0
UJ
to
(0
UJ
I
1
M
I
35
CM
•
TABLE 2.4
DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOT LAND OWNERSHIPS
Population
Groups
Area
( i n donums)
%
4,123,711
59.6
852,455
12.3
91,406
1.4
1,847,820
26.7
Greeks
Turks
Armenians, Maronites
and others
State owned
i
1
TOTAL
Source:
6,915,392
i
100.0
Lands and Surveys Department, 'Whose i s What? The true
f a c t s of land ownership in Cyprus, Cyprus T o - d a y , V o l . X I I , N o . 6 .
1
N.B. Excluding s t a t e land ownership, the percentages read as f o l l o w s : Greeks
81.37%
Turks
16.82%
Armenians, Maronites and
others
Total
1.81%
100.00
CO
&
i
3
I
I
&
15
3
2
1
a
%
i
-
TABLE 2.5
33 -
GREEK AND TURKISH HOLDINGS, 1960
Population Group
Area ( i n donums)
Greeks
Turks
Others
TOTAL
%
2,502,441
78.3
652,486
20.4
42,821
1.3
3,197,748
100.0
Source: Census of Population and A g r i c u l t u r e , 1960.
Taken from : K a r o u z i s , G. 1973, p. 109.
TABLE 2.6
District
DISTRIBUTION OF HOLDINGS BY DISTRICT, 1960
Total
Greek
1
Turk
Other
i
i
j
Nicosia
20,107
17,302
Kyrenia
4,988
3,966
2,727
78
657
365
2,286
5
i
i
Famagusta
14,533
12,242
Larnaca
6,570
5,057
1,509
4
Limassol
12,874
11,627
1,239
8
Paphos
11,054
8,712
2,338
2
TOTAL
70,124
58,906
10,756
462
Source: As Above.
1
-
were t h e r e
any
concentrations
s u c h as i n the
the
Turkish
southern
Platini,
enclaves,
(
of
Turkish
of
Cypriot
the
and
mixed
Pentadaktylos
formed
Ayios Ermolaos spread
the- b a s i s o f n o r t h e r n
f o r example i n the
centres,
range,
area
south of
across
with
Artemis,
this
Turkish
area.
Cypriot
St. Hilarion Castle.
r e f e r t o Map3'-1)
Mixed p o p u l a t i o n
falling
from
1931
1960.
i)
to
During
36
centres
%
to
This
the
T8 % o f t h e
iii)
socio-economic
1963,
settlements
a combination of
a reduction
to
i n the
separate
landuse
of
abandoned v i l l a g e s
re-evacuate
writes:-
" The
villages
from
factors
number
:-
of
in certain
to
the
Turkish
began a t
isolated
and
vulnerable
emerged a s
(19)
I t was
"the
dominant
and
I I as a r e s u l t
revenge
1957-58.
that
of
t i m e was
the
These
1963-'64,
that period
that
As
t o a l l but
and
Turkish
because
down,
isolated
lead
(T8)
they
"felt"
" f e e l i n g s " r e a c h e d new
i n many c a s e s
intercommunal
h i g h l i g h t some o f
six
Cypriot
community."
and
or
Oberling
u l t i m a t e l y to
i n f l u e n c e i n a f f e c t i n g the
Chapter Three w i l l
calmed
Pierre
from mixed
c e r t a i n settlements
of
of
killings
They w h o l l y
returned
crisis.
Cypriots
to a t t a c k .
during
in
Greek C y p r i o t
intercommunal v i o l e n c e
justified.
Cypriots
1963-'64
also
(T7)
villages
physical separation
evacuated
a f t e r W o r l d War
o n c e i n t e r c o m m u n a l r e l a t i o n s had
community from the
Often v i l l a g e r s
problems have
villages.
These r e f u g e e s
them i n t h e
which
some
Turkish
villages.
exodus of
water supply
urbanisation.
evacuate
evacuated
to
27
to
of
increased
against
partly
ment."
attempt
resettlement
c h a n g e s and
p e r s u a d e d many T u r k s
the
by
was
construction,
migration
I V ) E.O.K.A. v i o l e n c e
only
there
in a British
abandonment o r
Rural-urban
the
number o f
i s explained
c o l o n i a l period
E a r t h movement's, dam
caused
total
December
(T6)
areas.
ii)
were" d e c l i n i n g b e f o r e
decline
marginal v i l l a g e s
in
-
Ayios Andronikos, Ayios Iacovos,
Photta,
Such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
of
foothills
settlements
Kalivakia,
34
were
tensions
pattern
the
heights
of
settle-
major changes
in
-
35 -
t h e p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y o f C y p r u s r e s u l t i n g f r o m s u c h p o p u l a t i o n movements, which a c c o r d i n g t o R u s s e l l King "formed t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l
stepping
s t o n e t o t h e nevr s t a t e " , i . e . t h e T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d m i c r o - s t a t e i n
northern Cyprus. (20)
I n George K a r o u z i s '
to f i n d
d e t a i l e d study of various
in
an a t t e m p t
a rational
on
knowledge o f p o p u l a t i o n
o w n e r s h i p , he d i s c o v e r e d
TT7
purely
Turkish
Out
of these
villages
over f i v e
Turkish
villages.
village
groups.
He f i n a l l y
I tw i l l
o f most
Turkish
island
to d i s c o v e r
decided
population
nature
of the v i l l a g e
Cypriot
control
i n political
four
others
living i n
i n groups o f
o f both Greek and
of "Turkish
on s e v e n s t r a n g e l y
borders of
shaped
regions
map when e x a m i n i n g
t o t h e map o f C y p r u s o v e r t h e l a s t
t h e maps s h o w i n g T u r k i s h
o f many o f t h e T u r k i s h
and l a n d
one v i l l a g e , 1 7 i n
to the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
this
two
Cypriot
settlements
a n d human
transformed
terms.
the landscape
enclaves.
and s m a l l
groupings, the formation o f "pockets"
completely
based
i n 54 a r e a s . ( 2 1 )
the existence
be u s e f u l t o c o n s i d e r
and t o compare i t w i t h
Given the dispersed
size
and j u s t
He t h e n a d d e d m i x e d v i l l a g e s
a c t u a l l y h a s happened
decades,
Cypriot
patterns,
i n T960 was c o n c e n t r a t e d
boundaries corresponding
( s e e Map
what
the Turkish
villages,
m a j o r i t i e s i n order
Regions" with
settlement
54 a r e a s , 3 3 w e r e i n g r o u p i n g s o f j u s t
g r o u p i n g s o f two t o f i v e
criteria
s o l u t i o n to the Cyprus Problem
distribution,
that
geographical
of
o f the
z
o
o
UJ
a
o
c
D.
>•
o
X
in
-
37
-
F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s .
(1)
R e f e r to b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l
details
and
to C h a p t e r F i v e
on M a k a r i o s ' a m b i g u o u s s t a n d on
(2)
Quoted i n A t t a l i d e s . M .
(3)
Although
particularly
a n d he was
1979,
i t s h o u l d be n o t e d
a m b i g u o u s and
(4)
references
contradictory
1967
after
that
(5)
ibid.
(6)
Makarios' proposed
statements regarding
from
J u n t a was
1984,
communal r a t i o s
i n the c i v i l
service
with
population ratio
and
community.
p.8.
Cyprus,
municipal councils;
several
i n power i n Athens
e x t r e m i s t s w i t h i n h i s own
and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l
of u n i f i e d
made
included
the
veto powers;
the
the r e v i s i o n
security
of f o u r Greeks
),p.156
Enosis.
amendments t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n
removal of P r e s i d e n t i a l
the a c t u a l
L t d . , Edinburgh
Archbishop Makarios
Group R e p o r t , N o . 3 0 ,
Minority Rights
Enosis.
( Q Press
when a m i l i t a r y
under p r e s s u r e
establishment
Cyprus.
f o r more
forces
of
to
the
coincide
to e v e r y one
Turkish
Cypriot.
(7)
Oberling.P.
1982,
The
Road to B e l l a p a i s .
( Columbia
University
Press
)
p.81.
a n < i
(8)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t ,
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , N o . 3 0 ,
Peter Loizos,
(9)
Folie,C.
1964,
(11)
Drury.M.P. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7 ,
Cyprus.
1976
p.9.
edition,
Cyprus,
refer
to
2.
Part
Legacy of S t r i f e .
( Penguin
(10)
1984,
Cyprus
from
rebellion
to c i v i l
war.
Books ) .
'Western
C y p r u s : Two
upheaval,
1956
-
'76',
Institute
of B r i t i s h
decades
of population
a paper p r e s e n t e d at the
Geographers
Annual
Conference.
ibid.
(12)
Melamid.A. i n The
(13)
U.N.Mediator's R e p o r t
J o u r n a l o f Geography.
1960,
Vol.59,
to t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l ,
26
p.122.
March
1964,
para.
109.
110.
(14)
ibid..
para.
(15)
K a r o u z i s , G . 1976,
Proposals for a solution
(
(16)
Some e x a m p l e s
Cosmos P r e s s ,
a r e g i v e n from
Nicosia
Western
to the Cyprus
Problem.
) , p.94.
C y p r u s by M i c h a e l D r u r y ,
1977,
op. c i t .
(17)
Patrick,R.A.
1976,
Political
(
(18)
Oberling,
op.
(19)
Drury,
(20)
King.R. August
T977,
cit..
OP.
G e o g r a p h y and
University
of Waterloo
the Cyprus
Press,
Conflict.
Canada
) , p.8.
p.6T.
cit..
1980,
'Cyprus s i n c e
T974: E c o n o m i c
and
Demographic
Change', a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d to t h e Geography
Fifth
Mediterraean Conference, B a r - I l a n
Section,
University,
I
I
I
I
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
i
I
(21)
Karouzis.G.
1976,
Tel
Aviv,
5 - 7
op.
cit..
pp.110 -
August
139.
1980.
-
39
-
CHAPTER THREE
THE
S P A T I A L ASPECTS OF
INTERCOMMUNAL C O N F L I C T AND
TURKISH CYPRIOT ENCLAVES I N
In
a report
submitted
,r
dared
kinds
of
"green l i n e "
points,
barriers,
fortified
second kind
kind..."
of
formation
other
be
the
never
under the
groups.
raising
the
the
The
were,
refer
two
two
of
the
an
b r e a k down."'
1964
to
'74
"saw
communities."
C o n s t i t u t i o n had
Simultaneously,
event
de
in
1964.
process
the
fell
of
i n t o the
hands
Many f o r m e r E.O.K.A. members
Cyprus P o l i c e ,
independent
of
Greek
which
central
made some
off Turkish Cypriot
of
"Visible"
f a c t o changes
to August
initiative
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had
t h e i r v i l l a g e s r i n the
of
and
Violence.
terrorists.
g u i d a n c e o f T.M.T. to s e a l
psycho-
(3)
c o l l a p s e d the
t h e i r weapons t o
Invested
(2)
a continuing
Intercommunal
and
wall.
proximity
"Invisible"
a result
between
invisible
also represented
meeting of
two
Such d i s t a n c i n g
Cyprus from the
C y p r u s , D e c e m b e r 1963
Outbreak of
handed over
to
communities as
decade
the
to
they
d i s s i d e n t armed g a n g s to e x i s t
direction.
fortify
the
concrete
walls impossible
community p a r a m i l i t a r i e s
several
as
these
geography of
between
Once t h e
Turks,
emotion as
quotations
S e c t i o n One:
had
the
w a l l s were b u i l t .
Unfortunately,
of
psychological
" a psychological distance
a s members o f d i f f e r e n t
G r e e k s and
political
cleavage
the
strong-
trenches...
of
separating
the
s a n d b a g g e d w a l l s and
was
people
road-blocks,
on
above
) there
few
of T u r k i s h Cypriote e n c l a v e s
conceptualized
logical
walls
and
Wherever a c t u a l dangers arose
with
The
'65
to March
of
T965,
:-
Cyprus,
out
"green l i n e "
communities maintained
can
March
T h e r e were f i r s t l y
constructed
houses,
26
(T)
With the
each
on
on
stated
( Dec.'63
period
to c r o s s e i t h e r k i n d .
physical
The
Secretary-General
Mediator i n Cyprus,
A l l through t h i s
w e r e two
CYPRUS.
to the
S e n i o r G a l o P l a z a , U.N.
FORMATION OF
Cypriot
enabled
government
preparations
quarters
assaults.
and
-
The
last
occasion
40
-
when T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
could
Greek s e c t o r of N i c o s i a without
harassment
2T
on
December 1963.
2-15
At
a.m.
w e r e s t o p p e d i n Hermes S t r e e t , t h e
quarters
to
see
and
of
c e n t r a l N i c o s i a , by
their identity
a Turkish
sparked
Cypriot
areas
jets
"warning
end
the
mixed n o r t h e r n
wounded o r
after
flights"
and
The
a Turkish
Cypriot
charge of
carried
under the
the
fell
taken
their
sides with
the
foundations
Following
of
villages
Cypriot
British
the
the
Cypriot
broke
After
three
Minister
the
three
road.
I n no
only
Greek
week t r o u b l e s
by
Turkish
were abandoned.
operation.
Turkey,
was
contingents
Greeks e v e n t u a l l y
Turkish
National
Geunyeli
in
had
moved
Contingent
along
the
t o map3-2)
operation
to
end-August
C y p r i o t s , and
United
and
of Greece,
w h i c h was
in Nicosia,violence
Prom D e c e m b e r 1963
Cypriot
time, t o t a l c e a s e - f i r e
other
The
Keuy, and
( refer
Guarantor
a cease-fire
peace-keeping
hands, f o r t h e
the
who
and
from a l l governmental
compatriots.
out,
Greek C y p r i o t s
comprising
i n Cyprus.
camp, w h e r e a s
wishing
capital.
f o r U.N.P.I.CYP., i n t e r c o m m u n a l f i g h t i n g
were e v a c u a t e d
villages
the
by
on
incident
T u r k i s h Prime
mounted t h e i r p e a c e k e e p i n g
Christmas
island.
this
national contingents
into British
Nicosia-Kyrenia
the
police
firing
hostage.
a tripartite
encamped a r o u n d K e r m i a , O r t a
strategic
While
the
Army U n i t s
t h e i r permanent
remained
by
was
Cypriots
command o f M a j o r - G e n e r a l P e t e r Young, who
British
responsibilities
to
out
now
the
Greek/Turkish
Makarios accepted
withdrawal
s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n s , a g r e e d to
be
the
by
s e v e r a l appeals
G o v e r n m e n t , by
of
suburbs of Omorphita
taken
to f i g h t i n g , P r e s i d e n t
Day.
Britain,
areas
a n g r y crowd g a t h e r e d ,
b u z z e d o v e r N i c o s i a i n what
as
T h i s was.to
lay
of
Many were k i l l e d ,
Christmas
back
old
Greek C y p r i o t
immediate c e a s e - f i r e were i g n o r e d
Turkish
P o w e r s f o r an
and
the
p a r t s of
described
civil
boundary of
off indiscriminate f i g h t i n g i n other
Trakhonas.
leaders
a group o f T u r k i s h
News o f
attacked
on
t h a t day
c o u p l e were shot
streets
or f e a r of harassment
a p a t r o l of
An
the
dead.
A p p e a l s f o r an
Turkish
cards.
walk
Nations
24
wholly
continued.
spread
1964,
to
72
to
other
mixed
Turkish
figures estimated
about
- 41
25,000 r e f u g e e s ,
Turkish
o f whom a b o u t
Cypriot
camps. (4)
less
t h a n 200
refugees
because of
the
remainder found
larger
temporary
Others have argued t h a t between
became r e f u g e e s .
probably
homes i n
21,000 were g i v e n
communities, while
s h e l t e r i n refugee
30,000 T u r k s
-
(5) According
Greek C y p r i o t e
to R i c h a r d
25,000-
Patrick,
from s i x mixed v i l l a g e s
f i g h t i n g or intercommunal tension
after
became
'63.
December
(6)
By
mid-1964 a de
political
geography of
"riddled
but
facto
with
in fact
administration
controlled
about
research
in
villages
were
the
1.6
villages
Superficially
the
then purely
and
and
Greek,
Cypriot
In
only
villages
of
the
only
and
by
42
the
except
f o r tax
to
appreciate
and
Turkish
quarters
( so
with
into
the
extent
of
the
this
to
to have a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of
the
communal c o n f l i c t
control in
August
'64.
In
were e f f e c t i v e l y
and
territorial
reality
spatial
the
"mixed"
remained
town w e r e
either
1T5
were u n d e r
these
the
residents
ten
cent
were
structure,
devices.
political
island.
I n order
U.N.F.I.CYP., i t . i s
dynamics of
the
1967).
were
per
villages
confusing
the
D.N.F.I.CYP. a r r i v e d as
creating
villages
f o r only
p e c u l i a r and
problems f a c i n g
field-
formerly
Turkish
Even
to
who
named i n D e c e m b e r
t h e i r own
tranquility
central
on
Government's a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
payment were l e f t
thrown i n t o
Cypriot
approximately
Cypriots
population.
r e s t o r e p e a c e and
the
by
administration,
Based
57
each d i s t r i c t
Administration
Cypriot
integrated
U.N.F.I.CYP. was
geography
of
Cypriot
Cyprus Government, a c c o u n t i n g
entire Turkish
partially
Turkish
Republic
leadership,
(8)
that
(9) Furthermore,
inhabited
Turkish
contrast
19
some a r e a s
Provisional
Greek
Cypriot
the
into a
a single
between the
Patrick revealed
evacuated.
quarters
Republic
island's territory.
T970-'71, R i c h a r d
or wholly
controlled
divided
transformed
i t had
"breakaway" T u r k i s h
% of
completely deserted,
partially
(7)
politically
and
had
Cyprus from a u n i t a r y
holes".
i t was
patchwork p a r t i t i o n
period
the
crucial
Cypriot
December
Turkish
to
inter'63
to
Cypriots
b a s i s f o r a rudimentary, fragmented
"state
-
within
a s t a t e " . (10)
Nations Force
was
commanders c o u l d
United
Nations*
not
allow
conception
included
Government
as
The
map
C y p r u s was
for
i t was
numerous
either
the
not
Cypriot
of
the
had
that
spots
a r e a s " of
we-ll a s
various
local
areas.
producing
A typical
case
to
use
or
their
f o r the
)
Cypriot
whole i s l a n d .
t h a n i n d i c a t e d by
definitely
Cypriot
were l o c a t e d a t
the
that
be
3.3.,
There- w e r e
allotted
to
administration.
ethnic
(1T)
Map
(12)
i n t e r f a c e s where
indicating g e o p o l i t i c a l boundaries.
to be
constantly
and
aware o f
political
such
status,
understandings or agreements regarding
activity
around T u r k i s h
asfreedom
Cypriot-
T h e s e p a r o c h i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s / a g r e e m e n t s were
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of
auspices,
not
or T u r k i s h
movement t h r o u g h o r G r e e k C y p r i o t
controlled
because
e x i s t i n g ( Greek
ambiguous t e r r i t o r i a l
local
island,
to
e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l where.
could
p r e c i s e demarcations
United
Turkish m i l i t a r y
i n the
e v e n more c o m p l i c a t e d
areas"
and
the
of normality
a l w a y s c l e a r who
"sensitive
of
leaders
facing
to c o n f o r m a b s o l u t e l y
T h u s U . N . F . I . C Y P . commanders had
of
primary obstacles
t h e i r people
C y p r u s Government
w e r e no
the
legitimate administration
Many p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e
there
-
a recognition
"contested
the
of
that Turkish
conception
of
One
42
both communities, o f t e n
under United
compromises where c o n f l i c t s
w o u l d be
an
"agreement" concerning
c e r t a i n roads passing
r i g h t s to f a r m
may
land
through T u r k i s h
Nations
have a r i s e n .
Greek C y p r i o t
(T3)
rights
Cypriot-controlled
immediately adjacent
between
t o a- T u r k i s h
land,
Cypriot
settlement.
In
some a r e a s
were m a r k e d by
"contested
two
Nicosia?.
observed
Turkish
limits
of
concentric
z o n e " p a t r o l l e d by
"confrontation
Turkish
the
lines"
Cypriot
by
areas
members o f
Cypriot
1
exercised
e i t h e r community
posts
U.N.F.I.CYP. p e r s o n n e l .
most o b v i o u s
separated
In
being
the
wished
to
Both the
a
and
"Green L i n e "
in
were c l o s e l y
Cyprus Government
extend t h e i r
by
other^areas
Guard p o s i t i o n s
of p o t e n t i a l or a c t u a l c o n f l i c t
U.N.F.I.CYP.
Leadership
by
r i n g s of f o r t i f i e d
e x i s t e d between N a t i o n a l
F i g h t e r s , the
A l l these
control
territorial
and
control
-
43
-
o r t o t e s t e a c h o t h e r s c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n " s t r a t e g i c a r e a s " by
" c r e a t i n g i n c i d e n t s " d e l i b e r a t e l y aggravating intercommunal t e n s i o n s .
(14)
By h e l p i n g t o r e d u c e t e n s i o n o r to p r e v e n t i n c i d e n t s f r o m
o c c u r r i n g U . N . F . I . C Y P . m a i n t a i n e d a s p a t i a l s t a t u s quo.
T h i s i s why
i t i s so i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l
map
o f C y p r u s and l o c a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t a t t h e
t i m e when U.N.P.I.CYP. t o o k o v e r f r o m a b e l e a g u e r e d B r i t i s h p e a c e keeping operation.
The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s w i l l t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e t h e
f o r m a t i o n and s h a p e s o f t h e e n c l a v e s u n d e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l . .
Section
i)
Two:
The
" C o n f r o n t a t i o n L i n e s " and
"Green
During
the
quarters
of
Line"
E.O.K.A. c a m p a i g n s o f
the
capital
both communities apart
line
3.T.)
there
but
was
During
no
real
peaceful,
December
the
fire
to
was
remained
ethnic
icance.
the
a map
be
of
of
segregation
night" of
prevent
fence
Greek/Turkish
e s t a b l i s h e d to
keep
intercommunal bloodshed.
This
relatively
Hermes s t r e e t s
calm years
other
and
and
the
did
General
the
gunfire
Young u n d e r t h e
(1'5)
The
" n e u t r a l " troops
tactical
communities,
on
21
auspices
" G r e e n L i n e " was
the
an
that
of
never
between
the
cease-
opposing f i g h t e r groups
Green Line
out
anyone a t t h a t
years,
ensure
was
became a s y m b o l
of
international geopolitical signif-
points
Young, t h i n k ' t h a t
to
p o s i t i o n s of
a d i v i s i o n of
towards n o r m a l i z a t i o n
first
of
independence
than a temporary cordon s a n i t a i r e
Unfortunately,
f o r four
the
of
( r e f e r to
28-29 December a g r e e n p e n c i l l i n e
:-
table that night,
the
w o u l d become a d i v i d i n g l i n e
Cypriot
a wire
ended w i t h
N i c o s i a by
Michael Harbottle
General
1950s the
o f P a p h o s and
three
p a t r o l l e d by
stationary.
" Little
by
both communities.
maintained
As
first
anything
antagonists,
1
course
late
necessity f o r ' a physical separation
On
representatives
intended
to
mixed c o e x i s t e n c e
'63.
drawn a c r o s s
the
the
the
were d i v i d e d
i n order
roughly followed
Map
Enclaves.
green ribbon
of
least
chinagraph
b e t w e e n T u r k - and
unremitting
between the
two
of a l l
obstacle
Greek
to
communities."
progress
(16)
- 44 -
MA P_
3:1
: ROUTE OF G R E E N LINE THROUGH
OLD C I T Y
Kyronla
'
Oats
Paphos
THE GREEN LINE
Km
s o u r c e : B e n n e t t . J.A.. 1977.
M.A. D i s s e r t a t i o n
-
45
-
The d i v i d i n g l i n e i n N i c o s i a became a means t o p o l i t i c a l e n d s , and l i k e
many o t h e r l i n e s o f d e m a r c a t i o n and f o r t i f i e d e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s , i t
r e p r e s e n t e d a p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r b l o c k i n g t h e way t o a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e ment b a s e d on u n i t y and c o o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r ' t h a n e t h n i c s e g r e g a t i o n .
The
b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l , m o r e o v e r , c r e a t e d numerous i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l
and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o b l e m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e d i v i s i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,
w a t e r and e l e c t r i c a l s u p p l i e s , a l l o f w h i c h w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r
Five.
ii)
Geunyeli
During
of
the
the
- Aghirda
Enclave.
Christmas
' 6 3 f i g h t i n g many T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f l e d
developing
stronghold
N i c o s i a northwards v i a the
Contingent,
people or
Probably
The
s i x t e e n per
cent
the
refugees
and
( 316
Eylenja
Turkish
Krini,
refugees
Cypriot
and
who
de
entered
Aghirda,
such
twelve
as A k a k i ,
villages
Aredhiou,
with
refugees
from s c a t t e r e d r u r a l
The
the
Kyrenia
Kyrenia Pass
-
The n o r t h e r n
Aghirda,
and
villages
the
settlements
be
stressed that
mixed
and
the
suburbs.
area
in later
and
Geunyeli,
population
Turkish
Geunyeli-Aghirda
under
Cypriots
Enclave,
S k y l l o u r a , a l l abandoned
helped
T h u s an
the
capital
( r e f e r t o Map
3.2
influx
Turkish
to
of
Leadership
a points
over-
)
St.Hilarion Castle.
s e c t i o n of
w h i c h was
these
countryside.
Dhenia,
) , Trakhonas
I t should
from
of
8,000
environs,
refugees
safety
National
estimated
northwards through
c o n t r o l from the
coastline.
Turkish
i t s immediate
mixed e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n s .
consolidate t e r r i t o r i a l
the
quarter"
1963-'64.
Nicosia Enclave
i n t o the
Argaki,
formerly
looking
refugees
neighbouring
"old
the
during
) . (17)
came f r o m m i x e d r u r a l
villages
to
( 5,126
facto control extending
movements when v i o l e n c e s p r e a d
abandoned
the
by
evacuated
w e r e f r o m N i c o s i a and
t h e r e w e r e a l s o some G r e e k C y p r i o t
Many o t h e r
Turkish
a c c o u n t e d f o r an
of a l l v i l l a g e s
suburbs of Omorphita
9T2 ) , S t r o v o l o s
from the
K y r e n i a Road p r o t e c t e d
wave o f
7,000 r e f u g e e s
particularly
(
first
extending
to
part of
this
the
important
Turkish enclave
Nicosia Regional
centred
around
Administrative structure
- 46 -
MAP
_ 3
: 2
GEUNYELI
-
AGHIRDA
I showing
initial
strategic
Turkish
military
ENCLAVE
positions
forces _ 22
July
of
1974 I
Temblos
KYRENIA
OS
Yeorylos
Trl^trt
Therm I a
Pilerl
400-N
X
Krini
N
^
Photta
Kanli
Geunyel I
Orta
Keuy
NICOSIA
Turkish
military
positions
- 2 2/07
/ 74
Fault
Height
contours
Roads
Purely
ED
•
®
Area
Turkish
where
Greek
Turkish
Mixed
Cypriot
Turks
Cypriot
before
held
Invasion
majority
of
property
villages
Cvprlot
villages
villages
St. Hllarlon
Castle
26
0
II I I I I
2-6
I
6km
I
47
to
LU
ON
in
in
(A
JC
LU
c/j
CO
s
(4
0>
1
C3
in
r
1
?
,1
(3
i
CQ
<
K
-
But
had
a separate
Turkish
Cypriot
Turkish
National
stationed
Turkish
military
Contingent
c o n t r o l of
soldiers
i n p o s i t i o n s n e a r to
i n the
advantages, although
control.
the
Geunyeli
the
-
to
the
point, only
in
the
Professor
Volkan
"...the
Kyrenia
from the
the
T u r k s had
o u t s k i r t s of
Cypriot
m o u n t a i n t o p had
Turkish
s red
spot
Cypriots
flag
was
were a b l e
largely
purely
settlements
especially
Kyrenia
owing
( see
Map
Keumurju, P i l e r i ,
of
the
had
a Turkish
had
a b s o r b e d by
control.
Bay,
to
region
the
there
and
of
and
Ayia
stay while
and
Greek
mountain
the
north
the
on
and
significant
only
According
peak
to
3.T
i s an
village
villages
t o be
to
village
west
the
included
:-
Aghirda,
i s given
to
under the
one,
Turkish
the
control
Ayia
Irini,
Cypriot
) o r were
F i g h t e r s and
inhabitants
in a village
of
) The- e n c l a v e
centres
f a r away f r o m o t h e r
and
south-west
de
of Myrtou, n e a r
i t s Turkish
could
Pentadaktyloa,
(e.g. Trapeza
Cypriot
to
set Fig.3:1)
quarters', only
purely
i t
s e v e r a l mixed
southern
Cypriot
Most o t h e r
too
of
for details
their inhabitants
was
St.Hilarion
strategically
towns/villages
Turkish
isolated
this
I f consideration
four
omnipotence.
enormous t h a t
R o a d and
Turkish
Photta.
t h a t had
so
pre-existence
Table
five
peak o f
c o n t r o l of
c o m p l e t e l y c u t - o f f , but
the
to
away.** ( 1 8 ) ( a l s o
p r o t e c t i v e r i n g of T u r k i s h
Irini
Cypriot
control.
c e n t r a l and
were o n l y
been emptied o f
the
the
symbolically
Nicosia,
I t was
Kyrenia
Cypriot, majority.
so i t was
Turkish
Krini,
C y p r u s Government
villages
to
i n the
3.2
developed around a c l u s t e r
surrounding
and
of
several
f i r m l y under
the-coast
hung f r o m t h e
to g a i n
i n l o c a t i o n s n e a r the
town.
still
)
were
concentration
become a s y m b o l o f T u r k i s h
f r o m many m i l e s
important area
Turkish
Pentadaktylos
:-
another mountaintop nearby.
seen as
The
of
Fighters
c o n t r o l of
overlooking
under T u r k i s h
A huge T u r k i s h
be
i n the
Cypriot
Road.
I t i s a strategically
ten miles
Pentadaktylos
Turkish
K y r e n i a - c o a s t l i n e was
For'instance,
south.
and
villages
for details
- Aghirda: Enclave- s e r v e d
which S t . H i l a r i o n C a s t l e stands,
Nicosia
Table- 3.2
command. ( s e e
administrative
Cypriots
Cypriot
48
facto
Morphou
decided
predominantly
"grouping"
under
-
T A B L E 3:1
49
-
POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N AND SETTLEMENTS I N THE
KYRENIA P L A I N AND PENTADAKTYLOS.
Agro-Physiographic
Region
1)
2)
3)
4)
Greek C y p r i o t
Population
Percentage
Central
Pentadaktylos
Turkish Cypriot
Population
Percentage
Number o f v i l l a g e s
*
8
66.95'
33.05
67.97
32.03
88.71
11.29
9
1
2
88.64
11.36
8
0
5
29
14
8
Southern f o o t h i l l s
of the Pentadaktylos
Northern f o o t h i l l s
of the Pentadaktylos
Kyrenia
Plain
Total:-
* Key to v i l l a g e s
T ( Greek
Source:
);
2 ( T u r k i s h ) ; 3 ( Mixed ) :
Karouzis
( 1976
)
Proposals
f o r a S o l u t i o n to t h e Cyprus
( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a , pp 24 a n d 49
See
also
C y p r u s P o p u l a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n Map
( 1960
)„
Problem.
)
-
TABLE
50
-
D E T A I L S OP TURKISH C Y P R I O T AND MIXED V I L L A G E S
'3:2
I N THE KYRENIA P L A I N AND PENTADAKTYLOS.
Under c o n t r o l o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
Common Name
Turkish
Name
Ayios
Andronikos
Topcukoy
Keumurju
Cypriot
Agirdag
Krini
Greek C y p r i o t
Population
Turkisl
Populai
Resident
Refugees
375
. Komurcu
Aghirda
Leadership,
55
1,375
750
Pinarbasi
545
250
Pileri
Goceri
128
Photta
Dagyolu
785
300
Temblos
Zeytinlik
450
219
Kambyli
Hisarkoy
335
96
Kalyvakia
Kalavac
271
Kornokipos
Gornec
393
Ayios
Khariton
Ergenekon
1T6
Ayios
Iakovos
Altinova
400
Melounda
Mallidag
300
Settlements
11
a b a n d o n e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
( 12 )
Liveras
Liveras
Dhioros
Yorgos
Ayios
Ermolaos
Ayirmola
Vasilia
Vasilya
( 213 )
1,300
Lapithos
Lapta
( 370 )
4,000
Trapeza
Teknecik
Ayios
Yeoryios
Ayyorgi
Mixed s e t t l e m e n t s
( 156 )
600
( 20 )
467
under t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e Cyprus
800
( 696 )
Kazaphani
Ozankoy
405
( 598 )
Ayia
Akdeni z
N.B.
ArapkSy
Figures i n brackets
villages.
250
( 143 )
Girne
Klepini
29
( 79 )
Kyrenia
Irini
150
465
18
( 27 )
represent
Government.
3,000
630
15
150
29
185
t h e numbers o f r e f u g e e s
source:
who l e f t t h e
P a t r i c k 11976 Ipp 278 - 3 2 3
- 51
Turkish Cypriot control.
completely
evacuated
Dhioros,
a mixed v i l l a g e c l o s e to Myrtou,
was
by i t s T u r k i s h r e s i d e n t s , most of whom f l e d to
the
G u e n y e l i - Aghirda E n c l a v e .
On
A p r i l 25,
-
( r e f e r to Map
6:8,
for village locations )
T964, Greek C y p r i o t s attempted to knock-out T u r k i s h
p o s i t i o n s n e a r to the K y r e n i a P a s s , but f a i l e d to g a i n ground.
A p r i l , U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d to arrange
a cease-fire.
c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were drawn by U n i t e d Nations
f r o n t - l i n e p o s i t i o n s of both s i d e s .
On
29
Eventually
p e r s o n n e l by marking the
U.N.P.I.CYP. o c c u p i e d
"disputed
p o s i t i o n s " wherever p o s s i b l e . ( 1 9 ) These c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s posed numerous
problems f o r C y p r i o t s l i v i n g on e i t h e r s i d e of them.
F o r example,
Temblos, s i t u a t e d a t the n o r t h e r n e x t e n s i o n of the Aghirda E n c l a v e ,
was
l i t e r a l l y hemmed-in on t h r e e s i d e s and had
around i t to prevent
U.N.P.I.CYP. t r o o p s a l l
N a t i o n a l Guard and uniformed T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s from
e n t e r i n g the v i l l a g e as p a r t of l o c a l c e a s e - f i r e arrangements. As a
r e s u l t of t h e s e a r b i t r a r y l i n e s Temblos v i l l a g e r s c o u l d o n l y get
to
N i c o s i a v i a the K y r e n i a Road, d e s p i t e attempts to improve the mountain
t r a c k to S t . H i l a r i o n . ( r e f e r to Chapter F i v e , P a r t 0ne,p.t17) To get
the K y r e n i a Road they were s u b j e c t e d to Government r e s t r i c t i o n s
to
and
searches.
U n t i l 26 October 1*964 no Greek C y p r i o t was
the K y r e n i a Road, running
So one
of the f i r s t
i n Cyprus was
only a l l o w e d
permitted
from N i c o s i a v i a G e u n y e l i
to t r a v e l
along
to the n o r t h
s t e p s U.N.F.I.CYP. made- to " n o r m a l i z e "
coast.
conditions
to reopen the roHd to Greek C y p r i o t ' c i v i l i a n s , who
were-
to move through the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a i f they were
i n the d a i l y U.N.F.I.CYP. N i c o s i a - K y r e n i a convoys, o t h e r w i s e
to take long detours
The G e u n y e l i
around the p e r i m e t e r of the E n c l a v e .
- Aghirda Enclave^ was
they
(20)
c l e a r l y demarcated from the
L i n e " w i t h i n o l d N i c o s i a to i t s n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y a t Temblos.
w i t h i n t h r e e l i n e s of s o l d i e r y , t h e i r own
had
"Green
Confined
F i g h t e r s , U.N.F.I.CYP. "blue
b e r r e t s " , and Greek C y p r i o t N a t i o n a l Guardsmen, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
Leadership
and m i l i t a r y commanders had
t i g h t c o n t r o l over- t h i s
strategic
-
enclave,
52
-
the most important s o l i d block o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
c o n t r o l i n the i s l a n d . ( r e f e r to Map
3.3
)
territorial
This enclave played a very
s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n the T u r k i s h i n v a s i o n o f T 9 7 4 . ( see Map
3.2.
)
i i i ) Refugee Movements and Enclave Formation i n Other D i s t r i c t s ;
According to Richard P a t r i c k , V 9 7 6 ,
..the m a j o r i t y - m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i s more a c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e d
by t a k i n g a broader view than one c o n f i n e d to the e t h n i c
composition
o f each v i l l a g e i n i s o l a t i o n .
Invariably, a
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y i n a g i v e n v i l l a g e gives way
to a
(21)
m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i f the r e g i o n a l s i t u a t i o n i s considered."
I n . a d e t a i l e d study o f e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t , and l a n d ownership d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Cyprus,George Karouzis, T 9 7 6 , came t o the same
c o n c l u s i o n using v a r i o u s geographical
also t o Chapter Two
)
d e f i n i t i o n s of r e g i o n . ( 2 2
: refer
The d e t a i l e d example o f the Geunyeli - Aghirda
Enclave r e v e a l s the extent t o which T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l depended
on the p r e - e x i s t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek, Mixed, and p u r e l y T u r k i s h
settlements.
Areas w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l o c a l d e n s i t y o f T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s o r h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f Turkish/Mixed v i l l a g e s ( according
T960
to the
Census ) , were o f t e n the f o u n d a t i o n or "core" o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
enclaves.
For example, the Xeros - Karavostassi area had s e v e r a l T u r k i s h
and Mixed c e n t r e s , i n c l u d i n g E l i a , Kazivera-, L i m n i t i s and Ambelikou.
Surrounding the Greek C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t o f Athienou were t e n p u r e l y
T u r k i s h o r Mixed v i l l a g e s , such as A y i a , L o u r o u n j i n a , Potamia, Arsos,
and Melousha.
(23)
The most widespread refugee movements took place i n January 1964
the l i f t i n g o f road-blocks
by the Cyprus Government.
after'
F i f t y - o n e per
cent
o f a l l v i l l a g e s e v e n t u a l l y evacuated by end-August 1964 were evacuated
i n t h i s month, a t o t a l o f 6 , 4 4 3 people. ( 2 4 )
2,T85
February accounted f o r
people and eighteen per cent o f the t o t a l number o f v i l l a g e B
deserted by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
i n the months o f March and May,
evacuated i n e a r l y August.
Five v i l l a g e s ( 9T3 people ) were evacuated
and f i n a l l y , s i x v i l l a g e s and 83T people
53
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MAP-3:5
PAPHOS
55
-
DISTRICT : TURKISH CYPRIOT
ENCLAVES
Magounda
;
* ^fV-$Pelathou
v
Lyso
•••:-.':*-':''Androllkou
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oundall
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LEGEND
4
Populated Turkish
- j . -JCyprlot a r e a s 1964 to
'74/5
-
Kolonl ®
^ Main roads
Towns
O
Purely
Koukha
Turkish
I*
•
Q
villages ;
H
and
Some
villages deserted
Cypriote
X Greek
refugee
by
centres ;
Turkish
In 1 9 6 3 - ' 6 4 ;
Cyprlot
villages;
0
Q
Inhabited
mixed
Greek c o n t r o l :
villages
under
Adapted from maps by Drury 119771
Skin
- 56 I t seems t h a t most refugee movements were spontaneous, corresponding
to outbreaks o f intercommunal v i o l e n c e and i n t i m i d a t i o n , such as
occurred i n the Paphos D i s t r i c t i n February and T y l l i r i a i n August.
A d e t a i l e d study o f " p o p u l a t i o n upheaval" i n Western Cyprus r e v e a l s
some i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s about the geography o f refugee movements i n
the i s l a n d as a whole. (25) Paphos D i s t r i c t had the h i g h e s t D i s t r i c t
r a t i o o f Turks t o Greeks, about 1 : 3 .
Michael Drury, 1 9 7 7 , found t h a t
t h i r t y - t w o per cent o f a l l i n h a b i t e d v i l l a g e s i n the D i s t r i c t had a
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y , and t h a t w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the Dhiarezos
V a l l e y group and a s m a l l group near Lyso, they formed few obvious
c l u s t e r s . ( r e f e r t o Map 3.5 ) Most o f these v i l l a g e s had a small
p o p u l a t i o n , an average size o f 365 i n h a b i t a n t s , and had s c a t t e r e d
l o c a t i o n s . Whereas many o f the Greek C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s were l a r g e r
and were not surrounded by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e
were exceptions such as Lyso caught behind the v i l l a g e s o f Meladhia and
Melandra. This s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n added t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t f e e l i n g s o f
g e o g r a p h i c a l i n s e c u r i t y once intercommunal h o s t i l i t i e s f l a r e d up.
I n Paphos D i s t r i c t the refugee movement p a t t e r n shows t h a t T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s o f t e n moved to new l o c a t i o n s e i t h e r because o f t h e i r c e n t r a l
p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r group o f Turkish/Mixed v i l l a g e s , o r because
the v i l l a g e s were t a n g e n t i a l t o main l i n e s o f communication and so ran
less r i s k o f i n t e r f e r e n c e .
As Drury r e v e a l e d , the r e s u l t i n g f o r m a t i o n
of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves i n Paphos D i s t r i c t avoided most main roads,
a p a t t e r n not repeated i n o t h e r p a r t s o f Cyprus where enclave f o r m a t i o n
c r e a t e d major problems f o r road communications. ( r e f e r t o Chapter Five
S e c t i o n on Freedom o f Movement )
Another p o i n t t o make concerning the
o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f enclaves i n Cyprus i s t h a t where therewas rugged,
h i l l y topography, poor communications between v i l l a g e s , and a s c a t t e r e d
i n t e r - m i x t u r e o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s , i t was o n l y
p o s s i b l e t o form t i n y "pockets" o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l surrounded
by Greek C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y .
-
The
57
-
l a r g e s t movements o f refugees i n Western Cyprus occurred d u r i n g
f
February and March f o l l o w i n g b a t t l e s i n Paphos town i t s e l f .
from neighbouring
Villagers
Lemba and Yeroskipos moved to the over-crowded
T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos.
F i g h t i n g i n o t h e r areas l e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
from Khoulou, Kourtaka and P i t a r g o u to seek refuge i n Axylou.
Once
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n P o l i s were beseiged, refugee movements began i n
north-western p a r t s of the D i s t r i c t and i n remote areas, where v i l l a g e s
evacuated i n c l u d e d P h a s l i , K r i t o u Terra, Mamoundali, Asproyia, Loukrounou,
and G a l a t a r i a .
I n the c o u n t r y s i d e the major ' r e c i p i e n t ' centres were
Androkikou, Mandria, Stavrokono, and Anadhiou, which r e c e i v e d the
v i l l a g e r s o f L a p i t h i o u " t a k e n " by the Greek C y p r i o t s i n March T 9 6 4 .
(26)
Once intercommunal f i g h t i n g i n Cyprus had calmed down t h e r e were o n l y
f o u r mixed v i l l a g e s remaining.
Of these, Ayia Varvara and Akoursos were
both under Government c o n t r o l , w h i l s t K o u k l i a and T i m i , both w i t h l a r g e
Greek C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n s , maintained
by armed F i g h t e r s .
( r e f e r to Map
3:5
t h e i r T u r k i s h q u a r t e r s under guard
)
I n Paphos and o t h e r d i s t r i c t s there appears to have been l i t t l e o r no
c e n t r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f the refugee movements, although no doubt
some were encouraged by T.M.T. P a t r i c k found i t "...more t y p i c a l f o r
v i l l a g e r s to move on t h e i r own
f u r n i t u r e and food behind."
i n i t i a t i v e l e a v i n g most o f t h e i r c l o t h i n g ,
(27)
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t leaders denied
any
contingency p l a n f o r p o p u l a t i o n r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n s i n
c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c areas, although they d i d o f f e r assistance t o v i l l a g e r s
i n t r a n s p o r t p r o v i s i o n and refugee housing.
n
But as Michael Drury
stresses,
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m i n o r i t y consciousness w i t h s p e c i f i c
and c l e a r l y demarcated t e r r i t o r y was o f c r u c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l
importance...the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . . . f e l t t h a t the l e g a l
r e c o g n i t i o n o f the two communities was
inadequate,
at least
f o r the l e s s numerous one, unless a s p a t i a l dimension
was
added." (28)
T e r r i t o r i a l s e p a r a t i o n c e r t a i n l y became an important p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g
to the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership,
and concern f o r the p h y s i c a l s a f e t y
- 58 o f t h e i r community was uBed as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s e g r e g a t i o n .
i v ) The T u r k i s h Quarters o f Famagusta. Larnaca. and Paphos.
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m u n i c i p a l i t y o f Pamagusta comprised the w a l l e d
c i t y ; the suburbs o f B a i k a l , K a r a o l i s , and Sakarya.
maintained
U.N.F.I.CYP.
s e v e r a l look-out p o i n t s along the w a l l s and a t the entrances
of the other quarters.
There was also a d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone around the
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s p r e v e n t i n g the development o f close armed
confrontation.
I n c o n t r a s t , Larnaca was s i m i l a r t o N i c o s i a i n t h a t i t
remained a centre o f t e n s i o n throughout
December *63 t o August '64, and
a c e a s e - f i r e l i n e was e s t a b l i s h e d along the western boundary o f Scala,
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r , marked by Artemis Avenue which
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s from N a t i o n a l Guardsmen.
this
,r
separated
U.N.P.I.CYP. kept
c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e " under c o n t i n u a l s u r v e i l l a n c e .
Paphos also had i t s e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e marked by a c e a s e - f i r e l i n e .
B i t t e r intercommunal f i g h t i n g
began on 7 March '64 when hundreds o f
Greek C y p r i o t s were taken hostage, prompting r e t a l i a t o r y
and an attempt
t o overrun the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f town.
hostage t a k i n g
About twenty p e r
cent o f i t s 3,500 p o p u l a t i o n were made refugees as most o f the q u a r t e r
was
evacuated, l e a v i n g a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l l e d area o f only a few
hundred square yards.
British
troops i n t e r v e n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a cease-
f i r e zone around the q u a r t e r , which was l a t e r p a t r o l l e d by U.N.P.I.CYP.
The
q u a r t e r was entrenched on and behind a b l u f f from t h e town centre
westwards, l e a v i n g a swathe o f d e r e l i c t urban no-man's-land running
through the town c e n t r e . (29)
Limassol's T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r was n o t demarcated by f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ,
and there was more contact between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s than i n
o t h e r D i s t r i c t towns.
Under l o c a l agreements, uniformed
F i g h t e r s were
not p e r m i t t e d t o parade o r t o c a r r y weapons i n p a r t s o f the q u a r t e r
adjacent
t o the Greek C y p r i o t s e c t o r .
I t , should be stressed t h a t s m a l l e r towns and v i l l a g e s also had e t h n i c
d i v i s i o n s and q u a r t e r s .
For example, P o l i s , i n the north-west
o f Paphos
-
District,
59
-
had an enclaved
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o u l a t i o n l i v i n g i n an o l d
T u r k i s h secondary school.
I n Chapter Five more d e t a i l s are g i v e n on
the f u n c t i o n i n g o f these enclaves and the numerous problems caused by
such a r t i f i c i a l d i v i s i o n s of people.
From T964 t o T974 these
distinct
e t h n i c q u a r t e r s continued t o s u r v i v e , keeping the two communities a p a r t .
" They l i v e d t h e i r separate
l i v e s , o f t e n side by side
w i t h o u t open a n i m o s i t y , but more o f t e n i n a s t a t e o f
dormant h o s t i l i t y . " (30)
v ) The B a t t l e f o r T y l l i r i a and the Kokkina Enclave.
Ther l a s t refugee movements took place i n e a r l y August
left
west Cyprus, T y l l i r i a r e g i o n .
i n north-
T964
T h e y / f o l l o w i n g a Greek C y p r i o t o f f e n s i v e
under the auspices o f General Grivas, who was e f f e c t i v e l y commanding the
N a t i o n a l Guard. ( r e f e r t o Footnote 3 t )
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were i n
c o n t r o l o f the only main road through t h e r e g i o n . ( r e f e r t o Map5:3
)
On 4 A p r i l armed elements o f both communities fought t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f
a h i l l dominating
a s e c t i o n o f the highway.
U.N.F.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d t o
arrange a c e a s e - f i r e f o u r days l a t e r , and U.N. o b s e r v a t i o n posts were
e s t a b l i s h e d between the two r i v a l camps.
reopened t o c i v i l i a n
Although the c o a s t a l road was
t r a f f i c the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s soon placed
road-blocks
along i t . (32)
Apart from the concern about Greek freedom o f movement along the n o r t h west coast, the Cyprus Government was w o r r i e d about t h e p o s s i b l i t y t h a t
the Turks could smuggle-in l a r g e numbers o f weapons v i a Kokkina.
To
combat t h i s 2,000 N a t i o n a l Guard troops were deployed i n the area f a c i n g
5D0 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s w i t h i n t h e enclave.
