6th International Conference on Earthen Architecture

Transcripción

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LAS CRUCES, NEW M'EXICO, U.S.A., OCTOBER 14-'19, �990
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-. 6th.International .
Conference on the
. ,
\
.
,
" - Conservation of
,Earthen Architecture
Adobe 90 Preprints '
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A NOTE ON THE COVER
Historic photograph of
Fort Selden courtesy of
Museum of New Mexico
State Monuments.
6th International
Conference on the
Conservation of
Earthen Architecture
Adobe 90 Preprints
LAS CRUCES, NEW MEXICO, U.S.A., OCTOBER 14-19, 1990
6th International
Conference on the
Conservation of
Earthen Architecture
Adobe 90 Preprints
Under the aegis of USIICOMOS
Sponsored by:
The Getty Conservation Institute
Museum of New Mexico State Monuments
ICCROM
CRATerre-EAG
National Park Service, Southwest Region
THECONSGETTY
INSETRVATIITUTEO19N0
Los Angeles,
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Our appreciation and gratitude go to
those who have contributed their ideas
and services to this publication. My
fellow Conference Co-Chairs-Michael
Taylor, Alejandro Alva Balderrama, and
Hugo Houben-provided essential
editorial assistance at every stage. They
assessed abstracts submitted in Spanish,
French, and English; they reviewed full
texts for approval and provided technical
editing of accepted papers. Michelle
Buchholz, Marta de la Torre, and Blanca
Zimmerman furnished proofreading of
the French and Spanish language papers
as well as translations where necessary.
Jo Ann Hill assisted with copy editing
the English language papers.
Special thanks also go to those who have
faced and met the many challenges of
organizing this conference: in Los
Angeles, Roland Tseng, Conference
Coordinator, and Laura Sanders,
Assistant Coordinator; in Santa Fe, Joan
Pace and Margaret Alexander. These
individuals deserve every recognition for
their efforts.
EDITORIAL REVIEW COMMITTEE
GCI PUBLICATIONS
Neville Agnew,
Irina Averkieff, Publications Coordinator
The Getty Conservation Institute
Jacki Gallagher, Assistant Publications
Michael Taylor, National Park Service,
Coordinator
Copyright
1990]. Paul Getty Trust
Copyright of individual papers
remains with the authors.
Published by the Getty
Conservation Institute, 1990
ISBN 0-8923 6-181-6
Printed in the United States of America
Southwest Region
Alejandro Alva Balderrama, ICCROM
DESIGN AND PRODUCTION
Hugo Houben, CRATerre-EAG
Marquita Stanfield
MANAGING EDITOR
PRINTING
Kirsten Grimstad
Franklin Press
-Neville Agnew
Conference Co-Chair for
Publications
©
Available from:
J. Paul Getty Book Distribution Center
Box 2II2
Santa Monica, CA 90 406, U.S.A.
Vll
Contents
Introduction
History and Traditions
de
3
Mauro Bertagnin, Conservation
8
Edwin Binda Compton, Arquitectura vernacular del Valle Central de Chile
l'architecture en brique crue: la recherche sur les
"casoni" du nord-est Italie et la strategie operationelle
14
Dirk Bouwens, Clay Lump-The English Adobe
20
Francisco T. Casal Iglesias, Ins6lita tradici6n de tapial en Cuba
24
Mario Ceballos, Restauraci6n de adobe en edificios coloniales de Antigua Guatemala
29
Anne Chayet, Corneille Jest, and John Sanday, Earth Used for Building in the
Himalayas, the Karakoram, and Central Asia-Recent Research and Future Directions
35
Jeffrey W. Cody, Earthen Walls from France and
1
8
0
6
1
8
7
0
44
Engla
nd for North American Farmers,
Segismundo Engelking Keeling and Saul Aldntara Onofre, El uso del adobe en
edificios en eldrea metropolitana de ciudad de Mexico; el pasado, el presente y
expectativas para el fUturo
50
las
Eugenio Galdieri, Arquitectura de tierra en Italia: desde las colonias griegas hasta la
dominaci6n espanola
53
James W. Garrison, The Evolution ofAdobe Construction Systems in the Southwest (USA)
57
Jochen Georg Giintzel, On the History of Clay Buildings in Germany
66
J. R. Harrison, The "Slow" Method of Construction ofTraditional Wet Mixed and Placed
and Related Conservation Issues
Mass Subsoil Walling in Britain
72
Hou Jiyao and Jia Weitung, Earth, Culture, Architecture-The Protection and
77
Donatius Msobwe Kamana Kamamba, Cyclical Maintenance ofEarthen Architecture
Development ofRammed Earth and Adobe Construction in China
as a Future Policy in Tanzania
81
Shawn R. H. Kholucy, Some Notes on Earth Building in Britain
86
David Teal Kirkpatrick, Prehistoric Mogollon and Anasazi Earthen Architecture ofthe
Southwestern United States
92
Randolph Langenbach, OfTaq and Dhajji Dwari: The Earthquake Resistant Mud
and Brick Architecture ofKashmir
99
Jean-Louis Michon, Mud Castles (Kasbas) ofSouth Morocco--Will They Survive?
105
B. D. Nandadeva, Traditions and Techniques ofEarthen Architecture ofSri Lanka
II 7I
Hugo Pereira G., Revalorizaci6n del material tierra en la arquitectura chilena
Richard Pieper, Earthen Architecture ofNew York State: Adobe Construction in a
Nonarid Climate
122
David Smail, Retention ofthe Traditional Values ofAfrican Earth Architecture
126
James McLeod Steele, Jr., The Lesson ofDar Al Islam
131
Lazar Sumanov, Traditional Sun-Baked (Adobe) Brick Structures in Macedonia,
1 37
Graciela Marfa Vifiuales, Construcci6n tradicional en el nordeste argentino
Yugoslavia
Vlll
Conservation and Restoration
1 43
Nancy Arnon and Sam Baca, Churches, Symbols of Community: The Preservation ofNew
1 49
Biilent Baradan, A New Restoration Material for Adobe Structures
1 53
Michael Emrick and Carl Meinhardt, Reconstruction of Traditional Structures in the Al
1 59
Paul G. McHenry, Jr., Acoma: A Case Study in Preservation Philosophy and
166
Mario Mendonca de Oliveira, Cybele Celestino Santiago, and Silvia Pi menta
d'Mfonseca, The Study ofAccelerated Carbonation ofLime-Stabilized Soils
1 71
Carlos Rua and Anton Rajer, Restoration ofthe Sixteenth-Century Church at Curahuara de
1 76
182
s
Mexico Adobe Churches
TuraifQuarter, Dir'lyah, Kingdom ofSaudi Arabia
Implementation
Carangas, Bolivia: A Case Study
Constance S. Silver, Analyses and Conservation ofPueblo Architectural Finishes in the
American Southwest
Koenraad Van Balen, Methodologie de la conservation et de la restauration des monuments
en terre
188
Julio Vargas-Neumann y Juan Bariola Bernales, Construcciones de tierra, en el PerU de
hoy
Site Preservation
19 7
Jeffrey L. Boyer, Architecture as a Human Artifact: An Archaeological Perspective on Adobe
204
Roy B. Brown, Beatriz Sandoval, and Haydee Orea M., The Protection and Conservation
209
Thomas J. Caperton, Fort Selden Ruins Conservation
212
Analyses
ofthe Adobe Structures at Paquime, Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, Mexico
Jean Chausserie-Lapree, L 1le de Martiques
preservation du site
219
a
l'Age du Fer: un village en terre, histoire et
Thomas E. Emerson and William I. Woods, The Slumping ofthe Great Knob: An
Archaeological and Geotechnic Case Study ofthe Stability ofa Great Earthen Mound
22 5
Ana Maria Hoyle, Chan Chan: Aportes para la conservaci6n de la arquitectura de tierra
23 0
Boris Marshak, Panjikent: A Pre-Islamic Town in Central Asia
233
Myriam Olivier, Ali Mesbah et Willy Adam, Restauration des murailles de San
du Nord
a,
Yemen
Consolidation Studies
l·
Experimental Design
243
Neville Agnew, The Getty Research Project at Fort Selden
250
Richard Coffman, Charles Selwitz, and Neville Agnew, The Getty Research Project at Fort
2 55
Charles Selwitz, Richard Coffman, and Neville Agnew, The Getty Research Project at Fort
261
Allen S. Bohnert, The Preservation ofPrehistoric Mud Plaster at Mesa Verde National Park
267
Giacomo Chiari, Chemical Surface Treatments and Capping Techniques ofEarthen
274
Richard L. Ferm, Synthetic Latex-Soil Slurry: A New Adobe Preservation Technique
Selden II: A Study ofthe Interaction of Chemical Consolidants with Adobe and Adobe
Constituents
Selden Ill- An Evaluation ofthe Application of Chemical Consolidants to Test Walls
Structures: A Long- Term Evaluation
IX
277
Fatma M. Helmi, Deterioration and Conservation ofSome Mud Brick in Egypt
28 3
Huang Kezhong, Jiang Huaiying, Cai Run, and Feng Lijuan, The Weathering
289
Stephen P. Koob, Mark H. Rogers, and G. Kenneth Sams, Preserving the Eighth-Century
B. C. Mud Brick Architecture at Gordion, Turkey: Approaches to Conservation
29 5
Li Zuixiong, Consolidation ofa Neolithic Earthen Site with Potassium Silicate
3 02
Sergio Jose Fagundes de Sousa Lima and Silvia Puccioni, General Considerations on
Characteristics ofthe Rocks ofthe Kezier Grottoes and Research into Their Conservation
the Preservation ofEarthen Architecture in the State ofMinas Gerais, Brazil, and a Proposal
for Reinforcement ofa Structure ofa Brayed Mud Wall
Seismic Mitigation
3 II
J. Bariola, M. Tinman, R. Ortiz, B . Alberca y J. Vargas, Comportamiento estructural de la
3 16
Ines del Pino, Patrick De Sutter y Mario Moran P., La arquitectura de Quito frente a los
3 22
Patrick de Maisonneuve, Le bati ancien dans les zones
3 27
Edna E. Kimbro, The Impact ofthe
33 1
Marfa Elena Molina de Garda, Prevenci6n sismica en las construcciones de adobe, en la
33 6
Nels Roselund, Repair ofCracked Adobe Walls by Injection ofModified Mud
342
Roberto Samanez Argumedo, Criterios y tecnicas de restauraci6n aplicadas en los
348
Gil Sanchez and Daryl Allen, Seismic Strengthening ofHistoric Adobe Structures in
quincha
stsmos
1989
a
risques
Loma Prieta Earthquake on Historic Adobe
Structures in Santa Cruz County, California
ciudad de Guatemala despues de los terremotos de
1917-1918
monumentos de adobe en el PerU
California: An Overview
Current Field Research
357
Marfa Auxiliadora Monso Alvarenga, Adobe-Constructive Method and Thermic
3 63
Jean-Paul Laurent, Influence de l'humidite sur les proprietes thermiques du materiau terre:
371
Eduardo Munoz G. y Monica Bahamondez P., Conservaci6n de un sitio arqueo16gico
377
Webber Ndoro, An Investigation into the Pattern ofDeterioration ofDaga (Earth)
3 83
Michael Romero Taylor, An Evaluation ofthe New Mexico State Monuments Adobe Test
Characteristics
problematique, metrologie, resultats experimentaux
construido en tierra
Structures at Zimbabwe Type Monuments
Walls at Fort Selden
Problems of Moisture
a
393
Gerard Didier et Fouad Ghomari, Methodologie d'etude au laboratoire de la tenue
401
Michel Dubus, Le point sur les possibilites de !'electro-osmose pour la conservation de
404
Pascal Odul, Pathologie humide de constructions en terre: methodologie de diagnostic
du materiau terre
l'architecture de terre
l'eau
x
Clay Chemistry and Microstructure
41 7
George S. Austin, Adobe and Related Building Materials in New Mexico, U.S.A.