On 6 August, Government
f o r c e s a t t a c k e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s around Kokkina, f o r c i n g
their
i n h a b i t a n t s t o r e t r e a t i n t o a narrow beachhead.
Refugees moved i n t o Kokkina from p u r e l y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres such
as Mansoura, S e l l a i n T'Appi, Ayios Theodhoros, and Alevga.
To prevent
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f Kokkina from being overrun T u r k i s h A i r Force j e t s
invaded Cyprus air-space t o knock-out N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s o v e r - l o o k i n g
- 60 -
the enclave.
On 9 August, the United Nations S e c u r i t y Council c a l l e d
f o r - a n immediate c e a s e - f i r e .
This enabled U.N.P.I.CYP. t o e s t a b l i s h
" n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n s " around Kokkina and L i r a n i t i s . Thus the boundaries
o f these enclaves were c l e a r l y demarcated, p a t r o l l e d by U.N„ s o l d i e r s ,
and made known t o the m i l i t a r y commanders o f both s i d e s .
Greek C y p r i o t s
were p r o h i b i t e d from e n t e r i n g Kokkina, and were only allowed t o use the
c o a s t a l road through L i m n i t i s d u r i n g d a y l i g h t hours o n l y .
Eence l o c a l
Greek C y p r i o t s were o f t e n o b l i g e d t o take very long detours through o r
around the edge o f the Troodos Mountains t o a v o i d Turkish C y p r i o t
enclaves.
Other t i n y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas i n t h i s r e g i o n
centred around Lefka/Ambelikou and Elea, Angolemi, Ghaziveran, Both
enclaves were under close U.N.P.I.CYP. s c r u t i n y .
For T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , Kokkina remains an important symbol e p i t o m i z i n g
t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e s i s t Greek C y p r i o t domination, and as such i t
held a g a r r i s o n f o r Turkish regulars out o f a l l proportion t o i t s size
or population.
For Greek C y p r i o t s , Kokkina emphasized the m i l i t a r y
support
Ankara was w i l l i n g t o g i v e t o the s t r a t e g i c a l l y v u l n e r a b l e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
h e l d pieces o f t e r r i t o r y i n Cyprus.
Furthermore, the T y l l i r i a f i g h t i n g
had revealed how weak peace-soldiers are when opposing communities take
up arms t o achieve t h e i r g o a l s .
There was very l i t t l e United
Nations
troops could do against the s t r o n g e r N a t i o n a l Guard, p a r t i c u l a r l y when
they were o n l y mandated t o use " f o r c e " i n s e l f - d e f e n c e r a t h e r than t o
prevent s h o o t i n g .
U.N.F.I.CYP. proved t o be much more e f f e c t i v e as a
"constabulary f o r c e " once c e a s e - f i r e s had been arranged. (33)
Section Three:
The Extent o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t T e r r i t o r i a l C o n t r o l , and
the A r r i v a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
By March the bulk o f refugees had moved ( about ten p e r cent o f the
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n ) . Many never t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r homes, and
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p and m i l i t a r y commanders c o n s o l i d a t e d
de f a c t o c o n t r o l over t h e i r s c a t t e r e d t e r r i t o r y .
their
I n f a c t some F i g h t e r
- 61' -
commanders r e s o r t e d to armed t h r a e t s , and even i n a few cases to murder,
(
to prevent some refugees from moving i n t o Cyprus Government- c o n t r o l l e d
territory.
The Greek C y p r i o t s were prepared to encourage the r e t u r n o f
T u r k i s h refugees to o l d homes but not i f they were i n "sensitive, s t r a t e g i c
areas" adjacent to enclaves o r N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s .
They wanted
to prevent more land f a l l i n g i n t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t hands and "accused the
B r i t i s h troops of f o s t e r i n g p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d by p u t t i n g themselves
between the combatants and e s c o r t i n g f l e e i n g refugees from mixed v i l l a g e s
to T u r k i s h - h e l d communities."" (34)
James Stagenga, T968, p o i n t s out
that
1
many Greek C y p r i o t s remembered t h e i r s t r u g g l e against the B r i t i s h Army
d u r i n g the "Emergency P e r i o d " o f c o l o n i a l rule- from 1955
" Moreover, by e s t a b l i s h i n g
separate
to
1959.
"Green L i n e " n e u t r a l zones to
the two communities i n N i c o s i a , Larnaca, and elsewhere,
the B r i t i s h were t a c i t l y p a r t i t i o n i n g p a r t s o f the c o u n t r y . "
I t has been suggested t h a t Archbishop Makarios used B r i t i s h then
(35)
United
Nations peacekeeping f o r c e s to p a r r y the t h r e a t o f u n i l a t e r a l T u r k i s h
i n t e r v e n t i o n , enabling Greek C y p r i o t s to continue t h e i r a t t a c k s ( m i l i t a r y
and economic ) on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves.
(36)
The p o i n t being
that
the presence o f "neutral"" peace s o l d i e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y under the
p r o t e c t i v e umbrella o f the United Nations, would deteir Ankara from
sending t r o o p s .
On 4 March 1964,
U.N.P.I.CYP. was
authorized.
" Both C y p r i o t communities were aware t h a t once t h i s f o r c e
was
deployed the then e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s o f c o e r c i v e
throughout
the i s l a n d would be
'frozen'.
control
Both sides t h e r e -
f o r e were i n t e n t on c o n s o l i d a t i n g o r extending t h e i r c o n t r o l
before U.N.P.I.CYP. c o u l d i n t e r v e n e . "
As one commentator put i t ,
the U.N.
Force was
(37)
i n t r o d u c e d " t o see
that
the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f these two environments d i d not a l t e r " . (38)
At i t s peak s t r e n g t h i n June T964, U.N.P.I.CYP. comprised 6,400
men.
Such l i m i t e d manpower had to be c a r e f u l l y deployed a t the i s l a n d ' s major
t r o u b l e - s p o t s and e t h n i c - i n t e r f a c e s , and l i k e the hamstrung B r i t i s h i
f o r c e , i t could not be everywhere at once, which meant t h a t the Greek
- 62 -
C y p r i o t g u e r r i l l a s and N a t i o n a l Guard "could choose t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s
at w i l l . " (39)
U.N.P.I.CYP.'s day-to-day o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus had t o cope w i t h the
numerous problems a r i s i n g from the fragmented
c o n f l i c t and t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l .
p a t t e r n o f intercommunal
I n T964 the United Nations
estimated
t h a t "areas administered by t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community...and
defended by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s " covered "approximately 54 square
m i l e s ; o r 1/2 per cent o f the t o t a l area o f the c o u n t r y , w i t h a
p o p u l a t i o n o f about 59,000, i n c l u d i n g T3,600 refugees." (40) U.N.P.I.CYP.
gave de f a c t o r a t h e r than " o f f i c i a l " r e c o g n i t i o n t o these enclaves, and
i t recognized the major areas under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l , such as
the o l d T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f N i c o s i a ; t h e Geunyeli - Aghirda Enclave
( o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o i n U.N.Reports and o t h e r sources as the " N i c o s i a
enclave" ) | t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r s o f Larnaca and Pamagusta; t h e town o f
L o u r o u j i n a ; an enclave comprising Lefka, another around K a l y v a k i a , and
the two beachheads a t Kokkina and L i m n i t i s . ( r e f e r t o Map 3.3 ) The
areas g i v e n "enclave s t a t u s " by U.N.P.I.CYP. were those where close
" c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " e x i s t e d o r where intercommunal h o s t i l i t y was more
l i k e l y t o occur, t h e r f o r e s e c u r i t y was t i g h t , w i t h opposing f i g h t e r s
m a i n t a i n i n g p o s i t i o n s separated by United Nations o b s e r v a t i o n posts and/
or p a t r o l s .
Richard P a t r i c k ' s estimates made i n T970-'71 i n c l u d e a l l
areas undeir the de f a c t o c o n t r o l o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership,
c a l l e d the " P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " , which contained
105,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , i n c l u d i n g 20,000 refugees.
then
approximately
I n 1971 t h e r e were s t i l l
some 8,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s l i v i n g i n t e r r i t o r y under Greek C y p r i o t
control.
I n t o t a l , about twenty p e r cent o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
p o p u l a t i o n had abandoned homes i n December *63 - August '64, w h i l s t t h e
m a j o r i t y o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s already l i v e d i n l o c a t i o n s where Greeks were
e i t h e r unable o r u n w i l l i n g t o p e n e t r a t e .
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compare d i f f e r e n t attempts t o d e l i n e a t e T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t areas.
Map 3.6 i s an American one based on S u r k i s h C y p r i o t
- 63 -
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sources.
I t i n d i c a t e s T u r k i s h v i l l a g e groupings, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e
most i m p o r t a n t mixed v i l l a g e s o f Cyprus, e i t h e r w i t h a Greek o r T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y , p l u s areas o f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l ,
T976, argues
Karouzis,
t h a t " . . . i n f a c t t h i s i s n o t the case because apart from c e r t a i n
i s o l a t e d cases^no c o n t r o l was e x e r c i s e d i n a l l t h e areas shown". ( 4 t )
Map 3.4
i s by Professor Emile Kolodny ( 4 2 ) and i s p u r p o r t e d t o show the
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community i n T 9 7 0 , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
enclaves, p u r e l y T u r k i s h and mixed v i l l a g e s / t o w n s .
I t i s useful there-
f o r e t o compare the map w i t h t h e one produced by Richard P a t r i c k ( Map 3,3)
which shows "Turkish C y p r i o t C o n t r o l l e d Areas i n T 9 7 0 " .
Karouzis had
the f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c i s m s t o make r e g a r d i n g Kolodny's map :(a) The enclaves shown on the map were n o t a l l areas t o which Greek
C y p r i o t s could have no access.
(b) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves number 4 4 , o r i f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
q u a r t e r s o f N i c o s i a , Pamagusta, Laraaca and Paphos are counted, 4 8 .
( c ) The number o f v i l l a g e s shown as abandoned i s not a c c u r a t e .
( d ) Some p u r e l y T u r k i s h o r mixed v i l l a g e s have been o m i t t e d .
(e) There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i l a r i t y between the borders o f T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t areas i n t h e Kolodny map and those used i n the American map.
I n c o n t r a s t , P a t r i c k ' s map shows 40 enclaves,
included.
As Karouzis attempted
44 i f t h e f o u r towns are
t o show,these enclaves were n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y areas o f p u r e l y T u r k i s h v i l l a g e s , p o p u l a t i o n o r l a n d owners h i p , and d i d not i n c l u d e a l l such areas w i t h i n t h e i r - b o r d e r s .
Not o n l y d i d the patchwork p a r t i t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d pose problems f o r
U.N.P.I.CYP. i n i t s e f f o r t s t o keep t h e peace, i t also posed a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems f o r the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership,
c o n t r o l over i t s dispersed enclaves.
which had o n l y loose
U n t i l the removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s
on T u r k i s h freedom o f movement i n March 1 9 6 8 , i t was extremely
difficult
f o r the Leadership t o m a i n t a i n a n y t h i n g but d i s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h the
v a r i o u s enclaves and quarters under i t s de f a c t o c o n t r o l .
I n practice,,
l o c a l F i g h t e r commanders and T u r k i s h o f f i c e r s from the mainland o r v i l l a g e
mukhtars ( leaders ) remained i n c o n t r o l o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l o c a l
areas,
- 65 -
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n areas some distance from N i c o s i a and the Geunyeli Aghirda Enclave.
Over the 1964 t o 1974 p e r i o d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
developed a complicated h i e r a r c h y o f t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l .
There were seven de f a c t o l o c a l government r e g i o n s , each w i t h a D i s t r i c t
O f f i c e r based i n the l a r g e s t l o c a l m u n i c i p a l i t y , who d e a l t w i t h v i l l a g e
leaders and town mayors over c i v i l m a t t e r s .
At the t o p o f the admin-
i s t r a t i v e ladder was t h e General Committee ( P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
from December T967 onwards ) which s a t i n T u r k i s h N i c o s i a ,
former Vice-President
Cypriot p o l i c y .
headed by
KUclik, and was i n charge o f i s l a n d - w i d e T u r k i s h
When c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s
over-lapped
t h e r e was close l i a i s o n between the General Committee and s e n i o r m i l i t a r y
officers.
As w i l l be shown i n Chapter Five some mainland T u r k i s h o f f i c e r s
had g r e a t i n f l u e n c e over l o c a l events and were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a? number
of v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s . At the lower l e v e l s o f the h i e r a r c h y the i n f l u e n c e
of
the Leadership i n N i c o s i a broke down.
Richard P a t r i c k produced a
d e t a i l e d study and map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l o c a l government o r g a n i s a t i o n
as i t e x i s t e d i n T970. ( see Map3.7)
'Groupings' o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
v i l l a g e s found i n close p r o x i m i t y u s u a l l y had a m i l i t a r y and/or p o l i c e
headquarters
was
i n the most c e n t r a l o r i m p o r t a n t v i l l a g e o f the group. I t
i n the more i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e groups under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l
t h a t l o c a l a f f a i r s were r u n by F i g h t e r l e a d e r s , mukhtars. and p o l i c e
chiefs. (43)
S e c t i o n Four: U.N.F.I.CYP. and the P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus. T964 - ' 7 4 .
The
United Nations Force i n Cyprus was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h numerous
d i f f i c u l t tasks as soon as i t became^ o p e r a t i o n a l on 27 March 1 9 6 4 .
F i r s t l y , i t had t o see thai; c e a s e - f i r e arrangements were observed by
both s i d e s , a d i f f i c u l t task when there was always a l i k e l i h o o d t h a t
General Grivas would a c t independently
ment.
o f d i r e c t i v e s from c e n t r a l govern-
Secondly, U.N. personnel had t o cope w i t h Government r e s t r i c t i o n s
on goods moving i n t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas.
A f t e r the f a i l u r e o f t h e
a t t a c k on Kokkina President Makarios decided
t o pursue p o l i t i c a l
goals
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- 67 -
by a p p l y i n g economic pressure on the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r a t h e r than by
f o r c e o f arms.
As p a r t o f t h i s p o l i c y the Cyprus Government p u t an
economic blockade on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t administered enclaves,
stopping
the movement o f " s t r a t e g i c m a t e r i a l s " i n t o those areas. ( see Chapter
Five ) T h i r d l y , there were r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y
through T u r k i s h enclaves.
F o u r t h l y , the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were
badly overcrowded and had a refugee- problem, which meant t h a t there Were
l a r g e numbers o f homeless people l a c k i n g basic a m e n i t i e s .
At f i r s t
U.N.F.I.CYP. had great d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g much needed medical and
o t h e r a i d i n t o Kokkina, and i t was n o t u n t i l mid^September 1964 t h a t
these s u p p l i e s were d e l i v e r e d .
Throughout i t s f i r s t decade o f operations i n Cyprus,U.N.F.I.CYP.
refused t o give the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership any i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e c o g n i t i o n , d e a l i n g w i t h the p u r e l y Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as
the Government o f the whole Republic.
did
recognize
At the same time, U.N.F.I.CYP,
the g r a v i t y o f the e t h n i c - c u r a - p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n .
As
the Secretary-General r e p o r t e d on 11 March 1965 :" The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y o f s e l f - i s o l a t i o n has l e d the
community i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n from n o r m a l i t y .
The
community l e a d e r s h i p discourages the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
p o p u l a t i o n from engaging i n p e r s o n a l , commercial,or o t h e r
contact w i t h t h e i r Greek C y p r i o t c o m p a t r i o t s , from
applying
to Government o f f i c e s i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e matters o r from
r e s e t t l i n g i n t h e i r homes i f they are refugees." (44)
U.N.F.I.CYP. were faced w i t h an i s l a n d c r i s s - c r o s s e d by p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s ,
" c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " , and the problems o f hardening
b a r r i e r s " between the two communities.
n
As Galo Plaza
"psychological
recognized,
The p h y s i c a l impediments t o normal r e l a t i o n s between the
communities were s e r i o u s enough, h a r d l y l e s s so was the
p s y c h o l o g i c a l impediment caused by the suppression
o f the h e a l t h y
movement o f i d e a s , f o r which were s u b s t i t u t e d slogans and
counter-slogans
shouted by propaganda machines across the
d i v i d i n g l i n e s i n uncompromising, p r o v o c a t i v e o r h o s t i l e
tones."
(45)
- 68 -
I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e the e x t e n t o f the hardships s u f f e r e d
by t h e enclaved T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
T h e i r i s o l a t i o n behind " v i s i b l e w a l l s "
tended t o create more " i n v i s i b l e w a l l s " between the two s i d e s .
As Drury
puts i t :- " The two communities' s e p a r a t i o n , as the decade advanced,
became i n c r e a s i n g l y entrenched,
p h y s i c a l l y , e m o t i o n a l l y , and
m a t e r i a l l y . " (46)
Professor Volkan, 1979, l i k e n e d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o caged b i r d s . . .
" They had become p r i s o n e r s , i n s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t t h e i r
" p r i s o n s " l a y w i t h i n the neighbourhoods o f t h e i r own people
i n which i t was p o s s i b l e t o conduct some semblance o f normal
life."
(47)
Under these abnormal circumstances
U.N.P.I.CYP. acted
as the only
communication bridge between o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s on e i t h e r side o f the
de f a c t o d i v i d i n g l i n e s , t r y i n g t o breakdown the problems o f p h y s i c a l
and p s y c h o l o g i c a l detachment, the p s y c h o l o g i c a l "green l i n e s " s e p a r a t i n g
them.
Frequently young U.N.P.I.CYP. o f f i c e r s were engaged i n d e l i c a t e
discussions between v i l l a g e mukhtars. farmers, policemen, and businessmen o f both sides i n attempts t o s e t t l e p a r o c h i a l disputes and reach
l o c a l compromises.
Such " c o r r e c t i v e and p r e v e n t i v e " m e d i a t i o n , as
HaTbottle describes i t ,
"determines t h e i r success as peacekeepers, n o t
the a u t h o r i t y o f the s e l f - l o a d i n g r i f l e s t h a t they may h o l d i n t h e i r
hands." (48)
Very o f t e n intercommunal d i s p u t e s o r i n c i d e n t s arose as a d i r e c t r e s u l t
o f t h e p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l geography i n a given area.
For example, Greek
C y p r i o t farmers sometimes t r i e d t o e n t e r a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t area w i t h o u t
the p r i o r permission o f l o c a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u t h o r i t i e s .
circumstances
I n such
U.N.F.I.CYP. would i n t e r v e n e t o prevent any h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n s
United Nations escorts would then be arranged
t o p r o t e c t farmers e n t e r i n g
T u r k i s h areas provided they had permission from l o c a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
p o l i c e o r mukhtars. Such l o c a l "agreements" o r "understandings"
were n o t
always easy t o arrange i n the absence o f c l e a r demarcation l i n e s between
the d i s p u t a n t s .
Very o f t e n the boundary between t e r r i t o r y under Greek o r
-
69
-
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l was ambiguous. As Richard P a t r i c k e x p l a i n s , the
boundary " more n e a r l y resembles a f r o n t i e r zone i n the unguarded
f i e l d s about the v i l l a g e .
Such zones are i l l - d e f i n e d , and
t h e i r i r r e g u l a r shapes depend on l o c a l p a t t e r n s o f e t h n i c
s e t t l e m e n t , l a n d ownership, communication, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,
and intercommunal h o s t i l i t y . " (49)
U.N.F.I.CYP. were preoccupied w i t h c l e a r l y d e f i n e d " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s "
around the enclaves o f Kokkina, Aghirda - Guenyeli,
and those d i v i d i n g
the e t h n i c q u a r t e r s o f towns l i k e N i c o s i a and Larnaca.
The Force also
deployed men a t p o i n t s near t o o r w i t h i n "contested areas" between the
communities where changes i n the l o c a l s t a t u s quo
peace were always a p o s s i b i l i t y .
could r e l a x i t s observations
o r breaches o f the
The o n l y areas where U.N.P.I.CYP.
and a c t i v i t i e s were those w i t h o u t any
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , such as p a r t s o f the c e n t r a l Troodos, and around
remote and s t r a t e g i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t v i l l a g e s where the l o c a l people
o f e i t h e r community adopted a " l i v e and l e t l i v e "
Chapter Pive considers
depth.
attitude.
the f i r s t decade o f U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s i n
These operations r e v e a l many i n t e r l i n k a g e s between t h e i s l a n d ' s
p h y s i c a l , human, and p o l i t i c a l geography and p r a c t i c a l peace-keeping
tasks.
Two main c a t e g o r i e s o f o p e r a t i o n s w i l l be examined. I n United
Nations phraseology these are :( i ) A c t i v i t i e s toward p r e v e n t i n g a recurrence
to
o f f i g h t i n g and c o n t r i b u t i n g
the r e s t o r a t i o n o f law and o r d e r , and
( i i ) A c t i v i t i e s toward a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s .
The f i r s t group o f a c t i v i t i e s were p a r t o f a wider process o f " p a c i f i c a t i o n
or "de-confrontation".
U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r p o s i t i o n e d i t s troops i n a c t u a l
o r p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spots, arranged c e a s e - f i r e s , manned and demarcated
" n e u t r a l " zones,
n e g o t i a t e d f o r the removal o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ,
b l o c k s , and o t h e r evidences o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
road-
The second category o f
U.N. Force d u t i e s i n c l u d e d many n o n - m a r t i a l socio-economic and humanitarian
r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a f f e c t i n g the d a i l y l i v e s o f both C y p r i o t communities.
U.N.F.I.CYP. were, according
t o Stagenga, " h e l p i n g t o f o s t e r such
i n t a n g i b l e s as intercommunal t r u s t and mutual confidence." (50)
- 70 -
The U.N. Force had a m i l i t a r y branch c a l l e d Operations Economics
i n v o l v e d i n a wide v a r i e t y o f problems a f f e c t i n g
the l i v e s and l i v e l i h o o d s
of the T u r k i s h communtiy i n t h e i r homes and v i l l a g e s
lines.
and along demarcation
D e t a i l s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s such as a r b i t r a t i n g water r i g h t s ,
e s c o r t i n g farmers i n s t r a t e g i c
areas, and s e t t l i n g d i s p u t e s over l o c a l
resources are given i n Chapter F i v e .
Five headings are concentrated on
under U.N.F.I.CYP.'s " n o r m a l i z a t i o n " a c t i v i t i e s . These are :i ) Freedom o f movement;
i i ) C i v i l i a n services;
iii)
Agriculture;
i v ) I n d u s t r y and o t h e r aconomic a c t i v i t i e s ;
v) Relief operations:
Chapter Four examines some d e f i n i t i o n s o f "peacekeeping" r e l a t i n g t o
U.N.F.I.CYP., and the l i m i t a t i o n s o f i t s mandate. Government and T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t r e s t r i c t i o n s on i t s freedom o f movement a r e also considered.
Finally,, one s e c t i o n i s devoted s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the p r a c t i c a l
of deploying men i n a s m a l l compact i s l a n d w i t h a complex
geography and changing p a t t e r n s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t .
problems
pdlitical
- 71
-
Footnotes and References.
(1)
Report by the United Nations Mediator on Cyprus t o the S e c r e t a r y General, 26 March 1965,
(2)
paras. 50 -
Volkan.V.D. T979, Cyprus —
51.
War and Adaption. ( U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a
Press ) , p.80.
(3)
M i n o r i t y Group Report, No.30, 1976, Cyprus , Part One,
(4)
U.N.
(5)
Volkan, op. c i t . , argues t h a t t h e r e -were between 25 - 30,000
p.3.
Doc. S/6102, 12' December 1964, para.45.
Turkish
C y p r i o t refugees.
(6)
Patrick,R.A. 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . 19631971. ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Waterloo Press, Canada ) , p . 7 4 .
(7)
Drury.M.P. 1 9 8 1 , ' T h e ^ P o l i t i c a l Geography
o f Cyprus' i n Change and
Development i n the Middle East ( eds. Clarke ffi BowenJones ) , p.298.
(8)
Stagenga,J.A. 1968, The- United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio State
U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p T 5 5 .
0
(9)
These s t a t i s t i c s are based on a comparison o f P a t r i c k ' s f i e l d w o r k
w i t h the T960 Census o f P o p u l a t i o n .
(TO
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group, T976, op. c i t .
(11
U.N.
Doc. S/6102, T2 December 1964,
section regarding
'Activities
towards a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s ' .
(T2
P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . c h . 3 .
(T3
ibid.
(1-4
i b i d . . Appendices 1 & 2.
(T5- H a r b o t t l e , 1970,
The i m p a r t i a l s o l d i e r . ( Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ) ,
pp. 63 -
68.
(16
i b i d . . p.67.
(T7
Oberling.P. T'982, The-Road t o B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) ,
Appendix I I .
(18
Volkan, op. c i t . . ppd'OT - T02.
(19
Refer t o ; U.N.
(20
i b i d . , para.T4.
(2T
Patrick,R.A., op. c i t . . p.76.
(22
Karouzis,G
0
Doc. S/6102.
1976,
Proposals f o r a s o l u t i o n t o the Cyprus Problem.
( Cosmos Press, N i c o s i a ) ,
(23
ibid., p 37.
(24
Oberling.P,
(25
Drury,M.P.
0
op. c i t . . Appendices.
January T977,
'Western Cyprus —
Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n
upheaval, 1 9 5 6 - ' 7 6 ' , a paper presented a t the
I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers Annual Conference,
January
1977.
- 72 -
(26) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.274.
(27) P a t r i c k , R.A.
1972;
' C o n f l i c t i n Cyprus : Some views on the s i t u a t i o n
by a p o l i t i c a l geographer', f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n
Geographical C h r o n i c l e s . B u l l e t i n o f the Cyprus
Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 1971,Vol.t,No.2,pp.56-67.
(28) Drury.M.P. 1981, op. o i t . . p.274.
(29) Drury,M„P. Jan.1977, OP. c i t . .
(30)
M i n o r i t y Rights Group Report, 1976,
(31)
F o l l o w i n g the T955 -*59 E.O.K.A. campaign, many Greek C y p r i o t
op. c i t . . p.4.
fighters
s t i l l gave t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e to the e x i l e d commander, General G r i v a s ,
r a t h e r than to Archbishop Makarios.
v i o l e n c e o f December 1963
During
and e a r l y 1964,
the intercommunal
s e v e r a l armed gangs acted
w i t h o u t c e n t r a l d i r e c t i o n from the Government.
as though Turkey was
President
prepared to invade Cyprus.
By June i t looked
To counter
this
Makarios appealed to mainland Greece f o r troops to defend
the i s l a n d .
Grivas, who
5,000 troops were sent under the command o f General
r e t u r n e d to Cyprus on T4 June, 1964.
Furthermore, the
imminent i n v a s i o n t h r e a t prompted the Government to i n t r o d u c e
c o n s c r i p t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard by 15,000 men.
Even
before the r e s i g n a t i o n o f General Karayannis as N a t i o n a l Guard
Commander on 15 August, Grivas was
g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f a l l Greek
C y p r i o t m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus,,
When " o f f i c i a l l y " i n charge
o f the N a t i o n a l Guard he took s e v e r a l a c t i o n s w i t h o u t p r i o r
c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h the Cyprus Government, a few a g a i n s t Makarios' wishes,
and was
a c o n t i n u a l p a i n i n the side o f U.N,„F,,I .CYP. a t t e m p t i n g to
r e s t o r e order i n the t r o u b l e d i s l a n d .
Refer to : Grivas,G. 1965,
The Memoires o f General Grivas.
by Charles F o l e y )
New
( Edited
( F r e d e r i c k A. Praeger,
York, Washington, D.C. ) ;
and Foley & Scobie, 1975', The
Struggle f o r Cyprus. ( Hoover
I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n s 137 ) .
H a r b o t t l e , 1970,
op. c i t . . also has one chapter devoted to G r i v a s '
a c t i v i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n to c e r t a i n i n c i d e n t s and U.N.F.I.CYP.
(32) U.N.
Doc.
S/5679, 2 May
1964,
para.10.
Also r e f e r t o : Special News B u l l e t i n ( N i c o s i a ) , nos.
100-102.
Purcell.H.D., T969, Cyprus. ( Ernest Benn L t d . ) , p.344.
Gibbons,H,S. 1969, Peace Without Honour. ( Ankara: A.D.A.
P u b l i s h i n g House ) , p.158.
(33) The
term "constabulary
f o r c e " used by Moskos.C.C. 1976,
( Chicago U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , pp.36 - 74.
(34) Oberling.P., op. c i t . . p.111.
(35) Stagenga,J.A. T968, op. c i t . . p.40.
Peace S o l d i e r s .
- 73 -
(36) This view i s expressed by P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982, op. c i t . He
argues
t h a t "the Greek C y p r i o t s q u i c k l y acquired the same contempt f o r i t
( U.N.P.I.CYP. ) t h a t they had had f o r the s i m i l a r l y
hamstrung
B r i t i s h f o r c e and there was no l e t - u p i n t h e i r e f f o r t s to break the
back o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e . " ( page 111 )
(37) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.60.
(38) Drury, T98T, op. c i t . . p.300.
(39) O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . . p. 111.
(40) U.N.
Doc. S/6T02, para.143.
(41) K a r o u z i s , 1976, op. c i t . . p.103.
(42) Refer t o : The Revue de Geographie
Lyon. Vol.XLVI, No.T, 1971.
and Kolodny,E. T976, 'Recent p o p u l a t i o n a v o l u t i o n and community
p a t t e r n o f s e t t l e m e n t i n e a s t e r n Mediterranean i s l a n d s
—
The case o f Cyprus, Crete and the Aegean i s l a n d s ' , i n
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography - Proceedings.
( Cyprus Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 27-29 Peb.'76, N i c o s i a )
pp.12T - 126.
(43) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . Appendix I I and pp„80 - 88.
(44) Refer also to the Secretary-General's Report to the S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l
on December 1964, U.N.
Doc. S/6T02, i n which he p o i n t s out t h a t the
T u r k i s h Cyprio"t p o l i c y o f s e l f - s e g r e g a t i o n was a way o f p r o t e c t i n g
themselves from Greek C y p r i o t aggression o r
(45) Report by the U.N.
(46)
Mediator, March T965, op. c i t . .
Drury, Jan.1977, op.
(47) Volkan, op. c i t . .
(48) H a r b o t t l e . M . 1980,
harassment.
para.51.
cit .
0
ch.4.
'The s t r a t e g y o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n
c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n ' , i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l
( Canada ) , Vol.35, No.1, pp.TT8 -
(49) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . pp.87 - 88.
(50) Stagenga, 1*970, op. c i t . . p. 10.
T3T.
- 74 CHAPTER FOUR
PEACEKEEPING I N PERSPECTIVE.
" U.N.F.I.CYP.'s was the t h i r d m i s s i o n attempted by a w o r l d
peace f o r c e , and the most complex.
Unlike Gaza o r the Congo,
which o f f e r e d d i s t i n c t e t h n i c d i v i s i o n s , Cyprus was a land
o f i n e x t r i c a b l y mixed communities.
The f i g h t i n g had now
c o n s o l i d a t e d scores o f embattled T u r k i s h enclaves among a
sea o f Greeks, each o f which r e q u i r e d U.N. p r o t e c t i o n . " ( 1 )
".„othe Turks thought U.N.F.I.CYP. was there t o save them
from the Greeks; the Greeks thought i t was there t o help the
Government suppress T u r k i s h r e b e l s . " ( 2 )
" I t i s p e r m i s s i b l e t o wonder whether, u l t i m a t e l y , the main
p o l i t i c a l r e s u l t o f the presence o f a United Nations Force
i s n o t t o make the s p l i t between communities an i n t e r n a t i o n a l
affair.
The n a t u r a l slope- o f e v o l u t i o n would be t h a t which ,
can already be glimpsed; demarcation l i n e , then f r o n t i e r s , then
partition.
Turkey would have t h e r e f o r e achieved an unhoped
f o r success, f o r which Greece and t h e Greek C y p r i o t s would
doubtless never pardon her." ( 3 )
S e c t i o n One : What i s Peacekeeping and What i s a Peacekeeping Force ?
Some D e f i n i t i o n s and t h e case o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
A u s e f u l working d e f i n i t i o n o f a peacekeeping f o r c e i s provided by
Charles Moskos.Jnr., 1976, i n h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l study o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
A peacekeeping f o r c e should comprise components from v a r i o u s n a t i o n s ,
o p e r a t i n g under the command o f an i m p a r t i a l w o r l d o r g a n i s a t i o n , and
should seek t o reduce o r prevent armed h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h the absolute
minimum use o f armed f o r c e i t s e l f .
( 4 ) I t should also be as n e u t r a l as
p o s s i b l e i n a g i v e n c i v i l war s i t u a t i o n , and should n o t a l l o w i t s e l f
t o become "a ' t h i r d f o r c e ' i n a c o n f l i c t . " ( 5 ) As B r i g a d i e r H a r b o t t l e ,
T970, p o i n t s out
»
U.N.F.I.CYP. was e s t a b l i s h e d a t " t h e s p e c i f i c request o f the
- 75 -
Government o f the t e r r i t o r y concerned, to p r o v i d e a s t a b i l i z i n g
i n f l u e n c e and presence f o r the maintenance of peace.
there to take sides nor to use
I t i s not
strong-arm t a c t i c s t o e f f e c t
t h i s purpose. " (6)
The
d i f f e r e n c e between most m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s and a peacekeeping
l i e s i n "the i m p e r a t i v e s of i m p a r t i a l i t y and
noncoercion."" (7)
one
Normally
a m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s engaged i n a s s i s t i n g a recognized c i v i l a u t h o r i t y
to prevent t e r r o r i s m , r e v o l u t i o n , or an attempt t o overthrow t h e government.
Under such circumstances the m i l i t a r y i s put i n a p a r t i a l p o s i t i o n
where the use
o f f o r c e i s a recognized method of d e a l i n g w i t h the problem.
I n c o n t r a s t , a peacekeeping f o r c e i s o f t e n placed i n an i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y
r o l e to h a l t o r reduce a c o n f l i c t , already i n i t i a t e d . (8)
the B r i t i s h Army, Michael H a r b o t t l e
and i n c l i n a t i o n as s o l d i e r s had
and,
Referring
to
argues " t h a t t h e i r whole p r o j e c t i o n
been towards meeting f o r c e w i t h f o r c e ,
where necessary, f i g h t i n g to achieve t h e i r t a c t i c a l
They had never before been placed i n t h i s
objectives.
'in-between' p o s i t i o n where
weapons were the l a s t t h i n g s t o be useiand none o f them l i k e d i t . "
(9)
As Moskos argues, peacekeeping r e q u i r e s a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l
m i l i t a r y s o c i o l i z a t i o n and a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of standard m i l i t a r y
organization.
The
United Nations O r g a n i s a t i o n has
become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h peacekeeping
o p e r a t i o n s as an " i m p a r t i a l " i n t e r n a t i o n a l body w i t h the f a c i l i t i e s to
set up such o p e r a t i o n s .
up i t was
I n s p i t e of U.N.P.I.CYP.'s i n t e r n a t i o n a l make-
and i s comprised mostly of " c o u n t r i e s having close t i e s - w i t h
B r i t a i n , the West and Western A l l i a n c e s " , w i t h no c o n t i n g e n t s from A f r o Asian or L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s .
(TO)
i ) Peacekeeping. Peacemaking, or Peacebuilding ?
Using Moskos' d e f i n i t i o n a peacekeeping f o r c e i s
an " i n t e r - n a t i o n a l l y l e g i t i m a t e d constabulary...charged w i t h
a prophylactic
role —
the containment and
r e t a r d a t i o n of
conflict."
I t i s designed as an i n t e r i m measure to f o r e s t a l l the g l o b a l i z a t i o n of
- 76 -
a l o c a l c o n f l i c t u n t i l a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t can be devised and
accepted. (11)
This i s c r u c i a l t o a f u l l understanding
e
o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s
o p e r a t i o n s , f o r i t has never been granted a "therapeutic r o l e " o f
f i n d i n g a s o l u t i o n t o intercommunal c o n f l i c t i n Cyprus.
task was the preserve o t the O.N. Mediator.
This
latter
( T 2 ) , whose j o b i t was t o
use diplomacy and mediation as a way o f r e c o n c i l i n g diverse
and s t r a t e g i c a t t i t u d e s i n the Cyprus Problem. (T3)
political
As Professor
Coufoudakis puts i t :" By p r o v i d i n g f o r the appointment o f a mediator,
the Council
f o r t h e f i r s t time acknowledged t h a t peacekeeping i s n e i t h e r
i d e n t i c a l n o r n e c e s s a r i l y conducive t o peacemaking. The
Council's peacekeeping and mediation proposals
the p r e v e n t i v e and the therap.utic f u n c t i o n .
t h e r e f o r e t a c i t l y recognized
provided
both
R e s o l u t i o n T86
the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n expressed by
many s t a t e s about U.N.E.F., t h a t w i t h o u t an a c t i v e mediation
e f f o r t U.N.E.F. had c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p a c i f i c p e r p e t u a t i o n o f
the d i s p u t e . " (14)
H a r b o t t l e has gone f u r t h e r t o s t r e s s the i n t e r l i n k a g e s between the v a r i o u s
l e v e l s o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , i . e . between
the peacemaking, Mediator l e v e l , and the peacekeeping, U.N.P.I.CYP.
level.
I t i s up t o t h i r d p a r t y " t o f a c i l i t a t e r a t h e r than t o impose a
s e t t l e m e n t " , by c a r r y i n g out i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a t a l l l e v e l s . (15)
During the f i r s t phase o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus, 1964 - 1968,
U.N.P.I.CYP. was q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s " p a c i f i c a t i o n r o l e " .
But t h e
p e r i o d 1968 - 1"974, when intercommunal n e g o t i a t i o n s had resumed,
represented
a "second phase" f o r U.N.P.I.CYP., when i t s m i l i t a r y d u t i e s
"lapsed i n t o r o u t i n e o b s e r v a t i o n , p a t r o l l i n g , and l i a i s o n . " (16)
During
t h i s "dead p e r i o d " f o r the United Nations Force, H a r b o t t l e argues more
could have been done on the ground t o b r i n g the d i s p u t a n t s c l o s e r
t o g e t h e r , w h i l s t the l e a d e r s h i p s o f each side discussed
a settlement.
For i n s t a n c e , U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate ( see S e c t i o n Two, Chapter Four )
could have been extended t o enable wider "peacebuilding
i.e.
initiatives",
the promotion o f p e a c e f u l s o c i a l change through socio-economic
- 77 -
r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and development, o r what Stagenga termed as " c i v i c a c t i o n
p r o j e c t s . " (T7)
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the s t r u c t u r e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d have
been a l t e r e d t o a l l o w f o r an enlargement o f i t e Operations Economics
branch i n the m i l i t a r y , o r a l a r g e r c i v i l i a n p o l i c e c o n t i n g e n t .
words, t o a l l o w f o r - a n enlarged humanitarian
and economic r o l e
I n other
facilitating
the promotion o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s conception o f " n o r m a l i t y " i n Cyprus.
Indeed o t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d agencies o f the United Nations could work i n
tandem w i t h U.N.F.I.CYP. t o promote g r e a t e r socio-economic s t a b i l i t y i n
Cyprus as they have done i n s e v e r a l
t r o u b l e d areas o f the T h i r d World.
Michael H a r b o t t l e (18) argued f o r :a combined o p e r a t i o n i n which d i f f e r e n t types o f agencies are
needed f o r t h e p e a c e f u l containment o f c o n f l i c t , t h e r e establishment o f s t a b i l i t y , and t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f community
life."
Others have p o i n t e d out t h a t i n the l a t e - S i x t i e s and e a r l y - S e v e n t i e s
Cyprus "represented
the most concentrated
development a i d i n the world.**" (T9)
f i e l d o f United Nations
The^ United Nations Development
Programme i n Cyprus ( U.N.D.P.) was d i s t i n c t from U.N.F.I.CYP., and i t s
a i d was n o t designed t o support
the Force's mandate.
I n the- l i g h t o f
United Nations r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Government o f Cyprus, U.N.D.P. was
unable t o accede t o t h e T u r k i s h P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c a l l f o r
a share o f U.N.D.P. a i d , a c c r e d i t e d t o the Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
I n s p i t e o f t h i s l i m i t a t i o n , there was ...
"...much u n o f f i c i a l l i a i s o n between the o f f i c e r s o f U.N„D.P.
and U.N.F.I.CYP., and pressure
by U.N.D.P. experts t o i n t e g r a t e
Greek C y p r i o t and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t i n i t s v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s t o
support U.N.F.I.CYP.'B e f f o r t s t o achieve a r e t u r n t o normalcy.**(20)
An example o f UoN.D.P. and U.N.F.I.CYP. c o o p e r a t i o n l e a d i n g t o i n t e r communal c o o p e r a t i o n was over the completion o f t h e s p i l l w a y o f the K a n l i
Keuy Dam, l o c a t e d i n the Geunyeli - Aghirda Enclave. (21) ( r e f e r t o
Chapter Five ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , such examples o f an i n t e g r a t i o n o f United
Nations agencies i n c l o s i n g the gap between the c o n f l i c t i n g communities
are very r a r e i n the case o f Cyprus.
Furthermore, U.N.F.I.CYP.'s
- 78 mandate was l e f t u n a l t e r e d , and the s i z e and scope o f the Force were
reduced r a t h e r than extended ( r e f e r t o Table 4 . 1 . ) , w h i s t c i v i l i a n
p e a c e b u i l d i n g i n i t i a t i v e s were n o t made by the S e c u r i t y Council t o
b r i n g the two communities t o g e t h e r a t grass r o o t s l e v e l . ( r e f e r t o
Chapter F i v e , which discusses many o f these p o i n t s i n more d e t a i l . )
I n sum, the d e f i n i t i o n o f peacekeeping and the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a
peacekeeping f o r c e are i n themselves r e s t r i c t i o n s , f o r they a l l o w the
Force- scope o n l y t o p r e s e r v e a s t a t u s qucr r a t h e r than t o work f o r a
s o l u t i o n t o the u n d e r l y i n g f e a r s , m i s t r u s t , and " p s y c h o l o g i c a l green
l i n e s " between the c o n f l i c t i n g p a r t i e s .
A peacekeeper's major f u n c t i o n
i s t o keep the two sides a p a r t i n o r d e r t o prevent a recurrence o f
fighting.
On the whole, U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d an admirable j o b , b u t as
w i l l be shown i n l a t e r chapters, more could have been done t o promote
h i g h e r l e v e l s o f intercommunal
r i f t between community l e a d e r s .
c o o p e r a t i o n i n s p i t e o f the p o l i t i c a l
I n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s some- i m p o r t a n t
f e a t u r e s o f a peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n should be kept i n mind :(a)
I t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l composition and command;
(b)
The p r i n c i p l e o f i m p a r t i a l i t y ;
(c)
The p r i n c i p l e o f non-coercion:
S e c t i o n Two: U-N-F.I.CYP,,'s Mandate.
I n i t s r e s o l u t i o n T86 o f 4 March, T964, the S e c u r i t y Council recommended
" t h a t the f u n c t i o n o f the Force should be, i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f
p r e s e r v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y , t o use i t s best
e f f o r t s t o prevent a> recurrence o f f i g h t i n g and, as necessary,
to c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e maintenance and r e s t o r a t i o n o f law and
o r d e r and a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s .
,r
Such an ambiguous mandate leaves p l e n t y o f room f o r d i f f e r i n g
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n Cyprus.
the
Secretary-General
I n practic
i s delegated s u b s t a n t i a l a u t h o r i t y by t h e S e c u r i t y
Council t o c l a r i f y and i n t e r p r e t the U.N. r e s o l u t i o n f o r the p r a c t i c a l
purposes o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
1
-
79
-
Differing Interpretations.
i ) The Greek C y p r i o t Viewpoint:
Each l e a d e r s h i p saw U.N.F.I.CYP.'s tasks i n terms o f t h e i r own
mutually exclusive p o l i t i c a l goals.
President Makarios wanted t o
extend h i s regime's e f f e c t i v e t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l over the whole
Republic, i n c l u d i n g those f o r t y o r so areas c o n t r o l l e d by T u r k i s h
Cypriots.
As the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y recognized a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r the
whole i s l a n d i t argued t h a t the U.N. Force should help i t t o e l i m i n a t e
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s * " r e b e l l i o n " i n o r d e r t h a t peace, law and o r d e r
could be r e s t o r e d .
As I n t e r i o r M i n i s t e r Georgadjis p u t i t ,
" The United Nations troops should be n e u t r a l , but t h a t does
not mean they should t r e a t both sides on an equal f o o t i n g i n
the c o n f l i c t . . . Y o u cannot equate a m a j o r i t y w i t h a m i n o r i t y ,
the l e g a l government w i t h the leaders o f a group." (22)
The Greek C y p r i o t Leadership wanted U.N.F.I.CYP. t o e x t i n g u i s h what
they saw as a " s e p a r a t i s t movement".
References were f r e q u e n t l y made
to O.N.U.C.'s p a r t i n crushing the Katanga secession i n t h e Congo t o
j u s t i f y a s i m i l a r r o l e f o r U.N.F.I.CYP.
I n one sense the Force
conformed t o the Cyprus Government's conception o f i t s d u t i e s as f a r
as they e n t a i l e d the removal o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and p h y s i c a l blockades
between the communities,
a s w e l l as measures promoting intercommunal
economic i n t e g r a t i o n . (23) U Thant, Secretary General, d i d c o n t i n u a l l y
i n s i s t t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t an a d j u n c t t o the Makarios A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
I t s i n i t i a l aim was t o keep the p r o t a g o n i s t s a p a r t .
These " b u f f e r "
d u t i e s were c r i t i c i z e d by some Greek C y p r i o t s as a d e l i b e r a t e attempt
to p r o t e c t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t h e i r " s e p a r a t i s t " cause.
Whatever Makarios' long-term p o l i t i c a l goals were, i . e . Enosis o r a
s o v e r e i g n , independent,
non-aligned and u n i t a r y s t a t e , h i s Government's
c o n t r o l over n i n e t y p e r cent o f C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y was p a r t l y aided by
United Nations r e c o g n i t i o n .
I n the Secretary General's March 1965
Report, U Thant argues t h a t the Greek C y p r i o t s saw the Force's main
- 80 -
f u n c t i o n t o be a s s i s t i n g them t o r e s t o r e n o r m a l i t y
" conceived by them...as an o r d e r l y submission o f t h e
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community t o the a u t h o r i t y and
l e g i s l a t i o n o f the Government." (24)
i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Viewpoint
:
A p r o - T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i e w p o i n t i s expressed by P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982,
who w r i t e s , " the T963-T964 c r i s i s was a most unusual phenomenon: i t
was not a r e v o l u t i o n by a downtrodden m i n o r i t y against an
a r r o g a n t , oppressive
m a j o r i t y , but a r e v o l u t i o n by an
a r r o g a n t , oppressive
m a j o r i t y against a downtrodden m i n o r i t y . " (
I n a memorandum submitted t o Senior Galo Plaza, U.N. Mediator, on
22 February 1965, Vice President Kiicuk s p e l l e d o u t the v i e w p o i n t o f
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership,
arguing t h a t the Greek C y p r i o t s wanted
to subjugate and destroy the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community.
He suggested
p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the communities as a s o l u t i o n , a suggestion
supported
by Ankara. (26) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s saw U.N.F.I.CYP.'S
r o l e t o p r o t e c t them from Greek C y p r i o t aggression
and t o preserve
t h e i r s c a t t e r e d t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l w i t h i n the Republic.
Subsequent
chapters w i l l examine the e x t e n t t o which U.N.F.I.CYP. p r o t e c t e d t h i s
de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n .
i i i ) U Thant's I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Mandate.
Given the d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposite p o s i t i o n s o f the two l e a d e r s h i p s
concerning
the p o s i t i o n o f U.N.F.I.CYP., i t was g i v e n awkward tasks t o
f u l f i l by a vaguely worded mandate.
As Charles Moskos, 1976, argues,
" the mandate o f U.N.F.I.CYP. was vague ehough t o a l l o w the
d i s p u t a n t s t o read t h e i r own s e l f - s e r v i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
i n t o it...Though t h i s ambiguity i n U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate could
and d i d lead t o problems i n the f i e l d , i t helped
U.N. Force acceptable
t o make the
t o the concerned p a r t i e s . " ( 2 7 )
Sometimes the Force was accused o f bias by e i t h e r side i n t h e pursuance
of
i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , but t h i s was unavoidable f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d
not conform t o e i t h e r community's p o l i t i c a l
Nations recognized
goals.
Although
the United
"the s o v e r e i g n t y and independence o f Cyprus and t h e
- 81 -
a u t h o r i t y o f the Government" i t d i d not operate "as an arm o f the
Government". (28) U Thant r e a l i z e d t h a t w i t h o u t a p o l i t i c a l
settle^
ment the best U.N.P.I.CYP. could do was m a i n t a i n an "uneasy e q u i l i b r i u m "
and t r y t o create "an atmosphere more f a v o u r a b l e t o the e f f o r t s t o
achieve a long-term s e t t l e m e n t . " ( 2 9 )
He s e t t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r the
Force's operations w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by t h e fundamental
" m i s t r u s t between the Government and the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p "
very much i n mind. ( 3 0 )
Obviously U.N.P.I.CYP.'s main task was t o a c t " i n the i n t e r e s t o f
p r e s e r v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y " .
The Force proved
success-
f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g an e s c a l a t i o n o f c i v i l war i n Cyprus i n t o a GrecoT u r k i s h war p r i o r t o 1974, although d i p l o m a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n by t h e
superpowers also helped f o r e s t a l l a T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n both
August '64 and November '67. (3?)
4
SeconjLy, U.N.F.I.CYP. had " t o use i t s best e f f o r t s t o prevent a
recurrence o f f i g h t i n g " by i n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g i t s troops between t h e
b e l l i g e r e n t s wherever p o s s i b l e , and by using i t s good o f f i c e s t o reduce
t e n s i o n s and c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . ( see Chapter Five )
T h i r d l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. had " t o c o n t r i b u t e t o the maintenance o f law and
o r d e r " , which was n o t d e f i n e d i n l e g a l i s t i c terminology but i n terms o f
s t a b i l i t y and p r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n , i . e . p r o t e c t i n g t h e l i f e and p r o p e r t y
of e i t h e r community from any source o f a t t a c k by the o t h e r community.
t
" The main,enance o f law and o r d e r i s n o r m a l l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f
governments, and as the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Cyprus government and U.N.F.I.CYP. has never been c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , and has
been s u b j e c t t o considerable f l u c t u a t i o n s i n g o o d w i l l , i t i s
d i f f i c u l t t o judge the e x t e n t o f the U.N. c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h i s
area." (32)
H a r b o t t l e , 1974, i n The Thin Blue Line, comments on t h e words " c o n t r i b u t e
t o " i n the mandate. He argues t h a t such wording i s i n d i c a t i v e o f two t h i n g
" t h e d e s i r e on t h e p a r t o f the S e c u r i t y Council t o leave
p r o v i s i o n s o f the mandate as f l e x i b l e as p o s s i b l e , d i c t a t i n g
- 82 -
no r i g i d g u i d e l i n e s n o r p r e s c r i b i n g any f i x e d o b j e c t i v e s ,
and
the adherence t o the accepted p r i n c i p l e o f U.N. peace-
keeping i n t e r v e n t i o n as one o f a s s i s t i n g r a t h e r than
enforcement." (33)
F i n a l l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. was asked t o c o n t r i b u t e t o "a r e t u r n t o normal
conditions".
I t has o f t e n been asked what p r e c i s e l y was meant by
"normal c o n d i t i o n s " ?
U Thant c a r e f u l l y avoided a p o l i t i c a l
inter-
p r e t a t i o n o f the phrase, a p p l y i n g h i s conception o f n o r m a l i t y t o day-today socio-economic l i f e i n Cyprus.
U.N.F.I.CYP. rendered
assistance...
" i n the a m e l i o r a t i o n o f day-to-day a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , economic,
s o c i a l o r j u d i c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s i n g from the d i v i s i o n o f
the communities." (34)
U.N.F.I.CYP. and Use o f Force.
I n h i s A p r i l , T964, a i d memoire. t h e Secretary General s t a t e d t h a t
"the use o f f o r c e i s p e r m i s s i b l e
only i n s e l f - d e f e n c e " . (35) Nevertheless,
"a r a t h e r generous d e f i n i t i o n o f s e l f - d e f e n c e " was i n t e n d e d ( 3 6 ) , which
covered :( i ) The defence o f United N a t i o n s ' posts, premises and v e h i c l e s under
armed a t t a c k , and
( i i ) The support o f o t h e r personnel i n U.N.F.I.CYP. under armed
attack.(37)
U.N.F.I.CYP. could n o t use f o r c e t o impose peace, and " i t s use o f the
medium o f n e g o t i a t i o n " i s " i t s c h i e f weapon f o r s e t t l i n g a problem".(38)
I t had t o be ready t o step i n t o p a r t the d i s p u t a n t s
i n c l i n a t i o n t o renew f i g h t i n g .
as soon as they showed
Only when m e d i a t i o n , g e n t l e
and n e g o t i a t i o n f a i l e d , were "measured amoujts o f f i r e power"
"to
p r o t e c t the United Nations operation...and uphold
negotiated
persuasion,
permissible
previously
s e t t l e m e n t s . " (39)
Section Three : U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Compostion and Deployment.
( r e f e r t o Table 4.1 )
As James A.Stagenga p o i n t s o u t :" During U.N.F.I.CYP.'s f i r s t tense year there were over
- 83 -
TABLE 4:1. U.N.P.I.CYP. SIZE AND COMPOSITION, 30 APRIL 1964 TO 31 MAY 1984.
Date
T o t a l U.N.P.I.CYP.
Military
Personnel
Civilian
Personnel
U.K. Contingent
( contribution )
6,369
6,34T
28
2,719
6,211
6,037
174
1,034
7 June 1966
4,861
4,687
174
T,053
7 June 1'967
4,622
4,449
173
1,127
7 December
1967
4,737
4,563
174
1,227
7 March '68
4,745
4,570
175
1,245
2 Dec. '68
3,708
3,533
175
1,090
1 Dec. ' 6 9
3,650
3,475
T75
1,068
1 Dec. '70
3,182
3,007
175
t,078
13 Nov. '71
3,119
2,95T
168
1,049
T3 May '72
3,096
2,922
174
1,055
4 Dec. '74
4,335
4,183
152
1,410
30 Nov. '75
3,069
3,001
68
809
30 Nov. '82
2,348
2.3T4
34
761
30 Dec. '83
2,348
2,314
34
761
31' May '84
2,347
2,311
36
760
30 A p r i l
1964
14 August
T964
These f i g u r e s are taken r e s p e c t i v e l y from U.N. Document s :S/5679, S/59TO, S/7350, S/7969, S/8286, S/8914 , S/8446, S/952T, S/10005,
S/T0401, S/10664, S/TT568, S/T1900, S/15502, S/16192, and S/16596.
- 84 -
5 <
mil
N
z -i ° x
<-> u
* _ _
tn J tt
M
a
U o
CO 5
III
It. Ill if)
0
M
HO
W
O
w C a,
eg
2M
5t
DU.
*
aa
4ltf
Wit
- 85 -
40,000 o t h e r w e l l - f e d and f a i r l y w e l l - t r a i n e d armed men on
the i s l a n d a t any given time, w i t h more men e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e
f o r speedy m o b i l i s a t i o n .
U.N.P.I.CYP. was outmanned by each
s i d e ; simple s t a t i s t i c s m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t the Force's t a k i n g
any rash p u n i t i v e a c t i o n s . " (40)
The Force comprises d i s t i n c t n a t i o n a l c o n t i n g e n t s which f o r t h e most
p a r t f u n c t i o n as such ( 4 1 ) , and a s m a l l c i v i l i a n element o f c i v i l
servants and c i v i l i a n p o l i c e ( U.N.CIV.POL. ) Heading the m i l i t a r y
element i s the Force Commander, w h i l e the p o l i t i c a l element i s headed
by the Secretary General's S p e c i a l R e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
The v a r i o u s b a t t e r i e s ,
b r i g a d e s , regiments, squadrons, and o t h e r ' u n i t s are commanded by t h e i r
n a t i o n a l commanders,
vihxr
r e c e i v e d d i r e c t i v e s from the Force Commander.
The n a t i o n a l c o n t i n g e n t s comprised some r e g u l a r s o l d i e r s ( e.g. U.K. and
Canada ) and some v o l u n t e e r s (e.g. Scandinavian c o u n t r i e s
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o n t r i b u t o r s
Canada
) . Most o f
I r e l a n d , t h e Scandanavian s t a t e s ^ and
had taken p a r t i n the two p r e v i o u s i n s t a n c e s o f U.N. peace-
keeping o p e r a t i o n s i n the Congo and Suez. (42)
P h y s i c a l Geography and Force
Deployment.
One o f the most fundamental problems posed by geography f o i r any m i l i t a r y
f o r c e i s t h a t o f s p a t i a l deployment" o f l i m i t e d manpower over l a r g e areas
of t e r r i t o r y , often characterized
location to location.
by a v a r i e t y o f p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r e l a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l
from
efficiency
compared t o o t h e r U.N. Forces i s p a r t l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t has
operated i n a s m a l l , compact i s l a n d roughly t h e combined size- o f N o r f o l k
and S u f f o l k .
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s l o g i s t i c a l problems were, t h e r e f o r e , n o t
n e a r l y so complex as those e x i s t i n g f o r the much l a r g e r Congo Force,
O.N.U.C. (43) Cyprus also had the advantages o f w e l l developed i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and l o g i s t i c a l support f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. from t h e Sovereign Base
Areas.
I n s p i t e o f such advantages, a knowledge o f t h e basic topography o f
Cyprus i s c r u c i a l f o r an understanding o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s deployment i n
- 86 -
the T964-*74 p e r i o d . ( r e f e r t o map 4.4- )
For example, i n Lefka D i s t r i c t ,
the rugged, n o r t h e r n f o o t h i l l s o f the Troodos meant t h a t i s o l a t e d ,
s t a t i c observations posts ( O.P.s ) were p r e f e r r e d t o one mobile
U.N.P.I.CYP. u n i t .
The reasons f o r t h i s are obvious.
I n t h i s area the
" c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " , represented by N a t i o n a l Guard and F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s
f o l l o w e d a h e l t e r - s k e l t e r course along mountain tops and edges o f t e n o n l y
a hundred o r l e s s yards a p a r t .
I r i s h Contingent O.P.s were l i n k e d by a
rough, narrow t r a c k , s u i t a b l e only f o r jeeps and goats, and were s u p p l i e d
by U.N. R.A.F. a i r c r a f t , s t a t i o n e d a t N i c o s i a .
I n the w i n t e r the jeep
t r a c k s were o f t e n impassable, thus O.P.s were by f a r the best way o f maint a i n i n g United Nations s u r v e i l l a n c e i n t h i s r e g i o n .
Each
Observation
Post detachment d i d not have the a b i l i t y t o i n t e r v e n e i n c o n f l i c t
s i t u a t i o n s themselves, but could q u i c k l y r e p o r t shooting i n c i d e n t s v i a
r a d i o so t h a t the p l a t o o n o r company commander could a t once meet l o c a l
Greek o r T u r k i s h commanders t o begin c e a s e - f i r e n e g o t i a t i o n s . ( 4 4 )
P o l i t i c a l Geography and Force Deployment. ( r e f e r t o Map 4.1 )
i ) Contingent
Level Deployment :
The b a s i s o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s deployment was t o match as f a r as p o s s i b l e
the i s l a n d ' s D i s t r i c t boundaries^ t o f a c i l i t a t e the e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n ship t h a t would e x i s t between United Nations c o n t i n g e n t commanders and
D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s and t h e i r s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s , t o g e t h e r w i t h l o c a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community.
Five o p e r a t i o n a l
zones were i n i t i a l l y chosen ( see Map 4.1 ) The p e c u l i a r p a t t e r n o f i n t e r
communal c o n f l i c t and v a r y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t r e n g t h s o f each c o n t i n g e n t
d i d not a l l o w for-one contingent p e r D i s t r i c t , b u t U.N.P.I.CYP. was
deployed i n such a way as t o ensure t h a t D i s t r i c t s were covered according
t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
Thus, N i c o s i a and i t s immediate
environment, had two c o n t i n g e n t s ; the t r o u b l e d D i s t r i c t s o f Kyrenia and
Lefka had one each; the remaining
two c o n t i n g e n t s covered the r e l a t i v e l y
q u i e t f o u r D i s t r i c t s o f Famagusta, Lamaca, Limassol, and Paphos.
87
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- 88 -
i i ) Cease-Fire Lines :
The map o f Cyprus was complicated by c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s around T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t enclaves.
regular patrols.
Along these U.N.F.I.CYP. manned permanent posts and
The enclaves o f Guenyeli - Aghirda; L i m n i t i s and
Kokkina, a l l has boundaries d e l i m i t e d as a r e s u l t o f c e a s e - f i r e agreements accepted by community l e a d e r s on both sides and U.N.F.I.CYP.
S t a t i c O.P.s were maintained by "blue b e r r e t s " between the Forward
Defence Lines o f e i t h e r - s i d e .
I t was up t o U.N.F.I.CYP. t o ensure t h a t
n e i t h e r side encroached on the U.N.-controlled " n e u t r a l " t e r r i t o r y
s e p a r a t i n g them.
Such c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were i n i t i a l l y devised as a
temporary measure t o keep the a n t a g o n i s t i c communities apart u n t i l a
p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t erased o r redrew these l i n e s .
But as Richard P a t r i c k
p o i n t s o u t , " As t h e c o n f l i c t dragged on, w i t h no p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n i n
s i g h t , the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s assumed more s i g n i f i c a n c e . . .
A m b i g u i t i e s which had a t f i r s t been accepted were no l o n g e r
tolerated.
Both sides sought p r e t e x t s t o manouvre t h e i r armed
posts f o r w a r d . . . " ( 4 5 )
For much o f the time U.N.F.I.CYP. succeeded i n persuading o f f e n d i n g
p a r t i e s t o withdraw t o o l d p o s i t i o n s , t o f i l l i n trenches, remove
extended f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , but i n c e r t a i n circumstances
new f r o n t - l i n e s
emerged, o r new posts f o r w a r d o f e s t a b l i s h e d defence l i n e s . ( r e f e i r t o
Chapter Five )
The best example o f permanent U.N.F.I.CYP. deployment since i t s a r r i v a l
i n Cyprus was along Nicosia's "Green L i n e " .
w
W i t h i n the w a l l s o f Nicosia...U.N.F.I.CYP. i n h e r i t e d a cease-
f i r e agreement t h a t d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e c o r d the exact w i d t h
o f the "Green L i n e " d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n zone..." (46)
As a r e s u l t t h e r e were- f r e q u e n t v i o l a t i o n s o f the Green Line Agreement
by both Greek- and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
One o f the major tasks o f U.N.F.I.-
CYP. was t o prevent the armed occupation o f b u i l d i n g s o v e r - l o o k i n g the
"Green L i n e " o r any " c l a n d e s t i n e i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o vacant p r o p e r t i e s on
both sides o f the s t r e e t s making the l i n e i t s e l f " .
(47) This was-a
- 89 -
d i f f i c u l t task f o r along Hermes and Paphos s t r e e t s , T u r k s and Greeks
l i v e d i n close p r o x i m i t y , t h e r e was a Greek C y p r i o t shopping area, and
Greek bazaar t r a d e r s continued t o c a r r y out t h e i r businesses t h e r e .
The
s l i g h t e s t i n c i d e n t could moreover spark o f f a chain r e a c t i o n , e.g. a
shouted abuse across the s t r e e t ; a youth throwing a stone; o r the
a c c i d e n t a l discharge
of a r i f l e .
Along t h i s l i n e o f close armed c o n f r o n t -
a t i o n U.N.P.I.CYP. needed endless patience and v i g i l a n c e . O.P.s were
placed a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s along the whole l e n g t h o f the Green Line w i t h
f r e q u e n t p a t r o l s between them.
On one occasion U.N.F.I.CYP. discovered
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s had
set up c l a n d e s t i n e p o s i t i o n s i n houses along the Green L i n e , mostly by
making "mouse-holes" through r e a r w a l l s and s h u t t e r e d shops on the n o r t h
side o f the s t r e e t s . (48) U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t prepared t o l e t an
Agreement: i t was not p a r t y t o o b s t r u c t the f u l f i l m e n t o f i t s o b j e c t i v e s .
I d e a l l y i t would have p r e f e r r e d the complete e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e Green
L i n e , which was a b a r r i e r t o " n o r m a l i t y " , a symbol o f s e g r e g a t i o n , as
w e l l as a t r a f f i c hazard.
I n s t e a d U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d what i t could t o
f o s t e r a " r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s " w i t h i n N i c o s i a by reopening shops
and businesses on both sides o f the d i v i d i n g l i n e .
Any e r o s i o n o f the
d e m i l i t a r i z e d area c o n t r o l l e d by U.N.F.I.CYP. would tend t o create a
l a r g e "no-man's-land" area i n and around the s t r e e t s o f c e n t r a l N i c o s i a ,
p r e v e n t i n g any economic a c t i v i t y from t a k i n g place t h e r e .
To ease t e n s i o n
U.N.F.I.CYP. arranged f o r the removal o f a l l T u r k i s h f o r t i f i e d posts and
armed men, plus the b l o c k i n g o f "mouse-holes" i n p r o p e r t i e s along the
Green L i n e .
The United Nations Force was u n f o r t u n a t e l y saddled w i t h the Green Line,
and as B r i g a d i e r H a r b o t t l e e x p l a i n s :" There was n o t h i n g we could do about i t , so long as both
i n s i s t e d upon i t s continued e x i s t e n c e .
sides
But from t h e m i l i t a r y
p o i n * o f view, i t was a waste o f manpower — m a n p o w e r which
could have been used more e f f e c t i v e l y i n a l e s s s t a t i c r o l e . " ( 4 9 )
- 90 -
S i m i l a r problems e x i s t e d i n o t h e r towns w i t h "green l i n e s " , such as
Lamaca, Pamagusta, and Paphos.
i i i ) Deployment i n areas away from close c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s :
As mentioned i n Chapter Three, U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t j u s t a " b u f f e r
f o r c e " but was also a "law and order" f o r c e .
Thus i t n o t o n l y had an
interposi"fcionary r o l e t o p l a y , manning s t a t i c posts between the f r o n t l i n e s o f opposing f i g h t e r s , but i t also had t o m a i n t a i n a h i g h degree
of m o b i l i t y , so t h a t i t could send u n i t s r a p i d l y t o t r o u b l e - s p o t s
wherever and whenever they arose.
I n t h i s way U.N.P.I.CYP. c o n t r a s t e d
s h a r p l y w i t h U.N.E.P., s t a t i o n e d on t h e I s r a e l i - E g y p t i a n border
from
T956 t o 1967, and o t h e r b o r d e r - p a t r o l f o r c e s . (50) P r i o r t o J u l y 1974
W.N.F.I.CYP.'s troops could be seen almost everywhere, " p a t r o l l i n g s t r e e t s
and the c o u n t r y s i d e , s t a t i o n e d i n Nicosia's s t o r e s , even standing
,r
around h o t e l swimming p o o l s . (5T)
Redeployment o f c o n t i n g e n t s was sometimes necessary t o secure a more
e f f i c i e n t use o f a v a i l a b l e personnel i n r e l a t i o n t o t e r r a i n and m i l i t a r y
requirements.
Indeed broad o p e r a t i o n a l zones were a l t e r e d according t o
the Force's s i z e and c a p a b i l i t i e s . ( r e f e r t o Map 4.2 ) For i n s t a n c e ,
when the i n i t i a l deployment o f the Force was decided upon, BRIT.CON.
( i . e . the B r i t i s h Contingent
) was a l l o c a t e d the southern zone around
Limassol, adjacent t o two Sovereign Bases, Episkopi and Dhekelia,
i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i r l o g i s t i c a l support.
both
L a t e r i t was decided t o extend
the c o n t i n g e n t ' s boundary, f i r s t westwards t o i n c l u d e 'Paphos and P o l i s ,
then eastwards t o i n c l u d e the v i l l a g e o f Kophinou a t the j u n c t i o n o f the
Limassol
- N i c o s i a and t h e Limassol
- Larnaca roads.
This enlarged BRIT.
CON. zone was over 1,000 square m i l e s , the l a r g e s t o f a l l U.N.F.I.CYP.
c o n t i n g e n t areas.
at
A permanent B r i t i s h I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n camp was l o c a t e d
Polemidhia, j u s t n o r t h o f Limassol
town.
Supporting
t h i s was a mobile
squadron o f armoured v e h i c l e s s t a t i o n e d a t Z y y i , s i x t e e n miles t o t h e
east o f Limassol.
The squadron's task was t o p a t r o l a l l roads and t r a c k s
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95
to
away f r o m p e r m a n e n t
booster"
was
visits
there
could
posts
(52)
I n order
contingents
not
Section Four
be
:
had
1964,
Force
most o f
own
U.N.P.I.CYP.
m o b i l i t y was
Commander r e a c h e d
the
of
C y p r u s " but
a r e a s were as f o l l o w s
an
ii)
( or
1,25
by
as
full
National
0.4
%
%
) of
the
total
strategic
Colonel,
the
Force
f o r the
and
total
National
only
right
the
agreed
the
movement o f
to
November,
Cyprus
Government,
throughout
(54)
These
only
be
visited
45
square
country.
island,
and
could
be
below the
was
covered
which could
given
15
to
be
inspected
rank
of
local
square miles
National
Guard
Despite
by
areas.
the
"restricted
this
( i.e.
National
General
G r i v a s , as
U . N . F . I . C Y P . w h e n e v e r he
the
to
the
original
U.N.
a u t h o r i t y of
Force
had
Supreme
i t his
list
the
o b s t r u c t i o n or harassment whenever
a r e a s where the
the
Greek
thought f i t .
U.N.F.I.CYP. H e a d q u a r t e r s .
under the
U.N.
G u a r d and
armed f o r c e s , c o n s i d e r e d
areas
areas"
precaution
U . N . F . I . C Y P . ' s m o b i l i t y was
a p p r o a c h e d o r moved t h r o u g h a r e a s
the
10
Cyprus.
restricted
f a c t o r on
p a t r o l s w e r e open t o
Questionably,
the
Commanders- not
Greek C y p r i o t
or warning
Another i n h i b i t i n g
U.N.
the
the
These a r e a s
restricted
a d d e d s e v e r a l new
prior-consultation
On
f r e e move-
These covered
Guard a r e a s ,
i n t e r f e r e d with
G r e e k and
to r e s t r i c t
I n d e e d he
of
b e n e f i t of a l l concerned.
beyond the
Commander o f
Grivas.
i f prior notice
area of
movements w e r e s t i l l
forces
(53)
the
c o a s t , which could
area
Maps w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e s e
precisely
everywhere
f r e e d o m o f movement
s c a t t e r e d throughout
Guard commanders.
) of
to
stipulated areas.
General
U . N . F . I . C Y P . Zone o r D i s t r i c t
Lieutenant
of
presence.
restricted.
for certain
area
:-
Sixty-three areas,
interpreted
inhabited
agreement w i t h
enjoy
a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n with
miles
presence
Movement.
Twenty-three a r e a s , mostly around the
only
the
t r y i n g t o remove o b s t r u c t i o n s
U.N.F.I.CYP. "to
i)
cover
"morale
U.N.
s i m i l a r mobile u n i t s operating
which allowed
territory
where a permanent
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Freedom of
civilians,its
the
to
a more p e r m a n e n t
W h i l e U . N . F . I . C Y P . was
ment o f
a n d r e g u l a r p a t r o l s , and^make
to f a r - f l u n g v i l l a g e s
impossible.
Cyprus other
U.N.
without
(55)
fact
that
they
Turkish Fighters.
full
freedom
of
- 96 -
m o b i l i t y were i n areas o f " n e u t r a l ground" between Forward Defence Lines
of each s i d e .
Any attempts t o move i n t o U.N.-controlled t e r r i t o r y had
to be prevented i f p o s s i b l e , although the Force was n o t always s u c c e s s f u l
i n t h i s respect.
U.N.F.I.CYP. p a t r o l s were o c c a s i o n a l l y impeded even
along recognized and l e g i t i m a t e p a t r o l t r a c k s w e l l away from armed posts
or f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f e i t h e r community.
As w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Chapter F i v e , i n p r a c t i c e , l i k e the d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l l y - motivated
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s mandate, "freedom o f movement" meant
d i f f e r e n t things to d i f f e r e n t
people.
-
Footnotes
(1)
97
-
and R e f e r e n c e s .
Folie.C.
& Scobie.W.I.
1975,
The
Institute
Legacy
Struggle f o r Cyprus.
Publications
(2)
Folie.C.
1964,
of S t r i f e .
(3)
Flory.M.
1964, ' F o r c e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e
cation
International.
(4)
M o s k o s . C . C . 1976,
Peace
(5)
Harbottle.M.
T970, The
) , p.184.
des N a t i o n s U n i e s e t
Pacifi-
de C h y p r e ' , A n n u a l r e de
Droit
p.478.
soldiers:
military
) , p.164.
( Penguin
Interieure
( Hoover
the s o c i o l o g y of a United Nations
force.
impartial
( Chicago
soldier.
University
( Oxford
Press
).
University Press
)
p.45.
(6)
Forsythe,D.P.
1972,
U n i t e d N a t i o n s P e a c e k e e p i n g , pp.1
Quoted i n Coufoudakis.V.
the
Cyprus
Harbottle.M.
(8)
M o s k o s , op.
op.
argues
" The^ p a r a d o x i c a l
(9)
succinctly
that
of the emergent
c a p t u r e d i n what h a s
:
a soldier's
c a n do
Stagenga,J.A.
T968,
The
(TO)
Stagenga,
op.
(11)
Moskos, op. c i t . .
Claudql.L.
cit..
Jnr.
only a s o l d i e r
Press
General,
On
this
Swords i n t o
(13)
o f t h e U.N.
T965,
Harbottle.M.
1980,
'The
C o u f o u d a k i s , op.
cit .
(15)
H a r b o t t l e , 1980,
op.
(1€)
R i k h y e , H a r b o t t l e , & Egge.
(revised
State
edition),
York & Toronto
resolution'
)
to the
Secretary-
Activities.
party intervention i n
i n International
) , V o l . 3 5 , no.1
( Winter
1980
Journal
)pp.118-31.
p.465.
cit..
p.124.
T974, The
peacekeeping
Press
'U.N.
),
cit..
and
thin
blue l i n e :
i t s future.
international
( Yale
University
Ch.7.
Peacekeeping:
Journal
( 1 8 ) H a r b o t t l e , 1'980, op.
( Ohio
refer to:-
Plowshares
strategy of t h i r d
(14)
1970,
" p.139.
p p . 1 - 2 on h i s F u n c t i o n s and
( Canada
(17) Stagenga,J.A.
also
M e d i a t o r on C y p r u s
conflict
0
it."
86.
pp.20 - 4 0 .
26 M a r c h
"Peacekeeping i s not
) , p.86.
( Random H o u s e , New
R e f e r to: Report
unofficial
United Nations Force i n Cyprus.
pp.84 -
1971,
3.
constabulary role
become t h e
motto o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s o l d i e r
University
(12)
Quarterly. Vol.29, Part
:-
qualities
j o b , but
and
p.46.
cit..
cit..
18.
'United Nations Peacekeeping
Question' i n Western P o l i t i c a l
(7)
are
1976,
-
The
Cyprus
Venture.' i n
of Peace R e s e a r c h . Vol.7,
p.25.
pp.1-15.
- 98 -
(19)
Patrick,R.A.
1976, P o l i t i c a l
Geography and t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t .
( University
o f Waterloo P r e s s ,
(20)
ibid..
(21)
U.N. D o c . S / 7 9 6 9 , p a r a s . 1 3 4 - T37.
(22)
Cyprus Mail.
Canada
) , p.167.
p.168.
20 M a r c h
1^64, p . 1 .
Quoted i n S t a g e n g a , 1968.op.
cit.,
p.114
(23)
I n spite
o f U.N.P.I.CYP. e f f o r t s
barriers
between t h e c o m m u n i t i e s , C y p r i o t
Kyprianou,
stated
" I strongly
to
that
that
after
during
p h a s e o f t h e Congo
( U.N. D o c . S/PV. 1T9T,
(24)
U.N. D o c . S / 6 2 2 8 ,
(25)
Oberling.P.
Nations cannot
and s u c c e s s f u l
TT M a r c h
Spyros
C o u n c i l debate
again with d i v i s i o n
i t sgallant
the l a s t
Foreign Minister,
the United
h a v e i t s name a s s o c i a t e d
especially
f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and
1965> i n a S e c u r i t y
d u r i n g March
believe
t o remove
—
afford
and p a r t i t i o n ,
effort
to avoid
operation."
T7 M a r c h
1965 )
1965, p a r a . T 2 4 .
T 9 8 2 , T h e Road
to B e l l a p a i s .
( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y
Press ) ,
p . 1-20.
(26)
R e f e r t o : U.N. M e d i a t o r ' s R e p o r t
to the Secretary-General,
26 M a r c h
T965, p a r a . 7 8 .
(27)
Moskos,
op. c i t . .
(28)
U.N. D o c . S / 5 9 5 0 ,
TO S e p t e m b e r T964, p a r a . 2 2 0 .
(29)
U.N. D o c . S / 6 2 2 8 ,
11 M a r c h
(30)
U.N. D o c . S / 7 0 0 T ,
10 D e c e m b e r
(3T) Coufoudakis,
(32)
p.37.
T965, p a r a . 2 7 4 .
1976, o p . c i t . .
Duncan-Jones,A,
1972,
T965, p a r a s .
p.468.
'The c i v i l
regulation
w a r i n C y p r u s ' , i n The i n t e r n a t i o n a l
of c i v i l
wars
( New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y
(33) H a r b o t t l e , M .
1974, i n T h e t h i n b l u e
( edited
Press
line,
(34)
U.N. D o c . S / 6 1 0 2 ,
12 D e c e m b e r
(35)
U.N. D o c . S / 5 6 5 3 ,
1T A p r i l
(36)
S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p , c i t . .
(37)
Harbottle,
(38)
ibid.,
(39)
S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p . c i t . .
(40)
ibid.,
(41)
A l t h o u g h on o c c a s i o n s ^ u n i t s
from d i f f e r e n t
in
incidents
1964,
T964,
) , p.157.
op. cit..p.TOO.
para.24.
p.125.
1970, o p . c i t . .
pp.44 - 4 7 .
p.45.
p.125.
p.83.
order to prevent
serious
As James
c o n t i n g e n t s would
from o c c u r r i n g
strategic
R e f e r t o : S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p . c i t . .
Harbottle,
(43)
by E„Luard ) ,
para.16,
U.N.P.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h i n c e r t a i n
(42)
TOO - 1 0 4 .
1970, o p . c i t . .
cooperate
and to i n c r e a s e
positions.
pp.88 - 8 9 ;
pp.31-32 & 36-38.
S t a g e n g a , 1 9 6 8 , p o i n t s o u t :-
" T h e 6,000 men o f U.N.P.I.CYP. w o u l d n a t u r a l l y g e t a b s o r b e d
-
by
this
small island
reaches
of
initial
troops
and
in
( Also
99
-
a s O.N.U.C.'s T5,000 w e r e by
the Congo's 905,063 s q u a r e
w e r e s w a l l o w e d up
u n i t s sometimes l o s t
touch
miles",, where
by
the
size
with
the
central
L e o p o l d v i l l e f o r a s much a s a week a t a
see
Bowitz,G.C,
the
of the
Norweigian I n s t i t u t e
country,
time."
F o r c e s ' i n Per Prydenberg
: Experience
"the
command p o s t
' C e n t r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f U.N.
Keeping
vast
and
Security
(ed.),
Peace-
Evaluation. ( Oslo,
of I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Affairs
1-964 ) , p p . T 0 6 - 7 . )
(44) I t should
British
be
noted t h a t the
f o r c e s i n the
late
Troodos Mountains posed problems f o r
T950s, f o r t h e y were u s e d
as a
the
hideout
f o r EoO.K.A. g u e r r i l l a s .
Refer to: Polie
& Scobie,
T975, op.
cit..ch.8 —
'The M o u n t a i n
G u e r i l l a s *.
(453) P a t r i c k ,
( 4 6 ) U.N.
(47)
op.
Doc.
cit..
p . 127.
3 / 6 4 2 6 , TO
June
1965,
para.42.
ibid.
(48) i b i d . .
para.64.
(49) H a r b o t t l e ,
1970,
op.
cit..
p.78.
( 5 0 ) F o r c o m p a r i s o n o f U.N.P.I.CYP. and
operations
refer
to:- Rikhye,
and
Luard,
other
types of
peacekeeping
H a r b o t t l e , & E g g e , op. c i t . .
1972,
op. c i t .
(5T) Stagenga,J.A.,
1970,
( 5 2 ) The
o f t h e s e m o b i l e u n i t s w e r e e v e n more i m p o r t a n t
activities
U.N.F.I.CYP-.'s s i z e
J o u r n a l of Peace Research,
was
reduced
( 5 3 ) U.N.
Doc.
S/6228,
( 5 4 ) U.N.
Doc.
S/6426, p a r a s . 1 8 -
and
( 5 5 ) U.N.
U.N.
Doc.
Doc.
U.N.
Doc.
and
Harbottle,
3,000 men
cit..
p.6.
when
i n the e a r l y
1970s
para.61.
2T;
S / 6 T 0 2 , p a r a s . 125
S/6228, para.19 -
and
to about
op.
-
28;
S / 6 4 2 6 , p a r a s . 18 T970, op.
130.
cit..
t o U . N . F . I . C Y P . ' s movements by
21';
gives several
G r i v a s and
his
examples of o b s t r u c t i o n s
men.
-
TOO
-
CHAPTER F I V E .
PEACEKEEPING IN PRACTICE :
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s FIRST DECADE.
" . . . u l t i m a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a r e t u r n to normal
c o n d i t i o n s i n Cyprus must, o b v i o u s l y , r e s t p r i m a r i l y
w i t h the a u t h o r i t i e s and people of Cyprus
themselves,
s i n c e n o r m a l i t y can come along o n l y as a r e s u l t of a
determination
arms and
by the communities... to l a y down t h e i r
seek to l i v e a g a i n i n peace."
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s presence
(1)
c o n t r i b u t e d "to the
relative
p a c i f i c a t i o n of Cyprus, i t a l s o f r o z e the s i t u a t i o n so
t h a t the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s and l i n e s of
in
division
the c i t i e s remained i n t a c t f o r a decade." ( 2 )
" I t would be u n f o r t u n a t e ,
to say the l e a s t , i f the
p r e s e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of U.N.F.I.CYP. should become
the p r e t e x t f o r f a i l u r e
to f i n d a s o l u t i o n to the
fundamental problem of Cyprus."
The
decade August 1964 to J u l y 1974
p e r i o d s f o r U.N.F.I.CYP.
The
first,
(3)
w i l l be d i v i d e d i n t o two
August 1 9 6 4 -
distinct
November '67", began
and ended w i t h major intercommunal c l a s h e s which n e a r l y t r i g g e r e d o f f
f u l l - s c a l e war
between Greece and Turkey.
' 6 7 to J u l y ' 7 4 ,
i s one
The
second p e r i o d , November
of l e s s intercomraunal t e n s i o n , renewed
communal n e g o t i a t i o n s , and
inter-
s e r i o u s intra-communal s p l i t s i n the Greek
C y p r i o t community.
S e c t i o n One
: P o l i t i c a l Background. August
There i s no
in
to November
'67.
room here f o r a f u l l a n a l y s i s of intercommunal p o l i t i c s
t h i s p e r i o d , and
for
'64
the r e a d e r i s asked
to r e f e r to the
Bibliography
r e f e r e n c e s d e a l i n g w i t h the i s s u e s mentioned here i n g r e a t e r depth.
T h i s p e r i o d was
marked by the f a i l u r e of any s u g g e s t i o n s
for a settle-
-
101
-
raent and the t o t a l l a c k of n e g o t i a t i o n s between
leaderships.
The Acheson P l a n ( 4 ) was r e j e c t e d by George Papandreou
Greece as " p a r t i t i o n masquerading
the
the r e s p e c t i v e community
o p p o s i t i o n of Makarios.
i n the r h e t o r i c of E n o s i s " owing to
Senor Glao P l a z a ' s recommendations
in his
r e p o r t of 26 March 1965 were i m m e d i a t e l y r e j e c t e d by Ankara. ( 5 )
( 1982 ) argues t h a t the U.N.
of
Oberling
Mediator's a n a l y s i s " d i s p l a y e d a c a l l o u s
d i s r e g a r d f o r the w e l f a r e of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s " .
Meanwhile Archbishop
Makarios l o b b i e d f o r an independent s o v e r e i g n s t a t e abroad and
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s s u r e d h i s community t h a t he was s t i l l
d e d i c a t e d to the
goal of E n o s i s . (6)
T8 December 1 9 6 5 ,
On
a U.N.
G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n
( 2077(xx) )
supported the Cyprus Government's c l a i m f o r u n f e t t e r e d independence
it
e f f e c t i v e l y d i s c o u n t e d T u r k e y ' s c l a i m to the r i g h t of i n t e r v e n t i o n
based on the Zurich-London T r e a t i e s o f T 9 5 9 .
of
and
the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community behind him
With the support of most
( 7 ) Archbishop Makarios
proceed from a p o s i t i o n of s t r e n g t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g
the
"could
new
c o n d i t i o n s i n Cyprus", i . e . a R e p u b l i c based on m a j o r i t y r u l e . ( 8 )
In
A p r i l 1967 e v e n t s took a t u r n f o r the worse when 'the c o l o n e l s '
s e i z e d power i n Athens.
Suddenly Makarios found h i m s e l f
ideologically
o u t - o f - s t e p w i t h the r i g h t - w i n g J u n t a , f o r as O b e r l i n g p o i n t s out, the'
a u t h o r i t a r i a n , anti-communist Greek J u n t a "vehemently
Makarios' " L e f t i s t
sympathies and independent mindedness". ( 9 )
Cyprus Makarios was plagued by the a g g r e s s i v e n e s s and
of
G e n e r a l G r i v a s , who
arms.
disliked"
still
Within
insubordination
b e l i e v e d E n o s i s would be won by f o r c e o f
Furthermore, many Greek o f f i c e r s and men had
i n f i l t r a t e d the N a t i o n a l Guard.
(10)
clandestinely
Indeed U.N.F.I.CYP. i n c r e a s i n g l y
i d e n t i f i e d the N a t i o n a l Guard w i t h the Greek Army. ( 1 1 )
t r i e d to weaken G r i v a s ' p o s i t i o n by r e d u c i n g the N a t i o n a l
Although Makarios
Guard's
budgetry a l l o c a t i o n s and by s t r e n g t h e n i n g the Cyprus P o l i c e F o r c e ,
did
not p r e v e n t G r i v a s from l a u n c h i n g the l a r g e s t o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s i n c e Kokkina T964.
this
theOgf
I n mid-November 1967' the NationalM/=
- 102
-
Guard a t t a c k e d the v i l l a g e s o f Kophinou and
Ayios Theodoros,
twenty-one T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , an o p e r a t i o n which l e d the two
l e a d e r s h i p s to r e e v a l u a t e the p o l i t i c a l
S e c t i o n Two
:
killing
community
situation.
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s F i r s t Phase . 1964
- Nov.'67.
Given the v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s of o u t s i d e powers, N.A.T.O. c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,
the p o l a r i s a t i o n of e t h n i c p o l i t i c s i n Cyprus and
N a t i o n a l Guard, t h e r e was
the a c t i v i t i e s of
l i t t l e U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do o t h e r
the
than...
"remain as n e u t r a l as p o s s i b l e i n the p o l i t i c a l f r a y w h i l e
promoting a calm atmosphere and buying the n e c e s s a r y
to enable
durable
the p a r t i e s and
the Mediator to work out
and honourable s e t t l e m e n t
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s major t a s k was
together."
time
a
(12)
to p r e s e r v e a p e a c e f u l s t a t u s quo
between
the communities w h i l s t h i g h e r l e v e l p o l i t i c a l i n i t i a t i v e s were
sought.
As H a r b o t t l e
explains
"Cyprus p r o v i d e s
degrees and
being
:-
a patchwork of s c e n a r i o s i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r i n g
types of t h i r d p a r t y a c t i o n ranging
o f f i c e s of the United
Nations S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l
from the good
to
the
c o n c i l i a t o r y i n i t i a t i v e s a t the g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l of a subo r d i n a t e of low p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r . "
By r e n d e r i n g
a s s i s t a n c e i n the a m e l i o r a t i o n of day-to-day a d m i n i s t r a t i v e ,
socio-economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n
nurture
(13)
problems U.N7F.I.CYP. was
those p o s i t i v e elements of intercommunal l i f e
as a bridge
as w e l l as a b u f f e r between the two
helping
i n Cyprus, a c t i n g
communities.
f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d e a l w i t h U.N.F.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s to promote
' s t a b i l i t y ' and
'normality' i n t h i s troubled
i ) Pacification
Efforts.
Perhaps the most important i n i t i a l
i n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g i t s troops
was
followed
to
The
'peace',
island.
task of U.N.F.I.CYP. was
t h a t of
inbetween the f i g h t e r s of both s i d e s .
This
by v a r i o u s c e a s e - f i r e arrangements, o f t e n between l o c a l
N a t i o n a l Guard commanders, T u r k i s h F i g h t e r commanders, and
o f f i c e r s on-the-spot.
At the h i g h e s t
level
n e g o t i a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out by the F o r c e
U.N.F.I.CYP.
"de-confrontation"
Commander and
the
- 103
-
Secretary-General's Special Representative
i n Cyprus.
Examples of U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s to arrange b i - o r
unilateral
d e f o r t l f i c a t i o n agreements.
U.N.P.I.CYP. made s t r o n g
s t a n d s a g a i n s t attempts by e i t h e r s i d e to
extend t h e i r b a r r i c a d e s , f r o n t - l i n e s , or e r e c t new
was
ones.
General
determined to extend Greek f o r t i f i c a t i o n s throughout the
u s i n g money a l l o c a t e d to the budget f o r defence and
Grivas
island,
the armed f o r c e s .
Such a p o l i c y l e d to c o u n t e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t moves to improve t h e i r
defences.
F o r i n s t a n c e , the N a t i o n a l
bunker on P a t s a l a H i l l
defensive
Larnaca,
I n response T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
dug
t r e n c h e s n e a r the road and west of S c a l a between the road and
sea.
U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d ,
Cypriot
i n and
and
a f t e r t a l k s between the l o c a l
l e a d e r , Dr Orkan M u d e r r i s o g l u , the T u r k i s h t r e n c h e s were
F i g h t e r s withdrawn.
the N a t i o n a l
one
Extensions
b r e a k s of intercommunal f i g h t i n g .
were c o n s t r u c t e d
filled
to T u r k i s h
Cypriots
Cypriot-controlled
S i m i l a r c o a s t a l d e f e n c e s were a t Kokkina, Temblos,
L e f k a , and Famagusta.
Turkish
(14)
of s e v e r a l c o a s t a l s i t e s where the Greek
erected a n t i - i n v a s i o n barricades adjacent
territory.
the
U n f o r t u n a t e l y U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d to persuade
Guard to unman P a t s a l a H i l l .
L a r n a c a was
In
a new
on the south shore of the S a l t Lake of
f a c i n g the T u r k i s h suburb of S c a l a .
slit
Guard c o n s t r u c t e d
own
Ghaziveran-
to these defences o f t e n l e d to o u t When seaward d e f e n c e s a t Famagusta
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o n s t r u c t e d
parallel
barricades.
t u r n the N a t i o n a l Guard took up a d d i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s around T u r k i s h
Cypriot
q u a r t e r s , which e v e n t u a l l y l e d to shooting
followed
a N a t i o n a l Guard s e i g e on the main T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
Famagusta.
There-
quarter i n
A f t e r the r e l a x i n g of the Greek C y p r i o t b l o c k a d e , on 6
December T965, both s i d e s a g r e e d to d i s m a n t l e
s u r r o u n d i n g the p e r i m e t e r
defences.
incidents.
a l l fortified
of the* T u r k i s h q u a r t e r ecept
positions
f o r harbour-
(15)
Another example of N a t i o n a l
Guard p o s i t i o n i n g c r e a t i n g intercommunal
- 104 -
t e n s i o n was i n the L e f k a - Ambelikou a r e a . Guardsmen were p l a c e d on h i l l s
to each s i d e o f L e f k a , i . e . on L i m e k i l n H i l l and P e r i s t e r o n a r i H i l l . ( 1 6 )
The Government contended t h a t these p o s i t i o n s were e s s e n t i a l f o r the
defence of the Morphou Bay c o a s t l i n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s these new p o s t s
dominating P e r i s t e r o n a r i v i l l a g e and the Ambelikou l i m e k i l n s were o b v i o u s l y
p r o v o c a t i v e and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e were w o r r i e d t h a t they would be used
i n a Greek o f f e n s i v e . T h i s made i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. to
guarantee a g a i n s t a r e c u r r e n c e o f f i g h t i n g . ( 1 7 )
U.N.P.I.CYP. never managed to g e t both s i d e s to agree on a " d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n programme".
While the Greeks p r o v o c a t i v e l y e r e c t e d new p o s i t i o n s ,
1
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r s , f o r - t h e y were outnumbered and
out-gunned by the N a t i o n a l Guard.
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s argued t h a t
U.N.P.I.CYP. was not s t r o n g enough to defend them i f they withdrew
e x i s t i n g F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s , and t h a t such a move would l e a v e
Turkish
C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y v u l n e r a b l e to Greek o c c u p a t i o n .
pointed
out:-
As U Thant
" There i s no peace on the I s l a n d , but a tense and
fragile truce.
T h i s s i t u a t i o n moreover i s l i k e l y to c o n t i n u e
as long a s . . . t h e t e r r i t o r y o f the R e p u b l i c
l i n e s and f o r t i f i c a t i o n s whose presence
i s c u t up by f r o n t -
c o n t r i b u t e s to main-
t a i n i n g tension a t a high p i t c h . " (18)
V i o l a t i o n s of c e a s e - f i r e agreements and s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t s r e q u i r i n g
U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n t i o n .
I n i t i a l l y c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were drawn as temporary measures when l o c a l
t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s were u n c l e a r .
fire
As the c o n f l i c t dragged on t h e s e
l i n e s assumed g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e .
delimited according
cease-
Both s i d e s wanted the l i n e s
to c r i t e r i a which s u i t e d them, and both s i d e s sought
p r e t e x t s to manouvre t h e i r armed p o s i t i o n s forward
of existing
I t was o f t e n d i f f i c u l t
encroachments i n t o
f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. to prevent
lines.
U.N. c o n t r o l l e d " n e u t r a l areas" o r d e m i l i t a r i z e d zones between the forward
l i n e s o f both s i d e s .
The m a j o r i t y o f c e a s e - f i r e v i o l a t i o n s o c c u r r e d
where T u r k i s h e n c l a v e
b o u n d a r i e s had been d e l i m i t e d a s a r e s u l t o f c e a s e -
105
-
fire
agreements a c c e p t e d
-
by U.N.F.I.CYP., the Cyprus Government,
Turkish Cypriot l e a d e r s h i p , i . e . Guenyeli-Aghirda; L i m n i t i s ;
and
around the "green l i n e s " of N i c o s i a , L a r n a c a ,
t y p i c a l example o c c u r r e d
Guenyeli-Aghirda Enclave
a t P i l e r i on
west of the v i l l a g e of P i l e r i
and
l o c a t e d i n what had
Paphos ( Ktima ) .
3.1
and
).
occupied
a new
T h i s advance had
no
On
January 2 2 ,
C y p r i o t s who
T966,
tactical
their
advantage
Some
Turkish position.
the N a t i o n a l Guard wounded t h r e e
Turkish
were c u t t i n g wood forward of t h e i r l i n e s i n the Karmi F o r e s t
a r e a of the P e n t a d a k t y l o s .
i n j u r e d n e a r to P i l e r i
I n February
by two
a Greek C y p r i o t was
Turkish Cypriots.
Guard and
P o l i c e detachments were e s t a b l i s h e d i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y
q u a r t e r s and
necessarily clearly
villages.
ambushed
and
(20)
Other " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " e x i s t e d where N a t i o n a l
Cypriot
2 , 0 0 0 metres
post
p r e v i o u s l y been a n e u t r a l a r e a .
N a t i o n a l Guard m o r t a r s were exploded n e a r to t h i s new
(T9)
1965
I n September
T , 0 0 0 metres west o r forward of
e s t a b l i s h e d Forward Defence L i n e .
but was
Kokkina;
the w e s t e r n edge of the main
( r e f e r to Map
Turkish Cypriot f i g h t e r s constructed
and
and
Cyprus
to armed T u r k i s h
These c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s were not
demarcated and
as mentioned i n C h a p t e r Three; t h e r e
were s e v e r a l "grey a r e a s " of c o n t r o l .
Very o f t e n m i l i t a r y o r v i o l e n t
intercommunal i n c i d e n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s were sparked
o f f by a v a r i e t y of
f a c t o r s , such as r e s t r i c t i o n s on freedom of movement, a t t e m p t s by e i t h e r
s i d e to a s s e r t c o n t r o l i n an a r e a of d i s p u t e d
beat
o r i r r e g u l a r Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s , and
military victories.
I n the n o r t h e r n
t e r r i t o r i a l control, offa t t e m p t s to s c o r e d e c i s i v e
(2T)
p a r t of the M e s a o r i a P l a i n a group of v i l l a g e s
an i l l - d e f i n e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e .
( These v i l l a g e s were: K a l y v a k i a ;
Kornokipos, P e t r a tou D h i y e n i ; Kourou M o n a s t i r ; Bey
Khariton
) Greek C y p r i o t s a v o i d e d t r a v e l l i n g
Cyprus Government was
concerned l e s t
f o r t i f y t h e i r enclave
and
block
Keuy; Epikho; A y i o s
through t h i s a r e a , and
the
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s attempted to
a l l r o a d s r u n n i n g through i t .