424
Richard Coffman, Neville Agnew, George Austin, and Eric Doehne, Adobe Mineralogy:
43 0
Lee Dassler, Nineteenth Century New York State Earthen Homes
43 8
Jorge Ordaz, F.
443
Slawomir Skibinski, Problemas de la investigacion
449
Jiri Sramek and Ludvik Losos, An Outline ofMud Brick Structures Conservation at
Characterization ofAdobes from around the World
Leon (Espana)
].
Alonso y R. M. Esbert, Caracterizacion flsica de adobes de Castilla
centro ceremonial de
Ia
y
conservacion de las estructuras del
cultura Paracas-Nazca, PerU
Abusir, Egypt
Future Directions
457
Ruth Marcela Aleman Andrade, Proposal for an Intervention Methodology for the
461
Alejandro Alva Balderrama, Patrice Doat, Hubert Guillaud, Hugo Houben, Thierry
Joffroy, Pascal Odul, Jeanne Marie Teutonico, and Marina Trappeniers, CRATerre
Conservation and Restoration ofEarthen Architecture
EAG, ICCROM Long-Term Plan for the Preservation ofthe Earthen Architectural Heritage:
The Gaia Project
Index
Xl
Introduction
Neville Agnew and Michael Taylor
The 6th International Conference on the Conservation of Earthen Architecture is
convening at a time of growing awareness worldwide of the need to protect our earthen
architectural heritage. The collective body of knowledge developed since the first
international meeting on this subject in Yazd, Iran in 19 7 2 has contributed to a new
appreciation of earth as a viable and appropriate building material, historically a medium
of choice rather than necessity. This improved understanding has, in turn, helped to
generate needed funds to support new frontiers of conservation research
as
exemplified
in many of the papers presented for this conference.
This meeting has been dubbed "Adobe 90" informally, in recognition of the importance
of earth as a building material in the Americas and, in particular, in the American
Southwest where the conference is taking place. Organized under the auspices of
ICOMOS, Adobe
90
us/
offers a forum for the exchange of ideas, methods, techniques, and
research findings among scientists and practitioners specializing in the preservation of
this ancient building material. The thirty countries represented at the conference and
the nearly eighty papers accepted for presentation and prepublication testifY to the
expanding interest in preserving earthen architecture as well as to the wealth of new
work being undertaken worldwide.
Adobe 90 bears witness in many ways to the strides that have been taken since the last
international meeting held in Rome in 198 7 . Two of that meeting's objectives were to
promote greater collaboration among institutions on related research projects and to
recommend future research directions in the preservation of earthen structures. The
GAIA Project, the subject of a plenaty address, illustrates the joint efforts of ICCROM and
CRATerre-EAG to promote an integrated program of training, research, documentation,
development of standards and technical cooperation at international, national, and
regional levels. The mandate of the 198 7 meeting also inspired the collaboration
between the Museum of New Mexico State Monuments and the Getty Conservation
Institute to study chemical consolidants and physical protective measures for historic
adobes through field evaluation of test walls. This involvement was extended recently to
include the United States National Park Service, Southwest Region. The progress of
this testing program and preliminary results are documented in the Fort Selden papers
published here. This project represents the kind of interagency cooperation that is
necessary to bring large, multi-phased research projects to fruition. During the half-day
session at Fort Selden, 2 5
km
northwest of the conference site in Las Cruces, New
Mexico, delegates have the opportunity to view the results of the project firsthand and to
exchange insights and experiences with the researchers who designed the two test wall
projects adjacent to the historic ruins.
Xli
The largest number of papers submitted concerns the history and traditions of earthen
architecture. It is encouraging to see that almost every country represented at the
conference has presented a paper on its regional and historical architecture. The picture
that emerges here, more clearly than ever before, is the ubiquitous use of earth over the
broad span of history and throughout the world, in Europe-England, France,
Germany, and Italy-as well as in parts of North America such as New York State and
the Dakotas, where the use of earth as a building material has not been fully recognized
nor appreciated.
The papers concerned with history and traditions also contribute greatly to our
awareness of the connections that can and do exist berween present-day living
communities and their earthen structures. These cultures are to be found in many parts
of the world, including our host state of New Mexico, where the maintenance of earthen
buildings is often a community activity that fosters cohesiveness and cultural identity.
The parallels that exist with other communities on other continents-Zambia,
Tanzania, Kashmir, for example, as portrayed in these papers-will surely lead to
productive discussions among delegates. The continuity berween ancient usage of earth
as a building material and its importance in present times will be illustrated further by
the acclaimed photographic exhibition "Spectacular Vernacular," which presents
magnificent African ceremonial structures-initiation houses, kasbas, mosques-made
of earth. This exhibition is displayed at the conference on loan from the Smithsonian
Institution.
It is also important to highlight here the progress of seismic stabilization studies,
particularly in South America, which includes both examination of traditional
stabilization methods used on historic adobes and research into modern methods. The
vulnerable condition of historic adobe buildings in California, which are damaged or
destroyed with every seismic event, underscores the urgent need for retrofitting these
structures-in ways that are affordable, sensitive, and minimally invasive-against
further damage by earthquakes. In other parts of the world-Kashmir and Macedonia,
for example-earthen buildings have demonstrated remarkable resistance to seismic
effects, achieved through trial-and-error evolution of building practice, materials, and
techniques.
The active debate concerning the benefits versus disadvantages of chemical consolidants
applied to historic and archaeological earthen structures is also represented among the
Adobe
90
papers. This debate has arisen, in part, because of the relatively short
evaluation period for a variety of different chemical treatments under different
circumstances and on earthen types with different mineralogical composition. Among
the papers presented is a review of chemical treatments implemented at field sites up to
rwenty years ago. This developing body of information, together with continuing
consolidation studies also documented here, will facilitate future decision making
concerning the benefits, or otherwise, of chemical consolidants.
XUl
The susceptibility of earth and clay to the effects of weathering will continue to pose
difficult technical problems in our mission to prevent deterioration. It can be expected
that answers and solutions to these problems will be found over time. However, as borne
out by the range of papers contained in these proceedings, the dimensions to be
addressed also extend beyond the reach of technical expertise. It is our hope that the
collaboration and contacts established at this conference, together with the new findings
presented, will go a long way to further the knowledge of the conservation needs of our
earthen architectural heritage.
XIV
Introduccion
Neville Agnew y Michael Taylor
La Sexta Conferencia Internacional sobre la Conservaci6n de la Arquitectura de Tierra se
lleva a cabo en un momenta de creciente conciencia sobre la importancia de proteger
nuestro patrimonio arquitect6nico de tierra. Los nuevos conocimientos obtenidos desde
la primera reuni6n internacional efectuada en Yazd, Iran, en 19 7 2, han contribuido en
gran medida a apreciar la tierra como material de construcci6n viable y apropiado y a
dilucidar que hist6ricamente, su uso responde a una elecci6n deliberada y no a la
necesidad. A su vez, la comprensi6n de este concepto ha generado el apoyo requerido
para llevar a cabo nuevas investigaciones en materia de conservaci6n tal como
10
demuestran los numerosos estudios presentados en esta conferencia.
Informalmente, se ha denominado a esta reuni6n "Adobe 90", reconociendo la
importancia de la tierra como material de construcci6n en las Americas y en particular
en el Sudoeste de los Estados Unidos, sede de esta conferencia. Contando con el auspicio
del US/ICOMOS, Adobe 90 proporciona el marco ideal para el intercambio de ideas,
metodos, tecnicas y descubrimientos de investigaci6n entre cientfficos y especialistas
dedicados a la preservaci6n de este antiguo material de construcci6n. Los treinta paises
asistentes y los casi ochenta trabajos de investigaci6n aceptados para su presentaci6n y
publicaci6n confirman el creciente interes mundial por la preservaci6n de la arquitectura
de tierra y dan fe de la importancia de los nuevos trabajos emprendidos en el mundo
entero.
En gran medida, Adobe 90 sirve como testimonio de los grandes logros obtenidos desde
la ultima reuni6n internacional llevada a cabo en Roma, en 198 7 . Dos de los objetivos
principales de dicha reuni6n eran promover una colaboraci6n mas estrecha entre las
diversas instituciones involucradas en proyectos de investigaci6n relacionados y
recomendar directivas e instrucciones claras para la preservaci6n de las estructuras de
tierra existentes. El Proyecto GAlA, objeto de una sesi6n plenaria, ilustra los esfuerzos
conjuntos de las organizaciones ICCROM y CRATerre-EAG con el fin de promover un
programa integrado de capacitaci6n, investigaci6n, documentaci6n y desarrollo de
normas para la cooperaci6n tecnica a nivel internacional, nacional y regional. El objetivo
de la reuni6n de 198 7 sirvi6 de inspiraci6n para la colaboraci6n entre el Museum of New
Mexico State Monuments y el Getty Conservation Institute a fines de estudiar
consolidantes quimicos y medidas de protecci6n para las construcciones hist6ricas de
adobe a traves de la evaluaci6n "in situ" de muros de prueba. Recientemente, este
esfuerzo conjunto se ha ampliado incluyendo la participaci6n del National Park Service,
Regi6n Sudoeste de los Estados Unidos. El progreso logrado en este programa de
experimentos y sus resultados preliminares se documentan en los trabajos de
investigaci6n de Fort Selden que se publican aqui. Este proyecto representa el tipo de
cooperaci6n entre los diferentes entes que resulta imprescindible a fines de lograr el exito
xv
en toda actividad de investigacion de multiples etapas. Durante la sesion de medio dia
que se llevari a cabo en Fort Selden, a
25
kilometros al noroeste de la sede de la
conferencia en Las Cruces, Nuevo Mexico, los delegados tendrin la oportunidad de
apreciar los resultados del proyecto e intercambiar sus impresiones y experiencias con los
investigadores que disefiaron los dos muros de prueba adyacentes a las ruinas historicas.