September 1 9 6 5 , t h e K y t h r e a - L e f k o n i c o
formed
road
( r e f e r to Map
5.1
During
)
was
-i
5
1
r
1
ui
1
i
(0
If
•y r>
i
cr>
s rrr
UJ
•
LU
UJ
0
2
r-
!2
u
ui
- 107
blocked
-
by F i g h t e r s a t Bey Keuy and P s i l a t o s , and
V i t s a d h a road was
blocked
a t Knodhara.
the T r y p i m e n i -
I n response U.N.F.I.CYP.
i n c r e a s e d i t s p a t r o l s i n the a r e a - a s c o u t - c a r group ( Canadian ) was
based at Bey
Keuy, i n a d d i t i o n to a F i n n i s h i n f a n t r y p l a t o o n ,
plus
SWED.CON. ( Swedish Contingent ) o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s between the
v i l l a g e of Chatos and
the Greek one
of T r y p i m e n i . (22)
two
Turkish
I n A p r i l 1966
the Government began improving a t r a c k l i n k i n g Trypimeni and
Vitsadha
i n order
to by-pass Knodhara.
ment was
t r y i n g to d i v i d e a T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a with the aim of
running
it.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s argued t h a t the Govern-
Thus T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s p l a c e d armed men
Greeks complained t h a t t h i s was
of movement and
i n c r e a s e d N a t i o n a l Guard and
G e n e r a l G r i v a s was
the
route.
a f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e i r freedom
the r e g i o n u n t i l "the e n t i r e e n c l a v e was
(23)
along
Cyprus P o l i c e presence
q u i c k l y a t the scene,
threatening punitive
Trypimeni.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n s i s t e d t h a t i f Greek C y p r i o t s were to use
roads
through t h e i r a r e a of c o n t r o l they s h o u l d be s u b j e c t to s e a r c h e s
U.N.F.I.CYP. wanted the
F u r t h e r to the south
U.N.
to the
Turkish
the a r e a remained a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e - s p o t .
t h e r e was
Communications between t h e s e two
Chatos and
under
U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s p l a n proved u n a c c e p t a b l e
C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p and
by
Trypimeni-Knodhara-
Ayios K h a r i t o n a r e a to become a d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone wholly
surveillance.
t r o u b l e a t Melousha and
v i l l a g e s and
The
events
(24)
Mora.
those v i l l a g e s
K a l y v a k i a were d i f f i c u l t f o r they were s e p a r a t e d
under Greek C y p r i o t c o n t r o l .
in
e n c i r c l e d by a government cordon
a c t i o n u n l e s s the Turks withdrew from t h e i r t r e n c h e s n e a r
Turkish Cypriot p o l i c e .
over-
surrounding
by
a t Trypimeni made^ the
territory
National
Guard and CY.POL. ( Cyprus P o l i c e ) more determined than e v e r to
prevent
f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t freedom of movement i n the
area.
I n J u l y 1966,
a l l e g e d l y new
p o s i t i o n e d men
a N a t i o n a l Guard manouvre was
made a g a i n s t Mora, where
F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s were e r e c t e d .
U.N.F.I.CYP. q u i c k l y i n t e r
between opposing f i g h t e r e l e m e n t s .
up i n the v i l l a g e and
intercommunal t r o u b l e was
A U.N.
averted.
post was
set
- 108
The
village
-
of Melousha l i e s on the road l i n k i n g
mixed v i l l a g e s
of Tremethousha and
A r s o s to the e a s t .
p r a c t i c e f o r a Cyprus P o l i c e sergeant
v i l l a g e on r o u t i n e
i t s i n h a b i t a n t s , and
side.
I t was
accepted
On
drove through the v i l l a g e
shouting
abuse a t
F i g h t e r s soon o c c u p i e d p o s i t i o n s around
v i l l a g e to p r e v e n t any
attempt by CY.POL. to r e - e n t e r i t .
a s t r o n g Greek C y p r i o t
reaction,U.N.F.I.CYP. placed
U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t u a l l y
men
at the w e s t e r n
This "threat"
the p r e s e n c e of "blue b e r r e t s " , armoured v e h i c l e s
m o r t a r s , and
did prevent a recurrence
of f i g h t i n g .
August 1967
and
(25)
threatened
a s e r i e s of murders and
to p a r a l y s e
U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t e d
to c u l t i v a t e
or e s c o r t e d
and
commodities to
the
orchards.
areas
a d o c t o r oh h i s rounds.
The
major v i l l a g e s a f f e c t e d were Mandria, Stavrokono, Kourtaka,
and
others
Inia,
i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of Paphos D i s t r i c t .
Brigadier Harbottle,
1970,
e x p l a i n s how
he had
to t o u r the
v i l l a g e s i n h i s c a p a c i t y as U.N.F.I.CYP. C h i e f of S t a f f ,
l o c a l mukhtars and
village
describes
Eventually with
He
affected
spoke to
e l d e r s " i n an endeavour to d i s c o v e r what
e x a c t l y were t h e i r f e a r s and how
Greek and
Paphos
even v e n t u r e o u t s i d e
t h e i r f i e l d s and
trucks carrying e s s e n t i a l
where s u p p l i e s were g e t t i n g low,
F o r a time
these v i l l a g e s
I n some a r e a s v i l l a g e r s would not
b u i l t - u p a r e a s of t h e i r v i l l a g e s
abductions i n
l i f e i n the a r e a .
a l l movement between n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s and
Harbottle
was
the Paphos V e n d e t t a s :
During J u l y and
town c e a s e d .
the
Anticipating
backed up by
Paphos D i s t r i c t
eastern
used a " t h r e a t of f o r c e " to
p r e v e n t G r i v a s from mounting an a t t a c k on Melousha.
U.N.F.I.CYP. and
the
23 J u l y 1966 an armed
then e s t a b l i s h e d a r o a d - b l o c k on Melousha's
Turkish Cypriot
edge of Melousha.
the-
from Athienou to pass through
rounds of o t h e r v i l l a g e s .
CY.POL. p a t r o l from L a r n a c a
Athienou w i t h
U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d p o s s i b l y help
t h i s proceedure as "a k i n d of p a c i f i c a t i o n
the p e r m i s s i o n
Turkish Cypriot
of both l e a d e r s h i p s i n N i c o s i a ,
them."
hustings".
local
mukhtars were brought t o g e t h e r i n a s e r i e s
meetings i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of the
District.
of
- 109 -
The main aims of these
(a)
to seek a s s u r a n c e s
regarding
(b)
v i l l a g e meetings were :
from both Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriot
mukhtars
freedom of movement through t h e i r v i l l a g e s ;
to ensure t h a t Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriot
f a r m e r s could
work i n
t h e i r f i e l d s w i t h o u t f r i c t i o n o r i n t e r f e r e n c e ; and
(c)
to p r o v i d e a forum f o r the d i s c u s s i o n of p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s to
intercommunal problems.
After years
(26)
of p r e j u d i c e , H a r b o t t l e
found t h a t v i l l a g e l e a d e r s of
both communities were w i l l i n g to d i s c u s s t h e i r problems f r e e l y under
the a u s p i c e s
o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
He d e s c r i b e s
the outcome of these
meetings :
" . . . i t was p o s s i b l y the most s u c c e s s f u l p a s s i v e achievement
of the whole U.N.F.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n ;
normal l i f e
f o r i t not o n l y brought
back to many v i l l a g e s , but i t p r i c k e d
once and f o r a l l of those who
perpetually
p l a c e s . . . t h a t Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriots
the bubble
c r i e d i n the market
cannot l i v e
together".
(27)
The Paphos example i l l u s t r a t e s how
t h i r d p a r t y m e d i a t i o n can l e a d to
r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , and a c c o r d i n g to H a r b o t t l e
range of t h i r d p a r t y
making.
(28)
action —
i t demonstrated the- f u l l
peacekeeping, p e a c e b u i l d i n g ,
To s o l v e t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e
and peace-
parochial issue
U.N.
F o r c e o f f i c e r s had to get to the g r a s s r o o t s o f the problem, l i s t e n i n g
to mukhtars and o r d i n a r y
v i l l a g e r s of both s i d e s .
encouraging t h a t the S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l
wrote
The r e s u l t s were so
:-
" U.N.F.I.CYP. has been encouraged by the r e s u l t s o f the mukhtars
meetings and i t i s i t s i n t e n t i o n to extend them, i f p o s s i b l e ,
at
a s u i t a b l e time, to o t h e r Zones and D i s t r i c t s as w e l l as
repeating
them i n Paphos D i s t r i c t w i t h a view to b r e a k i n g down
the r e m a i n i n g b a r r i e r s and p r e j u d i c e s . . . " ( 2 9 )
By f o s t e r i n g intercommunal contacts,U.N.F.I.CYP. was h e l p i n g
some of the " i n v i s i b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l
w a l l s " separating
to remove
the two communities
U n f o r t u n a t e l y U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s were h i n d e r e d by the i n t r a n s i g e n t
a t t i t u d e s of both community l e a d e r s h i p s ,
as w e l l as by the a c t i v i t i e s
of l o c a l m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a g g r a v a t i n g intercommunal t e n s i o n .
The
was c e r t a i n l y prominent i n the Kophinou i n c i d e n t of November T967.
latter
- no Kophinou, November 1 9 6 7 .
The
events
a t Kophinou and the immediate consequences have been w e l l
documented by o t h e r s .
( 3 0 ) The i n t e n t i o n here i s merely to h i g h l i g h t
some s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g to t h i s i n c i d e n t .
was
the important i s s u e o f freedom of movement i n the a r e a .
v i l l a g e i s s t r a t e g i c a l l y s i t u a t e d where the L a r n a c a
i n t e r s e c t s w i t h the L i m a s s o l
was
Firstly,
- N i c o s i a road.
there
Kophinou
- L i m a s s o l road
The Cyprus Government
concerned about a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e s t a t i o n l o c a t e d c l o s e to
the road j u n c t i o n and the danger o f r o a d - b l o c k s .
Secondly, the l o c a l
s i t u a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t e d w i t h the appointment i n November 1966 o f a new
F i g h t e r commander of the A y i o s Theodhoros r e g i o n , who used the nom de
guerre
'Mehmet'.
Under h i s l o c a l command the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f the
A y i o s Theodhoros r e g i o n r e f u s e d to r e c o g n i z e
Cyprus Government a u t h o r i t y
t h e r e ; f r a t e r n i z a t i o n w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s was punished; Greek and E n g l i s h
road s i g n s were r e p l a c e d by ones w r i t t e n e x c l u s i v e l y i n T u r k i s h ; and
new F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d . ( 3 1 )
T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s s e t up
r o a d - b l o c k s which f o r c e d the Government to suspend Cyprus P o l i c e movements i n t o A y i o s Theodhoros.
Even a f t e r the removal o f Mehmet from the
scene, CY.POL. p a t r o l s were b l o c k e d .
movement d i s p u t e
Soon t h i s p a r o c h i a l freedom o f
developed i n t o one which, a c c o r d i n g
s y m b o l i z e d " the essence
to R i c h a r d P a t r i c k ,
o f the e n t i r e intercommunal c o n f l i c t : i . e .
the government's d e t e r m i n a t i o n
throughout the i s l a n d ,
to e n f o r c e
i t s authority
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community's
i n t e n t i o n to p r o t e c t i t s e l f by c o n t r o l l i n g Greek
access into Turkish Cypriot centres".
T h i r d l y , General
G r i v a s decided
Cypriot
(32)
to mount a major a s s a u l t i n o r d e r to
s e c u r e a Greek C y p r i o t v i c t o r y a g a i n s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e . The
N a t i o n a l Guard a t t a c k e d A y i o s Theodhoros i n b a t t a l i o n s t r e n g t h
after
T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s had been provoked i n t o f i r i n g a t a h e a v i l y armed
Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l which was s e n t through the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f the
village.
-
1T1
-
F i g h t e r s from Kophinou t r i e d to h e l p
succeeded i n
t u r n i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard on them, which l e d almost to
the d e s t r u c t i o n of the e n t i r e v i l l a g e .
t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was
the f i r s t
Ayios
I n r e t r o s p e c t t h e r e i s no
operation,
deploying
a f o r c e of
b a t t a l i o n s t r e n g t h around the two v i l l a g e s i n advance of
Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s . (33)
The v i o l e n c e a t Kophinou and
Theodhoros r e v e a l s a number of important
U.N.F.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n s .
U.N. Force
doubt
taken by s u r p r i z e and i f w i s e r to the event i t
c o u l d have mounted a contingency
approximately
t h e i r neighbours but o n l y
I t i l l u s t r a t e s how
i s s u e s r e l a t i n g to
important
i t was
for-the
to keep a b r e a s t o f l o c a l intercommunal r e l a t i o n s away from
the obvious l i n e s of c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
I t a l s o shows how
seemingly
trivial
d i s p u t e s o v e r freedom of communications and Cyprus P o l i c e a c c e s s to
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s c o u l d e s c a l a t e i n t o major intercommunal
i n c i d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y under the d i r e c t i o n of a g g r e s s i v e l o c a l commanders.
F i n a l l y , i t r e v e a l e d weaknesses i n U.N.F.I.CYP. deployment,
its
continued
o b s e r v a t i o n of and p r e s e n c e
during
although
the f i g h t i n g p r o b a b l y
" a c t e d as a d e t e r r e n t to those bent on more extreme measures". (34)
i i ) Normalization
Activities
:
UiN.F.I.GYPo has been d e s c r i b e d as "a prime communication c h a n n e l f o r
the n o r m a l i z a t i o n of C y p r i o t l i f e " .
(35)
The Paphos
example above shows
t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was c e r t a i n l y a b l e to promote g r e a t e r intercommunal
c o n t a c t and c o o p e r a t i o n
through i t s m e d i a t i o n w i t h both communities a t
the g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l .
I t a l s o shows the s u b t l e
interrelationships
between p a c i f i c a t i o n and s o - c a l l e d n o r m a l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s .
made every e f f o r t
U.N.F.I.CYP.
to n e g o t i a t e f o r the removal of such o b s t a c l e s to i n t e r -
communal c o n t a c t s as armed f o r t i f i c a t i o n s ,
economic r e s t r i c t i o n s .
road-blocks,
and
government
The F o r c e o n l y had l i m i t e d s u c c e s s i n i t s de-
f o r t i f i c a t i o n p l a n s f o r i t was c o n t i n u a l l y f r u s t r a t e d by the' N a t i o n a l
Guard.
(36)
hindered
General
and " d e l a y e d
G r i v a s ' "determination
the l o n g e d - f o r
not to g i v e a m i l i t a r y i n c h "
normalization".
was a l s o handicapped by a b a s i c d i v e r g e n c e
(37)
U.N.F.I.CYP.
o f opinion* between t h e two
- 112
l e a d e r s h i p s as to what was
-
meant by
'normality'.
Thus when Makarios
announced a number of "measures f o r the n o r m a l i z a t i o n of the
on 2 September 1967
situation"
(38) the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remained s c e p t i c a l
the Cyprus Government's a t t i t u d e remained the same r e g a r d i n g
Cypriot constitutional rights.
that:-
At a l l times i t i s important to remember
the degree of r e a s o n a b l e n e s s
it
by
and good w i l l d i s p l a y e d by
the
l e a d e r s h i p s . " (39)
I n o r d e r to understand the opposite
and
Turkish
" U.N.P.I.CYP.'s achievements arer s h a r p l y c o n s t r a i n e d
two
because
p o s i t i o n s of the two
leaderships
immense o b s t a c l e s to a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s i n C y p r i o t
i s necessary
Cyprus during
life
to u n d e r s t a n d the economic c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n
the
period.
Economic C o n d i t i o n s
of the two
communities. 1964-'68.
De f a c t o p a r t i t i o n due
to the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s meant:-
(i)
of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the Greek C y p r i o t economy
Non-participation
( i i ) Government r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s and
effort
q u a r t e r s i n an
to "deny a l l b e n e f i t s o f Government s e r v i c e s to
t e r r o r i s t s " and
sympathizers
who
"Turkish
r e j e c t e d Government a u t h o r i t y . "
(40)
( i i i ) As a r e s u l t of ( i ) and
economic f o r t u n e s .
( i i ) t h e r e was
The
a growing dichotomy i n
Greek C y p r i o t economy p r o s p e r e d
whilst
the i n t r o v e r t e d e n c l a v e economies of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
stagnated.
(4T)
" . . . f o r ten y e a r s d u r i n g which the C y p r i o t economy boomed
standards
of l i v i n g r o s e v i s i b l y - on a l l Greek s i d e s , the
T u r k i s h element was
left
to stew i n i t s own
juice."
( i v ) A g g r a v a t i n g the economic d e f i c i e n c i e s of the T u r k i s h
were the problems of overcrowding i n homeless
The
m a j o r i t y of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s were s i m p l y
economically
v i a b l e u n i t s and i t i s d i f f i c u l t
difficulties
t h e i r confined
The
populations
(42)
enclaves
refugees.
too
s m a l l to
to a p p r e c i a t e
of December 1963-August 1964
faced.
i s quite remarkable.
g r o s s domestic product
be
the immense
economic e x p a n s i o n i n the Greek s e c t o r a f t e r the t r a u m a t i c
p r i o r to 1964,
and
I n the t h r e e
( G.D.P) i n c r e a s e d a t an
changes
years
annual
- 113 average r a t e of o v e r s e v e n p e r c e n t .
I n 1964 i t d e c l i n e d twelve p e r c e n t .
T h e r e a f t e r G.D.P, i n c r e a s e d to pre-T963 l e v e l s .
I n T961, G.D.P. was
£ 114 m i l l i o n , by T966 i t had i n c r e a s e d to £ T 5 7 m i l l i o n , w h i l e income
p e r head rose from £ 199 i n 1961 to £260 i n 1966. (43) I n 1963, Panagides
p o i n t s out :-
" the Greeks w i t h 77.1 % o f the p o p u l a t i o n ,
the income, w h i l e
had
the Turks, w i t h
had 80.2 % o f
18„2 % of the p o p u l a t i o n ,
a low 1 2 . 6 % o f the income." ( 4 4 )
Patchwork p a r t i t i o n r e i n f o r c e d the economic gap between them. As U Thant
observed, t h e r e was a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t between the G o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d
a r e a s and the widespread p o v e r t y ,v f a l l i n l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s ,
c e s s a t i o n o f economic a c t i v i t i e s except
business
In
and v i r t u a l
a g r i c u l t u r e and s m a l l
retail
i n Turkish Cypriot-controlled t e r r i t o r y . (45)
some s e n s e s
the economic h a r d s h i p s
o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were
self-
i n f l i c t e d because o f t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p s discouragement of any a c t i v i t y
which would expose T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to the a u t h o r i t y o f a c e n t r a l government i t regarded a s unconstitutional„
T h i s i s n o t to u n d e r e s t i m a t e the
e f f e c t s o f the Government's economic squeeze on T u r k i s h
enclaves.
Economic Blockade.
The
Cyprus Government drew up a l i s t
o f p r o h i b i t e d m a t e r i a l s , which were:
i)
Goods o f d i r e c t m i l i t a r y use;
ii)
"and those which, w h i l s t they could i n d i r e c t l y be r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g
m i l i t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e , a f f e c t p r i m a r i l y the r e t u r n to economic
normality."
The
list
(46)
i n c l u d e d e s s e n t i a l i t e m s such a s p e t r o l and d i e s e l o i l ; v e h i c l e
spare p a r t s , t y r e s and b a t t e r i e s ; woollen c l o t h i n g ; cement, and o t h e r
building materials.
D e n i a l o f these m a t e r i a l s l e d to a r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n
of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t h o u s i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and means o f p r o d u c t i o n .
P r o f e s s o r Volkan d e s c r i b e s t h i s v i s i b l e decay observed d u r i n g
(47)
a visit
to N i c o s i a i n the Summer o f 1968 :" The c o n t r a s t between one s i d e o f the green l i n e and the o t h e r
was
impressive.
The T u r k i s h s i d e looked as though i t were i n
-
ruins;
the
streets
everywhere.
to
the
lest
had
Turks use
U.N.P.I.CYP. managed t o
1
sulphur,
June
allowed
into
The
Cypriots
from the
During
on
lift
b)
Following
kept
on
of
Turkey
c o n t r o l would f o l l o w
Panagides argues
1967,
for this
probably influenced
Greeks', t h u s
Greek C y p r i o t
this
of
on
were
isolated Turkish
lifted
i t
was
Turkish
and
introduced
restrictions
were:-
e v e n more w o r r i e d
about
;
by
the
argument
from e n c o u r a g i n g
increasing Turkish
that
the
Turkish
Cypriots
tried
that
an
Turkish
Cypriot
extension
Cypriots
dependence
non-optimal f a c t o r r e l a t i o n s . "
interdependence would c o n t r i b u t e
inequality coefficient,
stability."
In contrast
Turkish
be
discriminated
separation".
which i n t u r n
Cypriot
against
communities would c o n t i n u e .
(51)
to
create
separate
undue d u p l i c a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n
interaction
"geographical
materials
the Government
and
two
Kokkina, although
confinement
"misallocations
actively
August
economy.
e c o n o m i c u n i t s , w h i c h l e d to an
the
whole p e r i o d ,
only
and
coal,
t y r e s were a l l
intercommunal emnity, u n i t i n g
G o v e r n m e n t was
a v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n by
to f r a t e r n i z e w i t h
of
nothing
;
Kophinou the
and
so
wool, imported
the
squeeze not
Other reasons
U.N.F.I.CYP. p r e s s u r e
M a k a r i o s was
time
certain restrictions.
imported " n o n - s t r a t e g i c "
measures" i n l a t e
a)
the
(49)
Partly in realization
Government
to
q u a n t i t i e s , and
b l o c k a d e was
aggravating
c o m p l e t e l y i n 1968.
material
f o r a long
their enclaves,
f a c t i o n s t h r o u g h common e x p e r i e n c e s
provoking
building
i s l a n d ' s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , i n some r e g a r d s
some " n o r m a l i z a t i o n
on
i n large
Government's economic
deprivation.
of
fortify
evident
(48)
fuel
a strict
counter-productive,
c)
d e l i v e r y of
been f o r b i d d e n
i t to
enclaves.
1965, r e s t r i c t i o n s
raised.
Cypriot
p o v e r t y was
woollen m a t e r i a l s , r a i n c o a t s , s t e e l
T964 - M a r c h 1968,
10
the
persuade Makarios
ammonium n i t r a t e ,
gradually
that
s e c t o r had
been r e p a i r e d . "
For instance,
-
w e r e p i t t e d , and
I learned
Turkish
the
114
and
Greater
"the
l e a d e r s argued
economic
minimization
i s ...conducive
that
to
social
they
would
economic i n e q u a l i t i e s between
They r e m a i n e d
Years
to
(50)
facilities,
of
c o m m i t t e d to a p o l i c y
economic i s o l a t i o n
had
not
the
of
led
- 115 to any
change i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y .
during
those
Moreover, Government p o l i c y
y e a r s l e s s e n e d the i n c o n v e n i e n c e
t e r r i t o r y outside
i t s control.
" Time d i d not
stalemate
caused by
"pockets"
T h i s meant, as M i c h a e l D r u r y
suggests,
i n t h i s case h e a l wounds; r a t h e r , as
continued,
so the environment of the
produced symptoms of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a ,
of
the
enclave
w h i l s t the
environment
-of economic boom c o n v i n c e d many Greek C y p r i o t s t h a t t h e r e
no
I t now
(53)
l o n g e r a problem to be s o l v e d . "
remains to look a t some more s p e c i f i c problems c r e a t e d by
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s , and
economic
was
these
U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s to r e s t o r e s o c i o -
normality.
Freedom of movement :
From 1964 to 1974
the i s l a n d was
p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s to m o b i l i t y .
c r i s s - c r o s s e d and
Greek C y p r i o t s had
honeycombed w i t h
to p i c k t h e i r
routes
c a r e f u l l y to a v o i d a r e a s under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l , w h i l s t the
l i k e Macbeth were
and
fears'.
first
(54)
'cabin
1
d, c r i b b ' d , c o n f i n e d ,
p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s "
as "a convenient
(a)
He
(55),
"the
vital
for
a l s o d e s c r i b e d freedom of movement
(56)
y a r d s t i c k of p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the i s l a n d " .
R e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t movement.
Cyprus P o l i c e c h e c k - p o i n t s
and
bound i n t o s a u c y doubts
U Thant d e s c r i b e d f u l l freedom of movement as
r e i n t e g r a t i n g the C y p r i o t economy.
Turks,
and
road-blocks
e x i s t e d on many main roads
a t the e n t r y p o i n t s to T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s and
checks,
quarters.
body s e a r c h e s , p l u s the f e a r of a r r e s t and
Identity
detention,
discouraged
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s from e n t e r i n g a r e a s under Government c o n t r o l .
Government d i d remove Cyprus P o l i c e c h e c k - p o i n t s
Larnaca,
Paphos, and
Limassol.
(57)
The
i n the D i s t r i c t s
Furthermore, a number of
National
Guard p o s i t i o n s were removed n e a r to the "green l i n e s " of Paphos
Larnaca,
a l t h o u g h i n Paphos, two
armed and
> s t i i l dominated the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r .
' " n o r m a l i z a t i o n programme" was
roads c o n n e c t i n g
and
and
Cyprus P o l i c e p o s t s
I n September 1 9 6 7 . a government
started.
towns i n n o r t h e r n
fortified
of
Permanent r o a d - b l o c k s
e a s t e r n Cyprus were
on
trunk
abolished,
- 116 i n c l u d i n g t h o s e a l o n g t h e Pamagusta - S a l a m i s r o a d ; one a t A s t r o m e r i t i s ;
and a t K y r e n i a , on t h e r e a d l e a d i n g t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e o f
Temblos. C o n d i t i o n s a l s o i m p r o v e d a t t h e Famagusta Gate i n N i c o s i a ,
where a t one t i m e d e l a y s o f t h r e e t o f o u r h o u r s were common f o r v e h i c l e s
entering the Turkish quarter, but a f t e r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f "normalization
measures" d e l a y s and s e a r c h e s were r e d u c e d t o t h r e e o r f o u r m i n u t e s .
T r a f f i c t h r o u g h t h e Gate i n c r e a s e d f r o m 350-400 v e h i c l e s p e r day t o an
a v e r a g e o f 600-700 p e r d a y . ('58)
The
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p d i d n o t r e c i p r o c a t e government
" n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures", i n s t e a d s t r i c t c o n t r o l was m a i n t a i n e d
movement o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i s h i n g
control.
Permits
on t h e
t o v i s i t a r e a s u n d e r Greek C y p r i o t
h a d t o be o b t a i n e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i s h i n g t o
t r a v e l f r o m t h e i r q u a r t e r beyond t h e w a l l e d c i t y
sometimes " s t r o n g - a r m
o f Nicosia
t a c t i c s " were- used t o p r e v e n t
P i n e s c o u l d be imposed on any Turk who e n t e r e d
( 5 9 ) and
such movements.
t h e Greek s e c t o r
"far
promenade, f o r f r i e n d l y a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s , o r f o r amusement"
(60)
Turkish Cypriot leaders
justified
t h i s " s e l f - s e g r e g a t i o n " i n terms
of
c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e i r community, b u t o t h e r s saw
it
as a d e l i b e r a t e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n and e n f o r c e m e n t o f s e p a r a t i o n " .
(61)
Normal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s between t h e s c a t t e r e d a r e a s o f T u r k i s h
c o n t r o l were i m p o s s i b l e
copters provided
Cypriot
i n t h e p e r i o d 1964 t o 1968. U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l i -
a m o n t h l y e s c o r t f o r a number o f l o c a l T u r k i s h
leaders i n order to f a c i l i t a t e
leaders i n Nicosia.
C y p r i o t c h i l d r e n from
Cypriot
r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s w i t h t h e i r community
U.N.P.I.CYP. e s c o r t s were a l s o a r r a n g e d
f o r Turkish
the v i l l a g e s o f L i m n i t i s , Ghaziveran, Angolemi,
E l e a , K a l a k h o r i o , and A m b e l i k o u t o t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i n L e f k a
These c h i d r e n were d e n i e d
Seriously i l l
enclave.
t h i s f r o m December T963 t o November T964.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were g i v e n U.N.P.I.CYP. e s c o r t s t o t h e
T u r k i s h h o s p i t a l i n N i c o s i a , w h i l s t o t h e r e s c o r t s were p r o v i d e d f o r j u d g e s
farmers,
and m e r c h a n t s , e n a b l i n g
them t o c o n t i n u e
their
business.
One s p e c i f i c example o f r e s t r i c t i o n s o n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t movement was
at
Temblos, a v i l l a g e on t h e n o r t h e r n e x t e n s i o n
o f the Geunyeli-Aghirda
(62)
E n c l a v e , hemmed i n by b a r b e d w i r e f e n c e s and N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s .
If
t h e v i l l a g e r s w i s h e d t o go t o N i c o s i a
points i n Kyrenia.
they had t o t r a v e l v i a check-
An a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e was v i a a s t e e p t r a c k up t o
S t . H i l a r i o n c a s t l e ( r e f e r t o Map 3.2. ) , f r o m
Nicosia-Kyrenia
road.
there a road
l e d t o the
The Cyprus Government was e x t r e m e l y
about i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e t r a c k up t h e seaward s l o p e
sensitive
o f the Kyrenia
range, w h i c h , i t f e l t , might enable t h e T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s t o t h r e a t e n
t h e r e a r o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard c o a s t a l d e f e n c e p o s i t i o n s west o f K y r e n i a .
In
1965, v i l l a g e r s a t Temblos began t o i m p r o v e t h e t r a c k t o S t .
April
Hilarion.
Given the p o s s i b l e s t r a t e g i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s
U.N.P.I.CYP. i n c r e a s e d
for
peaceful
traffic,
track,
i t s p o s i t i o n s a s t r i d e i t t o e n s u r e i t s use o n l y
and more " b l u e b e r r e t s " were p l a c e d
Temblos and n e a r b y N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s .
inbetween
F u r t h e r m o r e , U.N.F.I.CYP.
made a r u l i n g t h a t o n l y h a n d - t o o l s ,
r a t h e r than mechanical equipment,
c o u l d be used t o i m p r o v e t h e t r a c k .
(63)
( b ) R e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t movement :
Greek C y p r i o t s were d e n i e d a c c e s s t o most T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d
t e r r i t o r y and c o u l d o n l y t r a v e l t h r o u g h
o t h e r s u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t ,
otherwise
K o k k i n a was t o t a l l y p r o h i b i t e d .
The
long detours
c o a s t a l road
traffic
through
L i m n i t i s was open t o Greek C y p r i o t
during daylight hours.
the road
civilian
A t n i g h t Greeks were o n l y a l l o w e d
t o use
i n cases o f m e d i c a l emergency and p r o v i d i n g t h e r e was an U.N.F.-
I.CYP. e s c o r t .
blocks
were n e c e s s a r y .
(64)
a t Lefka,
F i g h t e r s a n d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e manned
A m b e l i k o u , and K a l o k h o r i o ,
where Greek C y p r i o t
were s u b j e c t t o i d e n t i t y c h e c k s , and t h e y were n o t a l l o w e d
Turkish-held
territory.
was r e s t r i c t e d
Travel through
t o the Nicosia
- Kyrenia
roadcivilians
t o stop
within
the Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave
r o a d u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t s ,
w h i c h r a n t w i c e d a i l y c o n v o y s , o f t e n e s c o r t i n g u p t o 4,000 v e h i c l e s p e r
month.
-
118
Greek movements were p r e v e n t e d
Famagusta, L a r n a c a , and Paphos.
e x i s t e d , n o Greek e n t e r e d
day.
-
across the "green l i n e s " o f N i c o s i a ,
Even i n L i m a s s o l where no
"green
t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r a t n i g h t , and
As m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n One
of t h i s chapter,
few d u r i n g
Turkish Cypriot attempts
Lysi-Athienou-Nicosia;
armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n .
or Lysi-Asha-Nicosia
I n Paphos D i s t r i c t
r o u t e s w o u l d have p r e c i p i t a t e d
the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
For
t h e r e was
)
a c l u s t e r a r o u n d A n a d h i o u ( r e f e r t o Map
i s o l a t e d , away f r o m main r o a d s ,
t o e i t h e r t h e Government o r N a t i o n a l Guard.
had
area.(65)
to c o n t r o l the P r a s t i o - N i c o s i a ;
were s c a t t e r e d i n s m a l l " c l u s t e r s " o f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l .
were r e l a t i v e l y
3.S
and
o f no
villages
instance,
These v i l l a g e s
strategic
certain Turkish
villages.
F o r example, a l o c a l agreement e n a b l e d Greek C y p r i o t s f r o m Lyso t o
controlled territory.
T u r k i s h q u a r t e r was
Lyso was
trapped
behind
u n d e r U.N.
travel
Turkish Cypriot-
A n o t h e r l o c a l anomaly e x i s t e d a t P o l i s , where t h e
r e d u c e d t o a n a r r o w , congested s t r i p o f l a n d , o n l y a
few h u n d r e d m e t r e s s q u a r e , a s t r i d e t h e P o l i s - Paphos h i g h w a y .
was
value
I n o t h e r a r e a s U.N.F.I.CYP.
t o a r r a n g e f o r Greek C y p r i o t s t o pass t h r o u g h
through Pelathousa, otherwise
F o r c e o b s e r v a t i o n and
a l t h o u g h Greeks were p r e v e n t e d
Thus Greek C y p r i o t s had
was
This
quarter.
t o be c o n s t a n t l y aware o f v a r i o u s l o c a l
"under-
t h e i r r i g h t s t o move f r o m p l a c e
p l a c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y had
to t r a v e l across e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s ,
check-points
time passed these
road-blocks„
As
restrictions
Greek f r e e d o m o f movement were o f d i m i n i s h i n g i m p o r t a n c e o w i n g t o
f a c t t h a t t h e Government b u i l t new
C i v i l i a n Services
The
roads around the
on
the
enclaves.
:
Government a l s o d i r e c t e d e l e c t r i c i t y
supply
l i n e s and
d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r o u n d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - e n c l a v e s and
f a c t t h e Government had
road
k e p t open t o a l l t r a f f i c ,
from stopping w i t h i n the T u r k i s h
s t a n d i n g s " o r "agreements" r e g a r d i n g
and
the
t h e r e were- s e v e r a l
r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y i n t h e Chatos - K a l y v a k i a
M o r e o v e r , any
line"
water
quarters. In
e f f e c t i v e l y renounced r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
towards
the p r o v i s i o n i n g o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n areas
outside
to
- 119 -
i t s de f a c t o c o n t r o l .
D r u r y made a s t u d y
o f the p r o v i s i o n o f basic
s e r v i c e s i n Greek and T u r k i s h a r e a s i n W e s t e r n C y p r u s . (66)
He f o u n d
t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s were u n d e r - p r i v i l e g e d i n the^ p r o v i s i o n o f
tarmac r o a d s , e l e c t r i c i t y ,
t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e s , t a p p e d w a t e r s u p p l y , and
p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , compared t o Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s .
discrepancies
a g g r a v a t e d i n t e r c o m m u n a l b a d f e e l i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i n cases
where T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were n o t o n l y b e i n g
had
These m a t e r i a l
denied c e r t a i n services but
h a d p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t i n g s e r v i c e s w i t h d r a w n , such as p o s t a l s e r v i c e s ,
t e l e p h o n e l i n e s , and even w a t e r s u p p l y
i n c e r t a i n cases.
U.N.P.I.CYP. n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h e Cyprus Government i n o r d e r t o g e t
s e r v i c e s r e s t o r e d t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a r e a s , and i n some cases i t was
successful.
F o r i n s t a n c e , n o r m a l t e l e p h o n e and e l e c t r i c f a c i l i t i e s
r e s t o r e d t o t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos i n June 1964.
Summer o f '64,
(67)
were
I n the
U.N.P.I.CYP. r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s met w i t h Greek and T u r k i s h
members o f t h e E.A.C. ( E l e c t r i c i t y A u t h o r i t y o f Cyprus ) t o a s s i s t i n
a r r a n g i n g f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f n o r m a l E.A.C. f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e T u r k i s h
quarter o f Nicosia.
supply
(6'8)
U.N.P.I.CYP. t r i e d
t o T u r k i s h a r e a s and t r i e d
t o improve basic
water
t o f i n d ways f o r t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f
I n T965 an a u x i l i a r y w a t e r
b i l l s f o r f u t u r e water consumption.
supply
s y s t e m was i n s t a l l e d a t K o k k i n a u n d e r U.N. Force s u p e r v i s i o n . ( 6 9 )
e v e r t h e r e were c o m p l a i n t s
o f d e l i b e r a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f water
Where-
supplies
U.N. F o r c e teams i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p r o b l e m s and e n d e a v o u r e d t o e l i m i n a t e
t h e causes o f any w a t e r s h o r t a g e s .
sporadic
They i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e a c u t e b u t
shortages o f f r e s h water t o the Turkish
S c a l a , where t h e i n h a b i t a n t s c l a i m e d
responsible
q u a r t e r o f Larnaca,
t h a t Greek C y p r i o t s , who were
f o r the f l o w o f water through
t o S c a l a , were t o blame.
O f f i c i a l s o f t h e L a r j i a c a Water B o a r d d e n i e d any i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e
water supply
o f S c a l a , b l a m i n g t h e o l d , i n e f f i c i e n t w a t e r system o f t h e
quarter instead.
U„N.F.I.CYP. t e c h n i c i a n s p r o m p t l y
m e t e r s on t h e s u p p l y
mains where t h e y e n t e r e d
e s t a b l i s h how much w a t e r was b e i n g
allowed
installed
water
the quarter i n order t o
i n t o S c a l a . (70)
During d r y
-
120 -
summer months U.N.P.I.CYP. l i a i s e d w i t h t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
at the request
Leadership
o f t h e Cyprus Government t o a r r a n g e a c o o r d i n a t e d i s l a n d -
wide r e d u c t i o n o f w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n . ( 7 1 )
The
was
K a n l i Keuy Dam, l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e G u w i y e l i - A g h i r d a E n c l a v e ,
completed w i t h t h e cooperation
o f the United
Programme ( U.N.D.P. ) and U.N.P.I.CYP.
N a t i o n s Development
The dam was v i r t u a l l y
complete
a t t h e o u t b r e a k o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t i n December 1963 e x c e p t f o r
the s p i l l w a y .
Forthe f o l l o w i n g three years,
and
were n o t p e r m i t t e d i n t o t h e E n c l a v e .
completion
m a t e r i a l s f o r i t s maintenance
During
a period o f
heavy r a i n f a l l i n F e b r u a r y 1967 t h e dam was i n danger o f f l o o d i n g o v e r .
Emergency r e p a i r s were n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t
Government r e l e a s e d
who
organized
disaster.
Thus t h e Cyprus
t h e r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l s t o U.N.D.P. and U.N.P.I.CYP.,
the Turkish Cypriots working
on t h e p r o j e c t . ( 7 2 )
As r e g a r d s p o s t a l services,U.N.P.I.CYP. f a i l e d i n a t t e m p t s
t h e Government t o r e s t o r e f u l l
t e r r i t o r y , although
facilities
t o persuade
t o Turkish Cypriot-controlled
l e t t e r d e l i v e r i e s were resumed f o r t h e T u r k i s h
q u a r t e r s o f L a r n a c a , N i c o s i a , and l e f k a .
v i e w s o f t h e two community l e a d e r s h i p s
t o r e s t o r e n o r m a l i t y t o such m a t t e r s
(73)
The o p p o s i t e
made i t i m p o s s i b l e
political
f o r U.N.P.I.CYP.
as t h e payment o f s o c i a l
insurance
b e n e f i t s t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s and p u b l i c r e v e n u e t o t h e Government o u t
of Turkish Cypriot c o f f e r s .
The Government a r g u e d t h a t any b e n e f i t s t o
t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d be used f o r " i n s u r r e c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s " . ( 7 4 )
S i m i l a r l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. made l i t t l e
progress i n using
t o r e e s t a b l i s h an i n t e g r a t e d j u d i c i a l s y s t e m f o r b o t h
f u n c t i o n i n g throughout
i t s good
offices
communities
t h e i s l a n d . (75)
Agriculture :
One o b v i o u s s p a t i a l p r o b l e m r e s u l t i n g f r o m
t h e de f a c t o changes of
t h e p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y o f Cyprus c o n c e r n e d l a n d o w n e r s h i p .
According
t o T u r k i s h propaganda :
" As a r e s u l t o f t h e f o r c e d d i s l o c a t i o n o f T u r k s f r o m
their
homes, 300,000 donums o f T u r k i s h owned l a n d have been c u l t i v a t e d
-
for
12T -
seven y e a r s by t h e Greeks w i t h o u t r e n t o r c o m p e n s a t i o n . " ( 7 6 )
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h a d abandoned some r i c h f a r m l a n d ,
u n c u l t i v a t e d adjacent
or left
other
t o N a t i o n a l Guard o r F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s .
areas
As U Thant
p o i n t e d o u t : - " By f a r t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m i n a g r i c u l t u r e i s t h e
question o f unauthorized
cultivation.
t u r a l l a n d i n Cyprus a r e b e i n g
Large areas o f a g r i c u l -
c u l t i v a t e d by p e r s o n s who a r e
n e i t h e r t h e owners o f t h e l a n d n o r t e n a n t s i n t h e n o r m a l sense
o f t h e word." (77)
Reponding t o U.N.F.I.CYP. p r e s s u r e t h e Government made i t a
offence
f o r " Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s t o c u l t i v a t e T u r k i s h owned l a n d
t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a b s e n t e e owners.
o f t e n had l i t t l e
choice
rents.
Any c o m p l a i n t s
or l e f t
completely
fifty
p e r cent
I n p r a c t i c e , however, T u r k i s h
b u t t o lease
regarding
without
Cypriots
t h e i r abandoned f i e l d s a t uneconomic
r e n t s could lead t o land being
u n c u l t i v a t e d , t h u s g i v i n g no r e t u r n .
( 7 8 ) U.N.CIV.POL. p r e v e n t e d
damaged
I n T966, a b o u t
o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t abandoned l a n d was b e i n g
Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s .
any
punishable
l e a s e d by
as f a r as p o s s i b l e
u n l a w f u l h a r v e s t i n g a r o u n d abandoned T u r k i s h v i l l a g e s . ( 7 9 )
Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s were u n a b l e t o g a i n access t o l a n d t h e y owned
w i t h i n Turkish Cypriot enclaves.
Government c l a i m e d
I n t h e Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave t h e
t h a t 2,700 donums ( i . e . a b o u t 9,000 a c r e s ) o f Greek
C y p r i o t l a n d was e i t h e r u n d e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l o r t o o c l o s e t o
T u r k i s h F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s f o r i t t o be c u l t i v a t e d by G r e e k s . ( 8 0 )
Little
p r o g r e s s was made o v e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t payment o f c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r
c u l t i v a t i n g Greek l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a w e s t o f Dhikomo.
o t h e r d i s t i c t s U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t e d
areas close
the i n d i s t i n c t
tensions
and
to Turkish
I n t h e M e s a o r i a b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s owned l a n d
b o u n d a r y o f t h e Chatos - K a l y v a k i a
r o s e a r o u n d s o w i n g and h a r v e s t i n g t i m e s .
c u l t i v a t o r s were a l l o w e d
a request
Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s t o s e n s i t i v e
t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s and t o f i e l d s a d j a c e n t
Cypriot v i l l a g e s .
enclave.
Local
t o enter the enclave provided
around
Intercommunal
Greek C y p r i o t
they had submitted
t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e s t a t i o n a t Chatos.
Peristerona i n Nicosia D i s t r i c t ,
In
At M a t h i a t i
i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s were a r r a n g e d
- 122 -
by U.N.P.I.CYP., b u t t h e F o r c e f a i l e d i n i t s " a t t e m p t s t o a r r a n g e ad hoc
meetings...on a l a r g e r scale t o deal w i t h broader aspects o f u n a u t h o r i z e d
c u l t i v a t i o n . " (81)
U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l p e d
areas,
save many c i t r u s o r c h a r d s
i n abandoned and s e n s i t i v e
and i t saw t h a t t h e s e o r c h a r d s were p r o p e r l y i r r i g a t e d ,
collecting
i r r i g a t i o n f e e s f r o m t h e owners and p a y i n g
even
the i r r i g a t o r s . (82)
The
U.N. F o r c e a c t e d as a n i n t e r m e d i a r y between T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
and
t h e G r a i n Commission.
ortion
I t proved
farmers
successful i n s e l l i n g a high
o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t wheat and b a r l e y c r o p s
prop-
through the Grain
Commission i n T965 and i n 1967. ( 8 3 ) U.N.F.I.CYP. a l s o used i t s good
o f f i c e s t o remove r e s t r i c t i o n s
on gas o i l and l u b r i c a n t s f o r
f u e l f o r w a t e r pumps; and on s u l p h u r and n i t r a t e f e r t i l i z e r s
a l t h o u g h most a g r i c u l t u r a l
m a c h i n e r y remained d i f f i c u l t
most T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c e n t r e s . ( 8 5 ) I n d o i n g
T u r k i s h producers
tractors;
(84),
to obtain f o r
so U.N.F.I.CYP. e n s u r e d
that
c o u l d g e t t h e i r s u r p l u s e s on t o e x p o r t markets, f o r
w i t h o u t U.N. a s s i s t a n c e c u l t i v a t i o n w o u l d have been
difficult.
I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic a c t i v i t y :
Owing t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n
i n Cyprus many i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s were
c l o s e d o r s t o o d i d l e because t h e i r owners were s e p a r a t e d
artificial
e t h n i c boundaries
or 'confrontation lines'.
from
them by
F o r example,
t h r e e v a l u a b l e Greek e n t e r p r i s e s s t o o d i d l e w i t h i n T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s
a limekiln
and q u a r r y ; a f l o u r m i l l ;
and a t e x t i l e p l a n t .
(86) Turkish
C y p r i o t owned e n t e r p r i s e s were c l o s e d because t h e y were d e n i e d
m a t e r i a l s by t h e economic b l o c k a d e ,
and
b a s i c raw
o t h e r s were l o c a t e d i n s t r a t e g i c
a r e a s where T u r k s d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t s a f e t o e n t e r .
Steelwool
—
Thus t h e C y p r o -
Company r e m a i n e d c l o s e d o w i n g t o r e s t r i c t i o n s
on s t e e l w i r e
f u e l , and t h e T u r k i s h l i m e k i l n s o f A m b e l i k o u were i d l e due t o t h e
p r o x i m i t y o f N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s on h i l l s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e l i m e k i l n s .
(87)
U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s
t o r e a c t i v a t e a v a r i e t y o f i n d u s t r i a l and
c o m m e r c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s met w i t h o p p o s i t i o n f r o m b o t h l e a d e r s h i p s . ( 8 8 )
-
123
-
U.N.F.I.CYP. measures t o a s s i s t r e f u g e e s
Attempts t o solve the refugee
:
p r o b l e m were hampered by t h e p o l i t i c a l
s t a n c e s a d o p t e d by t h e community l e a d e r s h i p s .
President
(i)
On 23 September
M a k a r i o s s t a t e d t h a t t h e Government was p r e p a r e d
Assistance
1965,
to provide:-
t o r e p a i r o r t o t a l l y r e c o n s t r u c t T u r k i s h homes i n
abandoned v i l l a g e s ;
(ii)
Financial assistance
f o r t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f a l l those
Turkish
C y p r i o t s " f o r c e d " t o abandone t h e i r v i l l a g e s by t h e T u r k i s h
Cypriot
Leadership;
( i i i ) F i n a n c i a l assistance
t o any T u r k i s h C y p r i o t u n a b l e t o f i n d
w i t h i n t h e Greek C y p r i o t
(iv)
employmen
sector;
Measures f o r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a f e t y and p r o t e c t i o n . ( 8 9 )
I n support
o f t h i s p o l i c y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s were r e f u s e d
building
m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f permanent s t r u c t u r e s t o house
refugees.
This p o l i c y f a i l e d
Under
these
t o e n t i c e many r e f u g e e s
circumstances
back t o o l d homes.
t h e most U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do was t o t r y t o a l l e v i a t e
some o f t h e h a r d s h i p s
and d e p r i v a t i o n s o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
"displaced
persons".
V i r t u a l l y a l l t h e T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s were o v e r c r o w d e d and l a c k i n g
infrastructure.
resources
working
Furthermore, these
to provide
populations.
t i n y areas o f land lacked
the basic
employment f o r more t h a n a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r
K o k k i n a was a p r i m e e x a m p l e .
Since t h e T y l l i r i a
f i g h t i n g i n August 1964 t h e K o k k i n a e n c l a v e was a r e s t r i c t e d
f r e e d o m o f movement o f p e o p l e and goods d i d n o t a p p l y .
800 r e f u g e e s
proper
were l i v i n g
i n caves o r h o l e s
zone where
Approximately
i n the h i l l s i d e .
They were
dependent on f o r t n i g h t l y Red C r e s c e n t s u p p l i e s f r o m c e n t r a l warehouses
i n N i c o s i a , f i r e w o o d s h i p m e n t s f r o m L i m n i t i s ; p l u s an o c c a s i o n a l
of fresh f r u i t
and v e g e t a b l e s
from neighbouring
supply
v i l l a g e s d e l i v e r e d under
U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t . ( 9 0 ) I n s p i t e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. s u c c e s s i n p e r s u a d i n g
t h e r e l e a s e o f b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s t o K o k k i n a t o b u i l d a communal b a k e r y
( 9 1 ) , t h e e n c l a v e r e m a i n e d " t h e most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o f a l l r e f u g e e
" F o r a l m o s t f o u r y e a r s t h i s s m a l l a r e a o f i n f e r t i l e and
uneven c o a s t a l l a n d has s h e l t e r e d a r e f u g e e
p o p u l a t i o n so
centres
-
124
-
o v e r c r o w d e d as t o l e a v e no room f o r any
e x p l o i t a t i o n of the s o i l . "
Even a f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e
o f 425
J a n u a r y 1966, t h e r e m a i n i n g
uncomfortable, unhealthy
c e n t r e s had
was
one
The
continued
to l i v e
"an
Other
refugee
Hamid Mandres, n o r t h o f N i c o s i a i n t h e
of the l a r g e s t refugee
were 3,000 p e r s o n s l i v i n g
d w e l l i n g s were b u i l t
refugees
to Turkey i n
meaningless e x i s t e n c e " . ( 9 2 )
s i m i l a r problems.
main e n c l a v e ,
(91)
Turkish Cypriot students
1,200
and
significant
centres.
Initially
i n t e n t e d accommodation u n t i l
u n d e r a s e l f - h e l p scheme.
Turkish Cypriot Leadership discouraged
there
mud-brick
(93)
the r e t u r n o f
Turkish
C y p r i o t s t o o l d homes i n a r e a s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Cyprus Government.
The
T u r k i s h Government h e l p e d
to finance a Turkish Cypriot
scheme w i t h i n a r e a s u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l .
tried
to a t t r a c t
M a l l i a , i n Limassol D i s t r i c t ,
r i c h e s t v i n e y a r d v i l l a g e s i n Cyprus.
was
900,
Turk s and
80 Greeks.
a l l o f whom l e f t
Considerable
Meanwhile t h e Cyprus Government
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back t o a r e a s i n o r d e r t o
c e r t a i n valuable crops.
i n c l u d e d 600
rehousing
was
harvest
one
of
the
I n December 1960 i t s p o p u l a t i o n
I n 1963
t h e number o f T u r k i s h
a f t e r intercommunal f i g h t i n g i n e a r l y
e f f o r t s were made by D i s t r i c t
a u t h o r i t i e s and
residents
1964.
U.N.P.I.CYP.
to persuade T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to r e t u r n f o i r the grape h a r v e s t
in
By mid-September a b o u t 120
harvest
f a m i l i e s had
returned.
A f t e r the
the Turkish p o p u l a t i o n of M a l l i a f l u c t u a t e d according
The
Government c o n t i n u e d
to seasonal work.
i t s e f f o r t s ,to keep T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
repairing
I n s p i t e o f these
e f f o r t s M a l l i a ' s 1970-'71 p o p u l a t i o n c o n t a i n e d
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , o v e r 600
enclaves.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t homes i n t h e
there,
s p e n d i n g C£ 6,719
400
103
village.
only
Turkish C y p r i o t s stayed i n the s a f e t y o f
(94)
U.N.F.IcCYP.'s e f f o r t s t o n o r m a l i z e
to
1964.
c o n d i t i o n s by e n c o u r a g i n g b o t h
sides
c o o p e r a t e i n t h e s a f e r e t u r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o t h e i r abandoned
homes i n G o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d
activities,
territory,
l i k e a l l other normalization
were f r u s t r a t e d by t h e u n d e r l y i n g m i s t r u s t and
unwillingness
-
125
-
t o compromise between t h e l e a d e r s h i p s o f each
S e c t i o n Three
:
P o l i t i c a l Background.
community.
November '67 t o J u l y '7'4.
The b l o o d s h e d a t K o p h i n o u p r o v o k e d a T u r k i s h t h r e a t o f war a g a i n s t
Greece and l e d t o a number o f agreements
President
imposed
M a k a r i o s was w i l l i n g
agreements.
between t h e two c o u n t r i e s .
t o comply w i t h some o f t h e s e
F o r example,
6 -
externally
12,000 Greek s o l d i e r s r e t u r n e d
t o A t h e n s , b u t a number o f Greek o f f i c e r s s t i l l
t h e N a t i o n a l Guard. (96)
remained i n charge o f
Makarios a l s o r e f u s e d t o increase
the scale
and powers o f U.N.F.I.CYP. i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a g r e e m e n t s .
permitted t h i s , t h e Security Council
President
(95)
c o u l d have a c t e d
Had he
accordingly.
Makarios also r e f o r m u l a t e d basic p o l i t i c a l goals, arguing
that,
" A s o l u t i o n , by n e c e s s i t y , must be s o u g h t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s
o f what i s f e a s i b l e , w h i c h does n o t a l w a y s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e
l i m i t s o f what i s d e s i r a b l e . "
The
(97)
" f e a s i b l e " s o l u t i o n was an i n d e p e n d e n t , u n i t e d R e p u b l i c , a l t h o u g h
Makarios continued
t o pay " l i p s e r v i c e " t o " E n o s i s as a d i s t a n t g o a l " .
(98)
E n o s i s w i t h a m i l i t a r y J u n t a i n Athens was no l o n g e r a d e s i r a b l e o p t i o n ,
e s p e c i a l l y when t h e Greek C y p r i o t s d e r i v e d c e r t a i n economic b e n e f i t s
from t h e i s l a n d ' s independent s t a t u s , which would disappear i f t h e i s l a n d
became " y e t a n o t h e r o f Greece's n e g l e c t e d
provinces".
(99)
I n spite of
the m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n Makarios had a l a n d s l i d e v i c t o r y
i n t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s o f 25 F e b r u a r y 1968,
of the votes, crushing
I n December 1967
securing
t h e newly formed "Enosis F r o n t " o p p o s i t i o n .
t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s renamed t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p t h e
" P r o v i s i o n a l Turkish Cypriot A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " , which replaced
G e n e r a l Committee.
95 p e r c e n t
Moreover,
the o l d
w i t h t h e removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h
f r e e d o m o f movement i n March 1968,
t h e l e a d e r s h i p , based i n N i c o s i a , was
able t o improve i t s c o n t r o l o f t h e s c a t t e r e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
community.
The f o r m a t i o n o f t h e " P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " was " f l a g r a n t l y u n l a w f u l "
according
t o M a k a r i o s , f o r as O b e r l i n g p o i n t s o u t , i t made t h e A r c h b i s h o p ' s
-
126
-
"chances o f e v e r a g a i n p r e s i d i n g o v e r a u n i f i e d , bicommunal government
...much more r e m o t e . "
On
13 A p r i l
1968,
(100)
Rauf D e n k t a s r e t u r n e d t o Cyprus and
was
nominated
t
spokesman o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community.
President
o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s ,
Mr G l a f k o s
was
Clerides,
spokesman f o r t h e Greek
C y p r i o t s i n t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s w h i c h began on 2-5
D e n k t a s a r g u e d f o r some k i n d o f
Greek C y p r i o t s were w i l l i n g
organized
June
1968.
' f u n c t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n ' , whereas t h e
to g r a n t the Turks wider
on a c o n v e n t i o n a l g e o g r a p h i c a l
basis.
l o c a l autonomy
The
intercommunal
were n o t o n l y h a n d i c a p p e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s o f D e n k t a s
C l e r i d e s , b u t by t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f Greek C y p r i o t e x t r e m i s t s and
talks
and
outside
powers.
D r a w i n g on a q u o t a t i o n f r o m L a u r e n c e S t e r n , M i c h a e l
" Sihanouk o f Cambodia i s now
dead, b u t t o g e t h e r t h e s e
accurately described
two
deposed and
A t t a l i d e s argued,
M a k a r i o s o f Cyprus
Heads o f S t a t e have been
as " s u r v i v a l a c r o b a t s
s t r u g g l i n g to
m a i n t a i n n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e shadows o f t h e
power t r i a n g l e . "
B o t h t h e Greek J u n t a
flirting
and
"
great
(101)
t h e N i x o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n accused M a k a r i o s o f
w i t h the S o v i e t Union. (102)
W a s h i n g t o n was
primarily
about Western r e g i o n a l a l l i a n c e s i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean;
concerned
the
c h a n g i n g s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e among t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ; t h e e f f e c t s o f
the
Arab - I s r a e l i
and
the non-aligned
c r i s i s i n t h e r e g i o n and
tendencies
on s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ;
o f Makarios i n a country w i t h a strong
communist p a r t y , A.K.E.L., W a s h i n g t o n a p p e a r e d t o f a v o u r
along
the l i n e s
of plans
Conference i n Lisbon
a
solution
f i n a l i z e d a t t h e N.A.T.O. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s
i n June 1971,
which granted
substantial regional/
communal autonomy t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
The
J u n t a i n Cyprus were i n f l u e n c e d by U.S.
e f f o r t s t o " t i d y up"
e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . (T03)
a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Greek
the
As C o u f o u d a k i s a r g u e s ,
" t h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e o v e r t and
covert i n i t i a t i v e s
t a k e n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Greece and
under-
T u r k e y s i n c e the-
- 127 -
c o l l a p s e o f t h e F i r s t C y p r i o t R e p u b l i c was t o b r i n g
the p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d . "
about
(104)
W i t h i n Cyprus M a k a r i o s was f a c e d w i t h g r o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m p r o E n o s i s t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s , l e d by 'E.O.K.A.-B' u n d e r G e n e r a l G r i v a s who
s e c r e t l y r e e n t e r e d Cyprus i n September T971.
I n 1972,
relations
between
M a k a r i o s and t h e J u n t a d e t e r i o r a t e d f u r t h e r a f t e r a c o n s i g n m e n t o f
weapons f r o m C z e c h o s l o v a k i a were d i s c o v e r e d a t t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l
i n Nicosia.
Palace
( 1 0 5 ) T h i s was f o l l o w e d by an a b o r t i v e " e c c l e s i a s t i c a l
coup"
a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s by t h e b i s h o p s o f K i t i o n , K y r e n i a , and Paphos„
I n the
Summer o f '73, t h e A r c h b i s h o p s p o n s o r e d an a n t i - J u n t a newspaper
—
' E l e f t h e r o s Laos' ( Free People
) , w h i c h c a l l e d upon K i n g C o n s t a n t i n e
and f o r m e r P r e m i e r , K a r a m a n l i s , t o e s t a b l i s h a Greek g o v e r n m e n t - i n - e x i l e
i n Nicosia.
Meanwhile i n Athens
a n o t h e r m i l i t a r y coup h a d b r o u g h t t h e
Chief o f M i l i t a r y Police, Brigadier D i m i t r i o s Ioannides, i n t o
a l t h o u g h t h e a c t u a l Head o f S t a t e was G e n e r a l Phaedon G i z i k i s .
c u t t i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h i s t a k e o v e r H i t c h e n s , 1984,
power,
In a
b l u n t l y r e m a r k s :-
" I f Papadopoulos was a F a s c i s t i n t h e M u s s o l i n i
mould,
I o a n n i d e s was more l i k e an a u t h e n t i c N a z i . . . " ( 1 0 6 )
The
d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n was v e r y u n s t a b l e i n t h e e a r l y
which m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t r e c d n c i l i a t i o n a t t h e conference t a b l e
t h e second
1970s,
during
r o u n d o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l t a l k s , w h i c h began on 8 June 1972.
M a k a r i o s h a d f a i l e d t o clamp down on " t h e p r o - E n o s i s d i e h a r d s " and t o
l e a d h i s community t o w a r d s t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
Any c r i t i c i s m o f
U.N.F.I.CYP. d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d must t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e
political
c o n s t r a i n t s w o r k i n g a g a i n s t U.N.F.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s t o n o r m a l i z e c o n d i t i o n s
w i t h i n t h e i s l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between
i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l power p o l i t i c s .
S e c t i o n Four
The
:
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Second Phase. November '67 t o J u l y
U.N. F o r c e e n t e r e d i t s second
'74.
phase o f o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus w i t h o u t
any e x t e n s i o n o f i t s s c a l e o r p o w e r s .
Before discussing i t s operations
-
128
-
during t h i s p e r i o d , i t i s c r u c i a l to consider
Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s t i l l
de f a c t o s e g r e g a t i o n .
cooperation
vendettas
whether o r n o t o r d i n a r y
had t h e good w i l l
to coexist
despite
U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d some s u c c e s s i n f o s t e r i n g
between m u k h t a r s o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e Paphos
i n 1967. ( see S e c t i o n
Two )
Michael Harbottle noted t h a t
—
even " a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i s i s i n December
it
was r e p o r t e d t h a t members o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s i n A y i o s
Theodhoros were s i t t i n g
t o g e t h e r i n t h e same c o f f e e h o u s e ,
not o n l y exchanging c o n v e r s a t i o n
but also Christmas g i f t s
a s i g n t h a t w h a t e v e r t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d was d o i n g ,
—
they
a t l e a s t were d e t e r m i n e d t o g e t r e l a t i o n s h i p s back t o n o r m a l
and
It
l i v e i n quiet accord w i t h t h e i r neighbours." (107)
seems f a i r t o a r g u e t h a t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e
i n Cyprus w i s h e d t o l i v e i n peace and s e c u r i t y w i t h one a n o t h e r .
H a r b o t t l e argued i n another a r t i c l e ,
As
t h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f examples
"where human r e l a t i o n s and s t a n d a r d s o f c i v i l i z e d b e h a v i o u r have
triumphed
over ethnic d i f f e r e n c e s " .
( 1 0 8 ) I t was one o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s
t a s k s t o f o s t e r t h e s p o n t a n e o u s " r e i n t e g r a t i n g t r e n d " i n Greek and
Turkish Cypriot r e l a t i o n s , a d i f f i c u l t
task given a l l t h e p o l a r i z i n g
p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s a t work i n C y p r u s . (109)
U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d l e s s e n e d t h e h a r d s h i p s
enclaves,
I n t h e y e a r s p r i o r t o T968
of Turkish Cypriots l i v i n g i n
and by so d o i n g h e l p e d t o p r e s e r v e a p a r t h e i d i n C y p r u s . The
p r e s e n c e o f t h i s F o r c e may have r e d u c e d t h e u r g e n c y f o r a p o l i t i c a l
s e t t l e m e n t by...
" providing the a l l - i m p o r t a n t face-saving
peaceful
coexistence
excuse f o r
r a t h e r than t h e reason f o r i t . *
C e r t a i n l y by T968 U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d become an i m p o r t a n t
life,
(110)
element i n C y p r i o t
i t s " p r e s e n c e became a d d i c t i v e f o r a l l t h e i s l a n d e r s who h a d grown
p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y dependent ori t h i s e x t e r n a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d
operation".
(1T1)
i
n
t h e s i x y e a r s up t o J u l y 1974
F o r c e s u f f e r e d a r e d u c t i o n i n i t s numbers and k e p t
t h e l e s s , " U.N.F.I.CYP. was a b l e
painkilling
the United
Nations
t h e same mandate, n e v e r -
t o p l a y a more d i r e c t r o l e i n t h e
r e s t o r a t i o n o f normal conditions...away from
the p o l i t i c a l
-
129
-
b a t t l e f r o n t i n t h e s o c i a l and economic f i e l d s . " ( T 1 2 )
i ) Pacification Activities :
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e was l e s s i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e t h a n i n
the p r e v i o u s
island-wide
of "negative
f o u r years.
Even s o , U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d t o n e g o t i a t e an
d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n programme.
stability",
superficially
1968 t o J u l y T974 was a p e r i o d
quiet, but w i t h underlying
tension
" s t r a i n e d , a b n o r m a l and f r a u g h t w i t h t h e s e r i o u s d a n g e r i n h e r e n t i n t h e
c o n t i n u i n g c l o s e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f w e l l armed and t r a i n e d f o r c e s . "
(113)
Under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s v i e w e d w i t h a n x i e t y any
r e d u c t i o n s i n U.N.P.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h , f o r as t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l
i t , -U.N.F.I.CYP. was
puts
considered
" as a g u a r a n t e e o f t r a n q u i l i t y and s e c u r i t y , even i n a r e a s
where t h e r e have been no d i s t u r b a n c e s
f o r a long time."
(114)
C o n f r o n t a t i o n areas:
(a)
Nicosia.
The "Green L i n e " c o n t i n u e d
t o be an a r e a o f c l o s e armed
confrontation,
a p o t e n t i a l f l a s h p o i n t where s e r i o u s i n c i d e n t s c o u l d o c c u r a t any t i m e .
S u c c e s s i v e U.N. F o r c e a t t e m p t s
programme were u n s u c c e s s f u l .
t o arrange a mutual d e c o n f r o n t a t i o n
( 1 1 5 ) A n o t h e r t r o u b l e s p o t was t h e s u b u r b
o f O r m o r p h i t a , w h i c h had been t h e scene o f b i t t e r i n t e r c o m m u n a l
i n December 1>963.
fighting
S i n c e t h e n , w i t h t h e a r e a b e i n g h e l d by t h e N a t i o n a l
Guard, many T u r k i s h homes w h i c h h a d been s e r i o u s l y damaged i n f i g h t i n g
were l e f t
Line
t o decay.
The s u b u r b was on and i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e Green
and so much o f i t was p a t r o l l e d by U.N.
troops.
On 26 J a n u a r y 1968, t h e C o u p i l o f M i n i s t e r s d e c i d e d t o e x t e n d t h e
municipal
boundaries o f N i c o s i a t o i n c l u d e t h e suburbs o f P a l l o u r i o t i s s a ,
K a i m a k l i , and O m o r p h i t a .
d e l i b e r a t e attempt
provided
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r g u e d t h a t t h i s was a
to limit
t h e power o f t h e T u r k i s h M u n i c i p a l i t y as
f o r i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n p r i o r t o t h e t r o u b l e s . (116)
Government' r e j e c t e d T u r k i s h p r o p o s a l s
t h a t Ormorphita should
The
be p l a c e d
-
T30 -
u n d e r t h e e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o f U.N.F.I.CYP. T e n s i o n s i n c r e a s e d when
Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s made f r e q u e n t v i s i t s
the w a l l e d c i t y ,
t o Green L i n e a r e a s w i t h i n
a l o n g A y i o s D e m e t r i o s S t r e e t , and i n O m o r p h i t a .
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r e f u s e d t o move f r o m t h e i r f o r w a r d advance
between t h e Green L i n e and N a o u s i s S t r e e t u n l e s s
lines
—
i)
The s u b u r b s were p l a c e d u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. c o n t r o l ;
ii)
N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s
i n advance o f t h e Green L i n e n e a r t h e L e d r a
P a l a c e H o t e l , and between O m o r p h i t a and Hamid Mandres, were
iii)
A l l Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s o f s t r e e t s on o r w i t h i n
dismantled;
100 m e t r e s o f t h e
Green L i n e were s t o p p e d :
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do l i t t l e
The Government c o n t i n u e d
to restrict
problems.
the r e t u r n o f Turkish refugees t o
t h e i r homes i n O m o r p h i t a and N e a p o l i s ,
prevented
t o r e s o l v e these
as l o n g as Greek C y p r i o t s were
from e n t e r i n g t h e p a r t s o f these
suburbs under T u r k i s h
Cypriot
c o n t r o l . (117)
(b) Other Areas.
As i n t h e c a p i t a l no d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n was a c h i e v e d
l i n e " o f Lamaca.
along
N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s r e m a i n e d on P a t s a l o
H a l a S u l t a n Tekke, w h i l s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s m a i n t a i n e d
along Artemis
t h e "green
Avenue.
H i l l and
their
front-line
I n r e t u r n f o r t h e " n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures"
i n t r o d u c e d by t h e Government i n March 1968, t h e Cyprus Government
f o r a withdrawal
along
Artemis
o f T u r k i s h p o s i t i o n s and a r e t u r n
Avenue.
Scala t o a t t a c k .
called
o f f r e e d o m o f movement
T u r k i s h l e a d e r s a r g u e d t h a t t h i s w o u l d expose
Furthermore t h e continued
occupation
o f t h e i r Muslim
s h r i n e o f H a l a S u l t a n Tekke was s a c r i l e g e , an a f f r o n t t o t h e T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t community. ( 1 1 8 ) T u r k i s h r e q u e s t s
school w i t h i n the Government-controlled
f o r a reopening
o f the Turkish
p a r t o f town on t h e m a r g i n s o f
S c a l a were t u r n e d down f o r s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n s . ( 1 1 9 )
Limassol d i d n o t remain q u i e t throughout
c o n s t r u c t e d a r a t t a n fence
this period.
Turkish
across Lycourgos S t r e e t , adjacent
compound, w h i c h t h e y r e f u s e d t o remove.
Cypriots
to a Fighter
There was a l s o some a n x i e t y
131
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- T32 -
regarding t h e use o f the Greek Orthodox Church o f Ayios
Antonios,
which was s i t u a t e d i n a s e n s i t i v e q u a r t e r o f Limassol i n h a b i t e d by
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . (120)
Reductions i n U.N.F.I.CYP. s t r e n g t h . ( see Map 5:2 f o r 1968 deployment )
At the s t a r t o f i t s second phase U.N.F.I.CYP. was over 4,700 men
s t r o n g , but by May 1972 i t was l i t t l e more than 3,000 s t r o n g .
These
s i z e a b l e r e d u c t i o n s l e d t o redeployments and r e d u c t i o n s i n t h e number
of manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts.
approximately
A new Larnaca Zone was created w i t h
t h e same boundaries o f those o f the c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
One o f the main reasons f o r these changes was the huge cost o f
f i n a n c i n g the peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n .
I n 1969, the Secretary-General
requested a S e c r e t a r i a t Survey Team t o look thoroughly i n t o t h e f i n a n c i a l
s i t u a t i o n o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
The Team concluded t h a t
—
" While the basic problems o f Cyprus remain
unsolved,
i t would seem h i g h l y unwise t o make a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e
s t r e n g t h and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f U.N.F.I.CYP. on the basis
of
the present degree o f q u i e t , which i s i n l a r g e measure
the r e s u l t o f i t s presence on the i s l a n d . " (121)
i i ) Normalization A c t i v i t i e s :
U n t i l 8 March 1968 "the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
were i n touch w i t h t h e o u t -
side world o n l y through the personnel o f the United Nations."
(T22) On
8 March the Government l i f t e d i t s economic blockade and a l l s t a t i c
blocks were withdrawn.
Unfortunately the so-called "normalization
measures" f a i l e d t o reverse a d e f i n i t e " t r e n d towards separate
development". (123)
of
road-
economic
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership h e l d onto i t s c o n t r o l
s c a t t e r e d enclaves by c o n t i n u i n g a p o l i c y o f non-cooperation
w i t h and
n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Cyprus Government.
Separate economic development.
In
of
1971, a U.N. economist estimated t h a t the average p e r c a p i t a income
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s was h a l f t h a t o f Greek C y p r i o t s . (124) The P r o v i s i o n a l
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n sought t o promote separate processing and manufacturing
133 -
i n d u s t r i e s i n s i d e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y , u t i l i z i n g f i n a n c e from
Turkey.
As the Secretary-General
commented i n h i s r e p o r t o f 2 December
1*970 —
" Depite undoubted progress i n intercommunal r e l a t i o n s i n
such areas as employment, t r a i n i n g and commerce, no
rapprochment...has been made on such basic issues as
investment
and economic p o l i c y . " (125)
The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e c e i v e d an annual g r a n t from Ankara o f
£8 m i l l i o n , which covered the costs o f communal w e l f a r e and development
programmes, as w e l l as F i g h t e r and c i v i l servant s a l a r i e s .
Some c r i t i c s
of t h e Leadership argued t h a t more funds should have been channelled
i n t o development p r o j e c t s t o a l l e v i a t e the c h r o n i c under- and unemployment
w i t h i n T u r k i s h areas.
Economic c o n d i t i o n s could have been improved by
a r e d u c t i o n o f F i g h t e r s t r e n g t h , by i n d u c i n g refugees
to return to
abandoned v i l l a g e s , and by c l o s e r cooperation w i t h t h e Cyprus Government,
both t o g a i n more U.N.D.P. a i d and t o reduce unnecessary d u p l i c a t i o n
of c e r t a i n c i v i l i a n s e r v i c e s . (126)
One o f the c r i t i c a l problems h i n d e r i n g the progress o f the Government's
Second Five Year Development Plan ( 1967-'71 ) was shortage o f l a b o u r .
Despite T u r k i s h C y p r i o t unemployment t h e P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was
r e l u c t a n t t o permit
economy.
'cheap' T u r k i s h l a b o u r e n t e r i n t o the Greek C y p r i o t
There was a slow t r i c k l e o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t labour i n t o
Government c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y , as t h e f i g u r e s below i n d i c a t e .
TURKISH CYPRIOT EMPLOYMENT I N T970.
( Figures out o f a t o t a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l a b o u r f o r c e o f 45,000 )
Greek C y p r i o t E n t e r p r i s e s
T u r k i s h Cyp-
and
riot
Others.
Full-time labourers
5,000
28,000
Seasonal l a b o u r e r s
3,000
1,000
Self-employed
5,000
3,000
13,000
32,000
Total:
Enterprises
Taken from: P a t r i c k , 1976, p.167 and
A t t a l i d e s , 1979, p.94. (127)
- T34 The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n argued t h a t the f i g u r e o f 13,000 T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s "cooperating" w i t h the Greek C y p r i o t community was overexaggerated. These f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d employment f o r foreign-owned mining
c o r p o r a t i o n s and i n the B r i t i s h Sovereign Base Areas.
Freedom o f movement :
" The opening o f the enclaves' "gates" i n t o t h e Greek s e c t o r s
began a second phase o f l i f e t h e r e . " (128)
The^ removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y throughout t h e
i s l a n d put an end t o t h e i r s o l i t a r y confinement, but there were no moves
by the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o end r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek movement.
According t o the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t who
entered Government-controlled t e r r i t o r y t o l i v e and work was e f f e c t i v e l y
bowing down t o the Cyprus Government.
Rauf Denktas^ argued :-
" The freedom o f movement which t h e Archbishop appeared t o
have so generously granted the Turks was, i n e f f e c t , an
extension o f h i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t r o l over them," (T29)
The
Cyprus Government made a l i s t o f 123 p u b l i c roads, the use o f which
were w h o l l y o r p a r t l y denied t o Greeks.
P r i o r t o the outbreak o f
d i s t u r b a n c e s , f o r t y - s i x o f these roads were normally used by farmers t o
g a i n access t o t h e i r f i e l d s . (130)
Some o f the major roads concerned
were:- ( i ) N i c o s i a - Kyrenia, under U.N.P.I.CYP. convoys ; (2) Famagusta
Chatos - N i c o s i a ;
(3) Trypimeni - Knodhara - Nicosia/Famagusta;
(4) Xeros - L i m n i t i s - Pyrgos - Kokkina - P o l i s ;
Stavrokonnou - Kelokedhara: (131)
considerable
delays o r detours.
on the north-west
(5) Paphos -
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s t r i c t i o n s meant
For i n s t a n c e , t h e journey from Pomos,
coast o f Cyprus, t o N i c o s i a , u s u a l l y took o n l y one and
a h a l f hours, b u t owing t o the Kokkina enclave a detour o f over t h r e e
hours was r e q u i r e d .
The main road through Kato Pyrgos was barred i n
the w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n Kokkina, w h i l e i n the
e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n i t was closed a t n i g h t by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n L i m n i t i s
E v e n t u a l l y , a U.N.P.I.CYP. post was r e e s t a b l i s h e d near Kato Pyrgos w i t h
- 135 -
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- T36 -
a view t o f a c i l i t a t i n g c i v i l i a n Greek t r a f f i c through L i m n i t i s d u r i n g
hours o f darkness. (132) ( r e f e r t o : Map 5:3 )
I n October 1970, a F i g h t e r prevented a Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l from
passing through Ayios E v a s t a t h i o s .
Up t o t h a t time t h e s t a t u s quo had
been t h a t such p a t r o l s o c c a s i o n a l l y passed but d i d n o t e n t e r the v i l l a g e
w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g along a t r a c k between Koni Kebir and Ayios Theodhoros.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t e r p r e t t e d t h i s change as an attempt by t h e Cyprus
Government t o s s s e r t i t s a u t h o r i t y i n Ayios E v a s t a t h i o s .
i n t e r v e n e d i n the d i s p u t e and arranged
a compromise.
U.N.F.I.CYP.
Cyprus P o l i c e
p a t r o l s would be p e r m i t t e d t o pass by the v i l l a g e up t o s i x times p e r
year, provided t h a t the p a t r o l was accompanied by a U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t
and d i d n o t stop i n the v i l l a g e . ( 1 3 3 )
Civilian
Services.
For the Cyprus Government t o undertake t o provide most p u b l i c s e r v i c e s
to v i l l a g e s two basic c o n d i t i o n s had t o be f u l f i l l e d : a) The v i l l a g e d i d n o t owe money t o the Government. The P r o v i s i o n a l
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Government meant w i t h h o l d i n g
money owed t o i t .
b) H a l f the cost o f p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s had t o be p a i d f o r by t h e v i l l a g e
itself.
Most v i l l a g e a u t h o r i t i e s were r e l u c t a n t t o tax f e l l o w
villagers.
D i s t r i c t o f f i c e r s f a i l e d t o persuade T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
to do t h i s . ( 1 3 4 )
1
Despite such obstacles there were s i g n i f i c a n t improvements on t h e preceding
p e r i o d i n such matters as l a y i n g new water p i p e l i n e s , r e p a i r i n g dams,
and c l e a n i n g springs i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas.
U.N.F.I.CYP.
continued t o solve a v a r i e t y o f disputes over intercommunal water supply.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s could also apply f o r i n c l u s i o n i n Government water
devlopment p r o j e c t s and f o r p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h i s purpose.
was
There
an extension o f e l e c t r i c i t y supply t o s e v e r a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s .
U.N.F.I.CYP. also took p a r t i n discussions p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e proposed
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a sewerage system f o r the whole o f N i c o s i a t o be funded
- 137 by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and Development. (T35)
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , owing t o the l e a d e r s h i p s mutual n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f each
o t h e r and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e t o any extension o f Government
a u t h o r i t y i n t h e i r areas , the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were s t i l l
not f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the e l e c r i f i c a t i o n , water supply, road, and
p u b l i c s e r v i c e systems o f the Cyprus Republic i n J u l y 1974.
Agriculture :
U.N.P.I.CYP. continued t o c a r r y out a v a r i e t y o f d u t i e s o u t l i n e d e a r l i e r ,
such as e s c o r t i n g farmers t o and through s e n s i t i v e areas.
encouraged c u l t i v a t i o n i n c e r t a i n " m i l i t a r i l y r e s t r i c t e d
The Force
areas",
i n c l u d i n g those o f Mansoura, Ayios Theodhoros, and Selemani ( near Kokkina),
and i t even supervised the growing o f w i n t e r crops w i t h i n twenty metres
of N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s a t Gaziveran ( Lefka D i s t r i c t ) . Greek
C y p r i o t farmers o f Lefkoniko
( Famagusta D i s t r i c t ) were allowed t o t i l l
t h e i r f i e l d s i n t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d area o f P s i l a t o s . (136)
U.N.CIV.POL. continued t o i n v e s t i g a t e l o c a l disputes a r i s i n g from t h e
confusing and o f t e n poor
Greek C y p r i o t c o n t r o l .
r
demarcations between areas o f T u r k i s h - and
Many o f these d i s p u t e s concerned i l l e g a l encroach-
ments onto p r i v a t e l a n d , unauthorized g r a z i n g and c u l t i v a t i o n .
During t h i s p e r i o d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas f e l t the b e n e f i t o f
s e v e r a l United Nations schemes.
For i n s t a n c e , from i r r i g a t i o n development
p r o j e c t s sponsored by the Government and United Nations Development
Programme, as w e l l as t h e s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o j e c t o f U.N.D.P. and
World Food Programme ( W.F.P. ) . At the end o f A p r i l 1971, U.N.F.I.CYP.
estimated t h a t o u t o f T,476 p a r t i c i p a n t s i n an i m p o r t a n t mixed f a r m i n g
scheme, sponsored by the Government and W.F.P., 245 were T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
(137)
I n the s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o j e c t t h e r e were 1,069 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
out o f an estimated 10,000 f o r the p e r i o d October 1970 - J u l y 1971.
Other encouraging
signs o f increased c o o p e r a t i o n between the communities
were the Government's e x t e n s i o n o f i t s drought r e l i e f scheme t o T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t areas.
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s good o f f i c e s were also used t o e s t a b l i s h
- T38 -
cooperation i n a m a l a r i a c o n t r o l programme i n the v i c i n i t y o f N i c o s i a .
I n s p i t e o f a l l these improvements i t should be s t r e s s e d t h a t o n l y a
small percentage o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e d i n
Government, United Nations, and W.F.P. sponsored a g r i c u l t u r a l schemes.
(138)
I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic a c t i v i t y ;
The r e v i v a l o f small i n d u s t r i e s w i t h i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas
was a s s i s t e d by U.N.F.I.CYP., but there was l i t t l e r e a c t i v a t i o n o f Greek
e n t e r p r i s e s i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves;
The r e t u r n o f these e n t e r p r i s e s
to f u l l p r o d u c t i o n would have provided many jobs t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , but
the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n considered
them t o be an extension o f
Greek c o n t r o l i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y .
One T u r k i s h l i m e k i l n was
r e a c t i v a t e d a t Ambelikou and two Greek C y p r i o t f a c t o r i e s ( l i m e k i l n s )
were r e a c t i v a t e d i n n o r t h N i c o s i a , one i n t h e main T u r k i s h enclave and
the o t h e r i n 'no-man's-land' between the f r o n t - l i n e s o f the N a t i o n a l
Guard and T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s . (139)
Another anomalous s i t u a t i o n a r i s i n g from t h e i s l a n d ' s p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l
geography was a t the v i l l a g e o f Z y y i .
This v i l l a g e was under the de f a c t o
c o n t r o l o f the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , but had no T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
Fighter unit.
Greek C y p r i o t s had f r e e access t o Z y y i , and both T u r k i s h
and Cyprus p o l i c e p a t r o l l e d t h e r e , w h i l s t an U.N.F.I.CYP. camp was
e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e v i l l a g e ' s o u t s k i r t s .
Zyyi had f o u r
carob-processing
f a c t o r i e s , three o f which were owned by Greek C y p r i o t s , so foremen and
managers commuted t o the v i l l a g e from Government-controlled
territory.
There was l i t t l e attempt by e i t h e r side t o a l t e r the the s t a t u s quo f o r
Zyyi was n o t l o c a t e d i n a s t r a t e g i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e area.
The refugee problem. 1968-'74;
U.N.F.I.CYP. continued i t s e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t refugees w i t h i n T u r k i s h
enclaves by s u p e r v i s i n g t h e d e l i v e r y o f Red Crescent r e l i e f shipments
a r r i v i n g a t Famagusta t o T u r k i s h d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t r e s .
U.N.F.I.CYP.
- 139
-
estimated t h a t about 1.6 % o f the t e r r i t o r y o f Cyprus was
included
w i t h i n areas under the de f a c t o c o n t r o l o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n
1964.
As p o i n t e d out i n Chapter Three t h i s f i g u r e does not i n c l u d e a l l
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s and v i l l a g e s , some o f which were o n l y n o m i n a l l y
under the c o n t r o l o f the Cyprus Government.
P a t r i c k estimated t h a t o f
the 135' T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres t h a t were p a r t i a l l y o r f u l l y occupied
i n August 1964,
approximately
20 were under government c o n t r o l and accounted f o r
8,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . (T40)
Other' T u r k i s h o r mixed
centres w i t h i n Government t e r r i t o r y had been completely
t h e i r Turkish Cypriot populations.
During
August 1964 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s completely
abandoned by
the p e r i o d December 1963 to
evacuated t h e i r quarters i n
72 mixed v i l l a g e s and abandoned 24 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s .
Volkan, 1979,
Professor
s t a t e s t h a t "by the end o f T964 the Greeks occupied 97 per
cent o f the l a n d " . (T41)
This f i g u r e f a i l s to take account o f the three
per cent o f l a n d i n c l u d e d w i t h i n the B r i t i s h Sovereign Base Areas,
although i t does assume about three per cent o f C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y under
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l which seems a reasonable assumption g i v e n the
f a c t t h a t even some T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres o u t s i d e recognized
refused to demonstrate a l l e g i a n c e to the
T e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l was
sides.
enclaves
Republic.
important to the p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f both
A f l o o d o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back i n t o areas under the a u t h o r i t y
o f the Cyprus Government would have weakened the p o s i t i o n o f the P r o v i s i o n a l
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , which e x p l a i n s why
"return migration",
the l a t t e r d i d not encourage such
The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n provided
to d i s p l a c e d persons by means of hardship
assistance
allowances and long-term
a t low r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t , and i t also had i t s own
loans
r e h a b i l i t a t i o n scheme,
i r o n i c a l l y helped by the Government's " n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures" which
allowed b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s back i n t o T u r k i s h areas.
Thus there was
only
a small t r i c k l e o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back i n t o Greek C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d
territory.
By 1971 about 2,000 refugees had r e t u r n e d to twenty-two
- HO settlements under government c o n t r o l . (142)
These i n c l u d e d those o f
P e r i s t e r o n a , Ayios Sozemos, M a l l i a , Yerovasa, Potamia, and o t h e r mixed
villages.
According t o U.N.P.I.CYP., since June 1968, some f i f t y
Turkish
C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s r e t u r n e d t o the suburb o f Omorphita. (143) Two Cyprus
P o l i c e s t a t i o n s were immediately
e s t a b l i s h e d i n the v i c i n i t y " TO PROTECT
thousands o f Greeks from 100 Turks ( mostly women and c h i l d r e n ) who
had r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r homes on the Greek side- o f the Green L i n e " . (144)
The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n accused t h e Government o f not doing enough
to
encourage a r e t u r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , w h i l s t the Government
countered
w i t h the arguement t h a t the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c t i v e l y discouraged
1
any r e t u r n t o ' n o r m a l i t y .
There was an element o f t r u t h i n both views,
which l a r g e l y e x p l a i n s why so few T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had r e t u r n e d t o o l d
homes and v i l l a g e s by 197T.
U.N.P.I.CYP. d i d what i t could under the
c i r c u n s t a n c e s , but i t s a c t i v i t i e s were y e t again r e s t r i c t e d by the
a t t i t u d e s o f t h e two l e a d e r s h i p s .
Some Conclusions :
In
1968-'74 and the r o l e o f the United
Nations.
Section One, Chapter Pour i t was argued t h a t perhaps U.N.P.I.CYP.
could have done more t o promote contacts and cooperation between the
two communities i n the m i l i t a r i l y "dead p e r i o d " from T968 t o J u l y 1974.
I t was also suggested t h a t coordinated a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a v a r i e t y o f
U.N. agencies could have helped bridge the gap between the communities.
Regarding the f i r s t p o i n t , U.N.P.I.CYP. d i d achieve some successes i n
socio-economic l i f e , but owing t o the p o l i t i c a l stalemate
i t was o f t e n
d i f f i c u l t f o r the Force, w i t h i t s l i m i t e d mandate, t o do a n y t h i n g more
than m a i n t a i n an uneasy s t a t u s quo between the two s i d e s .
Between 1968 and 1974 there were s e v e r a l United Nations programmes i n
Cyprus, d i s t i n c t from the peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n .
was
The major c o n s t r a i n t
t h a t these schemes were not able t o d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e the T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t community', f o r the Cyprus Government was the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y
recognized
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r the whole i s l a n d .
Nevertheless,
Turkish
- 141 -
C y p r i o t s d i d p a r t i c i p a t e i n a number o f U.N. sponsored schemes. Such
as the Higher Technical I n s t i t u t e , a s s i s t e d by U.N.D.P. and the United
Nations E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l O r g a n i s a t i o n ( U.N.E.S.C.O. ) ;
mixed farming p r o j e c t s , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n schemes, and the h o s p i t a l and
school f e e d i n g p r o j e c t , a l l sponsored by U.N.D.P. and World Pood
Programme.
These p r o j e c t s were a l l under the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Greek
C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and so u n f o r t u n a t e l y , they o n l y a t t r a c t e d a small
proportion o f Turkish Cypriots.
Michael H a r b o t t l e advocated a b r o a d l y based " m u l t i - l e v e l t h i r d p a r t y
process" t o t a c k l e the Cyprus Problem on a l l f r o n t s , l i n k i n g the
d i p l o m a t i c endeavours o f the Secretary-General t o the ground l e v e l
a c t i v i t i e s o f the peacekeeping f o r c e .
He argues
—
" . . . i n 1968 U.N.F.I.CYP. had f u l f i l l e d the r o l e f o r which i t
had been created...a new approach was needed, one aimed a t
e s t a b l i s h i n g a new confidence and t r u s t between the two
communities and a t a s s i s t i n g i n the development o f a new
s o c i a l and economic r e l a t i o n s h i p which would encourage
improved intercommunal c o o p e r a t i o n and p e a c e f u l coexistence
...Had a c i v i l i a n
peacebuilding
'operation* been mounted
i n T968 the events o f 1974 might never have taken p l a c e . " (145)
The S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l d i d not adapt t o the a l t e r e d circumstances i n Cyprus,
so i t kept a "redundant" m i l i t a r y peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n g o i n g .
Once
the m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n i n the i s l a n d was r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , most o f the
U.N. Force's resources were d i r e c t e d towards a l l e v i a t i n g the problems
created by a l a r g e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t refugee p o p u l a t i o n , by unequal
c o n t r o l o f the i s l a n d s resources, by a breakdown i n intercommunal c o n t a c t s ,
and a whole range o f associated i s s u e s .
These were p r i m a r i l y n o n - m i l i t a r y
a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t breaking down p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l "green l i n e s " ,
which suggests t h a t what was a c t u a l l y needed was an expansion o f
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c i v i l i a n component and Operations Economics s t a f f . The
scope o f U.N.F.I.CYP. was l i m i t e d .
I t could not implement such i n i t i a t i v e s
as the Cyprus Resettlement P r o j e c t , e s t a b l i s h e d by a small group o f
- T42 -
Quakers and members o f the Shanti Sena ( the Gandhi Peace Movement )
f a c i l i t a t i n g the r e t u r n o f refugees to a few s p e c i a l l y s e l e c t e d v i l l a g e s .
(146)
This would have r e q u i r e d m o d i f i c a t i o n t o U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate,
for- the Force already had the o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a b i l i t y and personnel to
attempt more ambitious " c i v i c a c t i o n p r o j e c t s " .
was
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Makarios
against any e x t e n s i o n i n the s i z e and scope o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
I n many respects the o r d i n a r y people o f Cyprus have been p o l a r i z e d
by the i n t e r r e l a t e d i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , c e n t r i f u g a l
f o r c e s too powerful f o r a small peacekeeping f o r c e t o put r i g h t .
The
bicommunal c h a r a c t e r o f the i s l a n d has become an excuse f o r p o l i t i c a l
p a r t i t i o n , but i n f a c t the r e a l i t y i s not so simple.
As one
commentator
describes, "...animosity between Greeks and Turks" i s a myth
"perpetuated by those who
seek to convince
their
f e l l o w s and w o r l d o p i n i o n t h a t the two communities
cannot l i v e t o g e t h e r . . . "
(147)
I n 1974, U.N.F.I.CYP. was powerless t o prevent the p h y s i c a l p a r t i t i o n
o f Cyprus between
U.N.
the two main e t h n i c groups.
From 1964 t o 1974
the
Force had preserved an "unstable peace" o r "negative s t a b i l i t y " i n
Cyprus. (148)
Had
the S e c u r i t y Council extended i t s o r i g i n a l mandate
U.N.F.I.CYP. could probably have done more to enhance a t r e n d towards
r e i n t e g r a t i o n amongst o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s , p l a y i n g an a c t i v e r o l e r a t h e r
than a passive r o l e i n intercommunal r e l a t i o n s .
were t r a g i c f o r the m a j o r i t y o f C y p r i o t s who,
The events o f Summer *74
regardless of ethnic
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , wanted o r p r e f e r r e d a r e t u r n to p e a c e f u l
coexistence.
- T43 -
I
I
I
I
I
I
Footnotes and r e f e r e n c e s .
(1)
U.N.
Doc. S/5671, 29 A p r i l 1964,
para.2.
(2)
Coufoudakis.V. Sept.1976, 'United Nations peacekeeping and peacemaking and the Cyprus Question', i n Western P o l i t i c a l
Q u a r t e r l y (U.S.A.), v o l . 2 9 , no.3, pp.457-73.
(3)
U.N.Doc. S/6102, 12 December 1964,
(4)
Dean Acheson, a former U.S.
para.239.
Secretary o f S t a t e , attempted t o r e s o l v e
the problem by a p o l i t i c a l deal between Greece and Turkey.
Cyprus
would have the choice o f independence o r union w i t h Greece, i n
exchange f o r a sovereign T u r k i s h base i n the Karpass p e n i n s u l a
and the cession t o Turkey o f the Greek i s l a n d o f K a s t e l l o r i z o n .
Furthermore, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would have two o r t h r e e areas o f
"local self-administration".
I
(5)
United Nations Mediator's r e p o r t t o the Secretary-General, 26 March
1
1965 . ( S/6253 )
This r e p o r t r u l e d out both Enosis and Taksim,
and argued f o r a u n i t e d independent and d e m i l i t a r i z e d Cyprus w i t h
generous p r o v i s i o n f o r m i n o r i t y rights,,
Galo Plaza also argued
a g a i n s t the v a l i d i t y o f t r e a t i e s imposed on the C y p r i o t people,
p a r t i c u l a r l y the Treaty o f Guarantee, g i v i n g e x t e r n a l powers t o
r e s t o r e the 1960 C o n s t i t u t i o n .
1
I
(6)
I n a p u b l i c address on 26 May 1965 a t Rizokarpasso Archbishop
Makarios s t a t e d
—
" E i t h e r the whole o f Cyprus i s t o be u n i t e d w i t h Greece o r
( i t will
) become a holocaust...The road t o the f u l f i l m e n t o f
n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s may be f u l l o f d i f f i c u l t i e s , but we
s h a l l reach the goal —
(7)
1
which i s Enosis —
a l i v e o r dead."
By l a t e 1965 the Soviet Union i n d i c a t e d i t would not support a
government dedicated to Enosis, which would expand N.A.T.O.'s
i n f l u e n c e i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean.
By June 1966,
seven o f
the s t a t e s which had i n i t i a l l y voted f o r R e s o l u t i o n 2077 ( XX )
s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e i r votes should i n no way be construed as an
I
1
I
endorsement o f Enosis.
( r e f e r to Oberling.P. 1982, The Road to
B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p.125.)
(8)
Coufoudakis,V. T976, Western P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , op. c i t . . p.466.
(9)
Oberling.P. op . c i t . .
(10)
According t o the New York Times. November 19,
T967, as many as
20,000 Greek troops had i l l e g a l l y entered Cyprus.
the Greek o f f i c e r e d N a t i o n a l Guard numbered
In addition
10,000 a c t i v e s o l d i e r s
and 20,000 r e s e r v i s t s .
(11)
U.N.
Doc. S/7969, T3 June 1967,
(12)
Stagenga,J.A.
1968,
para.29.
The United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio
- 144 -
State U n i v e r s i t y Press ),pp.150-T51.
(13)
Harbottle,M.
1'980, 'The s t r a t e g y o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n
c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n ' , i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Journal.
( Canada ) , v o l . 3 5 , no.1 ( w i n t e r 1980 ) , pp.T23-4.
(14)
U.N. Doc. S/T350, 10 June 1966, paras.31-38.
(15)
U.N. Doc. S/7001, 10 December 1965, paras.55-56.
Patrick,R.A. 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and the Cyprus C o n f l i c t .
1963 - 197T.
( Waterloo U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , pp.132-3.
(T6)
U.N. Doc. S/6228, 11 March 1965, Add.T.
(17)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, TO June 1965, para.78.
(18)
U.N. Doc. S/6228, para.67.
(T9)
U.N. Doc. S/7001, 10 December 1965, paras 79-85.
(20)
U.N. Doc. S/7191, TO March 1966, paras,61-64.
(2T)
For an i n depth study o f causes o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t
0
and
v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s i n the p e r i o d 1963-'67, r e f e r ' t o P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . ,
ch.4.
(22)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, para.83.
(23)
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.129.
(24)
H a r b o t t l e , M . T970,
The i m p a r t i a l s o l d i e r . ( Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ) ,
p.8t.
(25)
H a r b o t t l e , op. c i t . . pp.85-89.
(26)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, 8 December 1967,para.64.
Also H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . . p.119.
(27)
H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . . p.120.
Also P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . pp.T23 - 124.
(28)
H a r b o t t l e , 1980, I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l . d p . c i t . . p.120.
(29)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.66.
(30)
Refer t o : H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . who devotes a whole chapter
to the Kophinou i n c i d e n t and i t s a f t e r m a t h .
P a t r i c k , 1976, o p . c i t . . pp.133-136.
Special Report by the Secretary-General t o the S e c u r i t y
C o u n c i l , U.N. Doc. S/8248, T6 November 1967, p l u s Adds. 1-9..
(3T)
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.133.
(32)
i b i d . , p.134.
(33)
H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . p.T57.
(34)
ibid..
(35)
Moskos.CC.
1976,
Peace S o l d i e r s : the s o c i o l o g y o f a United Nations
military
(36)
force.
( Chicago U n i v e r s i t y Press ),p.42.