La mayoria de los trabajos presentados tratan sobre la historia y las tradiciones de la
arquitectura de tierra. Resulta alentador observar que casi todos los paises representados
en la conferencia han presentado un trabajo sobre su propia arquitectura historica
regional. De esto se desprende mas claramente que nunca, el concepto de que la tierra ha
sido utilizada casi constantemente durante la historia de la humanidad y en todo el
mundo, en Europa - Inglaterra, Francia, Alemania e Italia - y en varias partes de America
del Norte, como los estados de Nueva York, y las Dakotas del Norte y del Sur, donde el
uso de la tierra como material de construccion no ha sido apreciado ni reconocido en
toda su plenitud.
Los trabajos presentados relativos a la historia y a las tradiciones contribuyen en gran
medida a nuestro conocimiento sobre la relacion, probable
0
real, entre la vida actual de
ciertas comunidades y sus estructuras de tierra. Estas culturas existen en la actualidad en
numerosas partes del mundo, incluyendo el estado anfitrion, Nuevo Mexico, donde el
mantenimiento de los edificios de tierra constituye frecuentemente una actividad
comunitaria que fomenta la union y la identidad cultural. Los paralelos trazados con
comunidades de otros continentes - Zambia, Tanzania, Cachemira, por ejemplo descritos en los trabajos presentados - provocarin sin lugar a dudas, discusiones
productivas entre los delegados. La continuidad entre el uso de la tierra como material
de construccion en epocas anteriores y su importancia en los tiempos actuales se ilustrara
con mayor detalle en la exhibicion fotografica "Spectacular Vernacular" que presenta
magnificas estructuras ceremoniales africanas - construcciones para ritos de iniciacion,
kasbas, mezquitas - construidas en tierra. Esta muestra se exhibiri durante la conferencia
gracias a la gentileza de la Smithsonian Institution.
Es importante, tambien, recalcar el progreso logrado en los estudios de estabilizacion
antisismica, particularmente en America del Sur, que incluye el examen de los metodos
tradicionales de estabilizacion utilizados en estructuras de adobe historicas y la
investigacion de nuevos metodos. El precario estado de las construcciones historicas de
adobe del estado de California, constantemente dafiadas
0
destruidas por la actividad
sismica, subraya la necesidad urgente de reforzarlas - en forma economica, prudente y
con el minimo de alteraciones posibles - a fines de protegerlas contra futuros terremotos.
En otras partes del mundo - Cachemira y Macedonia, por ejemplo - las construcciones
de tierra han demostrado una resistencia notable ante los movimientos teluricos, lograda
aplicando el metodo de prueba y error a las practicas, materiales y tecnicas de
construccion.
Entre los trabajos presentados en Adobe
90
algunos tratan la controversia entre los
beneficios y desventajas de aplicar consolidantes quimicos a las estructuras de barro
arqueologicas e historicas. En parte, este debate ha surgido a consecuencia del
XVI
relativamente corto pedodo de evaluaci6n de una variedad de tratamientos qufmicos,
que bajo distintas circunstancias, fueron aplicados a tipos de tierra con diferente
composici6n mineral. Entre los trabajos presentados hay una revisi6n de los tratamientos
qufmicos implementados en diversos emplazamientos, algunos de elios con hasta
20
anos
de antiguedad. La compilaci6n de esta informaci6n, conjuntamente con los estudios de
consolidaci6n que tambien se documentan aquf, facilitarin las decisiones futuras
relativas a los beneficios
0
desventajas de los consolidantes qufmicos.
La vulnerabilidad de la tierra y la arcilla frente a los agentes climiticos continuari
presentando graves y diffciles problemas tecnicos en nuestra misi6n de prevenir el
deterioro de las estructuras de tierra. Con el correr del tiempo, hallaremos soluciones y
respuestas a estos problemas. Sin embargo, como se desprende de la gama de trabajos
presentados, los temas a tratar sobrepasan nuestra capacidad tecnica. Esperamos que la
colaboraci6n y los contactos logrados en esta conferencia, conjuntamente con los nuevos
descubrimientos presentados, logren ampliar nuestros conocimientos sobre las
necesidades de conservaci6n de nuestro importante patrimonio arquitect6nico de tierra.
XVll
Introduction
Neville Agnew et Michael Taylor
La Sixieme Conference Internationale sur la Conservation des Architectures en Terre se
reunit dans un climat de prise de conscience mondiale sur la necessite de proteger notre
heritage architectural en terre. La masse de connaissances accumulees depuis la premiere
reunion internationale sur ce sujet, qui prit place
a
Yazd (Iran) en I9 7 2, a contribue
a
une nouvelle appreciation de la terre comme materiau de construction viable et
approprie qui, au cours de l'histoire, fut utilise non pas par necessite mais par choix.
Cette meilleure comprehension a,
a
son tour, facilite la collecte des fonds necessaires au
financement de ces avant-postes de la recherche en conservation comme Ie prouvent les
nombreuses communications soumises pour cette conference.
Cette reunion a ete familierement surnommee "Adobe 90", en reconnaissance de
I'importance de la terre comme materiau de construction aux Ameriques, et plus
particulierement dans Ie Sud-Ouest americain
OU
va se tenir cette conference. Organisee
sous les auspices de I'US/iCOMOS, Adobe 90 offre une tribune prop ice aux echanges
d'idees, methodes, techniques et resultats de recherches entre chercheurs et praticiens
specialises dans la preservation de cet ancien materiau de construction. Le fait que trente
pays y sont representes et que presque quatre-vingts communications ont ete acceptees
pour leur presentation et pre-publication temoigne de l'interet grandissant porte
a
la
preservation de l'architecture en terre, ainsi que de l'abondance des travaux
nouvellement entrepris de par Ie monde.
Adobe 90 atteste amplement des progres importants realises depuis la derniere reunion
internationale de Rome en I98 7 . Deux des objectifs de cette reunion etaient de
promouvoir une collaboration accrue entre les institutions travaillant sur des sujets de
recherche apparentes et de recommander des directions futures pour la preservation des
structures en terre. Le Projet GAIA, qui fera l'objet d'un communique en seance pleniere,
illustre les efforts concertes de I'ICCROM et de CRATerre-EAG en vue de la promotion d'un
programme comprenant la formation, la recherche, la documentation, Ie developpement
de normes et la cooperation technique aux niveaux internationaux, nationaux et
regionaux. Le mandat de la reunion de I98 7 inspira egalement la collaboration entre Ie
Musee des Monuments de I'Etat du Nouveau-Mexique et l'Institut Getty de la
Conservation en vue de l'etude des consolidants chimiques et des mesures protectrices
physiques pour les adobes historiques par evaluation sur place de murs de test. Le Service
des Parcs Nationaux des Etats-Unis, region Sud-Ouest, s'est recemment joint
a
cette
association. Les progres realises au cours de ce programme d' essais et certains resultats
preliminaires sont documentes dans les rapports sur Fort Selden pub lies ici. L' ampleur et
Ie nombre des etapes necessaires pour mener
a
bien de tels projets de recherche illustrent
Ie type de cooperation necessaire entre les differents organismes interesses. Lors de la
XVlll
demi-journee de travail
a (a
Fort Selden
une distance de 25
km
et au nord-ouest de Las
Cruces, Nouveau-Mexique, lieu de la conference) , les delegues pourront se rendre
compte d' eux-memes des resultats et auront I' occasion d' echanger idees et experiences
personnelles avec les chercheurs ayant realise les deux murs de test adjacents aces ruines
historiques.
La majorite des presentations no us ayant ete soumises portent sur l'histoire et les
traditions de l'architecture en terre. II est encourageant de voir que presque tous les pays
representes
a
la conference ont fourni un article portant sur leur architecture regionale et
historique. II est de plus en plus clair qu'au cours des siecles la terre fut utilisee non
seulement en Europe (Angleterre, France, Allemagne et Italie), mais egalement dans
certaines regions de I'Amerique du Nord telles que l'Etat de New York et ceux des
Dakotas, sans que ce fait ait ete pleinement reconnu ou apprecie.
II est egalement certain que les communications ayant trait
contribuent grandement
a
a
l'histoire et aux traditions
notre prise de conscience sur les rapports etroits qui existent
de fait entre les communautes contemporaines et leurs constructions en terre. De telles
cultures existent dans de nombreuses parties du monde, y compris au Nouveau
Mexique, notre hote,
OU
I' entretien de bitiments en terre constitue souvent une activite
communale qui stimule I' esprit de corps et l'identite culturelle. Les paraileJes existant
avec des communautes situees sur d'autres continents (en Zambie, en Tanzanie et au
Cachemire par exemple, tels que decrits dans ces articles) susciteront sans aucun do ute
des discussions productives entre delegues. La continuite qui existe entre l'utilisation de
la terre comme materiau de construction dans les temps anciens et son importance
actuelle sera en outre illustree par I' exposition photographique renommee "Spectacular
Vernacular", une magnifique presentation de structures ceremoniales africaines (maisons
d'initiation, casbahs, mosquees) construites en terre. Cette exposition fut gracieusement
pretee
a
la conference par la Smithsonian Institution.
Nous devons egalement mentionner les progres realises dans les etudes de stabilisation
sismique, particulierement en Amerique du Sud, etudes qui portent aussi bien sur
I'examen des methodes traditionnelles utilisees pour les constructions historiques en
adobe que sur la recherche de methodes modernes. La vulnerabilite des bitiments
californiens historiques en adobe, endommages ou detruits lors de chaque secousse
sismique, souligne Ie besoin urgent de proteger ces structures contre tous degits
additionnels par tremblements de terre d'une maniere
a
la fois abordable, pratique et
presentant un minimum d'interference. Dans d'autres parties du monde (comme Ie
Cachemire et la Macedoine), les constructions en terre ont fait preuve d'une resistance
aux effets sismiques remarquable, resultat de I' evolution empirique de la pratique, des
materiaux et des techniques de construction.