Refer t o : U.N. Documents:- S/8286, 8 December 1967, paras.49 - 53;
U.N. Doc. S/7191, 10 March T966, paras.53 - 54 ;
8 December 1965, paras.48 - 56.
(37)
H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . , p.168.
U.N. Doc. S/700T,
- T45 -
(38)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, Appendix 1, para.9T.
(39)
Stagenga,J.A„
(40)
U.N. Doc. S/5950,
TO September 1964, para.193.
(4T)
U.N. Documents :-
S/7001, paras.100 - 105; S/6426, paras.102 - 107;
1968, o p . c i t . . p.T38.
S/8286, paras.90 - 100.
(42)
Drury.M.P. 1981, 'The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus', i n Change and
Development i n t h e Middle East ( Clarke & BowenJones, e d i t o r s ) , ( Methuen ) , p.300.
(43)
S t a t i s t i c s from:
U.N. Doc. S/700T,para.1T9, and The Times. Special
Report on Cyprus, Wednesday, 19 June 1968.
(44)
Panagides,S.S.
1968, 'Communal C o n f l i c t and Economic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s :
The Case o f Cyprus•, i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Peace
Research, v o l . 5, p.T35. ( 1968 )
(45)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.113.
(46)
U.N. Doc. S/6102, 12 December 1964, Annex I I .
Restrictions —
Note on Economic
s e c t i o n o f an A i d Memoire dated 27 October 1964,
submitted by U.N.P.I.CYP. t o P r e s i d e n t Makarios.
(47)
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.108.
(48)
Volkan,V.
1980, Cyprus - War and Adaption. ( The U n i v e r s i t y o f
V i r g i n i a Press ) , p.82.
(49)
Refer t o : U.N. Documents :- S/6228, para.135-137 ; S/6426, paras.
118 - 120; S/7001, paras.121 - 125.
(50)
Panagides, J o u r n a l o f Peace Research, o p . c i t . . pp.140 - 142.
(51)
i b i d . . p.137.
(52)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras.105 - 106.
(53)
Drury,M.P.
January 1977, 'Western Cyprus —
Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n
upheaval, 1956 - '76', a paper presented
at the I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h
Geographers
Annual Conference, on 7 January, 1977.
(54)
Prom MACBETH, Actffi, Scene 32.
(55)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, 10 June 1965, and U.N. Doc. S/7001, para.106.
(56)
U.N. Doc. S/7191, 10 March T966, para.88.
(57)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras. 43 - 57.
(58)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, 8 December 1967, paras. 23 - 54.
(59)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, para. 1T5.
(60)
From 'The A t t i l a Peacemakers', p u b l i s h e d by t h e Republic o f Cyprus,
P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , N i c o s i a , 1974.
(61)
A t t a l i d e s . M . 1979, Cyprus. ( Q Press L t d . o f Edinburgh ) , p.91.
(62)
U.N. Doc. S/7350, 10 June 1966, para. 39-41.
(63)
U.N. Doc. S/6102, para.39.
- 146 -
(64)
U.N. Doc„ S/6t02, para.39.
(65)
Refer t o U.N. Documents S/7969,para.100 ; S/7350, paras. 49-54.
(66)
Drury.M.P.
(67)
U.N. Doc. S/5764, 15 June 1964, para.33.
(68)
I b i d . , para.74.
(69)
U.N. Doc. S/7001, para.155.
(70)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, paras. 123-124.
(7T)
U.N. Doc. S/700T, para.173.
(72)
Refer t o : U.N. Documents S/7969, paras.134-137, and S/8286,para.125.
(73)
U.N. Doc. S/7611, 8 Dec. 1966, paras.145-T48.
(74)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, para.168.
(75)
Stagenga,J.A. 1968, o p . c i t . . p.142. Also r e f e r t o : U.N. Documents:-
January 1977, o p . c i t . .
S/6228, para. 203 ; S/700T, para.186 ; S/8286, paras.140-142 ;
S/6426, para. 171.
(76)
Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre, August 1970, 'Seven Years Without
A Home'. ( N i c o s i a ) , p.1"9.
(77)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.1T8.
(78)
U.N. Doc. S/7611, para.132.
(79)
U.N. Doc. S/5950, 10 September 1964, para„l63,
Also U.N. Doc. S/6102, para.82.
(80)
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.287.
(8T)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.118.
(82)
Refer t o : U.N. Documents S/5950, paras. 160 - 162; S/6102, para.82;
S/5950, 10 Sept. 1964, para.164.
(83)
U.N. Doc. S/6228, para.146, and U.N. Doc. S/7969, T 3 -June 1967, para.
"1287
~ ~~
"
(84)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, 10 June 1965, para.129.
(85)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para. 121.
(86)
i b i d . . para.1T5.
(87)
U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras.76-79.
(88)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.116 ; and U.N. Doc. S/7350, paras. 115 - 117.
(89)
Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre, August 1970, op. c i t . . p.23.
(90)
Refer t o : U.N. Documents :- S/6102, paras.31-55 ; S/6426, paras. 144151 ; and S/7001, paras.152 - 153.
(91)
U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.128.
(92)
ibid..
(93)
U.N. Doc. S/7191, para.114.
(94)
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . pp. 306 - 308.
(95)
These agreements were :i)
Withdrawal o f a l l Greek troops from Cyprus i n excess o f those
p e r m i t t e d by the Treaty o f A l l i a n c e ;
i i ) An end t o Turkey's p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r war ;
- 147 -
i i i ) The d i s s o l u t i o n o f the N a t i o n a l Guard ;
i v ) Compensation f o r the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f Ayios Theodhoros
and Kophinou ;
V)
(96)
Expansion i n the s i z e and powers o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . pp.l65>- 166;
Also see Denktas,R.R. 198?-, The Cyprus T r i a n g l e . ( George A l l e n
& Unwin ) , p.51.
(97)
Cyprus M a i l . 13/01/68, p . 1 .
(98)
Stagenga, J.A.
(99)
i b i d . . an argument also advanced by H i t c h e n s , 1984, op . c i t . . p.65-.
(100)
O b e r l i n g , 1982, o p . c i t . . p.145.
(101)
A t t a l i d e s . M . 1979, o p . c i t . . p.191.
(T02)
Chriatopher Hitchens, 1984, op . c i t . . argues t h a t American - Greek
1968, o p . c i t . . p.1'54.
r e l a t i o n s under Nixon became "warm, r o t t e n and c o r r u p t " , pp.74-75.
A t t a l i d e s , 1979, o p . c i t . , p . 1 2 9 . argues t h a t the Greek c o l o n e l s ,
t r a i n e d i n Cold War p o l i t i c s
by U.S.
agencies, viewed " C y p r i o t
independence...as a mere p r e l i m i n a r y t o a Soviet Cyprus".
(103)
P o l i e and Scobie, 1975, show t h a t the Junta placed mercenaries i n
Cyprus to ensure " t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f Athens was f e l t i n the
proper p l a c e s . " ( The S t r u g g l e f o r Cyprus, p.169 )
(104)
Coufoudakis.V. 1976, Essays on the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . ( P e l l a Pubs.
New York ) , p.44.
(105)
P o l i e & Scobie, 1975, o p . c i t . . p.171.
(106)
Hitchens, o p . c i t . . pp.77-78.
(T08)
H a r b o t t l e , M . 'Why Cyprus i s doomed t o become a p o l i t i c a l v o l c a n o ' ,
i n The Times.
Also U.N.
Doc. S/8446, para.43.
17/10/74.
(109)
A t t a l i d e s , M . 1979, o p . c i t . . p.92.
(1T0)
Drury.M.P. 198T, o p . c i t . . p.30T.
(111)
K i t r o m i l i d e s . M & Couloumbis.T.A., 1976, 'Ethnic C o n f l i c t i n a S t r a t e g i c
Area : The Case o f Cyprus.' i n E t h n i c i t y i n an
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Context. ( Said & Simmons, e d i t o r s )p.177.
(112)
Duncan-Jones,A. 1972, 'The c i v i l war i n Cyprus', i n The I n t e r n a t i o n a l
R e g u l a t i o n o f C i v i l Wars. ( Luard.E., e d i t o r ) ,
( New York U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p . l 6 t .
(113)
U.N.
Doc. S/10005, 2 December 1970, para.1T5.
(114)
U.ET, Doc. S/9814, 1 June 1970, para.85'.
(T15)
U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, para.26.
(116)
U.N.
Doc. S/8446, 9 March 1968, para.1T5.
(117)
U.N.
Doc. S/9521, para.53.
(116)
U.N.
Doc. S/8446, para.57.
(119)
U.N.
Doc. S/10664, 26 May
1972, para.53.
- 148 -
(120)
U.N. Doc. S/10005, 2 December 1970, paras. 5 6 - 5 7 .
(121)
U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, Appendix.
(122)
Volkan, o p . c i t . . p.90.
(123)
U.N. Doc. S/10005, p a r a s . 7 2 - 7 5 .
(124)
Notel.R.
November 1973,
'Economic I n t e g r a t i o n on Cyprus', paper
presented t o an I n q u i r y i n t o the R e s o l u t i o n o f the Cyprus Problem,
a seminar a t the Centre f o r Mediterranean S t u d i e s ,
Universities
American
F i e l d S t a f f , Rome, 1 9 - 2 4 November 1 9 7 3 .
U.N. Doc. S/10005, para.75o
:i26:
P a t r i c k . o p . c i t . . pp.161 - 162.
Source o f s t a t i s t i c s :
Republic o f Cyprus, P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e ,
' F a c i l i t i e s granted t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s ' , ( N i c o s i a ) mimeograph,
T9 February 1971, p.2.
:i28]
129]
Volkan, o p . c i t . . p.102.
Denktas, 1982, o p . c i t . . p p . 5 3 - 5 4 .
:i3o:
U.N. Doc. S/9814, 1 June 1970, p a r a . 5 9 .
131:
U.N. Doc. S/9233, 1 June 1969, para.55.
132]
U.N. Doc. S/10005, paras.53 - 54.
133!
i b i d . . paras.59 - 6 2 .
:T34!
A t t a l i d e s . M . o p . c i t . . pp.96 - 97.
;i35:
U.N. Doc. S/9814, p a r a . 5 2 .
:i37:
U.N. Doc. S/952T, para.45 ;
U.N. Doc. S/9814, para.47 ; and
U.No D o c S/10199, 20 May 1971, p a r a . 4 3 .
:i36:
U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, para.44.
U.N. Doc. S/10401, para.48.
:t39:
U.N. Doc. S/952T, "para.42.
;ho;
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . , p.80.
:i4i
Volkan, o p . c i t . , p.20.
:r42;
P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.80.
:i43]
U.N. Doc. S/9233, para.49.
;i44:
The Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , o p . c i t . . p.27.
:i4s:
H a r b o t t l e , w i n t e r 1980, I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l , o p . c i t . . pp.128 - 129.
;i 46:
ibid.,
:i47i
U.No Doc. S/10005, para.115.
-
149 -
CHAPTER SIX.
Daubed on the w a l l s on the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t side o f the Green Line
are mainland T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y propaganda designs and slogans l i k e
the one shown i n P i g . 6:1. I t was through T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y
i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a t a de f a c t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e was c r e a t e d .
F i g . 6:1
1
LET
MY
BLOOD
LET
IT
COLOUR
LET
MY
SCARLET
FLOW,
MY
SHROUD,
SHROUD
BECOME
MY
FLAG.
- 150 -
CHAPTER SIX
THE
THIN BLUE LINE AND
THE
"ATTILA LINE"
" I t i s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h C y p r i o t s themselves, however,
t h a t the even more serious wounds i n f l i c t e d on Cyprus
become apparent.
The most casual i n q u i r y — s u c h as,
do you come from ?* o r ' Do you have a f a m i l y
enough to induce a t o r r e n t o f grievance
" You
' Where
can
or of g r i e f . "
t r y to f o r g e t , but the dreams o f a refugee are
be
(1)
merciless.
They take you to places t h a t you knew and g i v e the d e l u s i o n
t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h e r e continues to be as i t was
Then comes the p a i n f u l awakening."
before.
(2)
n
" Our r e l a t i o . s h i p w i t h the Greeks was
glass.
I t was
s h a t t e r e d i n T974 and i t cannot be glued back
t o g e t h e r again."
Section One
:
always l i k e a cracked
(3)
The Demographic and Economic Consequences o f P a r t i t i o n .
J u l y - August T974 w i l l long l i v e i n the memories o f many C y p r i o t s .
How
can they f o r g e t ?
There i s a permanent reminder o f the l o s s e s , the
bloodshed and a t r o c i t i e s , o f years o f intercommunal s t r i f e , a permanent
scar etched across the landscape o f the i s l a n d , s e p a r a t i n g Greek from
Turkish Cypriot.
The
events o f the Summer o f '74 can not be e a s i l y f o r g o t t e n o r d i s -
missed.
Approximately
one
became refugees, uprooted
hope of a r e t u r n .
t h i r d of the C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n o f 650,000
from t h e i r land and p r o p e r t y w i t h no immediate
V i l l a g e s were bombarded, destroyed,
looted, families
s l a u g h t e r e d , f o r e s t s were b u r n t , the whole l i f e o f the i s l a n d was
rupted.
To catalogue
dis-
such losses i s not the p o i n t o f t h i s s e c t i o n , but
before d i s c u s s i n g some important demographic and economic consequences
o f the p a r t i t i o n i t i s necessary to b r i e f l y describe how
be d i v i d e d i n t o two de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e s .
Cyprus came to
-
151 -
The T u r k i s h 'Peacekeeping Operation o r ' I n v a s i o n ' .
R e l a t i o n s between Makarios and the Athens Junta went from bad t o
worse i n the f i r s t h a l f o f 1974.
I n J u l y the Archbishop
publicly
condemned the Junta's support and d i r e c t i o n o f E.O.K.A.-B. He asked
for
a w i t h d r a w a l o f the 650 Greek o f f i c e r s s t a f f i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard.
I n r e p l y , Athens ordered the go-ahead o f a coup d ' e t a t against Makarios
on T5 J u l y 1 3 7 4 .
The Greek o f f i c e r l e d N a t i o n a l Guard overthrew the
Government, announced Makarios dead, and i n s t a l l e d Nicos Sampson, a
former E.O.K.A. a n t i - T u r k t e r r o r i s t as t h e l e a d e r o f the 'new regime o f
national salvation'.
I n an emotional d i a r y o f events i n K y r e n i a , R i t a C a t s e l l i wrote afew
days a f t e r the coup
—
" The m i n o r i t y which c a r r i e d out the coup has been seized w i t h
n a t i o n a l masochism...Only the o t h e r day I read an h i s t o r i c a l
a r t i c l e about the "Attempts t o de-Hellenize Cyprus through
the
centuries".
I t h i n k the most s e r i o u s one took place j u s t
three days ago." ( 4 )
1
On 18 J u l y , Ankara sent Athens an u l t i m a t u m c a l l i n g f o r the r e s i g n a t i o n
of
Sampson, a w i t h d r a w a l o f Greek o f f i c e r s i n Cyprus, and f i r m
of
Cyprus' independence.
pledges
The Junta f o o l i s h l y b e l i e v e d America would,
as before i n 1 9 6 4 and 1 9 6 T , prevent the Turks from i n v a d i n g and sent an
e q u i v o c a l answer.
But both Washington and London lacked the p o l i t i c a l
w i l l t o r e s t o r e Makarios, l e a v i n g the way c l e a r f o r a T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n .
(5)
T u r k i s h troops landed i n Cyprus on 20 J u l y and t h e i r f i r s t
"push"
l a s t e d u n t i l 22 J u l y , s e c u r i n g a bridgehead around Kyrenia and t h e
Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave.
( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 1 ) The Turks opened a
s t r a t e g i c passage west o f Kyrenia running t o Temblos - S t . H i l a r i o n Nicosia.
On 23 J u l y 1 9 7 4 , R i t a C a t s e l l i wrote:" Now I and my f a m i l y are refugees, v i c t i m s , and we have
come t o Limassol w i t h almost n o t h i n g .
I n Kyrenia t h e
T u r k i s h f l a g f l i e s and most o f the Greek C y p r i o t s who
have not l e f t the town are penned up i n the b i g ( Dome)
Hotel. " (6)
-
152 -
CD
CO
to
•
a
0)
0
0
ID
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a
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is o>
0)
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01
•
CI
00
CD
m Qj
IrD *<
< '
a
N
3
a
a
a
ffl
0
0
0
Z
/
N
\
E
\
cu
a
a
E
a
-
153 -
Outside the main Guenyeli - Aghirda s t r o n g h o l d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
enclaves were v u l n e r a b l e t o Greek C y p r i o t r e p r i s a l s and occupation.
U.NoP.I.CYP. had t o redeploy men r a p i d l y i n o r d e r t o form p r o t e c t i v e
b u f f e r s around enclaves and q u a r t e r s t o p r o t e c t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s wherever
p o s s i b l e from " . . . h i g h l y e x c i t a b l e young men o f the N a t i o n a l Guard and
'E.O.K.A.-B' who regarded the enclaves as T r o j a n horses."(7) U.N.P.I.CYP.
concentrated on a r r a n g i n g l o c a l c e a s e - f i r e s i n areas o u t s i d e the narrow
c o r r i d o r occupied by T u r k i s h t r o o p s .
Prom 2T J u l y onwards the "blue
b e r r e t s " were h e l p i n g t o evacuate f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s t o t h e Dhekelia S.B.A.,
w h i l s t p a t r o l s and manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts were increased i n s e n s i t i v e
areas. ( 8 ) At the Secretary General's request the t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f
the Force was increased by 2,078 t o a t o t a l o f 4,444 between 24 J u l y
and t 4 August. (9)
I n a major redeployment U.N.P.I.CYP. c r e a t e d two
new o p e r a t i o n a l d i s t r i c t s on e i t h e r side o f the T u r k i s h bridgehead i n
a f u t i l e attempt t o c o n t a i n t h e T u r k i s h advance.
Meanwhile i n Athens B r i g a d i e r Ioannides wanted t o a t t a c k Turkey on a l l
f r o n t s , but he was dissuaded by h i s f e l l o w o f f i c e r s i n t h e Junta. "The
c o l o n e l s " handed over power t o Constantine
the T968 C o n s t i t u t i o n n u l l and v o i d .
Karamanlis, who proclaimed
A wave o f r e l i e f swept over Greece
w i t h the end o f the d i c t a t o r s h i p , but
"...the nightmare was not over, o n l y s h i f t e d t o Cyprus." ( 1 0 )
T u r k i s h r e i n f o r c e m e n t s continued t o a r r i v e i n Cyprus, more Greek C y p r i o t
v i l l a g e s were occupied w i t h t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s e i t h e r taken hostage o r
forced out.
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were now i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e i t e r a t e
demands f o r "a geographical f e d e r a t i o n o f two autonomous zones". ( 1 1 )
Greek C y p r i o t s were suddenly conscious o f t h e i r "small and defenceless
m i n o r i t y " s t a t u s i n t h e eastern Mediterranean, w h i l e Turkey was l e a n i n g
p r o t e c t i v e l y over t h e i r C y p r i o t b r e t h r e n .
At the second Geneva Conference
i n August, the T u r k i s h Foreign M i n i s t e r , Professor Turan Gunes, p u t
f o r w a r d a p l a n proposing
t h a t the T u r k i s h f e d e r a l zone be d i v i d e d
- 154 -
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- T56 -
between s i x cantons i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the i s l a n d , adding up t o
34 % o f the l a n d area. ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 2 )
The a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l
was f o r two autonomous zones, o f which the Turks would g a i n 34 % o f
n o r t h e r n Cyprus.
A c t i n g P r e s i d e n t Glafkos C l e r i d e s asked f o r 36 t o
48 hours to c o n s u l t w i t h Athens and Makarios i n London, but t h e Turks
were not prepared to w a i t .
the"second push" began.
Immediately a f t e r the Conference broke down
Between T4 and 16 August the T u r k i s h troops
secured 36 t o 37 % o f the i s l a n d , b r u t a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g the s i t u a t i o n
—
" from an argument over how the i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f two
d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s was t o be r e g u l a t e d —
r i g h t s , by power-sharing, o r by d e v o l u t i o n —
by m i n o r i t y
into a
d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f argument, one about what s o r t o f f e d e r a l
l i n k could be b u i l t between t e r r i t o r i a l l y separate
communities." (12)
C h r i s t o p h e r Hitchens argues t h a t between the " f i r s t " major advance and
the
"second" i n August, "the Greek i r r e d e n t i s t f o r c e s had f a l l e n from
power i n both Athens and N i c o s i a " , Karamanlis r e p l a c e d Ioannides,
C l e r i d e s r e p l a c e d Sampson, and so "the p r e t e x t f o r the o r i g i n a l i n v a s i o n
had ceased t o e x i s t " . ( T 3 )
Demographic Consequences and U,N.F.I.CYP.'s P o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e
16 August Cease-Fire.
When an i s l a n d - w i d e c e a s e - f i r e was d e c l a r e d a t 1600 hours on 16 August
1974
the p o l i t i c a l and human geography o f Cyprus had been a r b i t r a r i l y
and v i o l e n t l y rearranged.
An a r t i f i c i a l
l i n e c u t through t h e i s l a n d
l i k e a cheese-wire, e x t e n d i n g t o a leng.th o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 k i l o m e t r e s
from t h e Kokkina enclave and Kato Pyrgos i n t h e north-west t o the east
coast south o f Famagusta i n the area o f D h e r i n i a .
The s i n g l e long
c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e , w i t h the anomalous e x c e p t i o n o f Kokkina, e f f e c t i v e l y
forms a p o l i t i c a l - c u m - e t h n i c boundary between the two C y p r i o t communities.
Turkey and Greece had d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d events l e a d i n g t o the
b i f u r c a t i o n o f Cyprus. (14) According t o Beeley,1978, the s p a t i a l
s e p a r a t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n 1974 was merely an e x t e n s i o n
-
157 -
o f the p o l i t i c a l i n t e r f a c e between t h e i r "motherlands", extending
from
Western Thrace through the Aegean near t h e T u r k i s h coast t o Cyprus.
He
argues t h a t the o n l y reason t h a t Cyprus d i d n o t experience the s o r t o f
p o p u l a t i o n exchange between Greece and Turkey i n 1923 was "because the
i s l a n d was then under B r i t i s h r u l e . " ( 1 5 )
I f reference i s made t o Chapter Two i t was argued t h a t t h e r e was no
geographical
basis f o r p a r t i t i o n o r even the f o r m a t i o n o f " a r t i f i c i a l
cantons". ( T 6 ) P r i o r t o the d i v i s i o n o f Cyprus T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s owned
j u s t 12.3 % o f the t o t a l land area, 16.8 % o f p r i v a t e l a n d , and they
formed only 18 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . (T7) F o l l o w i n g the T u r k i s h
advance and p a r t i t i o n there was a massive exchange o f p o p u l a t i o n s .
Between J u l y '74 and December '75 about T82,000 Greek C y p r i o t s moved
southwards and 45,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s moved northwards. (18) The
" t r a n s f e r " o f p o p u l a t i o n s was piecemeal and l a r g e l y
e s p e c i a l l y f o r the Greek C y p r i o t s .
uncoordinated,
Humanitarian r e l i e f
operations
f
were h i g h on U.N.F.I.CYP. s p r i o r i t i e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the United
Nations High Commissioner f o r Refugees ( U.N.H.C.R.) and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Committee o f the Red Cross ( I.C.R.C. ) , a l l p r o v i d i n g r e l i e f f o r the
"displaced persons" o f Cyprus.
When the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e was drawn on T8 August, and a f t e r a general
exchange o f p r i s o n e r s had been agreed on the 20 September, there were
s t i l l many thousands o f Greeks and Turks on e i t h e r side o f the d i v i s i o n .
The number o f Greek refugees d e c l i n e d from about 203,000 on t September
to
179,000 on 21 November, as some 24,000 r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r homes i n
N i c o s i a o r close t o the southern side o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " A t t i l a L i n e " .
There remained about 15,000 Greek C y p r i o t s i n the n o r t h , many o f whom
were concentrated
i n the Karpass p e n i n s u l a , the 'pan handle' o f Cyprus
by-passed i n the T u r k i s h Army's dash t o s p l i t the country across the
middle.
Numerous Greek C y p r i o t refugees from Famagusta found
i n Dhekelia Base, which remained safe from T u r k i s h a t t a c k .
sactuary
W i t h i n the
-
158 -
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- 160 -
Sovereign Base Area boundary the Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s o f Xylotymbou
and Ormidhia took i n many refugees. ( T 9 )
U.N.F.I.CYP. was able t o provide some p r o t e c t i o n f o r ' t h e i s o l a t e d
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the south but was unable t o do t h i s f o r Greeks i n
the Turkish-occupied n o r t h .
U.N. convoys s u p p l i e d food and emergency
accommodation wherever they could f o r refugees,, (20) U.N.CIV.POL.'s
Missing Persons Bureau had an extremely d i f f i c u l t j o b o f t r y i n g t o l o c a t e
over 3,000 r e p o r t e d "missing persons", many o f whom were not found and
are presumed dead.
n o r t h e r n Cyprus
Although U.N.F.I.CYPs access t o l a r g e p a r t s o f
was r e s t i c t e d i t d i d make some U.N.H.C.R. d e l i v e r i e s
to stranded Greeks i n the Krenia Dome H o t e l and t o t h e v i l l a g e r s o f
B e l l a p a i s . (21)
For months a f t e r the c e a s e - f i r e , r e f u g e e movements continued f o l l o w i n g
"agreements" concerning the evacuation o f c e r t a i n Greek and T u r k i s h
Cypriot v i l l a g e s .
Line".
U.N. troops escorted refugees across the " A t t i l a
I n southern Cyprus U.N.F.I.CYP. proved unable t o prevent some
E.O.K.A.-B t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s on remote T u r k i s h enclaves, such as Ayios
Ioannis and the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos.
As Hitchens remarks
—
"This was, perhaps, the l a s t f a v o u r t h a t E.O.K.A.-B and i t s j u n t a a l l i e s
were t o do f o r t h e cause o f p a r t i t i o n " . (22) A p o i n t r e i n f o r c e d by P i e r r e
Oberling's comments :" The massacres had the e f f e c t o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g the r e s o l v e
o f the 42,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , s c a t t e r e d i n southern Cyprus,
to move t o the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d n o r t h .
But the Greek
( C y p r i o t ) government s t r e n u o u s l y opposed the" exodus,
f e a r i n g t h a t i f the e n t i r e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n would
move t o the n o r t h i t might tempt Turkey t o e s t a b l i s h a
permanent p r o t e c t o r a t e t h e r e . . . " (23)
Paphos D i s t r i c t contained many T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , many had crowded i n t o
A k r o t i r i S.B.A., w h i l s t the r e s t entrenched themselves i n t o t h e i r most
d e f e n s i b l e enclaves.
I n January 1375 refugees a t A k r o t i r i were s a f e l y
- 161 -
t r a n s f e r r e d . (24) On the 13 February T975', the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
announced n o r t h e r n Cyprus as the "Turkish Federated State o f Cyprus"
( K i b r i s Tilrk Federe D e v l e t i ) . W i t h i n t h i s de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e
remained some f i f t y - t h r e e v i l l a g e s s t i l l w i t h Greek C y p r i o t
inhabitants.
U.N.F.I.CYP. convoys were allowed t o v i s i t them w i t h a
Turkish m i l i t a r y escort.
By June 1975 t h e r e were approximately
10,700
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the south, o f whom 7,250 were provided w i t h food
and allowances by Government a u t h o r i t i e s .
Greek C y p r i o t s and T,000 Maronites
I n the T.F.S.C. the TO,500
remaining were s u p p l i e d w i t h food and
allowances from the south d e l i v e r e d by U.N.F.I.CYP. (25)
Following an agreement on p o p u l a t i o n exchange i n Vienna on 2 August
1975, 8,033 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t r a n s f e r r e d t o the n o r t h between 2 August
and 7 September. (26) This l e f t only 130 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , s c a t t e r e d
i n twenty-two l o c a l i t i e s i n southern Cyprus.
were s t i l l 9,000 Greeks and 1,000 Maronites
in
By December T9T5 there
i n the n o r t h , w h i l s t
another
25,000 Greek C y p r i o t s were l i v i n g / t e n t s o r temporary shacks, and over
200,000 C y p r i o t s i n a l l p a r t s o f the i s l a n d were dependent on p u b l i c
assistance and r e l i e f s u p p l i e s . (27)
Over the next few years there wasT a steady t r i c k l e o f Greeks t o southern
Cyprus.
For i n s t a n c e , i n 1976 5,828 Greeks l e f t the T.F.S.C.
As Oberling
puts i t :- " As they came t o r e a l i z e t h a t the stalemate i n Cyprus
might be l o n g - l a s t i n g , t h a t the T u r k i s h Federated State o f
Cyprus was probably here t o stay and t h a t they c o n s t i t u t e d a
very small C h r i s t i a n m i n o r i t y i n a Muslim n a t i o n , most o f
them decided
t o leave." (28)
I n s p i t e o f t h i s there i s evidence t o suggest t h a t T u r k i s h c o e r c i o n was
behind the s o - c a l l e d " v o l u n t a r y " t r a n s f e r s o f Greeks t o the south. (4.9)
C e r t a i n l y l i f e i n the T.F.S.C. was uncomfortable f o r the enclaved
C y p r i o t s , f o r they were denied f u l l freedom o f movement, lacked
Greek
proper
e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , medical care, and f u l l r e l i g i o u s freedom. • By
T980, o n l y 1,500 Greeks remained, concentrated i n the s p r a w l i n g , tobaccogrowing v i l l a g e o f Dipkarpaz ( f o r m e r l y Rizokarpaso ) a t the t i p o f the
- 162 -
Karpass p e n i n s u l a . (30)
The t a b l e g i v e n below i l l u s t r a t e s the number o f refugees who l e f t each
of the s i x a d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i s t r i c t s o f Cyprus as a r e s u l t o f the t r a g i c
events o f J u l y - August 1974 and the p e r i o d immediately a f t e r w a r d s .
DISTRICT
GREEKS
1)
Famagusta
92,000
2)
Kyrenia
29,000
3)
Larnaca
700
4)
Limassol
5)
Nicosia
6)
Paphos
|
TURKS
ARMENIANS & MARONITES
2,000
1T.600
14,900
60,300
3,500
1,000
15,400
182,000
Totals
45,400
3,000
Source: Drury,M.P. 1981', i n Change and Development
i n the Middle East. ( Clarke & Bowen-Jones,
e d i t o r s ) , Methuen, 1981, p.293.
Comparison should be made w i t h Table 6.T.
Both t a b l e s g i v e s l i g h t l y
d i f f e r e n t s t a t i s t i c s f o r numbers o f refugees from d i f f e r e n t D i s t r i c t s ,
but they d o _ i l l u s t r a t e the braad spread o f refugee movements i n Cyprus,
which a f f e c t e d about 290 v i l l a g e s , t h a t i s h a l f the t o t a l number o f
v i l l a g e s i n Cyprus
0
- 163 -
.i
TABLE 6.2
AREA OCCUPIED BY THE TURKS BEFORE AND AFTER THE TURKISH
MILITARY INTERVENTION
Categories
of land
r
urk i s h
Before
(in
donums)
%
P r i v a t e land
852,455
12.30
1,929,584
27.9
4,215,117
61.00
3,137,988
Forests,lakes
and S t a t e
lands
286,794
4.14
573,985
8.3
1,424,273
20.56
1 ,137,082 16.4
Communal,
village
commission,
roads &
r i v e r s and
public corporation
lands
23,248
0.34
59,133
0.9
113,505
1.66
77,620
1.1
1,162,497
16.78
2,562,702
37.1
5,752,895
83,22
4,352,690
62.9
TOTAL
TABLE 6.3
After
(in
donums)
G r ee k
Before
(in
donums)
%
After
(in
donums)
%
DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE LAND BY DISTRICT AFTER THE TURKISH
MILITARY INTERVENTION
Di s t r i c t
T u r k i sh
occupied lands
( i n donums)
Free areas
( i n donums)
Total area
( i n donums)
1.
Nicosia
546,412
927,725
2.
Kyrenia
368,957
-
3.
Famagusta
965,168
142,778
1,107,946
4.
Larnaca
49,047
548,367
597,414
5.
Limassol
-
810,780
810,780
6.
Paphos
-
708,338
708,338
3,137,988
5,067,572
TOTAL
1,929,584
Taken from : K a r o u z i s , G. 1977, Land Ownersh-p i n C y p r u s ,
(Cosmos P r e s s - N i c o s i a ) pp.115-116.
1,474,137
368,957
%
45.4
- 163 .ii
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- 164 -
Economic Consequences of the T6 August c e a s e - f i r e l i n e .
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s emerged from the p a r t i t i o n w i t h a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e '
share of the i s l a n d ' s resources.
They h e l d roughly 37 % o f Cyprus,
although estimates range from 36.5 % t o 40 % depending on whether o r
not the U.N.
B u f f e r Zone o r "dead zone", as Karouzis, T976, termed i t ,
i s taken i n t o account.
A cursory glance a t Tables 6.2,6.3, and
6.4
r e v e a l t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s increased the area o f v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l
and p r i v a t e land under t h e i r c o n t r o l .
The T u r k i s h North i n c l u d e d a l l
the tobacco p l a n t a t i o n s of the Karpass; 79 % o f the t o t a l c i t r u s
fruit
p r o d u c t i o n ; 68 % o f the c e r e a l producing area o f the Mesaoria P l a i n ;
86 % o f c a r r o t p r o d u c t i o n ; 32 % o f o t h e r vegetables
; 65; % of green
fodders; and 30 % of carob p r o d u c t i o n . ( 3 t ) According
sources,
was
of
to Greek C y p r i o t
"the i n v a s i o n " meant t h a t 80 % o f the i s l a n d ' s c i t r u s p r o d u c t i o n
l o s t due t o lack o f i r r i g a t i o n d u r i n g the t r o u b l e s , and f u l l
these orchards would take t e n o r twelve years. (32) Table 6.4
a 173 % increase i n
recovery
shows
c u l t i v a b l e land h e l d by the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
compared to l a n d h e l d p r i o r to the T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n .
Their
g r e a t e s t gains were i n i r r i g a t e d c i t r u s f r u i t orchards and i n i n d u s t r i a l
crops, p a r t i c u l a r l y
tobacco.
Water Resources :
The August '74 c e a s e - f i r e l i n e e f f e c t i v e l y d i v i d e d m o r p h o l o g i c a l ,
physiographic and h y d r o l o g i c a l r e g i o n s .
l i e i n the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d n o r t h —
Three very i m p o r t a n t
(a) Kythrea,
agro-
headsprings
(b) L a p i t h o s , and
(c) Karavas, each w i t h an average d a i l y output o f 15,000, 5,000 and 4,000
cubic metres r e s p e c t i v e l y . The
" A t t i l a L i n e " alBo cut across the courses
of a l l the major northward f l o w i n g r i v e r s from the Troodos Massif, which
begin i n the Government-controlled
controlled t e r r i t o r y .
Xeros, Setrakhos,
t e r r i t o r y and end i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t -
This i s the case w i t h the Pyrgos, L i r a n i t i s , Kambos,
K a r y o t i s , Atsas, a s w e l l as the north-west f l o w i n g streams
from the eastern Troodos —
Elea, P e r i s t e r o n a , Akaki, and Merika.
( refer
-
t o Map 6.9 )
165
-
Two i m p o r t a n t r i v e r systems are mostly c o n t a i n e d i n
T u r k i s h Cyprus —
these are o f t h e Pedhieos and Y i a l i a s .
George K a r o u z i s , 1 9 7 7 , argues " t h a t o f t h e t o t a l i r r i g a t e d area 4 6 . 5 %
l i e s i n the occupied areas and i n c l u d e s t h e r i c h e s t i n water and o t h e r
n a t u r a l resources areas o f Morphou, Kyrenia c o a s t l i n e , Pamagusta and
Kythrea." ( 3 3 ) I f y i e l d s p e r donura o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d are TO - 12 times
g r e a t e r i n i r r i g a t e d areas than n o n - i r r i g a t e d areas, then the l o s s t o
Greek C y p r i o t a g r i c u l t u r a l
p r o d u c t i o n was enormous.
Since 1 9 7 4 the
Greeks have been t r y i n g t o make up f o r some o f t h e l o s s by v a r i o u s
i r r i g a t i o n and l a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n schemes. ( see below ) They l o s t
s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t dam and water development p r o j e c t s i n t h e Morphou T y l l i r i a and Pentadaktylos - K y r e n i a coast areas.
Indeed u n t i l the
p a r t i t i o n the water development p o l i c y f o l l o w e d an i n t e g r a t e d i n t e r r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n aimed a t conveying water from s u r p l u s t o d e f i c i t areas,
w h i l e t a k i n g i n t o account l a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y , domestic, i n d u s t r i a l and
t o u r i s t needs. ( 3 4 )
Since the p a r t i t i o n , i t has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o i n t e g r a t e water development schemes on an i s l a n d - w i d e b a s i s , although c o o p e r a t i o n over water
supply has taken place under U.N.P.I.CYP. auspices.
As i n the pre.c.eeding
decade, water supply c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e s u b j e c t t o the problems o f p o l i t i c a l
d i v i s i o n between the two l e a d e r s h i p s . During the 1964 - ' 7 4 p e r i o d the
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were v u l n e r a b l e t o water supply shortages,
owing t o e i t h e r Government r e s t r i c t i o n s , o r t o overuse o f / d i v e r s i o n o f
streams and underground
communities' t e r r i t o r y .
water resources shared by o r r u n n i n g i n t o both
As Michael D r u r y , T 9 7 7 , p o i n t s o u t :-
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s "resented the way i n which new w e l l s were
d e l i b e r a t e l y sunk adjacent t o t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y , thereby
l o w e r i n g t h e i r own water t a b l e t o untappable depths..." ( 3 5 )
The de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n Has solved some o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community's
water supply w o r r i e s , but the n o r t h could s t i l l be d e p r i v e d o f water from
the
south d u r i n g d r y summer months should the Greeks decide t h i s i s
- 166 -
necessary e i t h e r f o r t h e i r own needs o r as a p o l i t i c a l weapon,,
Communications.
With the exception o f U.N.F.I.CYP. convoys and " p o p u l a t i o n exchanges",
on 16 August 1974 a l l n o r t h - south movement stopped.
Main roads l i n k i n g
Kyrenia and Pamagusta to N i c o s i a remained open t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s but
closed t o Greek C y p r i o t s .
ends at the U.N.
A l l freedom o f m o b i l i t y f o r o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s
B u f f e r Zone o r the two c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s c r o s s i n g Cyprus.
The c r e a t i o n of a narrow neck o f T u r k i s h Cypriote l a n d t o take i n the town
o f L o u r o u j i n a n e c e s s i t a t e d a d i v e r s i o n o f Greek C y p r i o t t r a f f i c on the
Larnaca - N i c o s i a r o u t e , a detour v i a Kalokhorio o r Lymbia and
Perakhorio.
The o l d main road l i n k i n g the two towns i s no longer f u l l y i n use due t o
the f a c t t h a t about t h r e e miles o f i t pass through T u r k i s h Cyprus. ( r e f e r
to Map
6.5)
Before d i s c u s s i n g U.N.P.I.CYP.'s a c t i v i t i e s since August T974,it i s
u s e f u l to understand
some of the fundamental changes i n the human
geography o f both sides o f the p a r t i t i o n over the p e r i o d under review.
i ) The Greek C y p r i o t South.
I n a r e p o r t on Cyprus by The Guardian i n A p r i l T984 i t was
economic recovery has been r a p i d and
" the T80.000 Greeks who
...
came from the n o r t h are almost
absorbed i n the economic bloodstream.
3.5 % ..."
argued t h a t
fully
Unemployment i s down t o
(36)
Given the r e l a t i v e p r o s p e r i t y o f the south today i t i s easy t o overlook
the huge o b s t a c l e s Greek C y p r i o t s faced a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n .
I t is
almost impossible to make accurate estimates o f t o t a l Greek C y p r i o t l a n d
and p r o p e r t y l o s s e s , but undoubtedly
ther g r e a t e s t problem f o r the Govern-
ment has been the d i s l o c a t i o n created by l a r g e numbers of refugees, many
from c l o s e - k n i t v i l l a g e s w i t h s t r o n g k i n s h i p t i e s and attachments
land.
to the
These refugees moved i n t o plywood and chipboard shacks or-
s p e c i a l l y b u i l t low-cost housing e s t a t e s . Others b u i l t t h e i r own homes,
- T67 -
MAP
The
-
6:5
LourouJ Ins
Pan) n o u l a
Margo
Melousha
0
r
Potemla i
'
/
/' h
1
*
0
' I \ Petrophanl,
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I / I
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0*.'
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Pe rakhorio *
*
1
i
*
O
Athienou V
Troulll
"
O
~*
v
Pyla
v
•
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LEGEND
Old Nicosia-National \ Turkish \ Dhakella B.SB.A.
Larnaea road ^ u a r d F.D L. \Forcas FDL*S^ Boundary
\
-
T68 -
u t i l i z i n g a s e l f - h e l p programme g i v i n g g r a n t s and loans, w h i l e some
40,000 refugees moved " p r o v i s i o n a l l y " i n t o vacated T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
homes, which they are not allowed t o own. The Government holds the
abandoned T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p r o p e r t y i n t r u s t f o r them.
according
A l l "Cypriots",
t o law, have the r i g h t , t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r former-homes.
One m u l t i p l i e r e f f e c t the massive i n f l u x o f refugees d i d have was t o
t r i g g e r o f f a c o n s t r u c t i o n boom i n the south absorbing much refugee
labour, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f refugee housing and i n new
urban developments a t Limassol and t o a l e s s e r extent o t h e r towns.
I n T974 G.D.P. f e l l 44 % over the previous year.
unemployment i n the Greek s e c t o r was n e a r l y 30 %.
By December '74
Economic
was helped by the F i r s t Emergency A c t i o n Plan 1975 - '77.
recovery
At the end
o f T978 Greek C y p r i o t unemployment was a t a r a t e o f two per cent and
G.D.P. f o r the years T976" - '78 was growing a t eleven per cent per
year.
Since T974 the Greek C y p r i o t s have turned t h e i r geographical p o s i t i o n
i n the eastern Mediterranean near t o the w a r - t o r n Middle East t o t h e i r
economic advantage?. J o i n t ventures
mushroomed.
between C y p r i o t s and f o r e i g n e r s have
Over 2,000 o f f - s h o r e companies have r e g i s t e r e d t h e i r o f f i c e s
i n Cyprus, i n c l u d i n g many Arab v e n t u r e s .
During the recent t r o u b l e s i n
the Lebanon,many Lebanese have sought temporary r e f u g e - i n Cyprus. I n
1976 78,000 Lebanese t e m p o r a r i l y moved t o the i s l a n d . (37) With the
c o n t i n u i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f B e i r u t many i n t e r n a t i o n a l business headquarters
>
have t r a n s f e r r e d t o Cyprus, and Lebanese are i n v e s t i n g i n p r o p e r t y t h e r e .
" I f the B e i r u t i s cannot continue money making at home,
then Cyprus has been an answer; and s e v e r a l o f them have
been p e r m i t t e d to operate
t h e i r banks on the i s l a n d . " (38)
Above a l l , the south has had the advantages o f i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l
r e c o g n i t i o n enabling the Government t o f o s t e r trade l i n k s w i t h the E.E.C.
and Middle Eastern s t a t e s .
south.
I n t e r n a t i o n a l a i d has also flowed i n t o the
I n June 1983 European f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s agreed t o g r a n t Cyprus
- 169 -
44 m i l l i o n European currency u n i t s ( # 40 m i l l i o n s ) i n loans and g r a n t s
A second Cyprus - E.E.C. p r o t o c o l o f December 1983, a l l o c a t e d c r e d i t s
to
the Cyprus Government f o r p r o j e c t s o f p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t t o the whole
island.(39)
Dam and i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s , such as t h e Yermasoyia Dam near Limassol,
and increased i r r i g a t i o n along the c o a s t a l s t r i p o f Paphos, have made
up f o r some losses o f a g r i c u l t u r a l land t o the Turks.
(40) Raw farm
products s t i l l represent 22 - 25 % o f the t o t a l exports o f Greek Cyprus,
w h i l e manufactured goods, i n c l u d i n g processed farm products,account f o r
about 70 %, w i t h minerals making up t h e r e s t .
Although
agriculture's
share o f G.D.P. i s f a l l i n g i t w i l l continue t o be an i m p o r t a n t f o r e i g n
exchange earner and by 1986 a g r i c u l t u r a l exports are expected
i n C£ 108 m i l l i o n s a g a i n s t C£ 64.5 m i l l i o n s i n 1981.
to b r i n g
(41) Land
c o n s o l i d a t i o n schemes have helped t o r a i s e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y
since the p a r t i t i o n . (42)
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t exodus created problems o f r u r a l depopulation i n
c e r t a i n p a r t s o f the south, which has never been completely
replaced.
For i n s t a n c e , Paphos D i s t r i c t l o s t a r u r a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n ,
and since 1974 attempts have been made t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s d i s r u p t e d
a g r i c u l t u r a l system by l a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n measures.
t h a t owing t o the f o r m a t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l enclaves
I t should be noted
there was " s t r a t e g i c
o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n " i n some r u r a l areas p r i o r t o 1974. Large areas o f
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t land are e i t h e r farmed by Greek C y p r i o t refugees o r by
adjacent Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s through a system o f c o o p e r a t i v e s . (43)
Another r e s u l t o f de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n was t h a t the Turks increased the
area o f c o a s t l i n e they h e l d from 10.5 % t o 51.5 % ( see Figure 6:2).
This n o t only had s t r a t e g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the Greek C y p r i o t s l o s t
most o f t h e i r t o u r i s t accommodation ( about 65 % ) i n c l u d i n g the two
main r e s o r t s o f Famagusta* and Kyrenia.
To compensate the Greek C y p r i o t s
f
have developed r e s o r t s a t Paphos, Larnaca, and Ayia Napa, and i n
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
- 170 -
x
Ul
UJ
£C
O
P
2
i
BEFOREl
in
<
m
10
ce
AFTER
cc
CO
=5
o
l
0
L
FIG-G:S
I
a
257.
_l
507.
_j
757.
100°/.
_J
The coastlines of Cyprus before and after the invasion.
- 171 -
December 1983 a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t was opened at Paphos t o
complement the e x i s t i n g one at Larnaca.
I n 1982, the south had 550,000
t o u r i s t s , whereas the n o r t h had o n l y 87,000 v i s i t o r s , o f whom 65,000
were from Turkey.
(44) Tourism i s a b i g f o r e i g n currency earner f o r the
Greek C y p r i o t s , but the n o r t h earns very l i t t l e because most o f i t s
t o u r i s t s are spending T u r k i s h l i r a , the dominant currency o f T u r k i s h
Cyprus.
Indeed many o f the n o r t h ' s v i s i t o r s are there e i t h e r to v i s i t
r e l a t i v e s amongst the troops s t a t i o n e d t h e r e or t o buy western consumer
goods u n a v a i l a b l e back home i n mainland
Turkey.
Southern Cyprus has enhanced i t s p o s i t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade since
1374, and new p o r t f a c i l i t i e s have been developed at Limassol and Larnaca
i n o r d e r t o r e p l a c e those l o s t a t Pamagusta, as w e l l as t o a t t r a c t a
Middle Eastern and Mediterranean t r a n s i t t r a d e .
As a r e s u l t o f Greek
C y p r i o t e n t e r p r i s e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Greek A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
i n the south the economic dichotomy between the two communities i s as
pronounced as i t was
before Summer '74.
I n T981 the average per c a p i t a
income o f a Greek C y p r i o t was f o u r times t h a t of a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t , i . e .
# 4,400 per annum compared t o # T,TOO p.a. (45)
U n f o r t u n a t e l y the economic gap between the two communities w i l l probably
remain a f a c t o r i n t h e i r continued s p a t i a l s e g r e g a t i o n .
Turkish Cypriots
w i l l be m i n d f u l o f the dangers i n a l l o w i n g Greek C y p r i o t s back i n t o the
t e r r i t o r y they now h o l d f o r they do not want t o be swamped by Greek C y p r i o t
prosperity.
The south has b e n e f i t t e d moreover from i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i d ,
much o f which " i s r e l a t e d t o the d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d " and so "vested
i n t e r e s t s might develop to preserve t h a t d i v i s i o n " .
(46)
i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t North.
While the south has prospered the n o r t h has s u f f e r e d from i t s de f a c t o
r a t h e r than de .jure s t a t u s .
N o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f the l e g i t i m a c y o f the
Denktas a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community has hindered
economic development i n n o r t h e r n Cyprus.
On T5- November 1983 Rauf Denktas
- 172 -
declared independence f o r h i s de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e , renaming i t the
'Turkish Republic o f Northern Cyprus' ( T.R.N.C. ) .
"U.D.I." was f o r
a l l p r a c t i c a l "a d e c l a r a t i o n o f dependence on Turkey and a d e c l a r a t i o n
o f secession from the Republic". (47)
I n s p i t e o f the camouflage o f
s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d independence, the economic and p h y s i c a l v i a b i l i t y o f the
n o r t h i s b u i l t on economic, m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l assistance- from
Ankara.