Plusieurs presentations d'Adobe
90
illustrent egalement Ie debat anime sur les avantages
et les inconvenients des consolidants chimiques pour Ie traitement des structures
historiques et archeologiques en terre. Ce debat est en partie dli au fait que la periode
d' evaluation des divers traitements chimiques dans des circonstances differentes et sur
XIX
des types de terre de compositions mint:ralogiques variees a ete relativement courte. L'un
des articles presentes passe en revue les traitements chimiques mis en uvre sur place au
cours de ces vingt dernieres annees. Les decisions futures relatives aux benefices eventuels
des consolidants chimiques seront facilitees par l'accumulation continue des
informations sur ce sujet et par la poursuite des etudes sur la consolidation qui sont
documentees ici.
La susceptibilite de la terre et de l'argile aux intemperies continuera aposer des
problemes techniques ardus pour nos travaux de prevention de la deterioration. Des
reponses et solutions aces problemes seront eventuellement trouvees. La variete des
articles rassembles dans ces comptes rendus prouve cependant que Ie do maine de ce
debat s'etend au delade la poursuite de l'expertise technique seule. Nous esperons que la
collaboration et les contacts etablis lors de cette conference, ainsi que les resultats recents
qui
y
seront presentes, favoriseront une prise de conscience accrue sur la necessite de
preserver notre heritage architectural en terre.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the
first case study deal ing
with a type of house
built with earth , cal led
" casoni , " that i s found
in northeastern Ital y .
The topics discussed in
thi s paper include
typological and
technological research ,
inventory methods ,
observation and
c l a s s i f ication o f
deterioration , and
initial programs in
conservation on buildings
of thi s type .
KEYWORDS
Inventory methods ,
typological research ,
technological research ,
cultural heritage ,
restoration , adobe ,
Italy .
3
ERIlA 0' lTALIEARCH 'IURE EN
CONS
TION DE L'
DU mRD- EST
ITEC
BRI(JJE CRUE:IA
RB:IIE:OCHE CASO
SUR LES"
NI"
Hauro Bertagnin
Faculte d ' Ingegnierie
Universite de Udine
Via Larga 4 2
3 3 100 Udine /Italie
CRATerre
1.Introduction
a
Apres I e Colloque d e Rome , suite
une serl.e d e s "recommandation s"
parues dans le s Comptes Rendus , s ' es t forme un groupe italien(l)
pour coordonner rech erche s et a c tion dans Ie domaine d e la con
nai s s a nc e et conservation d e l ' architec ture d e terre en Italie
soit au niveau archeologique soit du pa trimoine biiti e nc ore
habite ou en voie d e disparition suite
l ' abandon d e s habitants.
Durant ces deux a nnees Ie groupe a mis au point une s tra tegie
d ' ac tio n qui se deroule dans les s ec teur s suivants :
a
-He thod es d ' inventaire et rec h erches typologique et technologl.
que du patrimoine exi s tant ,
-His to ire et evolution de la c ons truction en terre en Italie
et
recherches sur les trai tes d ' archj tE'c ture en terre
i talie ns ( 2 )
-Ob servation e t c la s s ement d e s pathologies d e s batiments , a n�
lys e s chimiques
sur les terres et sur les enduits d e s maisons
en terr e et premiers programmes d e conserva tion sur les typo
logies d ' echantillons.
Pa rmi c e s a c tions e s t presente ici u n premier cas d ' etude qui
c onc erne une typologie , Ie "ca s o n e " , qui c orrespo nd
la totali te
de la maison en terre au nord-est d ' Italie.
En abordant la recherch e , on a suivi la demarche methodo logique
res umee dans les trois s ec teur s de la s trategie d ' ac tion e nvi
sagee pour une approche globale.
a
2 . Une
que s
typo
l ogie arche type : hi s toire et donnees
a nthropogeographi
Dans le s etud e s sur l e s type s a nthropogeographiques de l a b a s s e
plaine de la Padanie( 3) , on rec onnait I e "casone" de la plaine
entre Padoue et Venise comme la plus a ncienne forme de maison
rura l e , type hybride entre hutte et maiso n , que d e s peintres
tels que Giovanni Belli ni , Giorgione et Tiziano fixent da ns
leurs paysages( 4 ) .
L ' integration au site e s t a s suree par l ' utilisa tion du materiau
meme qui compo s e Ie site , la terr e , et des autres materiaux tels
que I e boi s de c hene pour la s truc ture du toit et la paille o u
l a ros eau
d e s lagunes venitiennes pour l a surface exterieure
des couver ture s .
C e tte forme archetype de maison degage dans le s plaines du nord
e s t d ' Italie
trois modeles de base :
- Le premier type e s t carac terise par un plan qui nait du contac t
de d eux parties de la maiso n , dont la plus petite contient
la
c uisine avec la c h eminee . La forme et la volumetrie sont particu
lier es , approchant c e lI e d ' une tente.
C e premier type se retrouve dans la bas s e plaine de la region de
Venise e t quelques exemplaires exis tent au ssi dans la province
de Treviso , tout pres de la plaine du
fleuv e Tagliamento .
Normalement ce type comporte un r e z -de-chau see qui represente la
partie habitee et l ' etage c orre spondant
la grange .
a
- L e d euxieme type prese nte une forme s tric tement rec tangulair e ,
avec le s piec e s a u x surfac es regulieres . La pente d u toit e s t
inferieure
c elIe d u premier type.
a
4
Adobe
90
se s i tue dans l'aire
C e deuxieme type
o u e s t d e la bas s e p la i ne
du Friul i.
Le log is ne comprend , l e plus s ouvent , qu ' un rez-de-ch3ussee habi
tab l e , recouvert d ' une to i ture reguliere a deux versants.La grange
l'etage ou etre reuni e sur le c ote
en boi s peut correspo ndre
nord du "c asone".
a
en briques de terre crue ,
-Un tro i s i eme type , n'etant pas bati
ma i s homogene au poi nt de vue typolog ique et morpho logique a ux
deux autre s a ete consi dere dans la rech erche seu lement c omme
extension arc h i tec turale et g60anthropique de l'hab itat ancien
dont les "casoni" representent l e s exemp l e s les plus i nteres sants .
L'ensemble de c e s construc tions rura les a na lysees presente
plu s i eurs carac teres communs. E f f ec tivement il s ' ag i t de mai s ons
rura l e s d'a s s e z pe tite ta i l l e , l ' etage corresponda nt souvent a
la grange , l e plan genera l tres s impl e , plus souvent rec tangula ire
ou a br i s Dour les outil s ) .
avec d e s adjonc t ions (granges
de grande importance, soi t pour la d�
Le toi t ioue un role
du
term i na tion de la vo lumetri e et par consequent de la forme
"ca s one", s o i t pour la s tructura tion du 1 0gi s . On retrouve aus s i
une uti l i s a tion frequente des memes materiaux tel s q u e la terre
crue pour l e s murs , l e bo i s (chene , sa p i n ou orme) , pour l e s p la�
chers e t l ' o s sa ture primaire et secondaire du toi t et poutres
et roseaux pour la couverture .
eventuel le s , tui l e s p l e i ne s
3 . Inventaire et recherches
typ
o logique et technolog ique
f a i t l'objet d ' une
Le patrimoine bati des "ca so ni " ayant deja
seri e de pub l ic a tions ( 5 ) , on a pu aborder le probleme d e l ' in
de tous les exempla ires a u jourd ' hui encore exi s tants
venta i re
partir
des donnees deja partie l l ement acqui ses et ens u i te
on a pu etab l ir une demarche d ' analyse rai s onnee devant servir
a la def ini tion d ' un premier niveau de stra tegie de conservation
a propo s e r .
Les rel eves ponc tu e l s s ur le terra in et la c o n s truc tion de
d ' ident i f i er et c la s ser
f ic h e s typo- techno logiques a permis
e n brique de terre
tous les "ca s oni" e ncore exi s tants et ba tis
en
c orre spondants a la to ta l i te des batiments
crue(adobe)
terre du nord - e s t d ' Ita l i e.
Une f o i s veri f i e s du po int de vue qua n t i ta t i f , les exemplaires
e nc ore exi s tants a ppartenant aux deux premi ers types et
en briques de terre crue
c orre spondant aux "ca s oni" batis
(adobe) ,on a pu orga niser un inventaire complet de l ' exi s tant
techno
et e s s ayer de re trouver des analogies meme au niveau
log i que.
type s ,
sec ond
En e f f e t pour la p lupart des "ca soni" du premier et
le tro i s ierne etant exc lu de l ' i nventa ire , on a pu veri f i er une
c o n s tante , expre s s i o n du savoir- f a i re local ,
technologie du ba ti
f ixee dans l'arc h i tec ture vernac ula ire locale .
Da ns la plupart des "ca soni" a na lyses , l es fonda tions sont
tra d i t i onnel lement inex i s tantes . Pour batir les murs en"adobe"
des "ca s on i" , on a ver i f i§ qu'une f o i s f ixe l ' emplacement oU le
a
sol e ta i t juge s table , on ta s s a i t tout simplement le sol
l 'emplacemen t du futur "ca s one" .
C e choix technologique a s igni f ie , par c onseque nt , la c rea tion
e ta i t celui de repartir l e s
des souba s sement s , dont le role
�f forts de la charpente e t d e s murs tout en les transmettant a u
sol .
C e c hoix de rea l i ser des s ouba s s ements a a u s s i c ondi tio nne
l'adoption d'une seri e d ' autres materiaux tels que g a l ets ,
en
pi erre s ou briques c u i tes nec e s s a ires pour evi ter aux murs
"adobe" d'etre deteriores par l e s eaux de rui s s e l lement ou par
des toi t s sans
le reia i l li s s ement des eaux de pluies tombant
gouttieres.
Pour les "ca soni" de la p l a i ne veni ti enne , on a veri f ie l ' a dop
tion des br iques c uites tand i s que la pi erre et l e s ga l e ts
constituent la plupart des s ouba s s ements des "ca soni" de la
friou l a i ne du fleuve Tag li amento .
pla i ne
Dans l e s deux type s , o n retrouve une varia tion de hauteur des
a
souba s s eme nts
5
e n tr e
80 e t 1 20 c e n time tr e s .
L ' adoption de murs d' une hauteur r e dui te ( 2 me tres ou 2 , 2 5 maximum)
e t 1 ' u t i l i sa ti on d ' un grand d e bord sont pl u s ma rq u e s dans l e s
" ca s oni " d u premier type . L ' adobe e ta n t tres s e n s i b l e
l ' humi
a
a
dite et
l ' §rosion de l a p l u i e batta nte et aux eaux
do n t Ie
vent raba t quelquefois des to i tures sans gou ttieres , c e s c ho i x
d e l a tec h nologie vernac u l a i r e o nt e te tr e s valable s pour l a
dura b i l i te d e s bii timents e n " adobe " a na ly s e s .
Les " a dobes " u ti l i s e s dans
la ba s s e plaine veniti enne et f r io u
l a i ne o n t des d ime ns i on s peu v a r iab l e s l a plu pa r t et.ant f a i t s
avec u n moule e n bo i s , s ouve n t I e meme u t i l i s e d a n s l e s bri qu�
ter i e s de l ' a i r e du " c a s one " . Les e pa i s s eurs des br iques c r u e s
var ient donc
de 7
1 0 c e n t ime tres , l a l argeur
de 1 3
16 et
aa
a
a
l a longueur
de
26
3 2 c entime tr e s .
Par c o ns equent l e s mur s ana l y s e s ont en general 4 0/ 4 5 / 50 cm .
Pour l e s murs exterieurs et l e s murs de r e f end peuven t , s e l o n
Ie c a s , vari er
de 1 3 a 1 6 cm . , de 2 6
3 2 cm . e t de 4 0
50 cm .
a
s e l o n l e s choix du biitis s e ur . Le s po ints d ' appui de la c ha r pente
e t les a ng le s s on t quelquefo i s f a i ts avec des ma teriaux plus
r e si s tants , pierre e t br iques c u i tes
dans la ma j o r i t §
des c a s .
D e s pieces de boi s
r epo sant
s ur l e s murs d ' a ng l e pour soutenir
l a po utre e n bo i s d ' a r e t e
ou une s a b l i er e pour r epartir l ' e f f o r t
d e la charpe nte s ont d ' autres e l eme nts con s tr uc t i f s ver i f i e s
d a n s l a r echerche .
Dans l e s couver tur e s on r e trouve , a u contra ir e , une d i f fer enc e
entre Ie premier et Ie second type s .
L e premier type e tant c o n e u pour une couverture e n ro s eaux e t
I e s econd pour u n e en tu i l e s ple i ne s , l e s deux pe ntes e ta n t
d i f ferentes , la s truc ture e n bois d e la c ha r pe nte e s t d i f f er ente .
Pour l e s deux s truc tur es de la charpe nte , on a f a i t une e tude
approfondie sur I e savo i r - faire trad i tionnel c onc e r nant l ' u t i li
s a ti on du roseau dans Ie premier type
et s ur l e s chevro n s
carac ter i sant I e deuxieme type . P our c e d er nier , l e recouvrement
de t u i l e s
s ur Ie f a i tage pr e s e n t e une pa r t icular ite due
une
ori enta tion pa r t ic u l i e r e
par I e vent .
qui evite
a
I e s ou l evement des tu i l e s
Les b o i s employ e s pour l ' o s s a tu r e pr ima i r e du premier type sont
norma leme nt I e c h e ne
e t I e l a ttis var i e entre Ie chene , l e
c ha ta i gni er et I e sapi n .
Pour l e s mor t ie r s et l e s e nduits employe s
dans l e s deux a i r e s
ou s e s i tuent l e s d e u x type s a na l y s e s on u t i l i s e to u j ours u n
melange
s a b le .
de ter r e et de chaux , ou moins souvent
de c haux e t de
En ce qui c o nc e r ne la mi s e en oeuvre de la ma r;onner i e en " adobe " ,
dans la plupa r t des c a s , on a pu ver i f ie r par to u t une regular i te
d e s l i ts succ e s s i f s de br iques
et par cons equent une hor i zo n
ta l i te g e nera l i s e e qui temoigne dans Ie d e u x a i r e s d ' une bonne
exec ution e t donc d ' un a r t de la ma eonner ie meme
de c e s hab i
ta tions pauvres dans Ie doma ine rura l .
4 . C l a s seme nt des pa tho logies
Le trav a i l
e ngage a l ' ec h e l l e r e g iona le du Veneto e t d u F r i u l i ,
do i t aboutir s e l o n l e s ob j ec t i f s des chercheurs
a
des p la ns
d ' ac tion de c o n s erva tion de c e s derniers exempl a i r e s ( da ns l e s
deux regions
i l s n e s o n t qu ' une vingta i ne e nc o r e ) d ' une typo lo
g i e e t tec h no logie en vo ie d e d i s par i t ion .
L ' e tude des pa tho logies de c es bii timents
techniques
et l e s s o lutions
pour u n programme compa t ible de c ons erva t ion repre
s entent une autre demarche operationnel l e de la r ec herch e .
On peut grouper l e s patho log i e s r e ncontrees au c ours de la
r ec h er c he par c la s s e s homoge ne s .
On a vu que l e s " ca s oni " sont s i tu e s dans des zones humides
d e la ba s s e p l a i n e du no rd- e s t de l ' I ta l i e carac te r i s e e par
une r emarquable pluvios i te , c e qui s i gni f ie que c e s bii timents
sont dans l a plupart des cas a f f ec te s par la p l u i e e t par
l ' humid i te . O n a de j a rappe l e que la s truc tur e typo-techno logi
que des " c a s oni " est concue pour une d e f ense c ontre l e s pluies
( pe ntes e t debord de l a toi tur e , murs exte r i eurs ba s e tc . ) ma i s
ma lgre c e l a o n d o i t enreg i s ter plus ieur s degiits
a
c a us e des
6
Adobe 90
eaux , d e s pl u i e s et de l ' humid i te .
La pl u i e et l e vent ent
souvent provoque l ' e ro s io n d e s f a �ades
e t en meme temps
cree
des dega t s
dans l a s truc ture
en bo i s
d u s a s o n i nf i l tr a t io n d a n s la c ouvertur e .
L ' a b sence de gouttier e s
e s t r e s po n sable d ' u n r e j a i l l i s s ement
marqu8 sur le sol , qui c a u s e , ma l g r § l es souba s s ement s , d e s d e ga ts
aux endu i t s c omme aux mur s .
C ' e s t un proc e s s u s progr e s s i f entame par la pl u i e qui e s t r e s po�
s a b l e d e la d e s truc t io n d e deux " c a s o n i " dans l ' a i r e f r ioula i ne .
C l oaues et dec o l l ements v i s ib l e s sur l e s sur faces d e s f a � �des ,
sont l i e s a d e s r emo nt e e s c a o i l l a i r e s da ns l e s mur s et surtout
pour les
" c a s o n i " d e la plaine fr iou l a i ne pendant les c yc le s
d e gel -degel .
Une autre patho logie r el evee dans l ' ana lyse des deux typo l o g i e s
c o nc er ne l e s d e g a t s
produ i t s dans pl u s i eurs "casoni " par l e
manque d e s c ha i nages
puisque m ern e
dans
l e c a s o u l e s angl e s
on e te ba t i s
en br ique c u i t e o u en pierre , i l s s o n t d e s o l i da r i s e s
d u r e ste d u ba t i .
D e s f i s s u r e s dans la f a � ade c or r e s ponda nt au pO i n t d ' a ppu i des
c h evrons sur l e mur s s o nt d ' autr e s patho l o g i e s l i e e s a la no n
adoption de la sab l i er e pour l ' appui des chevro ns le l o ng du
mur et qu ' o n a pu v er i f i er d a n s c ertains c a s .
En c e qu i c onc er ne la degradation d e s endu i t s , on peut etab l ir
a pr e s la pr em i e r e pa r t i e de la r echerc h e , que la pl upa r t des
degats
s igna l e s sont l i e s a d eux genres d e c a u s e s : v i e l l i s s ement
des end u i t s par manque d ' entr etien ou mauva i s dosage des e nduits .
Dans la d eu x i eme c l a s s e d e s patho l o g i e s on trouve surtout l e s
tels que le c iment
e s sai s d ' entretien u t i l i sant d e s ma ter iaux
qu i c r e ent une degradation d e r e tour , c a u s e e par une mauva i s e
c onna i s sa nc e d e s reac tions entre ma ter iaux tra d i t ionne l s e t
ac tuel s .
Pour compl e t er
l e s vo l e t s a na l yt iques d e s patholo g i e s , o n doi t
au s s i rappel er la degrada tion des " c a s o n i " no n hab i t e s due sur
to u t au manque d ' entr e t i en e t a l a perte de savo ir-fa i r e a
c o n s tr u i r e d e s toi tures en r o s eaux de la lagune , qui ne sont c n n
nues de sorma i s q u e d e que lques anci ens arti sans loc a ux ( 6 ) .
5.
Progr amme s d e c o n s erva tion
L e s " ca s o n i " c omme
on
l ' a de j a soul igne r epr e s e ntent a u j ou£
d ' hu i l e s derniers typ e s d ' habita t
e n briques de ter r e crue
ex i s tant au no rd-est d ' I t a l i e et sont un pe t i t nomb r e de bat!
ments enc ore u t il i s e s ma i s de to ute f a � o n en vo i e d ' ext i nc t io n .
I l s peuvent etre
sauve gar d 6 s avec un peu d ' effort
du po i n t
d e vue economiqu e et so c io - c u l tur el .
La plupart d e s " c a so n i " ont e t e ame l i o r e s et rehabil i te s
l e s habitants qu i o nt dans la ma j o r i te
des cas gard e s les
par
caracteres typo -arc h i tec tur aux des " c a s o ni " , favor i sant la
c o n s erva t io n de c e s b a t iments trad i t i o nnel s dans le pay sage
rur a l .
C ' e s t un devo i r s o c i a l aue de
con s erver c e s ba t iments
l e s depe r s onna l i s er , d ' a i der a l ' entr e t i e n approor i e aux
san s
ca
rac teres arch i t ec turaux et tec � no log iques de c e s typo logies
archetype s de la p l a i n e du no rd - e s t i t a l i e n .
On a de j a e s saye de s e ns i b i l i ser l e s i n s t i tu t ions a l ' a i d e au
devel oppement d ' ac tions au niveau local e t a u f i na ncement par
l e s organ ismes publ i c s ( R § g ions , Gouvernement etc . ) .
L ' introduc tion de ce pa trimo i ne architec tura l vernac u l a i r e dans
le
r e g i s tr e des " ar c h i tec tur e s a s a uvegarder " , la c r e a t i o n de
d eux petits parcs r e g ionaux pour l e " c a s oni " , une s e r i e d ' ac tions
pour l a val or i s a tion du savoi r - f a i r e a � t i s a n a l l oca l e t une
par f a i te conna i s sa nc e de la tec h no l o g i e e t de l ' ar t de b a t ir
c onc e r nant l e s " c a s on i " sont l e s programmes d ' a c t io n envi sage s .