Northern Cyprus has undergone a " T u r k i f i c a t i o n p o l i c y " designed
to create new " f a c t s on the ground", making the prospects f o r a f u l l
r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f the i s l a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y remote w i t h the passage o f time.
(48)
There are numerous p h y s i c a l reminders o f Turkey's p r o t e c t i o n and close
p r o x i m i t y to the T.R.N.C.
As R u s s e l l King describes :-
" The T u r k i s h f l a g f l i e s on a l l p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s and s t a t u e s
o f A t a t u r k are prominent.
estimated
The m i l i t a r y presence, w i t h an
20 - 30,000 s o l d i e r s . . . i s also marked.
Many v i l l a g e s ,
which are bases f o r the m i l i t a r y , and t r a c t s o f c o u n t r y s i d e ,
which are used as t r a i n i n g grounds, are out o f bounds to both
l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s and v i s i t o r s .
are carved i n t o h i l l s i d e s .
T u r k i s h symbols and slogans
At the 1974 l a n d i n g point,west o f
Kyrenia,an e x t r a o r d i n a r y concrete
monument shows a T u r k i s h
c l i f f l e a n i n g p r o t e c t i v e l y over l i t t l e Cyprus."
(49)
Mainland T u r k i s h s e t t l e r s and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t refugees have now been
s e t t l e d i n places which could have been made n e g o t i a b l e i n t e r r i t o r i a l
bargaining w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s .
As Denktas puts i t :-
" You can't deal w i t h people on a percentage b a s i s , as i f the
farms and v i l l a g e s were vacant.
As people get more s e t t l e d i n
the North the f l e x i b i l i t y to a d j u s t the zones i s decreasing."(50)
One
s i g n i f i c a n t obstacle t o an eventual s o l u t i o n i s the f a c t t h a t T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s are e n t i t l e d by t h e i r de f a c t o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to own Greek
Cypriot-owned but vacated p r o p e r t y .
Thus i f the i s l a n d i s ever r e u n i t e d
there w i l l be numerous disputes as to who owns what piece o f land o r house
i n l a r g e p a r t s o f Northern Cyprus.
- 173 -
Since 1374 some 30 - 40,000 s e t t l e r s from the m a i n l a n d — ' T u r k i y e l i 'have entered the n o r t h .
O f f i c i a l l y they were described as seasonal
workers but many continue t o stay i n Cyprus on a more permanent b a s i s ,
s e t t l i n g i n e i t h e r N i c o s i a o r Pamagusta, o r i n three r u r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
the Karpass p e n i n s u l a , the Mesaoria, and n o r t h Morphou.
Hitchens, 1 9 8 4 ,
argues t h a t t h i s i s a d e l i b e r a t e c o l o n i z a t i o n p o l i c y " t o a l t e r the
demographic basis o f the i s l a n d . " ( 5 1 ) Many o f these T u r k i y e l i come
from backward p a r t s o f A n a t o l i a and the Black Sea coast, have d i f f e r e n t
modes o f dress, are l e s s 'European' i n t h e i r behaviour, and adhere more
f e r v e n t l y t o t r a d i t i o n a l Muslim r i g h t s than do T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
Such
d i f f e r e n c e s have tended t o be a cause o f f r i c t i o n between the " i s l a n d e r s "
and mainland
s e t t l e r s . ( 5 2 ) Even Dr Kuciik, the v e t e r a n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
l e a d e r , showed concern over the unplanned " p i l i n g o f people on the i s l a n d
e s t a b l i s h i n g " O r i e n t a l S u l t i n a t e s " i n n o r t h e r n C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s . (53)
Furthermore,
any member o f the T u r k i s h armed f o r c e s whohave served i n
Cyprus o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s , i s e l i g i b l e f o r c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s i n Northern
Cypruso
The d i v i s i o n o f s p o i l s i n T u r k i s h Cyprus has also been uneven.
" C l e a r l y , since the economy o f the ' s t a t e ' i s a f u p t i o n o f
T u r k e y . . . i t i s businessmen connected w i t h the motherland
who stand the best chance." ( 5 4 )
This i s understandable
g i v e n t h a t the T.R.N.C. has l i m i t e d commercial
l i n k s w i t h o t h e r s t a t e s except v i a Turkey.
The 'Northern Republic'
lacks access t o many i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such as the
World Bank.
I t lacks c o n t a c t s w i t h the E.E.C. and i s w i t h o u t b i l a t e r a l
credit f a c i l i t i e s .
Turkey continues moreover t o pay t w o - t h i r d s o f the
budget o f Northern Cyprus.
As M.E.E.D. p u t i t :-
" P o l i t i c s a p a r t , the T u r k i s h Cypriot. community i s aware o f one
major handicap which may continue as long as i t i s d i v i d e d from
the South: i t s i n a b i l i t y t o g a i n access t o the sources o f a i d
granted t o the Cyprus Government.
While the World Bank provides
funds f o r the Paphos i r r i g a t i o n scheme i n the South, the c i t r u s
- T74 orchards o f Morphou i n the N o r i h are threatened by drought." (55)
Despite the handicap o f i t s n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n and ambiguous i n t e r n a t i o n a l
s t a t u s Northern Cyprus coninues t o t r a d e w i t h some European c o u n t r i e s ,
particularly Britain.
The Government o f Cyprus has been unsuccessful
i n i t s attempts t o persuade the E.E.C. t o bar produce from the T„R.N.C.
from b e n e f i t s under an e x i s t i n g agreement, which would render exports
from T u r k i s h Cyprus so uncompetitive as t o be u n s e l l a b l e on European
markets.
Exports from T u r k i s h Cyprus Increased from about # 16 m i l l i o n
i n 1979 t o t 41 m i l l i o n i n 1980. (56)
C i t r u s f r u i t exports are c r u c i a l t o the f r a g i l e economy o f the n o r t h ,
and every e f f o r t i s being made t o r e h a b i l i t a t e farming based on f r u i t ,
e a r l y vegetables and l i v e s t o c k .
Tt,000 hectares o f r i c h orange and lemon
groves i n Morphou, v i r t u a l l y a l l Greek C y p r i o t owned, are now worked by
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t grape-farmers from Paphos.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y much l a n d
adjacent t o the T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e has lacked proper i r r i g a t i o n ,
which has l e d t o the d e s s i c a t i o n o f some c i t r u s groves. (57)
A r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y i n Northern Cyprus i s made
more d i f f i c u l t by the Greek-ownership o f numerous l a r g e h o t e l s and the
f a c t t h a t o n l y T u r k i s h A i r l i n e s can use Ercan ( f o r m e r l y Tyrabou ) A i r p o r t ,
thus r u l i n g out cheap f l i g h t s from Western Europe. (58)
The p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities i n t o d i s t i n c t geographi c a l areas, one i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r a t i f i e d , t h e o t h e r w i t h a de f a c t o
existence o n l y , has served t o widen the g u l f between them.
Both sides
f u n c t i o n as separate s t a t e s , d u p l i c a t e economic f u n c t i o n s , w h i l s t o r d i n ary Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remain remote from each otheir.
The
p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n has fundamentally a l t e r e d the human geography o f
Cyprus, an i s l a n d w i t h two mono-ethnic zones.
As King describes :-
" Northern Cyprus has been purged o f i t s Greekness. Gone are
the t a l l - h a t t e d , bushy-beared Orthodox p r i e s t s ; t h e
monastries and churches are f o r l o r n l y empty...Apart from a
few faded slogans p r o c l a i m i n g Makarios and Enosis,
-
175 -
North Cyprus has been l i n g u i s t i c a l l y whitewashed." ( 5 8 )
T u r k i s h i s t h e language o f t h e T.R.N.C. and a c c o r d i n g l y N i c o s i a has
become Lefkosa; Famagusta i s Gazi Magosa; Kyrenia i s Girne; Morphou i s
Guzelyurt:
These may only be names on T u r k i s h maps o r on signposts i n
Northern Cyprus, but they represent p h y s i c a l impediments t o the r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f the i s l a n d .
Section Two;
U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n i n August 1974.
The p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d by one l i n e o f close armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n
l e d t o sudden, dramatic change i n U.N.F.I.CYP, deployment.
T30 o b s e r v a t i o n
posts were e s t a b l i s h e d i n southern Cyprus and 36 i n the n o r t h , where
T u r k i s h troops r e s t r i c t e d the Force's m o b i l i t y . ( 5 9 )
Even a f t e r t h e
c e a s e - f i r e on 16 August,there were some T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y manouvres, and
U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d t o o b t a i n a w i t h d r a w a l o f troops a f t e r minor T u r k i s h
advances i n the P y r o i - L o u r o u j i n a area, near G a l l i n i , near Dhennia, and
i n Yeralakkas area west o f N i c o s i a .
C r o s s - f i r i n g continued f o r some
considerable time i n a l l these areas. ( 6 0 )
Permanent U.N.CIV.POL.
s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n v i l l a g e s such as D h a l i i n August ' 7 4 and
i n Athienou i n October ' 7 4 , t o a f f o r d g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n f o r v i l l a g e r s
i n ah area o f p a r t i c u l a r l y close armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Meanwhile both
sides c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r defensive p o s i t i o n s , l a i d unmarked mines, and
erected f o r t i f i c a t i o n s .
U.F.F.I.CYP. recorded the Forward Defence Lines
( F.D.L.s ) o f both sides and acted as a n e u t r a l border p a t r o l f o r c e .
As time elapsed U.N.F.I.CYP.'s b u f f e r d u t i e s became l e s s complicated,
and f o l l o w i n g the t r a n s f e r o f v i r t u a l l y a l l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o Northern
Cyprus the Force was able t o reduce i t s c o n t i n g e n t s t r e n g t h .
Instead
o f deployment on an i s l a n d - w i d e basis i n o p e r a t i o n a l zones and d i s t r i c t s ,
it
1
deployed
men i n c o n t i n g e n t s e c t o r s along "the general l i n e o f
confrontation".
( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 5 )
S i x o p e r a t i o n a l s e c t o r s were
formed along the southern e x t e n s i o n o f the? " A t t i l a L i n e " .
U.N.F.I.CYP.
manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts and p a t r o l l e d along t r a c k s observing the F.D.L.s
176
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- 177 -
of both s i d e s . H e l i c o p t e r s were used whenever ground p a t r o l s were
hampered by the danger o f m i n e f i e l d s o r d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n . (61)
I n i t i a l l y ground p a t r o l s were n o t allowed f u l l freedom o f movement i n
the B u f f e r Zone owing t o i n t e r f e r e n c e by T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s on the p r e t e x t
t h a t p a t r o l s approached t o close t o the T u r k i s h P.D.L.
Operations i n Northern Cyprus were c u r t a i l e d t o humanitarian
tasks f o r Greek and Maronite communities t h e r e .
assistance
U.N.P„I.CYP. s e t up
f o u r l i a i s o n posts i n the Karpass and t h r e e around Kyrenia, but i t was
p e r m i t t e d access t o only a few main roads.
U.N.P.I.CYP. continued i t s
r e l i e f e s c o r t s between L i m n i t i s and Kokkina enclave, where there were=
1,500
inhabitants. ( 6 2 )
During
the eighteen months " t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d " f o r U.N.P.I.CYP.
immediately
a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n i t s main tasks can be summarized as :-
(a) Maintenance o f t h e c e a s e - f i r e and P.D.L.s;
(b) I n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g troops between the two sides t o c r e a t e an e f f e c t i v e
d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone under U.N. c o n t r o l .
(c)
To discharge f u n c t i o n s w i t h regard t o the s e c u r i t y and w e l f a r e o f
Greeks l i v i n g i n the n o r t h and Turks s t i l l i n the south.
(d) To support the r e l i e f o p e r a t i o n s coordinated by U.N.H.C.R. and o t h e r
U n i t e d Nations o r g a n i s a t i o n s / programmes and I.C.R.C. (63)
i ) P a c i f i c a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s : T974 t o T984.
In
order t o understand U.N.P.I.CYP.'s o p e r a t i o n s i n t h i s p e r i o d i t i s
necessary t o describe the B u f f e r Zone s e p a r a t i n g Greek from
Cypriots.
Turkish
This U . N o - c o n t r o l l e d c o r r i d o r o f land extends f o r the
full
l e n g t h o f the T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e , T80 k i l o m e t r e s , and i t v a r i e s i n
w i d t h from seven k i l o m e t r e s t o j u s t twenty metres i n s i d e the c i t y w a l l s
of
Nicosia,
The zone takes up a t o t a l o f about t h r e e p e r cent o f the
land area o f Cyprus, approximately
t e n p e r cent o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d ,
a l t h o u g h only a small p r o p o r t i o n o f the i r r i g a t e d area ( i . e . near Morphou )
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s main m i l i t a r y duty i s t o supervise
the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s .
B u f f e r Zone s u r v e i l l a n c e has improved c o n s i d e r a b l y over the l a s t decade.
- 178 -
I n December 1982 U.N.P.I.CYP. had T37 o b s e r v a t i o n posts, 66 permanently
manned.
By June 1984 there were 144 O.P.s, 7T permanently manned.
Between these O.P.s,regular U.N. Force p a t r o l s cover the- l e n g t h o f each
contingent s e c t o r .
strengthened
W i t h i n the c a p i t a l "the t h i n blue l i n e " has
i t s presence by deploying more j u n i o r commanders and t r o o p s .
U.N.F.I.CYP. continues
i n attempts t o persuade both sides t o e f f e c t a
"mutual unmanning" o f key p o s i t i o n s along the Green Line, p a r t i c u l a r l y
where i n c i d e n t s have f r e q u e n t l y occurred. (64)
I n recent years the Force has moved more U.N.F.I.CYP. accommodation
i n t o the B u f f e r Zone.
Observation c a p a b i l i t i e s have improved w i t h the
a i d o f n i g h t v i s i o n devices, w h i l s t m o b i l i t y has been enhanced by
improving
the p a t r o l t r a c k s between the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s .
A l l these f a c t o r s
have enabled U.N.F.I.CYP. t o reduce the number o f serious i n c i d e n t s ; and
attempts by e i t h e r side t o move forward o f e s t a b l i s h e d F.D.L.s., i n
order t o r e s t o r e the s t a t u s quo ante.
By d e l i n e a t i n g and keeping the
opposing c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s i n p o s i t i o n U.N.F.I.CYP. has helped t o harden
the e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e .
There are some examples o f s u b t l e changes i n the s t a t u s quo i n areas
w i t h i n o r adjacent
t o the B u f f e r Zone.
For i n s t a n c e , d u r i n g August 1983-
1,
June 1984, i t was o,served t h a t there had been adjustments t o the p e r i m e t e r
fence o f Varosha, the southern suburb o f Famagusta.
Moreover, some houses
had be en i n h a b i t e d i n Varosha, and i n s p i t e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s t o
r e s t o r e the o l d s i t u a t i o n i n Varosha, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have done
n o t h i n g t o reverse
these changes.
old walls o f Nicosia.
(65) Another example i s w i t h i n the
I n A p r i l 1984 the Greek r e s i d e n t s o f Ayios
Kassianos,in the eastern p a r t o f the w a l l e d c i t y , p r o t e s t e d against a
1
U.N.F.I.CYP. d e c i s i o n t o place a number of b a r r e l s b l o c k i n g Athina Avenue,
where Greek C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s l i v e .
A f t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s made by N a t i o n a l
Guard o f f i c e r s the b a r r e l s were removed t e m p o r a r i l y .
According t o the
r e s i d e n t s , the U.N. d e c i s i o n f o l l o w e d the recent advance o f T u r k i s h
troops
i n t o the B u f f e r Zone t o occupy the deserted o l d elementary school o f Ayios
co
CD
CD
03
LU
CO
co
CD
O
03
co
CO
CD
CO
co
03
CO
N
CO
0)
CO
CD
CO
00
CO
u
co
03
03
CO
in
CO
CO
1
CD
I
[ M
ID
*
5(
CO
CD
CO
co
CO
CO
TO r-
5 O
CO
CO
CO
O
LL
LU
co
t.
O
CO
03
+-> CO
03
CO
CO
C CD
CD
O
EE
88
CO
CO
•• • •
CD
10
CD
CO
i
m
- 180 -
Kassianos.
present
Such s m a l l e n c r o a c h m e n t s i n t o
t h e B u f f e r ^ Z o n e a r e an e v e r
d a n g e r , e s p e c i a l l y s e n s i t i v e i n a r e a s where t h e two s i d e s a r e
separated
o n l y by a m a t t e r o f t w e n t y
( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 7 )
o r so m e t r e s as i n c e n t r a l
Nicosia.
The i n c i d e n t i n A y i o s K a s s i a n o s h i g h l i g h t s t h e
p r o b l e m s U.N.F.I.CYP. has i n t r y i n g
t o keep F.D.L.s s t a t i c .
(66)
A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t y u n d e r t a k e n by U.N.P.I.CYP. i s t h e m o n i t o r i n g
o f f l i g h t s a c r o s s t h e B u f f e r Zone, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f m i l i t a r y
aircraft
c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e f r o m t h e n o r t h and l i g h t , c i v i l
air-
c r a f t c r o s s i n g t h e N a t i o n a l Guard c e a s e - f i r e l i n e f r o m t h e s o u t h .
In
response t o t h e problem o f f r e q u e n t o v e r f l i g h t s o f t h e L o u r o u j i n a
salient
by c i v i l i a n a i r c r a f t ,
decided
and
t h e Cyprus C i v i l A v i a t i o n A u t h o r i t y have r e c e n t l y
t o r e p o s i t i o n the l i g h t a i r c r a f t f l i g h t
Lakatomia f u r t h e r t o t h e south.
To
c o r r i d o r between L a r n a c a
(67)
t h e n o r t h o f t h e B u f f e r Zone U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s c o n t i n u e t o
b e - h i n d e r e d b y t i g h t , r e s t r i c t i o n s o n i t s f r e e d o m o f movement.
1979,
t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u t h o r i t i e s i s s u e d t h e U.N. F o r c e w i t h a
number o f g u i d e l i n e s
posts
( 6 8 ) , w h i c h l i m i t e d t h e h o u r s p e r day U.N,P.I.CYP.
c o u l d be used i n t h e n o r t h
to t h e Force.
as w e l l as t h e number o f r o a d s open
I n t h e p e r i o d T982 - '84 U.N.F.I.CYP. succeeded i n r e m o v i n g
T u r k i s h r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e f o l l o w i n g r o u t e s —
Pamagusta - R i z o k a r p a s s o ;
X e r o s - S k o u r i o t i s s a ; L i m n i t i s - X e r o s ; N i c o s i a - Famagusta.
had
I n December
The l a t t e r
s t r i c t g u i d e l i n e s as t o t h e number o f U.N.P.I.CYP. v e h i c l e s
allowed
t o use i t . ( 6 9 )
i i ) Humanitarian
and Economic A c t i v i t i e s :
T974 t o T984.
These a c t i v i t i e s c o v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g :( a ) To c o n t r b u t e t o t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s .
( U.N. R e s o l u t i o n
T86 / T964 )
( b ) To c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e h u m a n i t a r i a n r e l i e f programme i n c l o s e
cooperation
w i t h U.N.H.C.R. and W o r l d Pood Programme ( W.P.P.)
( U.N. R e s o l u t i o n
359 / 1974 )
- 181
( c ) To c a r r y o u t such Red Cross f u n c t i o n s as may be r e q u i r e d f r o m
to
time
t i m e by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Committee o f t h e Red C r o s s .
( Secretary General Report,
U.N. S/T2463 )
W i t h r e g a r d t o ( b ) and ( c ) U.N.P.I.CYP. has c o n t i n u e d t o c a r r y o u t
humanitarian
discharges
relief
o p e r a t i o n s since t h e events
o f Summer '74. I t
f u n c t i o n s handed o v e r t o i t by t h e I.C.R.C. a t t h e t i m e o f
t h e l a t t e r ' s w i t h d r a w a l i n June 1977. ( 7 0 ) W i t h
t h o s e Greeks and M a r o n i t e s
still
l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h , these f u n c t i o n s
have i n c r e a s e d , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o m e d i c a l
( 7 1 ) An emergency m e d i c a l
evacuation
t h e a d v a n c i n g age o f
and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s .
s u p p l y s e r v i c e i s p r o v i d e d , as w e l l as m e d i c a l
by U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l i c o p t e r s h o u l d a member o f a " m i n o r i t y *
on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e p a r t i t i o n r e q u i r e u r g e n t t r e a t m e n t o n t h e o t h e r
side. (72)
U.N. t r o o p s have h e l p e d
medical
i n delivering agricultural,
e d u c a t i o n a l and
equipment under t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s H u m a n i t a r i a n
w h i c h p r o v i d e d J$ U.S. 5 m i l l i o n
R e l i e f Programme,
t o f i n a n c e seventeen p r o j e c t s .
This
programme, c o o r d i n a t e d by t h e Cyprus Red Cross S o c i e t y , i n v o l v e s
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a general h o s p i t a l ,
t h e overseas
p r o c u r e m e n t o f e q u i p m e n t and s u p p l i e s f o r t h e h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n and
agricultural
s e c t o r s , and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g . ( 7 3 )
U.NoP.I.CYP. c o n t i n u e s
t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l t r a n s f e r s o f Greek C y p r i o t s
from n o r t h t o south are v o l u n t a r y .
r e s i d i n g i n t h e T.R.N.C.
year p e r i o d from
I n 1984 t h e r e were 844 Greek C y p r i o t s
The number o f permanent t r a n s f e r s i n t h e two
1 June 1982 t o 1 June 1984 was 158. ( 7 4 ) F o r Greeks
r e s i d i n g i n t h e n o r t h l i f e has been s u b j e c t t o many r e s t r i c t i o n s .
a r e dependent on t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f o r m e d i c a l
Greek C y p r i o t e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s
and h o s p i t a l
They
facilities.
i n t h e n o r t h amount t o two p r i m a r y
s c h o o l s , one a t R i z o k a r p a s s o has 51 p u p i l s and one a t A y i a T r i a s has 2T.
(75)
C h i l d r e n o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l age have t o move s o u t h i f t h e y want
a Greek C y p r i o t e d u c a t i o n .
Since A p r i l
f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. t o a r r a n g e
visits
T979, i t has n o t been p o s s i b l e
by c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l s
i n the
- 182 -
south
t o t h e i r parents
o r grandparents
i n the north. (76)
Between June '82 - June '84, t w e n t y - o n e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e chose t o move
from south
decided
t o n o r t h Cyprus on a permanent b a s i s , and f o r t y - s e v e n M a r o n i t e s
t o t r a n s f e r from n o r t h t o south.
v i l l a g e s i n the north —
maintained
Asomatos, K a r p a s h a , and K o r m a k i t i —
contacts w i t h Maronites
u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. a u s p i c e s .
of separated
There a r e t h r e e M a r o n i t e
l i v i n g i n southern
w h i c h have
Cyprus v i a v i s i t s
The Foirce has a l s o a r r a n g e d
frequent
reunions
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s a t t h e L e d r a P a l a c e H o t e l on an
ad hoc b a s i s . ( 7 7 )
The
P r o m o t i o n o f Economic A c t i v i t y i n t h e B u f f e r Zone :
The
B u f f e r Zone c u t s a c r o s s v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d i n t h e Morphou
B a s i n and M e s a o r i a , d i v i d e s t h e c a p i t a l , t r u n c a t e s p r e - A u g u s t
'74 r o u t e -
ways, and r u n s o v e r i m p o r t a n t r i v e r b a s i n s , s t r e a m s , and u n d e r g r o u n d
water resources.
W i t h o u t U.N.P.I.CYP.'s p r e s e n c e t h e t h r e e - p e r c e n t o f
C y p r i o t ' t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone w o u l d be a m i l i t a r y
o r an u n p r o d u c t i v e
economic a c t i v i t y
valuable farmland,
opposing
For
no-man's-land.
waste-ground
U.N.P.I.CYP. has h e l p e d r e a c t i v a t e
"between t h e l i n e s " .
I t has t u r n e d m i n e f i e l d s i n t o
and s a f e g u a r d e d c i v i l i a n s w o r k i n g
u n d e r t h e noses o f
soldiers.
t h e two y e a r s a f t e r t h e t r o u b l e s o f 1974 t h e r e was l i t t l e
economic
a c t i v i t y o r movement n e a r t h e f r o n t - l i n e s o f e i t h e r t h e T u r k i s h Army o r
N a t i o n a l Guard. ( 7 8 ) U.N.P.I.CYP. has i n c r e a s e d
escorts f o r farmers
i n g i n s e n s i t i v e n e w l y opened f i e l d s i n t h e B u f f e r Zone.
S e c u r i t y Line
work-
A Farming
( F.S.L. ) has been c a r e f u l l y drawn and d e m a r c a t e d by
U.N.F.I.CYP. f o r t h e m u t u a l s a f e t y o f c i v i l i a n s w o r k i n g
on e i t h e r
( r e f e r t o Map 6.8 )
the middle o f
T h i s F.S.L. r o u g h l y c u t s t h r o u g h
t h e B u f f e r Zone, a l o n g s i d e
cultivate
l a n d w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone i s g r a n t e d
c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h both
The
U.N. F o r c e p a t r o l t r a c k s .
side.
Permission t o
by U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r
sides.
U.N. F o r c e a l l o w s c u l t i v a t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e
"without prejudice to
-
any
183 -
eventual p o l i t i c a l settlement" using
two p r i n c i p a l g u i d e l i n e s
( i ) S e c u r i t y and ( i i ) O w n e r s h i p . ( 7 9 ) On t h e one hand,
—
cultivation
s h o u l d n o t be a t h r e a t t o t h e l e g i t i m a t e s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f e i t h e r
side.
On t h e o t h e r , U.N.F.I.CYP. has t r i e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e l a n d i s
c u l t i v a t e d by a c t u a l owners o r t h e i r employees.
be handed t o U.N.F.I.CYP. b e f o r e a f a r m e r
Proof
i s allowed
o f o w n e r s h i p must
to cultivate- his
l a n d i n t h e B u f f e r Zone.
M i n e f i e l d clearance
has been n e c e s s a r y i n c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r
Zone b e f o r e any c u l t i v a t i o n was p o s s i b l e , and U.N.F.I.CYP. has c l e a r l y
marked o t h e r known o r s u s p e c t e d m i n e f i e l d s .
E v e r y e f f o r t has a l s o
made t o demarcate t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y L i n e w i t h w h i t e m e t a l
painted boulders
been
drums and
so t h a t i t s p o s i t i o n i s o b v i o u s t o b o t h s i d e s ,
lessening
the l i k e l i h o o d o f shooting i n c i d e n t s .
F r e q u e n t U.N.CIV.POL. and U.N.
Force t r o o p p a t r o l s c a r e f u l l y m o n i t o r
a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n the
whole o f t h e B u f f e r Zone.
WITHIN THE BUFFER ZONE.
>w»
'—
Turkish
Cvjpriot
»J, C u l t i v a t i o n <Knd q n a j i n ^
T
I
\
I
I
T
coltivab'oo
a/»d
gr«3
, r t
^
^
„•-''"<» \
" "
__ s
V
•
T u r k i s h F o r c e O.P.
9
Greek C y p r i o t O.P.
Greek C y p r i o t c e a s e - f i r e
( N a t i o n a l Guard )
o r F.D.L.
O United Nations
Force
—
— . —
"
—
T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e o r F.D.L.
Farming S e c u r i t y Line
line
( F.S.L. )
O.P.
N.B.
O.P. s a r e o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s , and F.D.L. s t a n d s f o r F o r w a r d
Defence
It
Line.
i s interesting
t o note
t h a t t h e B u f f e r Zone i s t h e one a r e a i n t h e
i s l a n d where Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o u l d l i v e and work
together.
- 184
At p r e s e n t
-
t h e F.S.L. w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone f o r m s an e f f e c t i v e
interface
( see
above d i a g r a m
from
sides
t o push Greek C y p r i o t c u l t i v a t i o n n o r t h w a r d s and
both
) , but should
U.N.F.I.CYP. g a i n
ethnic
c u l t i v a t i o n s o u t h w a r d s t h e B u f f e r Zone c o u l d become an
f r o n t i e r zone.
The
Greeks own
Turkish Cypriot land to the south.
community i s l e s s i n t e r e s t e d i n f a r m i n g
to
Turkish
intercommunal
much l a n d n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. w i t h i n
B u f f e r Zone b u t a r e as y e t u n a b l e t o c u l t i v a t e i t , and
1974
permission
the
t h e r e i s some p r e -
Unfortunately the Turkish
on
Cypriot
t h e i r s i d e o f t h e P.S.L. o w i n g
a r e l a t i v e abundance o f l a n d p e r head i n N o r t h e r n
Cyprus compared t o
t h a t o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t s .
Cyprus i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o l o n g d r y M e d i t e r r a n e a n summers and
shortages.
in
The
B u f f e r Zone has
a peculiar hydropolitics with
charge o f i t s w a t e r supply.
B e f o r e a f a r m e r can
drill
must have p r o o f o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p t o o b t a i n a d r i l l i n g
U.N.P.I.CYPo permission.
before
a water bore-hole
spent c o n s i d e r a b l e
and
N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h both
can
be u s e d .
time ensuring
a t an e f f i c i e n t
f o r water
tanks
and
J o i n t m e e t i n g s between t h e
a l s o made f r e q u e n t v i s i t s
reservoirs.
I t tries
t h e Greek and
t o and
Such
e f f i c i e n t l y operated
Turkish C y p r i o t communities.
O t h e r U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s h e l p i n g b o t h
annual anti-mosquito
U.N.
spraying
F o r c e d e l i v e r s m a i l and
l i n e s as w e l l as
inspections of
t o ensure t h a t the w a t e r
and
in
(80)
supply
distribution
f o r the b e n e f i t
(81)
communities i n c l u d e i t s
programme i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. ( 8 2 )
Red
have
water
a p p r o p r i a t e r e g u l a t o r y measures d u r i n g d r y summer months.
system o f both sides i s f a i r l y
of
place
d i s t r i b u t i o n of water
meetings are necessary to r e s o l v e mutual problems o f w a t e r supply
U . N . P . I . C Y P . has
get
damaged pumps, p i p e l i n e s
a u t h o r i t i e s o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s a r e a r r a n g e d by U . N . P . I . C Y P .
N i c o s i a and
he
l i c e n c e , then
communities takes
t h a t b r o k e n and
level.
U.N.P.I.CYP.
U . N . P . I . C Y P . ' s economic s t a f f
e l e c t r o n i c a p p a r a t u s f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n and
are m a i n t a i n e d
acute water
Cross messages a c r o s s t h e
t r a n s f e r r i n g g o v e r n m e n t p e n s i o n s and
b e n e f i t s to e l i g i b l e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the n o r t h .
The
cease-fire
social security
I t has
also
- 185 -
facilitated
t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o l d e r homes t h a t became u n i n h a b i t a b l e
i n v i l l a g e s w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone, a n d h e l p e d p r i v a t e owners t a k e
movable p r o p e r t y f r o m
the
their
area.
U.N.CIV,POL. : M a i n t e n a n c e o f Law and O r d e r .
There i s e s t i m a t e d
t o be o v e r 9,000 r e s i d e n t s i n t h e B u f f e r Zone.
( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 5 )
l a r g e s t v i l l a g e i s Athienou.
t a s k i s t o see t h a t t h e
are p r o t e c t e d .
The
UoN.CIV.POL.'s m a j o r
c i v i l i a n s and p r o p e r t y w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone
I t maintains
c l o s e c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e Cyprus P o l i c e and
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e , a n d f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t s v i l l a g e m u k h t a r s and
o r d i n a r y c i v i l i a n s on both
The
sides o f the United N a t i o n s - c o n t r o l l e d zone
a
c i v i l i a n p o l i c e a s s i s t t h e m i l i t a r y e l e m e n t o f U.N.F.I„CYP. i n
c o n t r o l l i n g movements w i t h i n o r e n c r o a c h m e n t s i n t o
t h e B u f f e r Zone, and
i n e s c o r t i n g " a u t h o r i z e d " movements a c r o s s t h e n e u t r a l a r e a .
A u s t r a l i a n c i v i l i a n policemen working
h e a d q u a r t e r s i n S e c t o r Two,
westwards o f N i c o s i a
f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. have
and t h e y " l o o k a f t e r " t h e a r e a
t o w a r d s Kato Pyrgos and K o k k i n a .
their
extending
The Swedish
c i v i l i a n p o l i c e h e a d q u a r t e r s i s l o c a t e d i n t h e mixed B u f f e r Zone v i l l a g e
of Pyla, near t o Dhekelia
1
S.B.A., and t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a e x t e n d s
eastwards from N i c o s i a t o southern
Famagusta.
I t should
t h a t a l l the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Pyla
be s t r e s s e d
evacuated a f t e r
the
p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d .
U.N.CIV.POL. p e r s o n n e l
a c t i n many ways as an i n t e r m e d i a r y f o r c e ,
i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n t o complaints
o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s having
intercommunal
i m p l i c a t i o n s and i n v a r i o u s r o u t i n e a c t i v i t i e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e
m i l i t a r y element o f U.N.F.I.CYP.
R e g u l a r p a t r o l s a r e made up and down
t h e B u f f e r Zone t o e n s u r e t h a t no c i v i l i a n s c r o s s
"wrong" s i d e o f t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y L i n e .
by s h e p h e r d s g r a z i n g
It
and
i s important
contact
i n t o a r e a s on t h e
A c o n t i n u a l p r o b l e m i s posed
t h e i r f l o c k s dangerously close
t o t h e F S,L.
t o s t r e s s t h a t i n t h e absence o f d i r e c t
between o r d i n a r y p e o p l e on o p p o s i t e
0
cooperation
s i d e s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone
- 186
-
b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n components o f U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t as t h e
o n l y communication
S e c t i o n Three:
S e c t o r Two
c h a n n e l between them.
Case Study —
U.N.F.I.CYP. S e c t o r Two
; BRIT.CON.
o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s B u f f e r Zone l i e s on t h e
western
boundary o f S e c t o r P o u r , N i c o s i a Zone, and e x t e n d s w e s t w a r d s o f t h e
Peristerona, Astromeritis —
Morphou Road.
I t i n c l u d e s U.N.F„I.CYP.
Headquarters
l o c a t e d a t t h e f o r m e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t o f N i c o s i a , as
w e l l as H.Q.
CAN.CON. ( Canadian C o n t i n g e n t
Contingent
all
is
) ; and H.Q.
at Kokkina T r i m i t h i a ,
1975
BRIT.CON. ( B r i t i s h
AUST.CIV.POL. ( A u s t r a l i a n c i v i l i a n p o l i c e ) ,
s i t u a t e d near to the o l d a i r p o r t .
In
) ; H.Q.
The-headquarters o f Sector
j u s t s o u t h o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard P.D.L.
most o f t h e B u f f e r Zone was
parched w a s t e l a n d , a dangerous
a r e a o f c l o s e armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n , l a r g e t r a c t s o f i t mined w i t h
marked a n t i - p e r s o n n e l and a n t i - t a n k m i n e s .
d i v i s i o n f o r t h o s e C y p r i o t s who
but
can s t i l l
un-
I t r e p r e s e n t e d a more f o r * -
b i d d i n g b a r r i e r t h a n t h e h i g h peaks o f t h e P e n t a d a c t y l o s , a
across i t .
Two
see
frustrating
t h e i r o l d homes and
W i t h i n c e n t r a l N i c o s i a the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s almost
fields
coalesce,
even i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e where t h e B u f f e r Zone i s up t o seven m i l e s
wide the " o t h e r s i d e " i s always
t a n t a l i z i n g l y close.
The
refugees
l i v i n g i n P e r i s t e r o n a "...have been e v i c t e d f r o m t h e i r homes and
but
a t midday t h e y can s t i l l
see
orchards
the o u t l i n e s of t h e i r o l d
d w e l l i n g s a g a i n s t t h e s k y , and t h e r e i s some c o m f o r t , as
as some p a i n , i n t h e p r o x i m i t y .
now
The
i n v i s i b l e but
palpable l i n e o f d i v i s i o n runs here, t o o .
well
still
There i s no
v i l l a g e o r t o w n , however f a r f r o m t h a t l i n e , w h i c h does n o t
pay an i n d e m n i t y t o i t w i t h i m p o v e r i s h e d r e f u g e e h o u s i n g ,
w i t h memories."
(83)
Many Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s now
Peristerona or Astromeritis l o s t
l i v i n g i n the v i l l a g e s of Akaki,
land to the Turks,north of Sector
W i t h i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e B u f f e r Zone t h e r e a r e j u s t two i n h a b i t e d
Mammari and D h e n i a , now
mixed,
and
Two.
villages
b o t h Greek C y p r i o t , a l t h o u g h D h e n i a used t o be
187
1
I
I
I
I
•
s
m
UJ
I
V)
I
I
UJ
(0
UJ
(9
in
0 09
1
in
/
1
i v
i
r y
\
1
\
1
\\.
CO
10
8
x
U. o
z
±U» O
\
n
- 188 -
The
f o l l o w i n g d e t a i l s are l a r g e l y taken from f i e l d observations i n
April
1984 and t h e y s h o u l d be used w i t h Map 6.8.
Most o f t h e l a n d e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e o l d N i c o s i a a i r p o r t and U.N.P.I.CYP.
H.Q. t o t h e v i l l a g e o f D h e n i a i s v e r y p o o r , w i t h l i t t l e
few
cultivated fields.
has
helped
extend
Line northwards
little
i r r i g a t i o n and
S o u t h o f t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y Line,U.N.P.I.CYP.
c u l t i v a t i o n f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Guard F o r w a r d Defence
c l o s e t o t h e F.S.L.; b u t n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. t h e r e was
e v i d e n c e o f any f a r m i n g o t h e r t h a n r o u g h g r a z i n g l a n d f o r g o a t s .
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s own l e s s l a n d i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e B u f f e r Zone and a l s o
have l e s s need t o c u l t i v a t e w i t h i n t h i s a r e a .
Moving w e s t w a r d s u p t o
D h e n i a t h e F.S.L. f o l l o w s a c o u r s e s o u t h o f t h e U.N. F o r c e p a t r o l
which i n t u r n runs a d i s t a n c e o f twenty
River
Ovgos.
track,
t o f i f t y metres south o f t h e
U.N.F.I.CYP. was p l a n n i n g t o move t h e F.S.L. u p t o t h e
Ovgos i n o r d e r t o e x t e n d
s o u t h o f t h e F.S.L.
t h e a r e a o f p o s s i b l e Greek C y p r i o t
cultivation
Thus making a t i n y s e c t i o n o f t h e Ovgos a n a t u r a l
b o u n d a r y between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone.
Opening f i e l d s o n t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e F.S.L. has been a p i e c e m e a l
process.
I n some a r e a s mines have been c l e a r e d , b u t t h e r e were
p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone f e n c e d
of
old
o f f owing t o suspected
still
m i n e f i e l d s . Much
t h e l a n d u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e " n e u t r a l zone" i s e i t h e r f a r m e d by
owners o f l e a s e d
t o new t e n a n t f a r m e r s .
Refugees f r o m t h e n o r t h
have been g i v e n Government g r a n t s t o buy l a n d .
were t e m p t e d i n t o l e a s i n g l a n d a d j a c e n t
Some o f t h e s e
refugees
t o o r w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone.
P l o t s o f l a n d w i t h i n S e c t o r Two v a r y i n s i z e f r o m 5 t o 20 a c r e s .
a v e r a g e d s i z e d p l o t o f TO t o 13 a c r e s
An
c o s t s a b o u t C£ 2,000 p e r annum t o
farm.
West o f D h e n i a t h e r e were i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e a r e a o f l a n d
visibly
u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. s c r u b l a n d and dead
t r e e s were v i s i b l e .
citrus
The F.S.L. g e t s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e
l i n e n e a r A v l o n a and w e s t w a r d s t o t h e end o f S e c t o r Two.
t h e r e were many w e l l - t e n d e d c i t r u s o r c h a r d s
I n this
area
and l e s s d r y c u l t i v a t i o n .
-
189 -
A r b i t r a t i o n o f w a t e r usage and s u p e r v i s i o n o f w a t e r b o r e - h o l e s a r e
c r u c i a l r o l e s f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. i n S e c t o r
s u p p l i e s a r e needed by b o t h s i d e s .
r e s i d e n t s o f Avlona, behind
U.N.P.I.CYP. has a l l o w e d t h e
the cease-fire l i n e w i t h i n the Turkish
s e c t o r , t o use a w a t e r b o r e - h o l e
w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone so t h a t t h e
v i l l a g e has a r e a d y w a t e r s u p p l y .
in
S e c t o r Two was t r y i n g
Two where u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r
U.N.P.I.CYP.'s Economics B r a n c h
t o work a compromise b e t w e e n t h e T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s and Greek C y p r i o t s o v e r t h e use o f two more water- b o r e - h o l e s
and
t h e r i g h t s o f Greeks t o c u l t i v a t e l a n d j u s t
Akaki
and
Riverbed,
c l o s e t o t h e P.S.L., T u r k i s h Army o b s e r v a t i o n
Avlona v i l l a g e .
s t r a t e g i c a r e a s can be opened
it
o v e r a l l impression
neglected
life
with
c a n be used and b e f o r e f i e l d s i n
for-cultivation.
o f Sector
Two was o f an a r e a o f l a n d , much o f
s i n c e t h e p a r t i t i o n i n August
u n d e r U.N.P.I.CYP. a u s p i c e s .
'74, s l o w l y coming back t o
North o f t h e Farming S e c u r i t y
U.N.P.I.CYP. has t r i e d t o e n c o u r a g e g r e a t e r T u r k i s h
although
posts,
I n o t h e r words U.N.P.I.CYP. has t o n e g o t i a t e
both sides before water bore-holes
The
t o t h e west o f t h e
l a r g e t r a c t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone a d j a c e n t
Line
participation,
t o t h e T u r k i s h F.D.L.
b e l o n g s t o Greek C y p r i o t s and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t be f a r m e d by t h e T u r k s .
S i m i l a r l y , t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s once owned l a n d s o u t h o f t h e F.S.L. i n
some p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone.
represents
Thus t h e U.N. F o r c e - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a
an a r t i f i c i a l g e o g r a p h i c a l
s t r i p o f l a n d where i n t e r c o m m u n a l
a c t i v i t y c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y t a k e p l a c e w i t h U.N.F.I.CYF. a s s i s t a n c e and
mediation,
although
compromises f r o m
each s i d e w i l l
one
guarantees /
t h e o t h e r i f i t i s t o a l l o w t h e B u f f e r Zone t o become
an a r e a o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l e x i s t e n c e .
continues
require considerable
I n t h e meantime U.N.F.I.CYP.
t o e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y o f Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s
hundred yards o f T u r k i s h r i f l e s
t h e P.S.L. passes c l o s e
within
i n a r e a s such as A v l o n a , where t h e
t o t h e v i l l a g e . Some semblance o f n o r m a l i t y i s
t h u s r e t u r n i n g t o an i m p o r t a n t
w a s t e d "no-man's-land".
working
s t r i p o f land t h a t would otherwise
be
<
u
§5
0 ui
a
•
>
a
13
ai
0
2
5
- 191 -
Section Four :
Some C o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g
U„N.F.I.CYP.'s Second Decade.
I n June 1984 t h e d e f i c i t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s
was
estimated
t o be g 117.7 m i l l i o n .
F o r c e i n Cyprus Account
I n s p i t e o f t h i s huge
the Secretary General concluded t h a t
deficit
:-
" . . . t h e c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. r e m a i n s
indispensable
and
i n helping to maintain
calm i n t h e i s l a n d
i n c r e a t i n g the c o n d i t i o n s i n which the d i f f i c u l t
s e a r c h f o r a p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t can be p u r s u e d . " ( 8 4 )
Although
t h e B r i t i s h and Canadians and t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t s e v e r a l
s t a t e s have been w i l l i n g
t o pay t h e c o s t s o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r
other
contingent
t h e m a j o r s h a r e o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s f i n a n c i n g h a s been t h e v o l u n t a r y
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l was a b l e
the United S t a t e s .
deficit
since
Nevertheless
to e l i c i t ,
particularly
from
t h e U.N. F o r c e has b u i l t up a c h r o n i c
T964 when U Thant c o m p l a i n e d t h a t
" t h e method o f f i n a n c i n g
t h e Force i n Cyprus as d e f i n e d by t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l r e s o l u t i o n o f
4 March 19&4, i s most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y "
0
t h i s study t o discuss
( 8 5 ) I t i s beyond t h e scope o f
a l t e r n a t i v e methods o f f i n a n c i n g , o r i n d e e d
to give
an e l a b o r a t e a p p r a i s a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o s t s , b u t as Adams and C o t t r e l l
1968,
a r g u e d "U.N.F.I.CYP. c a n n o t go on i n d e f i n i t e l y . "
( 8 6 ) They added
_
t h a t _ " i t _ c a n end s u c c e s s f u l l y - o n l y - w h e n - a p e r m a n e n t p o l i t ~ i c a l " s e t t l e m e n t
f o r Cyprus i s somehow
Apart
from
achieved."
t h e s t a t u s quo t h e o p t i o n s a p p e a r t o be :-
( i ) W i t h d r a w a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP. b e f o r e a s e t t l e m e n t ;
( i i ) Reduction i n s t r e n g t h o f t h e Force.
Given t h e c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l stalemate
probably
i n Cyprus t h e f o r m e r
choice
would
a g g r a v a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n by r e a c t i v a t i n g i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e .
As f o r t h e l a t t e r p o i n t , U.N.F.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h i n June T984 was 2,348
considerably
l e s s t h a n i t s e a r l i e r days i n C y p r u s .
A
token
presence
o f a f e w h u n d r e d " b l u e b e r r e t s " w o u l d r e d u c e i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s and
c r e d i b i l i t y as a p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e .
E i t h e r o p t i o n , complete
withdrawal
o r a f u r t h e r s c a l i n g down o f o p e r a t i o n s , c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an
a d m i s s i o n by t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l o f t h e i n t r a c t a b i l i t y o f t h e Cyprus
- 192 -
Problem.
almost
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d see a U.N.F.I.CYP. w i t h d r a w a l
as i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n and t h e
m i c r o - s t a t e t h e y have c r e a t e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f T u r k e y .
one
The l e a s t
can say a b o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o n t i n u e d s t a y i n
Cyprus i s t h a t i t i s a v i s i b l e r e m i n d e r
of international intermediary
e f f o r t s by t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l t o b r i n g t h e two s i d e s t o g e t h e r a r o u n d
the n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e .
More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t s as a
c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l between t h e c o m m u n i t i e s , p r o v i d i n g n o t o n l y a
sense o f s e c u r i t y b u t a r a y o f hope t h a t one day t h e de f a c t o b o u n d a r y
s e p a r a t i n g them w i l l
bridged.
T h i s c h a p t e r has d e a l t w i t h t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
u p h e a v a l s c r e a t e d by t h e p a r t i t i o n o f C y p r u s , s u b s e q u e n t changes i n
human g e o g r a p h y on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e , and
the a c t i v i t i e s
o f U.N.F.I.CYP. i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e new f a c t s on t h e g r o u n d .
Seven examines i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e K y p r i a n o u
proposals
and
Chapter-
- Denktas impasse; r e c e n t
f o r a s e t t l e m e n t a n d / o r c o n c e s s i o n s o f f e r e d by e i t h e r s i d e ;
t h e p o s s i b l e f u t u r e r o l e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. g i v e n t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o
r e m a i n i n Cyprus f o r some c o n s i d e r a b l e
a passive
time.
plays
r o l e i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m , u n a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e
t h e main a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i v i s i o n .
t h e B u f f e r Zone have h e l p e d
into
U.N.F.I.CYP. i t s e l f
cultivation.
But i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n
t o b r i n g v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d back
One p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a " r e t u r n t o n o r m a l i t y "
i n f u t u r e c o u l d be r e s t o r a t i o n o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n
n e u t r a l zone.
U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t s a r e s t i l l
t h e r e i s any movement o f C y p r i o t s a c r o s s
that
t h e o n l y means by w h i c h
the p a r t i t i o n l i n e s .
Finally,
U.N.F.I.CYP. has i n j e c t e d s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f money i n t o t h e l o c a l
economy i n t h e f o r m o f demand f o r l o c a l l y p r o d u c e d goods.
As Greek
C y p r i o t s o c c a s i o n a l l y remark t h e " b l u e b e r r e t s " a r e " t h e b e s t
in
Cyprus".
tourists
-
F o o t n o t e s and
T93
-
References.
(T)
H i t c h e n s . C . 1984,
Cyprus.
( Q u a r t e t Books ) , p . 2 1 .
(2)
C a t s e l l i , R . T979,
Refugee i n My Homeland. ( K y r e n i a F l o w e r Show
edition,
(3)
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t shopkeeper
York Times.
" A v g h i " P r i n t i n g Co.
i n a r e p o r t by N i c h o l a s Gage, The
29/04/78, p.2.
The Road t o B e l l a p a i s .
C a t s e l l i , op. c i t . .
(5)
F o r a more comprehensive
J u l y - August
Also q u o t e d i n O b e r l i n g . P .
( Columbia
(4)
) , p.47.
U n i v e r s i t y Press
New
1982,
) , p.224.
p.18
and k n o w l e d g a b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t s o f
1974 r e f e r t o t h e r e l e v a n t works c i t e d i n t h e B i b l i o -
graphy .