Pour c e qui c o nc erne l e s so lutio ns tec hniques approp r i e e s pour
la c o n s erva tion de c e s ba t iments , a c o te
des r eleves c ompl e t s
de to us l e s " c a s oni " e x i s tants ( so i t
a travers
l ' u t i l i sa tion
des r e leves d e j a publ i c s dans l e s livres c o nc ernant c e s
a r c h i tec tur e s o u o a r la r ea l i sa t io n de releves manauan t s ) , on
o n a f a i t demarrer d ' autres ac tions a U l ourd ' hu i en c ours .
Les
a na l y s e s c h i�iques des " adobe s " d e s d i f f e rents b a t iments
7
et d e s end u i t s
u t i l i s e s dans l es d i f f er ents types , l e s a na ly s e s
d e s sol s , l e s inventaires des ma ter i aux l ocaux employes et l e s
prem i er s e s sa i s de conserva t ion typo -techno lo g iques d ' un echan
t i l l o n de
c hacun de d eux types e tud i e s sont l e s ac t ions pro
gramme es pour la sauvegarde d ' un temo ignage enc o r e v ivant d e
l ' habi ta t en terre
en 1 ta l i e .
6 . Conc lus ions
Les ba t iments
en " adobe " analyses r epres entent un pa tr imo i n e
arch i t ec tural d o n t l a sauvegarde e s t i nd i spensab l e pour pre s erver
l e s der n i e r s exempl es de ma i sons en terre dans le nord- e s t de l '
1 ta l i e .
La me thode suiv i e
est,
no tre avi s , exten s ib l e
d ' autres c a s
et petit contr ibuer
la sauvegarde r e el l e du pa tr imo i ne
arch i tec tura l en terre i ta l i en .
Une fois d emarr e e s l e s ac tions
env i sage es on pourra e f fec tivement
valables
compter
sur une ser i e d ' expe r i enc es
de r e f er enc e
pour une approche plus e f £ icac e
la conserva t ion du pa tr imo i n e
en t e r r e i t a l i e n .
a a
a
a
NOTES
( l ) A lva A . , Bertagnin M . { coord i na t eur ) , B i s c on t i G . , Ch i a r i G . ,
Ga l d i e r i E . , Laureano P .
( 2 ) Voir Bertagnin M . , " L ' arch i tec ture d e terre en 1tal i e : conna i�
s a nc e et r ehab i l i ta t io n d ' un patr imo i n e typo l o g ique meconnu " et
Ga ld ier i E . , " Etat et f u tur d e s ba t iments
i ta l i ens en ter re : l e
cas du P i emont e t d e l a Sarda i g n e " i n Le patrimo ine europeen
c o n s tru i t en ter re et sa reha b i l itation , ENTPE , Vau l x en Vel i n ,
Comptes Rendus , 1 9 8 7
( 3 ) 1 1 s ' ag i t d e l a p l a i ne d u f l euve Po , l e plus grand f l euve
italien
( 4 ) Regardant l e s paysages d e s " Croc e f i s s ione " { Correr , Vene z i a ) e t
"Al l egor ia sacra " { U f f i z i , F i r enz e ) de G iovanni B e l l i n i , d e la
"Venere dormiente " { Gema lde Ga ler i e , Dresden) d e Giorg ione et
" L ' amor sacro e l ' amor pro fano " { Ga l l er ia Borgh es e , Roma )
de
Ti z iano on peut r ec o nnai tre
le " c as o n e " c omme typo log i e
dominant l e paysage a g r i c o l e d u XVe S i ec l e , dans l a pla i n e de
la r e g io n d e Ven i s e
{ S ) c f r . Ti e to P . I c a s o n i venet i , Panda e d i teur , Padoue , 1 9 7 9
( 6 ) c fr . no te 2
8
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
ARQUITECTURA VERNACULAR DEL VALLE CENTRAL DE CHILE
I t is in the earthen architec ture
of the Chil ean central region
where we can find the values of
a real vernacular architecture
which displays a unique spatial
and cul tural qual i ty .
Edwin B inda Compton
Martin de Zamora 4247
Las Condes - Santi ago
Chi l e .
Space and matter thus determine
a specific architec tural form
consti tuting a valuable heri tage
which ought to be preserved as
a genuine model of representation
and extension over time .
It provides us w i th the
" type"
springing
archi tec tural
from a set of formal variables and
becoming a basic form which in
being app l i e d to a new pro j ect
should keep its di stinctive
spatial
features
and
values
immutable .
l anguage
The
typol ogy
and
observab l e in the models under
analysis would enable the proposal
of a contemporany architec ture
based on the values typ ical of
such vernacular architecture .
PALABRAS CLAVE.S
Historia y Tradic ion
Arquitec tura Vernacular
Tipologia
MoCelos Espac�ales
reconoc ibles
Vigencia del Tipo
Propuesta
de
Preservacion del
Modelo
Propuesta de Proyeccion del Tipo
y
KEYWORDS
History and tradition ,
Vernacular architecture ,
Typology and spatially
recogni z ab l e mode l s ,
Val idity of the type ,
Proposal for preservation
o f the model ,
Proposal for pro j ection
of the type .
INTRODUCCION
El presente trabajo consti tuye e l inicio de una amp l i a investigacion que pre
tende demostrar la perfecta val i dez y contemporanei dad del mod e l o espacial que
adopto l a arqui tectura rural de ti erra en el Valle Central de Chile desde las
primeras manifes-caciones de ocupacion territorial pasando por los d i versos si
gl os , desde l a Conqui sta a la Rep6b l i c a .
El val i o s i s imo aporte que representa la tipologia arqui tectonica del modelo
propuesto , se encuentra i ntimamente l igada a l a definici6n de " tipo" que da
Quatremere de Quincy en su "Dizc ionario Storico"
" l a palabra " tipo" no
representa tanto la imagen de una cosa que debe ser copiada
imitada perfecta
mente cuanto l a idea de un e l emento que debe servir , e l mi smo , de regla al mo
de l o .
. . . El mode lo entendido seg6n la ej ecucion prac tica del arte , es un ob
j e to que se debe repetir tal cual es ; el tipo es , al contrario , un obj e to , se
g6n el cual cada uno puede concebir obras que no se pareceran en absoluto entre
e l las .
Todo es prec i so y dado en el modelo ; todo es mas
menos vago en el
tipo . . . "
( 1 ): 0
0
E s ta forma arqu i tectonica tradicional vernacular , se convierte asi en elemen
tos espac iales permanentes que definen de hecho , un valor patrimoni al .
La tec
nica y el material constructivo , tendran sin duda un pap e l primordial que ju
gar , l igado
anterior a los valores arquitectonicos que define formas en es
"En la arqui tectura actual , muchas ramas de su desarro l l o se
pac i o y t i empo .
han apartado de las rai ces primitivas .
La falta de comprension de los proble
mas fundamental e s y l a adop cion de soluciones superfi c i a l e s han conduc ido a
la probreza de la construccion arqui tectonica . . . Hasta el siglo actual el hom
bre construyo su hab i tat , con materiales locales y de forma senc i l l a , natural
y resi stente .
Las p l antas eran directas e inequivocas , se basaban en exigen
c i as y funciones , haciendo que e l hombre se sinti era orgu l l oso de su amb i en
te . "
10
(2)
E l surgimiento , por asi dec i r espontaneo de l as v i viendas que s e l evantaban
s i n tener tras el las ninguna especulacion , siguiendo solamente los dictados
de la tradic ion , l a l imitacion
riqueza del material , las func iones que deb i an
cump l i r , produj o expresiones arquitectonicas locales que asombran por su varie-·
En cambio , la vivienda producto de la especulacion ha unificado las expre
dad .
siones , perdiendose esc gran atractivo que significa encontrar la man i festacion
genuina .
Es por esto que nuestra arqui tectura vernacular debe ser obj e to de
reflexion .
E l l a es la man i festacion de una quizas no muy rica variedad de for
mas , pero es sabia en tanto corresponde a la expresion autentica de un entorno
de un modo de v i da part icular .
0
y
"La Arqu i tectura del Val l e Central de C h i l e ha recurrido como en toda c i v i l iza
cion a condi c ionamientos espac iales que la han caracteri zado , refl e j ando en
sus formas y el ementos , cual idades propias que la identi fican .
En e l l a no solo
hay una respuesta adecuada al medio geografico natural , s i no tamb ien al uso
adecuado del materi al .
E l uso del adobe tratado tanto constructivamente , como
en su d i s tribucion geome trica y espacial , nos permi te sostener que su forma
y c a l i dad , obedecen a una condicionante espac i a l propia que la d i s t ingue y la
define .
Variados ej emplos podemos recoger en diversos autores y epocas , encon
trando en e l l os s i empre un nexo que la i dentifi cara p l enamente con nuestra
idios incras i a y e s t i l o de vida" .
(3)
ARQUITECTURA RURAL DE L A ZONA CENTRAL DE CHILE
Tal vez las manifestaciones mas interesantes de l a arqui tectura en Chi l e , por
su sincera reali dad local , sean los conjuntos rural e s de l a Zona Central .
"Durante mas de un siglo de sol edad indi ana , en un pais casi s i n n6c leos urba
nos , la 6n ica verdadera estructura caminera y territorial fue la rural que bus
caba dese speradamente lograr un orden agrario , ocupando paul atinamente y en
medida muy reduc ida , los val l e s transversales y costeros .
Faltando a6n c iuda
des y v i l l as , casas patronales , caserios y algunas aldeas , se ocupo este inmen
so espacio , solo en forma esporadica .
Fue solamente en l a segunda rni tad del
siglo XVI I I que con l a fundacion de una larga serie de v i l l as y ciudades alrede
dor del camino central , se creo una estructura agrari a continua , permi t i endo
una colon i zac i on y explotacion del Valle Central .
Las casas rurales fueron
adquiriendo s i empre mayor importanc i a , manteniendo como una constante los con
ceptos formales y organi zativos originales " . ( 4 )
E s tos conjuntos rurales conformando haciendas son c i tados por destacados trata
d i s tas extranj eros , como Angul o Inigue z , Marco Dorta , Buschiazzo , Kluber , We they
y Kelemen .
Todos concuerdan en cal i fi carl a como e l mas interesante y completo
exponente iberoamericano en su genero , "conformando estos un cap i tulo fundamen
tal de la hi storia de la arqui tectura americana .
Efecti vamente , ning6n otro
9
A.
I G L E S I A D E L A COM PAN I A D E G R A N E R D S ( 2 0 )
pais del continente presenta el
continua e ininterrump i damente a
10
caso de estas construc ciones que se suceden
largo de todo e l territori o " . ( 5 )
En este Chi l e rural , las casas son un conjunto de edificios de apoyo a l a faena
rural , los caserios y las aldeas se consti tuyeron los e l ementos reales de l a
ocupacion territorial , y sucesi vamente de su incipiente explotac ion .
B.
CASAS D E L A S A Z U L E S D E L T A B O N ( 2 1 )
J
r�-'
�'
-�l
[ [ - '-=1 1-=1
- ..,
lL_ I lL��
.
C.
CASA DE LO M A T T A ( 1 7 )
_ __
Muchas de estas casas se iniciaron en pl ena Colonia y fueron centro de im
portantes nuc leos agricolas , conformando los principales hitos de nuestros pri
meros asentamientos desde Cop i apo al Bio-B i o .
"Una l arga vi venc i a en una geo
grafia a la que se van adaptando hombres y medios , don de se define un arte de
vivir y perrnite concebir al pas ado como origen de un saber habitar . "
(6)
10
La planta cuadrada fue el modulo basi co y , por
tanto , la mas comunmente em
p l eada desde el siglo XVI hasta nuestros dias , especi almente en aque l las regio
nes surefias don de l a frontera con las poblaciones ind igenas se mantuvo hasta
rnuy avanzado el s iglo XIX .
Otro tipo de planta usado desde el siglo XVI I I ,
fue la " alquer i a " , edificio de un solo cuerpo , pero en dos p i sos , ocupando las
bodegas e l primero y las habi taciones el segundo , permitiendo con esta conquis
tada al tura , e l dominic visual de las faenas agricolas .
Una nueva tipologia de arqui tectura del Val l e Central de Chi l e , surgira a medi �
dos del s i glo XVI I I para extenderse en el s i glo XX .
Seran las casas de enormes
proporc iones como San Vicente de Tagua-Tagua , Quinta de Ti lcoco
San Jose del
Carmen de Col chagua ( E l Huique ) ,
en las cuales casas y patios
( algunas de
e l l as inc luyen hasta quince de estos ) han conformado una extension de unidades
de adobe y tej as , formando l l enos y vac ios que adquieren e l aspecto de verdade
ras casas-pueb los .
0
(7)
El profesor Romulo Trebbi del Trevigiano en su libro : "Desarrollo y tipolog i a
de los Con.iuntos R"�ales de l a Zona Central de Ch ile , s i g l o s X V I - XIX ,
nos describe los tres conceptos formales y organizativos iniciales :
0
EL Ri':LIGIOSO , en cuanto a su distribucion pareciera originarse en la de un
claustro
convento ( b ) EL M I L I TAR que se manifiesta en la sol i dez de los muros
exteriores casi sin ventanas en la p l anta cerrada y en el uso de cuerpos altos
y torreones , y finalrnente ( c ) EL AGRARIO con el empleo de porticos para las
faenas , l a importanc ia dada a las bodegas y corrales y la anexion de vastas
explanadas para los trabaj os .
La forma del complejo arquitectonico es tara dada fundamentalmente por la explo
tacion propia del Val le Central donde se emplean porticos para protegerse del
cl ima y para cob i j ar faenas de d i s tinta naturaleza . Bodegas , corrales , llave
rias , casas de inquil inos , cap i l l a , se reuni ran junto al patio
los patios
de trabaj o ; sol idos muros de adobe cubiertos por grandes mantos de tej a , seran
los elementos que I e daran el caracter de unidad espacial al conj unto .
0
D.
CASAS D E L O C O N T ADOR ( 2 1 )
DESARROLLO ESPACIAL
La casa tradicional de campo adopta desde su inicio hasta fines del siglo XIX
diversas formas que exp l i caremos mas adelante .
0
(0
"Cada propietario
administrador princ ipal , asumira en su oportunidad la res
ponsab i l idad del arquitecto , uti l i zando espontaneamente
quizas con determi
nantes es tab l e c i dos por el lugar
las neces i dades ) , tres tipos de espacios
d i ferentes con los que organ i zaba el total del conjunto : las hab i tac i ones , los
corredores y los patios " . ( 8 )
0
Los volumenes presentan una rigida ortogona l i dad , a l ternando espacios l l enos
y vac i o s , representado por los sucesivos patios , ordenados casi siempre en cua
dricula s , conectando todo
anterior por _ amp l i o s y largos corredores que
permiten anexar todo el conjunto , solucionand6 asi una alternativa de vincula
cion con caracter i s ticas de espac io intermedio cubierto , pero abierto en uno
de sus costados .
10
"En contraste con la variedad de dimensiones y ocupaciones de los patios de
la Casa , sus espac ios interiores son regulares , repetidos , salvo ( s i los hay )
la cap i l l a y las bodegas con recintos mas amp l ios . . . los espac ios interiores
resul tan muy semej antes entre s i , con anchos , largos y altos que no superan
los 5
metros .
E s tas medidas establecen en cada Casa , una especie de modulo
es tructural que se respeta en toda la e d i ficacion , con raras excepciones , como
en el comedor , en el salon ,
en l a sal a de juegos , donde l a longitud es mayor
por ser estos lugares mas representativos .
Los dormitorios en camb io . . . tienen
las mismas caracter i sticas y son mul t i funcional e s " ( 9 ) admi tiendose con e l l a
su c a l i dad de diversi dad de u s o tanto e n e l espac io como e n el ti empo .
06
0
Lo esencial de la ordinacion espac ial de los conjuntos se expresa casi si empre
en las siguientes constantes :
Un sentido del orden a partir de la ortogonal i dad de
la regularidad en los patios , los cuadros del j ardin ,
en e l sue l o , los parrones , las calles y los caminos que
ros cercados de arboles ; formas claras que producen una
to dentro del marco general del Val l e Cen-i:ral .
la cas a , se prolonga a
el dibujo del huevillo
l levan hasta los potre
gran armonia de conj un
Adobe 90
10
CASA E N PUEBLO D E MAIPO
(21)
"Espac ios interiores de l a casa que no han s i do creados para un fin determina
do , semejantes en proporciones , i luminac i6n y tamano , la funci6n que acogen
les es indiferente , ora comedor , sa l a , habitaci6n u oficina " . ( 1 0 )
Repe tici6n longitudinal d e un m6dulo que formando conjunto recto , e s capaz de
resistir en los dos sentidos l o s esfuerzos principal es .
Estructura racional
de muros y contrafuertes para un terri torio sometido continuamente a s i smos .
( 45 0 constante en el cambio de giro de los muros ) .
G.
H A C I E NDA L O S L I NG U E S ( 2 1 )
®
N
ol��
��l
8
. i f-'3
· []O
� I �g ��
,-----,
J! ill
planla7�LC
casa �-:�
psa"NoICO
escal 01 J 5 7 10m (8)
-=--=-
H.
H A C I E N DA DE P E L D E H U E
"En una tierra de temblores constantes , seran necesarios muros anchos y de poca
al tura la mayor de las veces con contrafuertes laterales en aquel l o s cuyo l argo
es excesivo .
Estas edificaciones se sostienen , mas que por resistenc i a ,
por
la estab i l i dad de sus apoyos ; sera frecuente que coincidan los muros transver
sales de los recintos para colaborar en el amarre y contraventaci6n de las mu
ral l as longitudinales .
E s ta condic i6n es tructural sumada al concepto de casa
fortal e za , se veran especialmente expresadas en l ineas continuas de muros ce
rrados en los cuales se abriran de trecho en trecho algunas ventanas y uno que
otro port6n principal ; la greda cocida que se amoldara originalmente sobre e l
muslo d e los operarios , seran a l a pos tre
los grandes mantos d e tej a que cu
briran final mente la totalidad de la es tructura" . ( 1 1 )
"Formas primarias de proporc iones s imp les , fac ilmente reconoc ibles . Volumenes
regulares , p l anos verticales e incl inados ; l l enos que predominan sobre los va
cios , sucesi6n de pi lares y de vanos .
La luz anima l a obra , los muros se i l u
minan , el sol marca la huel l a de la mane en el revoque de barro , textura que
adorna la s i mp l i c i dad de las superficies .
La sombra se aisla en los vanos ,
en los aleros protectores y en la profundidad de los corredores " . ( 12 )
L a homogeneidad de l color en los muros donde pre domina e l blanco hace resaltar
l a masa del techo de tej as sobre l a casa , el cual mantiene casi siempre l a mis
Ocasionalmente presentara diversas al turas que no al teraran la ho
rna al tura .
mogeneidad del conjunto .
La repetici6n de vanos en los muros , la sucesi6n de
rredores ; crean un r i tmo ordenado que recorre toda
adobe , teja de arc i l l a no impide que haya l igereza
del techo descansa en p i l ares delgados ; junto a l a
la esbeltez de la madera .
p i l ares y vigas en los co
l a cas a .
E l construir con
del conjunto , el gran peso
mac i s e z del muro trabaj a
Un paso gradual del interior al exterior a traves de los corredores , patios ,
parrones y arboledas van abriendo progres i vamente la intimidad de las pie zas .
Espac ios intermedios que relac ionan
la pequena escala de la casa con la gran
esc ala de l paisaj e .
L a conexion
de los espacios interiores s e produce normal mente en e l centro
de las habi taciones relac ionando virtual mente · todo el conjunto a traves del
eje central .
CONSTRUCCION
Y
MATERIALES
10
La caracteristica constructiva de los volumenes que componen las casas son es
tructuras de cruj i a simple con corredores a
l argo de sus costados en una
u otra orientac i on , de preferencia norte y sur .
Su cubierta de teja cocida
a dos aguas sobrepasa con generosidad los bordes construidos .
Los materiales provienen en su mayor parte de la propia hacienda , son senc i l los
y fam i l i ares , son trabajados con herramientas tradic ionales de poca e l aborac ion .
Piedra de bo16n para los cimi entos ; muros de barre y paj a ; ( adobe amoldado en
el mi smo s i t i o y e l adob6n que se construye al mismo ti empo que se fabr ica el
muro ) ; madera para labrar vigas , cos taneras , dinte l e s , soleras , p i l ares , canes
sopandas y tamb ien para los centr�s de puertas y ventanas .
La arc i l l a cocida , es empleada en las tejas y ladri l l o para los p i sos .
El pol
v i l l o , mezcla de arc i l l a fina , recubre e l adobe tanto en el interior como en
e l exterior de los muros .
Finalmente estos son recubiertos por una capa de
cal tinendo de blanco los edificios , dando l e s asi unidad y buena apariencia
al conjunto , todo ella dentro de una expresion senc i l l a , s in ornamentacion que
la identifique en ti empo y esti l o .
10
"Los muros de adobe periferico y los de re fuerzo interior varian entre O . 80m .
y 1 . 20 m . ,
que asegura una excelente ai s l ac i on termica y acusti ca , generando
un peso propio suficiente para resistir los esfuerzos s i smicos a condicion de
rigidizarlos a interval os regulares con muros transversales y que la pesada
carga de l envigado , tij erales , ensordinado y tej as de la cub i erta , no los des
estab i l icen"
Vanos pequenos , simetricos y no profusos en los muros
ayudan a los esfuerzos de traccion que pudiesen estar en algun momenta someti
dos .