(6)
C a t s e l l i , op. c i t . .
p.38
(7)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, 1984, C y p r u s . p.14.
(8)
U.N.
Doc.
S/11568, 6 December 1974, p a r a .
(9)
U.N.
Doc.
S/11433, p a r a .
( 1 0 ) Woodhouse.C.M. T984,
T2.
2T.
A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f Modern Greece. ( P e n g u i n )
p.305.
( 1 T ) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op. c i t . .
p.15.
(T2) i b i d .
( 1 3 ) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . .
p.102.
( 1 4 ) S e v e r a l commentators
a r g u e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was
the major
e x t e r n a l power b e h i n d e v e n t s , by i t s s u p p o r t o f t h e Greek J u n t a ,
t h e coup a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s , i t s " t i l t "
t o w a r d s T u r k e y and p a s s i v e
a c q u i e s c e n c e and d i p l o m a t i c b l u n d e r i n g o v e r t h e m i l i t a r y
intervention.
Refer to Bibliography.
( 1 5 ) Beeley,B.W. 1978,
'The
Greek - T u r k i s h b o u n d a r y : C o n f l i c t a t t h e
Interface' i n Institute of British
T r a n s a c t i o n s . New
Geographers
S e r i e s , Vol.3,No.3., p . 3 5 1 .
( 1 6 ) K a r o u z i s . G . 1976, P r o p o s a l s f o r a s o l u t i o n t o t h e Cyprus
Problem.
( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a ) , p.94.
(17) S t a t i s t i c a l sources
:- ( i ) Census o f P o p u l a t i o n and A g r i c u t u r e ,
Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , N i c o s i a ,
T962.
( i i ) Demographic R e p o r t f o r " t h e Y e a r T970, D e p a r t m e n t
and R e s e a r c h ,
of Statistics
Nicosia.
( T 8 ) S t a t i s t i c s f r o m Drury.M.P. T98T, 'The
P o l i t i c a l Geography o f
i n Change and Development i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t
by J . I . C l a r k e & H.Bowen-Jones ) ,
and U.N.
Doc.
1960,
Cyprus'
( edited
( Methuen ) , p.293.
S/TT717, 9 June T975', p a r a . 3 4 .
( T 9 ) D r u r y , op. c i t . .
pp. 296 -
297.
( 2 0 ) U.N.
Doc.
S/11568, 6 Dec.'74, p a r a , 3 3 & 43.
(21) U.N.
Doc.
S/11433, I n t e r i m R e p o r t b y t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l t o t h e
- 194 -
S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , 10 August 1974,
(22)
H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.106.
(23)
O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . , p.T86.
(24)
U.N.
(25)
ibid..
(26)
U.N.
(27)
ibid..
(28)
O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . . p.193.
(29)
H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.T08.
(30)
King.R.
p a r a . 17.
Doc. S/11717, p a r a . 28.
p a r a s . 23 & 35.
Doc. S/1T900, 8 December T975, p a r a .
TO.
p a r a s . 34 - 35-
Nov.1979,
'North o f the A t t i l a
Line' i n Geographical
Magazine, p.124.
(31)
S t a t i s t i c s f r o m t h e P l a n n i n g B u r e a u , T975, The Economic
of
t h e T u r k i s h I n v a s i o n and t h e F u t u r e P r o s p e c t s o f t h e Cyprus
Economy.
(32)
Consequences
( Government
Printing Office, Nicosia ) .
The P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , N i c o s i a , 1974, The A t t i l a
"Peacemakers".
p.67.
(33)
K a r o u z i s . G . T977, Land Ownership i n C y p r u s . ( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a ) ,
p.120.
(34)
Symeanides.N.S. 1977, 'The u n i t y o f t h e economy and t h e economics
of
s e p a r a t i o n ' i n Cyprus Reviewed
Attalides
(35)
Drury.M.
Jan.T977,
( e d i t e d by
M.
) ( The Jus C y p r i Ass., N i c o s i a ) , p . 260.
' W e s t e r n Cyprus - Two Decades o f P o p u l a t i o n
U p h e a v a l , 1956
Institute
-
'76.'
of British
(36)
The G u a r d i a n . 09/04/84,
(37)
D r u r y . M . 198T, op. c i t . . p.196.
(38)
The G u a r d i a n , op. c i t . . p.22.
(39)
ibid..
(40)
King,R. 1980,
A paper presented t o the
Geographers A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e .
S p e c i a l R e p o r t on C y p r u s , p.22.
p.T9.
'Cyprus s i n c e T974: Economic and Demographic
Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Geography S e c t i o n , F i f t h
Conference, B a r - I l a n U n i v e r s i t y , T e l A v i v , 5 - 7
(4T)
The G u a r d i a n , o p . c i t . . p.20.
(42)
Burton,S.P.
Change',
Mediterranean
August 1980, p.7.
1983, 'Land C o n s o l i d a t i o n and Changes i n t h e A g r a r i a n
Landscape o f C y p r u s ' ,
( Leicester
University
O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r , 10 ) .
(43)
D r u r y , Jan.1977, op. c i t .
(44)
The G u a r d i a n , op. c i t . . p.20.
(45)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op. c i t . . p.16.
(46)
King.R. August 1980, o p . c i t . . p.8.
(47)
H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.112.
(48)
The G u a r d i a n . T6/12/79, R e p o r t by John T o r o d e , ' T u r k i s h
begin t o take r o o t i n Cyprus'.
Istitutions
- 195 -
K i n g , 1980, o p . c i t . .
M.E.E.D., T4/03/80,
p.4.
Rauf Denktas^ i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h D a v i d
Shirreff.
H i t c h e n s , o p . c i t . . p.T04.
K i n g , 1980, o p . c i t . . p.5.
H i t c h e n s , o p . c i t . . pp.110-T11.
ibid..
p.118.
M.E.E.D.. 22/04/77, p.116, an a r t i c l e
by D a v i d S h i r r e f f ,
'Northern
C y p r u s : Ambiguous s t a t u s h i n d e r s d e v e l o p m e n t ' .
O b e r l l n g , o p . c i t . . p.238.
K i n g , Nov.1979, G e o g r a p h i c a l Magazine, pp.117-124.
ibid.
U.N. Doc. S/11568, p a r a . 17.
i b i d . , p a r a . 26.
U„N„ D o c
S/11900, p a r a s .
10 & 15.
i b i d . . p a r a . 29.
i b i d . . p a r a . 45.
U.N. Doc. S/15502, 1 December T982, p a r a . 17.
U.N. Doc. S/1'6596, 1 June 1984, p a r a . 2 6 .
Cyprus M a i l .
18/04/84, p.3.
U.N. Doc. S/16596', p a r a . 2 2 .
U.N. Doc. S/15T49, 1 June 1982, p a r a . 13.
U.N. Doc. S/158T2, 1 June T983, p a r a . 14 - 15.
UoN„ Doc. S/13369, p a r a . 12.
U.N. Doc. 8/16596, p a r a . T3.
U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 4 6 .
i-bidr. para. 44i
U.N. Docs.
:- S / T 5 5 j 0 2 , p a r a . 2 6
; S/15812, para.. 27 ; S/16192, p a r a . 30;
and S/16596, p a r a . 30:
U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 3 1 .
U.N. Doc. S / 1 5 5 0 2 , p a r a . 25.
U.N. Doc. S / 1 5 8 1 2 , p a r a . 3 2 .
U.N. Doc. S/11900, p a r a . 2 1 .
D e t a i l s f r o m an i n t e r v i e w w i t h L t . C o l .
Ferdinand Pelzer, Chief
H u m a n i t a r i a n O f f i c e r , U.N.P.I.CYP., i n A p r i l 1984.
U.N„ Doc. S / 1 5 8 1 2 , p a r a . 3 4 .
U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 3 7 .
U.N, Doc. S/T5812, p a r a s . 35' - 3 6 .
Hitchens, op. c i t . , p.21.
U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 6 2 .
U.N. Doc. S / 5 7 6 4 , 15 J u n e , 1964, p a r a .
127.
- 196 -
( 8 6 ) Adams,T.W., and C o t t r e l l , A . J . ,
the
D
D
0
D
D
D
D
D
Q
Q
D
Q
Q
1968, 'American f o r e i g n p o l i c y and
U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i n C y p r u s ' i n
O r b i s . v o l . 1 2 , no.2 (summer T968),pp.5O0 -
- 197 -
CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION.
POLITICAL IMPASSE AND U.N.F.I.CYP. TWENTY YEARS ON.
" P h o b i a s w i l l have t o be overcome o n b o t h s i d e s . . . t i m e i s
running
o u t , . . . a s y e a r s pass and new g e n e r a t i o n s
f e w e r p e o p l e w i l l have any p e r s o n a l
grow- up
experience o f l i v i n g
w i t h members o f t h e o t h e r C y p r i o t community..." ( 1 )
" The w e i g h t o f t h e p a s t
i s i n d i c a t e d by s y m b o l s , such as
f l a g s and b e l i e f s a b o u t h i s t o r y , and t h e p r e s e n t i s
circumscribed
by d i v i d i n g l i n e s , l e a d e r s
and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s
t h e y impose on f o l l o w e r s , b a r b e d w i r e and m i l i t a r y
organisation
. . . . r e l a t i o n s between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i s t h e d u a l
one,
o f h i s t o r y and power p o l i t i c s . " ( 2 )
" G e n e r a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n w i l l grow up i n m u t u a l i g n o r a n c e o f ,
and
a n t i p a t h y towards, the other side.
At present,
amongst
l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f t h e o r d i n a r y p o p u l a t i o n and e d u c a t e d
there i s s t i l l
some g o o d w i l l .
T h i s g o o d w i l l may be p l a y e d
down by t h e T u r k s who see t h i n g s f r o m a p a r t i t i o n i s t
and
classes,
e x a g g e r a t e d by t h e Greeks, who h a n k e r a f t e r an
viewpoint,
unrepeatable
Utopian view o f a p e r f e c t l y i n t e g r a t e d s o c i e t y , but i t e x i s t s . " ( 3 )
Many g e o p o l i t i c a l l e s s o n s have been l e a r n t by t h e Greek C y p r i o t
E n o s i s i s dead.
community.
The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h o l d t h e u p p e r hand i n t h e p o l i t i c a l
arena owing t o t h e e x i s t e n c e
o f the so-called " A t t i l a factor".(4)
have t h e i r own de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e , e c o n o m i c a l l y
They
weak and dependent on
T u r k e y f o r i t ' s s u r v i v a l , b u t a s t a t e p r o t e c t e d by a b r u t a l l y
effective
b o u n d a r y , w h i c h has s t o o d for o v e r a decade as an u n r a t i f i e d
political
i n t e r f a c e between Greeks and T u r k s .
p h y s i c a l and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y .
to
Greek C y p r i o t s c a n n o t escape
Whilst President
Kyprianou
this
continues
keep t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m a l i v e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p h e r e , backed up
by r e i t e r a t e d U n i t e d N a t i o n s r e s o l u t i o n s , t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r e s l o w l y
-
198 -
p u t t i n g t h e i r "pseudo s t a t e " on t h e map. ( 5 ) As t h e y e a r s pass by t h e
l e g i t i m a c y o f t h i s T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e w i l l seem l e s s e q u i v o c a l and
t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m
diminishes.
I n some r e s p e c t s
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p r e s e n c e i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a p a c i f i c
p e r p e t u a t i o n o f p a r t i t i o n , b u t e q u a l l y i t s p o s i t i o n as a " b u f f e r f o r c e "
seems a s s u r e d f o r as l o n g as t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l c o n t i n u e s
t o keep b o t h l e a d e r s h i p s
o f community l e a d e r s
negotiating.
Before discussing
t o w a r d s U.N.P.I.CYP. s i n c e
his
efforts
the attitude
t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f an
i n d e p e n d e n t R e p u b l i c by t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o n 15 November T983, some
d i s c u s s i o n o f proposed concessions and/or s e t t l e m e n t s
i s required.
S i n c e August T974, most i n t e r c o m m u n a l p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e has been o v e r
three fundamental issues
:-
(a)
Turkish Cypriot t e r r i t o r i a l
concessions;
(b)
The t y p e o f bicommunal f e d e r a l s t a t e t o emerge f r o m
(c)
The p r o b l e m o f r e f u g e e s ,
a settlement;
p a r t i c u l a r l y those from n o r t h e r n
Cyprus:
I n F e b r u a r y 1977 M a k a r i o s - D e n k t a s t a l k s l e d t o a number o f Greek
b
C y p r i o t compromises.
non-aligned
Makarios agreed w i t h t h e i d e a o f an i n d e p e n d e n t ,
and bicommunal F e d e r a l
Republic.
He a l s o a g r e e d t o
-
p r o p o r t i o n s - o f t e r r i t o r y ~ t o — b e - u n d e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ~ e a c h community,
t h e p r o p o r t i o n s t o be a g r e e d i n t e r m s o f economic v i a b i l i t y o r
p r o d u c t i v i t y and l a n d - o w n e r s h i p .
As t h e 1984 M i n o r i t y R i g h t s
Group
R e p o r t on Cyprus p o i n t e d o u t , f e d e r a t i o n i s n o t an easy f o r m o f government
anywhere, l e a s t o f a l l o n a s m a l l i s l a n d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
700,000 p e o p l e ,
" o n l y two u n i t s , d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r i e s and d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e numbers". ( 6 )
It
i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s s t u d y
d e t a i l and t o a p p l y
out-standing
t o examine f e d e r a l s o l u t i o n s i n
them t o C y p r u s , b u t i t i s w e l l t o be aware o f some
questions
w h i c h w o u l d need t o be a n s w e r e d .
how i n t e g r a t e d w o u l d t h e s t a t e be ? Would t h e r e be f u l l
ment f o j r C y p r i o t s a l l o v e r t h e i s l a n d ?
r e t u r n t o o l d homes and p r o p e r t y
0
F o r example,
f r e e d o m o f move-
Would r e f u g e e s be a l l o w e d t o
There a r e numerous o t h e r s .
-
An
alternative
199
-
s o l u t i o n t o bicommunal f e d e r a t i o n i n two g e o g r a p h i c a l
zones has been s u g g e s t e d by George K a r o u z i s ( 1976 ) , who c a l c u l a t e d
a m u l t i - r e g i o n a l f e d e r a l s y s t e m based on seven T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
(7)
( r e f e r t o Map.2.4 )
These " r e g i o n s " were w o r k e d o u t f r o m
"regions".
a detailed
s t u d y o f p r e - 1 9 7 4 v i l l a g e , v i l l a g e b o u n d a r y , l a n d o w n e r s h i p and p o p u l a t i o n
d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s f o r both communities.
existence
Although
Karouzis notes the
o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s f r o m December T963 t o J u l y - A u g u s t
T 9 7 4 , h i s " T u r k i s h r e g i o n s " a r e based l a r g e l y on t h e T960 Census o f
Population
and A g r i c u l t u r e .
He a r g u e s : -
"...as i t h a s been p r o v e d , t h e r e e x i s t s no g e o g r a p h i c a l
basis
i n Cyprus f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e g i o n s " ,
whatever
c r i t e r i o n i s used- " p h y s i o a g r i c u l t u r a l , m o r p h o l o g i c a l ,
logical,
e c o n o m i c , town p l a n n i n g " .
He compares h i s " T u r k i s h
r e g i o n " t o t h e Swiss c a n t o n s , " w h i c h a l s o e x t e n d
geographical
hydro-
areas o f o t h e r r e g i o n s
into
and o f t e n i n c l u d e
enclaves
s i t u a t e d i n other cantons." ( 8 )
Karouzis favours
a loose
form o f f e d e r a t i o n w i t h f u l l
f r e e d o m o f movement
and
s t r o n g c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t , b u t he a d m i t s t h e need f o r " p r o t e c t i o n
and
s e c u r i t y " o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s "under a system o f broad l o c a l
Such a m u l t i - r e g i o n a l s o l u t i o n o r c a n t o n a l
autonomy"
s y s t e m w o u l d r e q u i r e an end
t o f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e r c o m m u n a l p h o b i a s and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f some sense
of "national u n i t y " .
As P r o f e s s o r
Pechoux a r g u e s , t h e Swiss d e v e l o p e d
"a Swiss n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g " o v e r and above l i n g u i s t i c ,
cultural
r e l i g i o u s , and
factionalism.
" There c e r t a i n l y
l i e s t h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e w i t h Cyprus where
t h e C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g , i f i t has even e x i s t e d , was a l w a y s
subordinate
The
(9)
t o d i s t i n c t Greek o r T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l i s m . "
e v e n t s o f t h e Summer o f '74 has l e d many Greek C y p r i o t s t o change
minds a b o u t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y
o f E n o s i s . as one r e p o r t p o i n t s o u t :-
" I t i s a p a r a d o x t h a t a g e n u i n e sense o f C y p r i o t n e s s
seemed
t o emerge o n t h e Greek C y p r i o t s i d e a f t e r t h e d i s a s t r o u s
e n g i n e e r e d by t h e F a s c i s t j u n t a i n A t h e n s .
Not u n t i l
f a c e d w i t h de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n and e x c l u s i o n f r o m
t h e i r Cypriotness
above t h e i r - G r e e k n e s s . . . "
coup
they
were
their
t r a d i t i o n a l v i l l a g e s i n t h e N o r t h o f t h e i s l a n d d i d Greek
value
thei
(TO)
Cypriot
- 200 -
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
1
1
I
I
-
201
-
T h i s g e o p o l i t i c a l change o f h e a r t on t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e p a r t i t i o n has
n o t made t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s m o r e - w i l l i n g t o compromise.
Even t h o u g h
EnosiB i s no l o n g e r h e a r d . . .
" . . . t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r e so i s o l a t e d f r o m c o n t a c t w i t h
Greeks t h a t t h e y f i n d t h i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t
Nevertheless,
probably
t o accept." (TT)
under a b i z o n a l f e d e r a l system t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would
have t o make g e n e r o u s t e r r i t o r i a l
c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e Greek
Cypriots.
In
1978 - '79, K y p r i a n o u and D e n k t a | d i s c u s s e d
concessions.
possible
territorial
A Greek map o f a b i z o n a l Cyprus was p r o d u c e d ( see Map 7.1 ) .
T h i s e n v i s a g e d a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t zone c o v e r i n g a b o u t t w e n t y p e r c e n t o f
t h e i s l a n d i n s t e a d o f t h e t h i r t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t now h e l d .
Such a s e t t l e -
ment w o u l d e n a b l e a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f Greek C y p r i o t r e f u g e e s t o
r e t u r n t o f o r m e r homes and p r o p e r t y .
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d be l e f t
w i t h a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e M e s a o r i a , t h e P e n t a d a k t y l o s , and K y r e n i a
line.
According
t o Rauf D e n k t a s , t h i s was a Greek C y p r i o t a t t e m p t t o
c o n f i n e " T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s on a d r y r o c k y
goats can't
s t r e t c h o f m o u n t a i n where- even
l i v e . " (12)
A T u r k i s h map o f p r o p o s e d t e r r i t o r i a l
r e a d j u s t m e n t s was p r e s e n t e d
n e g o t i a t i o n i n August 1 9 8 1 . S i x s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r i a l
offered
for
c o n c e s s i o n s were>
( r e f e r t o Map 7.2 ) , an a r e a c o v e r i n g a b o u t t h r e e p e r c e n t o f
the t o t a l land s u r f a c e o f Cyprus.
i ) Varosha, t h e southern
ii)
coast-
These s i x a r e a s were :-
s u b u r b o f Pamagusta, p l u s D e r i n i a .
A l a r g e a r e a o f l a n d n o r t h o f t h e B r i t i s h S o v e r e i g n Base a t D h e k e l i a .
This area i n c l u d e s t h e v i l l a g e s o f K o u k l i a , Kalopsidha,
Kandea, L y s i ,
Makrasyka and A t h n a , w h i c h were p r i m a r i l y Greek C y p r i o t w i t h t h e
exception o f Kouklia before
iii)
T974.
The L o u r o u j i n a s a l i e n t , i n c l u d i n g t h e v i l l a g e s o f L o u r o u j i n a and
P y r o i , as w e l l as t h e segment o f t h e N i c o s i a - L a r n a c a r o a d
which
passes t h r o u g h i t .
i v ) The v i l l a g e o f A v l o n a and v i c i n i t y .
v ) The L i m n i t i s r e g i o n , west o f L e f k a , i n c l u d i n g v a r i o u s s m a l l
villages
upto/and i n c l u d i n g Ambelikou - K a r o v o s t a s i .
v i ) Kokkina enclave,
w i t h i t s aging T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n ,
ironically
-
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
202
-
-
a p i e c e o f l a n d t h a t has
t h a n two
S i n c e 198T
20b
-
been p u r e l y T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y f o r l o n g e r
decades.
t h e r e have been no b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s .
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s have pushed f o r - t h e r e o p e n i n g
which since
1974
Greeks i n t e r p r e t
separate
has
been used as a U n i t e d N a t i o n s
of Nicosia
Airport,
parade ground.
The
t h e D e n k t a ^ demands as 50:50 use- o f t h e a i r p o r t w i t h
a p p r o a c h e s f r o m each s i d e and
t h e r e f o r e the proposal
separate
customs a r r a n g e m e n t s ,
i s u n a c c e p t a b l e t o them. (T3)
On
several
o c c a s i o n s t h e T u r k s have o f f e r e d t o r e o p e n V a r o s h a t o Greek C y p r i o t s
under the aegis o f the United Nations.
was
T h i s once w e a l t h y
s e a l e d o f f by t h e T u r k i s h Army i n T974.
occupants evacuated, l e a v i n g behind
Greek s u b u r b
I t s 35,000 Greek C y p r i o t
an u n i n h a b i t e d g h o s t r e s o r t , w i t h
a b a r r e n s t r e t c h o f beach f r o n t e d by empty h o t e l s , a l l g u a r d e d by
f e n c e s and
Turkish soldiers.
I n T978 p l a n s
high
t o r e o p e n V a r o s h a were-
r e j e c t e d by t h e Cyprus Government on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e Greek C y p r i o t
r e t u r n e e s w o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y be c o n f i n e d t o a n a r r o w enclave- a l o n g
coast.
I n e f f e c t t h e Greek C y p r i o t owners and
f o r t h e economic and
the
s t a f f would run the h o t e l s
p o l i t i c a l advantage o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
S i n c e T 9 7 8 , p a r t s o f V a r o s h a have been opened f o r T u r k i s h
zone.
Cypriot
o c c u p a t i o r i , jmd^n_ej»?ly_T98_4_a number o f — a d j u s t m e n t s were-made t o t h e suburb's p e r i m e t e r fence
and
t e n t o t w e n t y houses were r e p o r t e d t o
i n h a b i t e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s .
As
be
(T4)
i s t h e case w i t h V a r o s h a , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t p o l i c y i s
tending to m i l i t a t e against a settlement.
s c e p t i c a l about a c c e p t i n g
so t h e y w o u l d be
s o l u t i o n between two
refugee
problem.
remain
T u r k i s h c o n c e s s i o n s i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t by
somehow r e c o g n i z i n g t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e r e s t o f
Cypriot-held t e r r i t o r y ,
Another worry
Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s
t h u s moving a s t e p c l o s e r t o a de j u r e
distinct
doing
Turkish
bizonal
s t a t e s . ^.
f o r t h e Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s t h e m a s s i v e
As K a r o u z i s
correctly points out:-
" I t w o u l d n o t be r e a l i s t i c . . . t o
t h i n k t h a t the refugees
of
the
- 204 -
North w i l l ,
i n due c o u r s e ,
stifle
their grief, their
t h e i r b i t t e r n e s s and t h e i r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t
to
c a p i t u l a t e by a c c e p t i n g
and w i l l
anger,
be f o r c e d
t o l i v e i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s o r towns
away f r o m t h e p l a c e where t h e y were b o r n , where t h e y grew u p ,
where t h e y b u i l t
toil
At p r e s e n t
t h e i r houses and p r o p e r t i e s , o f t e n w i t h much
and m o i l . " (15)
i t seems h i g h l y u n l i k e l y
that the Turkish Cypriots
will
accept a n y t h i n g o t h e r than a bicommunal, b i z o n a l f e d e r a l s o l u t i o n w i t h
power i n v e s t e d i n t h e two f e d e r a l powers r a t h e r t h a n a s t r o n g
f e d e r a l government.
central
They a r e n o t k e e n t o open up t h e de f a c t o
border
between t h e two C y p r i o t c o m m u n i t i e s and have c a r r i e d o u t p o l i c i e s
militating
of
a g a i n s t a r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d even u n d e r some
federation.
type
F o r i n s t a n c e , some Greek C y p r i o t p r o p e r t y has been
b o u g h t by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t h e n o r t h , even t h o u g h t h i s i s i l l e g a l
according
t o t h e Cyprus Government i n t h e s o u t h .
Furthermore, the
p r e s e n c e o f m a i n l a n d T u r k i s h s e t t l e r s i n t h e n o r t h has c r e a t e d
obstacle
in
t o an e v e n t u a l s o l u t i o n .
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have a l s o
some a r e a s o f f e r e d as t e r r i t o r i a l
another
settled
concessions t o t h e Greeks.
As
mentioned i n Chapter S i x , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s are a l s o w o r r i e d t h a t i f
the
' b o r d e r ' i s opened up t h e y w i l l
be swamped n u m e r i c a l l y and
commercially
by Greek C y p r i o t s .
In
August 1983, Senor J a v i e r P e r e z de C u e l l a r ,
attempted
suggesting
t o i n i t i a t e new f o r w a r d moves i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l d i s c u s s i o n s by
a s e t o f ' i n d i c a t o r s ' o r o p t i o n s t o be c o n s i d e r e d
work f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s by b o t h s i d e s .
(i)
as a f r a m e -
These i n d i c a t o r s were :-
Would b o t h s i d e s a c c e p t t h a t t h e T u r k s s h o u l d keep a minimum
of
(ii)
Secretary-General,
23 % o f t h e i s l a n d and a maximum o f 30 % ;
There s h o u l d
be a c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h l i n k s between t h e f e d e r a l
government and two p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t s .
Perez de C u e l l a r
advocated a f u l l p r e s i d e n t i a l system, t h e P r e s i d e n t
charge o f the southern
Vice-President
( Greek C y p r i o t
) province
being i n
leaving the
t o be t h e n o r t h e r n p r o v i n c i a l p r e s i d e n t
( i.e.
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t ) , i n w h i c h case t h e members o f t h e C o u n c i l o f
M i n i s t e r s w o u l d be i n a 6:4
ratio.
- 205 -
(iii)
A l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e r e c o u l d be a P r e s i d e n t i a l - c u m - P r i m e
Minister
s y s t e m , t h e s e two t o p e x e c u t i v e p o s t s s h o u l d be r o t a t e d
between t h e p r e s i d e n t s o f t h e two p r o v i n c e s , w i t h a 7:3 r a t i o
on t h e f e d e r a l e x e c u t i v e i n f a v o u r o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t s .
U n f o r t u n a t e l y Mr Spyros K y p r i a n o u
(16)
o n l y gave t h e s e p r o p o s a l s a luke-warm
r e c e p t i o n , w h i e Rauf D e n k t a s p r e p a r e d f o r U.D.I., t h u s k i l l i n g
"another
6
U n i t e d N a t i o n s p l a n f o r Cyprus a t b i r t h . " ( 1 7 )
On
15 November 1983
Rauf D e n k t a s and t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Assembly
p r o c l a i m e d the independence o f the " T u r k i s h R e p u b l i c o f N o r t h e r n Cyprus".
I n a summary o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e
T.R.N.C. i t was s t a t e d :" A l l t h a t i s b e i n g done t o d a y i s t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d
d e c l a r a t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y and t h e r e n a m i n g o f
our
state."
Rauf D e n k t a s made h i m s e l f n o n - p a r t y P r e s i d e n t o f t h e new R e p u b l i c .
The
Times r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g day :" . . . t h e r e i s no doubt
is
t h a t the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f independence
an e v e n t o f g r e a t s y m b o l i c and e m o t i o n a l
and u n d o u b t e d l y
does r e f l e c t
significance...
the desire o f the T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t community as a whole t o have i t s s e p a r a t e
identity
r e c o g n i z e d and be t r e a t e d on an e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h t h e
Greeks." ( 1 6 )
T h i s a c t i o n h a s c o n s o l i d a t e d a decade o f de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n a n d two
decades o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e R e p u b l i c o f C y p r u s .
Or as D e n k t a s p r e f e r s
b
t o p u t i t :- " We have n o t seceded f r o m t h e R e p u b l i c o f C y p r u s , we have
been t h r o w n o u t o f i t and we have h a d t o p u t t h e r o o f o f s t a t e hood o v e r o u r Heads." ( T 9 )
Some Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s a r g u e t h a t D e n k t a s h a s n e v e r w a n t e d a f e d e r a l
s o l u t i o n b u t j u s t p r e s i d e n c y o v e r h i s ' L i l l i p u t i a n S t a t e ' , and t h e y
that
'U.D.I.' i s a permanent a p p r o p r i a t i o n by t h e T u r k s .
Denktaa a r g u e s t h a t
"U.D.I, does n o t p r e c l u d e f e d e r a t i o n
fear
I n contrast,
'on a f a i r b a s i s '
b
(20)
F o l l o w i n g t h e announcement o f an i n d e p e n d e n t
Northern Republic t h e
Greek C y p r i o t s went t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h e T.R.N.C. as
-
206
-
J
K
Y
BOD
1
P
PIG .7:1
Greek C y p r i o t c a r t o o n d e p i c t i n g Rauf D e n k t a s , t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d
President o f the Turkish Republic
Northern
of Northern
Cyprus f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e i s l a n d .
Cyprus, c u t t i n g o f f
- 207 -
"illegal".
I n s p i t e ^ o f t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l condemnation o f T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t independence P r e s i d e n t
K y p r i a n o u was u n a b l e t o p e r s u a d e t h e
i n t e r n a t i o n a l community t o impose economic s a n c t i o n s
Cyprus. ( 2 1 ) Only Turkey r e c o g n i z e d
side o f the Turkish
on
Northern
t h e T.R.N.C., b u t t i m e i s on t h e
Cypriots.
" We have de f a c t o s u p p o r t ,
de f a c t o sympathy f r o m many
c o u n t r i e s we e x p e c t e d t o g i v e us r e c o g n i t i o n . . . R e c o g n i t i o n
may have t o w a i t a l i t t l e
In April
leaders
built
longer." (22)
1984, U n i t e d N a t i o n s s p e c i a l Cyprus envoy Hugo Gobbi met t h e
o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s i n an a t t e m p t
t o defuse t h e t e n s i o n t h a t had
up o v e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t moves t o ' s o l i d i f y '
t h e i r breakaway s t a t e .
E a r l i e r , T u r k e y and t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e f o r m a l l y
cemented d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s by e x c h a n g i n g Ambassadors i n A n k a r a and
Nicosia.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y Hugo Gobbi was u n a b l e t o move e i t h e r s i d e
together o r t o prevent
Denktas from h i s plans
closer
to establish a Constitution
i n t h e n o r t h and t o h o l d e l e c t i o n s . ( 2 3 )
U.N.F.I.CYP.'s F u t u r e .
The Cyprus P r o b l e m s h o u l d
intercommunal p o l i t i c s .
n o t o n l y be v i e w e d a t t h e p a r o c h i a l l e v e l o f
( r e f e r t o C h a p t e r One )
The i n t e r a c t i o n
o r d i n a r y Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h a s n e v e r been f r e e f r o m
interference or influence.
between
outside
S i n c e U.D.I, r e l a t i o n s between Greece and
T u r k e y o v e r Cyprus have h a r d e n e d .
Ozal's f i r s t
speech as P r i m e M i n i s t e r
o f T u r k e y i n November T983 m e n t i o n e d Cyprus as "a d a g g e r p o i n t e d a t t h e
b e l l y o f Turkey".
Greece h a s a l s o t h r e a t e n e d
troops t o southern
Cyprus t o s t r e n g t h e n
position.
t o send more m a i n l a n d
t h e Greek C y p r i o t s '
bargaining
( 2 4 ) Thus U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p o s i t i o n on Cyprus as a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l
p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i s as i m p o r t a n t
as e v e r .
The d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e by D e n k t a s has r e i n f o r c e d " p s y c h o l o g i c a l green l i n e s " t o progress.
Many Greek C y p r i o t s b e l i e v e t h a t
T u r k e y i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y an e x p a n s i o n i s t
o f Ankara's support
country
o f t h e Denkta^ regime.
and t h e y a r e c o n s c i o u s
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , many
- 208 -
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s now f e e l a sense o f s e c u r i t y t h e y d i d n o t f e e l
to
the Turkish m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n , although
i l l u s i o n e d by t h e i r
Hitchens
'pseudo-state's' continued
prior
some o f them may be d i s dependence on T u r k e y . As
a d m i t s t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community " w i l l not.„.voluntarily
r e v e r t t o t h e p o s i t i o n they occupied
before
1974." ( 2 5 ) C o n t i n u e d
s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two C y p r i o t c o m m u n i t i e s m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t any m e e t i n g
of
minds and a p e r p e t u a t i o n o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l " p h o b i a s "
a b o u t each o t h e r .
Greek C y p r i o t s a r e w o r r i e d t h a t one day a l l o r p a r t o f t h e i s l a n d
be annexed by T u r k e y , w h i l s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s t i l l
C y p r i o t s want E n o s i s .
will
b e l i e v e t h a t Greek
P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982, a r g u e s t h a t t h e two s i d e s
can n e v e r c o e x i s t i n a u n i f i e d o r l o o s e l y f e d e r a t e d s t a t e , so t h e o n l y
way
f o r w a r d i s f o r Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s t o r e c o g n i z e
exchange f r e e d o m o f t r a d e f o r t e r r i t o r i a l
the north, to
concessions.
(26)
G i v e n t h e p o l i t i c a l d e a d l o c k U.N.F.I.CYP. c a n do l i t t l e
more
than
m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s quo, expand i t s economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n
w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone, and c o n t i n u e
in
the "Turkified" north.
i t s visits
activities
to "ethnic minorities"
U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t s m o b i l i t y i n Cyprus may be
c u r t a i l e d even f u r t h e r by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y .
"...we s h a l l have t o r e v i e w
As Rauf D e n k t a s
stresses
t h e p r e s e n c e o f U.N. t r o o p s .
We d o n ' t want a d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e U n i t e d
Nations
o r any o f i t s o r g a n s , b u t we d o n ' t want t h e U.N. t o
continue
t o misinform
itself
on Cyprus..."
(27)
U.N.P.I.CYP. c a r r i e s o u t i t s e s s e n t i a l m o n i t o r i n g i n N o r t h e r n
"guests"
o f t h e Denktas regime.
I f the Security Council
non-recognition o f the 'Turkish Republic
o f Northern
could f i n d i t s operations i n future r e s t r i c t e d
partition.
With
Cyprus as
continues i t s
C y p r u s ' U.N.P.I.CYP.
t o t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e
20 - 30,000 T u r k i s h t r o o p s i n t h e T.R.N.C., Greek
f e e l t h a t U.N.P.I,CYP.'s p r e s e n c e a c t s as a d e t e r e n t t o a n o t h e r
m i l i t a r y push s o u t h w a r d s .
Cypriots
Turkish
Even i n a u n i f i e d Cyprus t h e r e w o u l d need t o
be i n t e r n a t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e s o f d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n .
The c o m p l e t e de-
m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d , s t a r t i n g w i t h a complete w i t h d r a w a l o f
T u r k i s h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d by t h e d i s b a n d m e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard, w o u l d
209
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- 211 -
r e q u i r e the s u p e r v i s i o n o f a ' n e u t r a l * peacekeeping f o r c e .
Cyprus holds a coveted s t r a t e g i c p o s t i o n i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e
f o r i n f l u e n c e i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean between two N.A.T.O. powers,
and a t a h i g h e r l e v e l , the i s l a n d i s viewed as an i m p o r t a n t base f o r
the
defence o f western i n t e r e s t s i n the Mediterranean and Middle
East.
As such, o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s remain pawns i n a s i t u a t i o n e n t i r e l y beyond
t h e i r c o n t r o l , w h i l s t U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t s as an i n t e r i m f o r c e h e l p i n g t o
preserve a s p a t i a l s t a t u s quo not o n l y w i t h i n Cyprus, but g i v e n t h e
vested i n t e r e s t s o f o u t s i d e powers, i n t h e e a s t e r n Mediterranean r e g i o n .
It i s still difficult
t o disagree w i t h one o f Stagenga's (1968) conclusions
i n s p i t e o f U.N.P.I.CYP.•s i n t e r i m s t a t u s :"U.N.F.I.CYP. has consequently become i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o continued
calm and has perhaps earned a place as a permanent p a r t o f the
Cyprus landscape." (28)
Conclusion;
The Geography o f Peacekeeping.
U.N.P.I.CYP. has n o t o n l y become a f e a t u r e o f the Cyprus landscape f o r
i t has also t r i e d t o a l t e r a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n t h a t landscape r e s u l t i n g from
the
a r t i f i c i a l p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities.
I t s presences
has helped t o m a i n t a i n the s t a t u s quo, i . e . t h e geographical s e p a r a t i o n
of Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , but i t s h u m a n i t a r i a n and economic d u t i e s
h e l p i n g t o break down p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s between them should n o t be
overlooked.
As mentioned i n Chapter One, the main aim o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o
s t r e s s the "geographical aspects" o f U.N.F.I.CYP.»s o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus.
Many o f the U n i t e d Nations Force's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were/are r e l a t e d t o
p h y s i c a l e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s s e p a r a t i n g the two communities.
As such i t
was necessary t o examine t h e numerous changes i n the p o l i t i c a l geography
of t h e i s l a n d since i t s independence i n August 1960 t o the p r e s e n t .
- 212 -
Wherever l i n e s o f close c o n f r o n t a t i o n were formed U.N. troops were
placed in-between the Forward Defence Lines o f the opposing armed
elements.
Before the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n o f Cyprus i n t o two mono-ethnic
(29) u n i t s U.N.F.I.CYP.'s i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y r o l e was complicated
by t h e
confusing p a t t e r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l s c a t t e r e d over
d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the i s l a n d .
U.N. troops p r o t e c t e d these enclaves
from the more numerous N a t i o n a l Guard and Greek f o r c e s i n t h e i s l a n d ,
but they also attempted
t o remove f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and o t h e r p h y s i c a l
evidences o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t , and t o prevent new c o n f r o n t a t i o n
l i n e s from emerging.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , an i s l a n d - w i d e
defortification
programme was never i n i t i a t e d owing t o t h e p o l i c i e s and mutual m i s t r u s t
d i s p l a y e d by t h e leaders o f both communities.
Prom 1968 t o J u l y T974, the removal o f Government economic r e s t r i c t i o n s
on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas made U.N.P.I.CYP.'s " n o r m a l i z a t i o n "
d u t i e s e a s i e r and some progress was made towards g r e a t e r intercommunal
cooperation over the use o f t h e i s l a n d ' s resources and i n v a r i o u s economic
activities.
At the v i l l a g e l e v e l t h e r e were numerous i n t e r l i n k a g e s
between peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n s and geography, both p o l i t i c a l and human.
For example, wherever an a r t i f i c i a l t e r r i t o r i a l "boundary" o r defence l i n e
crossed over a main road o r d i v i d e d a stream, U.N.F.I.CYP. o f t e n had t o
n e g o t i a t e w i t h l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s o f each side i n order t o prevent
i n c i d e n t s from o c c u r r i n g .
concerning
serious
I n t h i s way U.N.P.I.CYP. s e t t l e d many d i s p u t e s
t h e use o f resources and movement o f people/supplies
i n areas
b i s e c t e d by c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s o r w i t h i n "grey areas" o f d i s p u t e d
t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l . U.N.F.I.CYP.'s presence helped t o break down some
" i n v i s i b l e w a l l s " separating the Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t people.
Nevertheless,
the P r o v i s i o n a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was determined
to m a i n t a i n i t s de f a c t o a u t h o r i t y over p a r t s o f Cyprus and the Greek
C y p r i o t s were n o t p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r the T u r k i s h enclaves.
Furthermore,
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remained cautious o f moving f r e e l y o u t s i d e t h e i r own
- 213 -
strongholds.
Given the problems o f p o l i t i c a l deadlock and posed by the
p e r s i s t e n c e o f pro-Enosis t e r r o r i s t groups i n Cyprus, U.N.P.I.CYP. could
do l i t t l e more than m a i n t a i n an unusual p a t t e r n o f e t h n i c s e p a r a t i o n on
the i s l a n d .
The " v i s i b l e " and " i n v i s i b l e " w a l l s between the two communities
remained, which made i t necessary t o keep a t h i r d f o r c e i n Cyprus t o
c o n t a i n the armed f o r c e s o f t h e two communities.
F o l l o w i n g t h e T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y manouvres o f J u l y - August T974, the
geography o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s o p e r a t i o n s was completely a l t e r e d .
Instead
o f deploying men near t o e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e i s l a n d
U.N.P.I.CYP.
placed v i r t u a l l y a l l i t s o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s and p a t r o l s
along the southern side o f t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e o f 16 August 1974.
Its
3
a c t i v i t i e s i n the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d p a r t o f the i s l a n d are r e s t r i c t e d
to humanitarian v i s i t s t o a t i n y m i n o r i t y o f Greeks s t i l l i n Northern
Cyprus and t o a small community o f Maronites.
U.N. Force o p e r a t i o n s are
concentrated w i t h i n the B u f f e r Zone ( r e f e r t o Chapter Six ) between t h e
Forward Defence Lines o f both s i d e s .
W i t h i n t h i s United
Nations-
c o n t r o l l e d s t r i p o f land U.N.P.I.CYP. a r b i t r a t e s between t h e two communities
over the use o f land and water resources
b r i n g t h i s zone back i n t o
therer, i n a d d i t i o n i t has helped
cultivation.
Without U.N.P.I.CYP,, bloody c i v i l war between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s
would probably have l e d t o a s i m i l a r de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d .
U.N.P.I.CYP. has helped t o r e s t i c t the a c t i v i t i e s o f e x t r e m i s t s and t h e
armed elements o f both communities.
I t s endeavours t o ' n o r m a l i z e ' c o n d i t i o n s
i n areas l o c a t e d near t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s has r e t u r n e d l i f e t o areas
which would otherwise have remained b a r r e n , and many resource
disputes
o r p o t e n t i a l d i s p u t e s have been s e t t l e d by U.N.P.I.CYP. m e d i a t i o n .
- 214 -
Footnotes and References.
(1)
K e i t h Kyle i n M i n o r i t i e s Rights Group Report, No.30, 1 9 8 4 ,
(2)
A t t a l i d e s , M,
p.2T.
1 9 7 6 , 'Relations between the Greek and T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s i n P e r s p e c t i v e ' , from Proceedings - The
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography
( Cyprus Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 27 - 29 Feb. 1976,
N i c o s i a ) , p.53.
(3)
King, R. 1980, 'Cyprus since T97#: Demographic and Economic Change',
Paper presented t o the Geography S e c t i o n , F i f t h Mediterranean
Conference, B a r - I l a n U n i v e r s i t y , T e l A v i v , 5 - 7 August 1980, p.7.
(4)
Term used by R u s s e l l King, 1"980, o p . c i t .
(5)
The Guardian. T4/06/84, p.19 - Report by John Torode - 'The
Island
1
t h a t l i v e s by d i v i d e and r u l e .
(6)
M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group Report, 1984, o p . c i t . . p.19.
(7)
Karouzis.G.
1976, Proposals f o r a s o l u t i o n to the Cyprus
Problem.
Cosmos Press, N i c o s i a .
(8)
K a r o u z i s , o p . c i t . . pp.123 - T44.
(9)
Pechoux, P i e r r e - Yves, 1976,
'The Swiss Case and Comparisons w i t h
Cyprus', i n the Proceedings - The
International
Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography, p.74.
(10
The Guardian. 16/11/83, p.10.
<1T
M.R.G. Report, 1984, o p . c i t . .
(12
Rauf Denktas i n t e r v i e w e d by The Middle East magazine, November 198T,
"
p. 26.
(T3
The Guardian. 09/Q4/84, p.18.
(T4
U.N.
(15
Karouzis, 1976, o p . c i t . . p . 1 5 3 .
(16
M.R.G. Report, 1984, o p . c i t . . p.20.
(17
F i n a n c i a l Times. T4/10/83, p.2.
(18
The Times. T6/11/83, a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'Cyprus put Asunder'.
(T9
South. T h i r d World Magazine, January T984, p.21. I n t e r v i e w w i t h Rauf
p.T5.
Doc. S/T6596, 1 June 1984, para.26.
Denktas.
(20
The Observer. Sunday 20 November 1983.
(21
F i n a n c i a l Times. 23/11/83, p . 3 . A r t i c l e e n t i t l e d
'E.E.C. wary o f
harming s e t t l e m e n t p r o s p e c t s . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t
sanctions r u l e d o u t ' .
(22
South. January 1984, p.21.
(23
Cyprus M a i l . TO/04/84, v o l . 129, no.12948, 'Time has run-out says
I n t e r v i e w w i t h Rauf Denkta^.
President', p.1.
7
12/04/84, v o l . 129, no. 12950, 'U.N.
to Cyprus', p . 1 .
Go Between t o r e t u r n
- 215 -
Cyprus M a i l . 19/04/84, v o l . 129, no. 12956, Denktas: We want more
concessions•,p.1.
The Cyprus Weekly. A p r i l 13 - 19, 1984, 'Gobbi: Mission Impossible ?•
p.1.
(24)
A Papandreou - Kyprianou meeting i n A p r i l 1984 discussed sending
a; d i v i s i o n o f 15,000 Greek troops t o Cyprus, The Sunday Times. 29
A p r i l 1984, p.4.
(25)
Hitchens, C, 1984, Cyprus.
(26)
O b e r l i n g , P, 1982,
( Quartet Books ) , p . l 6 3 .
The Road t o B e l l a p a l s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y
Press ) , p.229.
(27)
South. T h i r d World Magazine, January 1984, p . 2 1 .
(28)
Stagenga, J.A. 1968, The United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio
State U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p . 1 5 6 .
(29)
Not e n t i r e l y "mono-ethnic" zones f o r ^ some Greek C y p r i o t s and Maronites
s t i l l l i v e i n N o r t h e r n Cyprus and there are s t i l l some T u r k i s h
C y p r i o t s r e s i d e n t i n the south. ( r e f e r t o Chapter S i x )
- 216 -
Some notes on primary
(a)
sources.
Space does n o t a l l o w me t o mention a l l r e p o r t s by the United
Nations Secretary-General
t o t h e S e c u r i t y Council f o r over two
decades o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e x i s t e n c e .
A complete l i s t o f a l l U.N.
documents p e r t a i n i n g t o Cyprus i s compiled
i n the United
Nations
S e c u r i t y Council Index, p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y , and i n Supplements
o f t h e O f f i c i a l Records o f t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l .
(b)
Other primary sources used i n p r e p a r i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n are
those p u b l i s h e d by t h e Cyprus P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e and
Republic o f Cyprus, which are i n c l u d e d i n the B i b l i o g r a p h y .
(c)
T u r k i s h C y p r i o t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n pamphlets and r e p o r t s , p u b l i s h e d
by t h e Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre are also mentioned i n
the B i b l i o g r a p h y .
(d)
Personal
Interviews;
Refer t o Acknowledgements.
I t should be s t r e s s e d t h a t I have been unable t o use a l l t h e
i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d and t h a t I am completely r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
any e r r o r s i n the t e x t .
(e)
Maps;
_
_ _
_
_.
Survey o f Cyprus A d m i n i s t r a t i o n fc Road Map, scale 1;250,000.
Series K.717. Sheet D.L.S.H.
Lands and Surveys, Cyprus.
Published by the Department o f
F i r s t e d i t i o n 1975,
r e v i s e d T981.
Cyprus, scale 1;250,000. Series K.502. Sheet N1-36-6/7, e d i t i o n
7GSGS.
Published by D. Survey, M i n i s t r y o f Defence, U.K. 1970.
Kyrenia (sheet 3 ) ; N i c o s i a (sheet 12); Paleometokho (sheet 1T);
a l l same s e r i e s - K.717, e d i t i o n 1-GSGS. Scale 1:50,000. Published
by D. M i l . Survey, M i n i s t r y o f Defence, U.K. 1973.
- 217 -
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U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma, 1962 )
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Army Area Handbook f o r Cyprus. ( Department
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Adams,T.W. and
Cottrell,A.J.
Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,
Washington:
1964.
1
'The Cyprus C o n f l i c t , Orbis. v o l . 3 , 1964,pp.6683.
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Argyropoulos, P.A.
' L ' A f f a i r e de Chypre: L
1
Aspect I n t e r n a t i o n a l ' ,
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A r n o l d , P.
Cyprus Challenge. London:
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Hogarth, 1956.
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•
f
Bhutto,
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Cyprus Reviewed.
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Bowett,
D.W.
United Nations Forces. London: Stevens & Sons,1964.
Carras, C.
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C a t s e l l i , Rina.
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- 218 -
Crouzet, F r a n c o i s .
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Denktas, Rauf R.
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•The Problem o f Cyprus',
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Drury, M.P.
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1 9 7 2 , pp.9-11.
'Western Cyprus: Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n
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•The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus', i n Change
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Duncan-Jones, A,
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