( 13 ).
-;
Las tecnicas empleadas para la construcci6n por los constructores an6nimos ,
se encuentran solo condici onadas por la tradicion l egada de generacion en gene
raC l on , asi como tamb ien por e l uso probado y popul armente aceptado de aque l l o
que es u t i l y eficaz , sin vaguedad y que permite cal idades probadas .
J.
CHACRA L O VALDIV IESO
(8)
SIGNIFICADO
Y
I
EXISTENCIA
Una de las carac teri sticas propias de l a arquitectura vernacular es la persis
tenc ia en el transcurso y paso del tiempo , entendiendo todo ella como un espa
cio arquitect6nico que conforma un ambito de vida , de una soci edad determinada
y que frente a las inevitab l e s transformaciones c i c l icas de la h i s tori a , pare
c i era querer brotar inesperadamente para controlar el destino .
"En su versi6n latina e1 termino "VERNACULUS" signifi c a , domesti co-nativo .
A su vez domestico nos l l eva a la palabra DO�lUS , casa residenc i a patriarcal
y que nos recuerda e l "dominicus " , e l senor de la casa , ( el "PATER FAMILIAS" )
el usuario por derecho de tradici6n" . ( 14 )
Asi l a tradici6n vernacular nos transporta a l a casa que enci erra val ores cons
tantes de permanencia en e l tiempo y en e l espacio , en l a cual , Senor , fami l i a ,
propiedad , tierra y tradici6n se confunden con el habitar , donde to do aque l l o
permanece inalterable y transmisib l e .
••
K
I
C A P I L L A D E L O ARCAYA
II
Una "FORMA" en el espacio que se traslada en el tiempo manteniendo el valor
del espac io arqui tect6nico permanente ; valores que hablan del momento del espa
cio como cualidad intrins ica de este " tipo" de arquitectura .
(8)
CABAL L E R I ZAS D E A L C O N E S
(18)
"Podemos considerar a nuestra arqui tectura vernacula como una manifestaci6n
al parecer senc i l l a , generalmente simp l e en sus soluciones estructurales ( y
espac i ales ) y que sin embargo , s e desarro l l a sobre bases formales y conceptua
l e s , ricas en soluciones divers i ficadas y hasta insospechadas que adquieren
si empre una especial importancia hi st6rica por ser el resul tado de una tradi
c i 6n viva" . ( 1 5 )
De esta manera su fuerza principal y vita l i dad de pers i s ten
cia arqui tect6nica pareciera ser entonces " l a de preservar la memoria de los
" tipo s " 10 que no es poco si pensamos que el principal problema arqui tect6nico
es j ustamente aqu e l l o del gene s i s de las formas y de l a relac i 6n forma-conte
nido"
( 16)
L a l e c tura de l a arquitectura vernacular constituira un medio de reconocimien
to de un panorama cul tural que ha es tado s i empre presente como 1 0 cotidiano ;
10 domestico , aque l l o que tiene que ver con el uso diario y permanente , inmuta
b l e al ti empo y que permanece en la memoria de los hombres sin al teraci6n y
por 10 tanto merece la permanenc i a en el espac io y aportando al hombre su "ser"
cul tural permanente .
La arqui tectura vernacular , mas a l l a de sus expresiones prop i as , nos l l ama a
reflexionar acerca de los val ores que el hombre contemporaneo va continuamente
y s i s tematicamente marginando , avanzando rapidamente a un desequi l ibrio cada
vez mas dramatico entre el r i tmo del progreso tecno16gico y esa inevitable an
s i edad de incorporar lo en la integraci6n de una nueva persona l i dad de ser huma
no .
L.
QtII'8
17tH
planl.
f illdeca"."I'lI !QU
pe.nodeladOpOr lOS /uul':.IS
M.
Es asi que estas expresiones que l l amamos vernaculares , espacios arquitect6ni
cos , es tructuras simpl es , materiales tradicional es , herramientas directas , pa
recen invi tarlo a toda clase de esfuerzos para retomar e l control de nuestro
En la casa tradicional de la Zona Central encontramos reunidas
propio destino .
todas las consideraciones propias de 1 0 vernacular que permitiria con las mis
mas formas espaciales , materiales y tecnicas artesanales proponer un tipo de
arqui tectura que recogiendo valores patrimoniales proyecte la permanenc ia de
estos valores , hoy .
H A C I E NDA C A L E R A D E T A NGO
..",,�I• •
P U E B L O DE GUACARGU E ( 1 9 )
\l-','l)_1';1O_)Om
En sintesis debemos reconocer que sin espectacularidades , el material de tie
rra , planteado con las carac teristicas antes senaladas , tiene confer ida una
nob leza que se remonta al mi smo origen de la habitab i l i dad y la ocupaci6n de l
Val le Central , haciendose por tanto merecedora de lograr su mas genuina identi
dad en todo momento .
Es mas , es posible sostener que es a l I i , en esa determi
nada relaci6n espac i al-estructura l , queda pl anteada una perspectiva de solucio
nes arqui tect6nicas diversi ficadas y hasta insospechadas , en una potenc i a l i
dad creativa al margen de l tiempo y el espac i o .
N.
PARTES
CON S T R U C T I V A S P R I N C I PA L E S DE U N A ANT IGUA V I V I E NDA T I P I CA DE ADOBE ( 2 3 )
12
Adobe 90
NOTAS
TIPOLOGIA
1 . - G . C . A R GA N , P r o y e c t o y D e s t i n o ( E d i
c i ones
z u e' l a
de la B i b l i o t e c a C e n t r a l de � e n e
1 9 6 9 ) 5.7-6 1 . En r e f e r e n c i a a Q u a t r!
m e r e de Q u i n c y en s u 1I D i c t i o n n a i r e H i s t o
r i que de L ' A r q u i t e c t ur e " . P a r i s
A
1)
Y
LENGUAJE DE LOS VALORES EXISTENTES
r a . E d i f i c o s y H a b i t a t A n o n i m o s en l o s
p;; i s e s M e d i t e r r a n e o s ( B a r c e l o n a E d . G u s t a
v o G i l i S . A . 1 9 70 ) g .
3 . - E . B I N DA , La C a s a C a m p e s i n a C h i l e n a e n : A C A DE M I A N Q 1 3- 1 4 ( U n i v e r s i d ad M e t r o p o
1)
Volumen unico , como portador de toda la concepcion .
ESPACIO
Norte , Barraco, Urbano y Vernac ulo Rural"
e n : E l B a r r a c o e n H i s p a n o am e r i c a ; m a n i f e s
t a c i o n e s y s i g n i f i c a c i o n ; E d i c i o n p r e p a r;
2 ) VOLUMEN
Estructura periptera con volumen unico central .
por los p i l ares y l a segunda por l a masa .
da p o r B . B r a v o L i r a , ( F o n d o H i s t o r i c o
-
C
1)
t;;:;;:
de
las Casas P a t r o n a l e s e n Ch i l e " e n : EL MER
C U R I O , ( Sa n t i a g o d e C h i l e ,
13 d e F e
1977) •
Dos ni veles ; espac ios interiores rotundos y es tancos . Ordenacion
de "Alqueria" .
El espac io intermedio exterior esta conec tado en
el 2° ni ve l .
2 ) VOLUMEN
Unico en dos ni veles escalera exterior conecta primero y segundo
ni vel .
S i stem" . volumetrico permi te una extension organi ca .
o:
6 . - R . T R EBBI DEL T . , " A r q u i t e c t ura R u r a l
e n l a Z o n a C e n t r a l d e C h i l e " , e n : E L M E R
C U R I O , ( S a n t i a g o de C h i l e ,
1 3 de S e p t i e m
D
1)
PLANTA CUADRANGULAR EN
ESPACIO
T i p o l .!:
2 ) VOLUMEN
C e n t r a l de C h i l e , S i g l o s X V I - X I X ( S a n -
1 9 8 0 ) 38- 3 9 .
8 . - J . B E N A V I D E S , M . A N D U AG A , J . D A R OC H ,
C . M I R A N DA ,
PIROTTE
H.
MONT ECINOS, D . O R T E G A , S .
Y J . SAL I N A S , Co n j u n t o s A r q u i t e c
1 ( Sa n
t6nicos Rurales , Casas Patronales
E
1)
PLANTA RECTANGULAR LINEAL EN
ESPACIO
t a d d e A r q u i t e c t u r a y U r b a n i s m o . E d i c i 6 n
g . - IBID
1 9 B 1 ) 50-5 1 .
2 ) VOLUMEN
F
1)
56-58
UNIVERSITARIA NQ2 ( J u l i o
1979) Pontif icia
PLANTA EN
en : DEKORATOR ano
3 N Q 2 ( Sa n t i ag o d e C h i
1 2 . - P . GROSS , " P a t r i m o n i o U r b a n o Arqui 13.-
J.
• • •"
BENAV IDES
quitect6nicos"
O T R O S , " C o n j u n t o s Ar
82
1 4 . - R. T R E B B I D E L
T.,
G
1)
PLANTA EN
ESPACIO
H
1)
2)
"EI 1)
1985)
I
16.- IBID 20
1 7 . - S . M I R A N D A , E . B I NDA Y S . R aj a ,
Adobe c o m o b a s e p a r a u n l e n g u a j e Arquitec
1 8 . - G . G U A R D A O . S . B . , C o l c h ag u a A r q u i t e c
Cat61 i c a de Chile. Santiago
1 9 8 8 ) 52-5 3 .
E l e j e m p l o f u e c i t ado d e n t r o d e l Cap i t u l o
" E I h a b it a n t e y s u s E x p r e s i on e s " .
ITer plano G
(21 )
H
Ver p l ano H
(8)
E l partido e s una "H" con adosamientos de volumenes varios y que
genera todo el conjunto .
VOLUMEN
Volumen compuesto ; el patio central ; permite el crecimiento organi
co en toda su extens i on .
Ver p lano
PLANTA EN
ESPACIO
DIUC
tura tradicional ( Ed i c i o nes U n i v e r s i t a r i a
U
ESPACIO
t 6 n i c o p r op i o " . ( I n f o r m e d e I n v e s t i g a c i 6�
1 9 84 . P r o y e c t o de I N v e s t i g a c i 6 n 2 8
F/84 U n i v e r s i d a d C a t 6 1 i c a d e C h i l e , S e p t i e m b r e 1 9 8 5 ) 37-46 .
1)
E l partido general es una " U " el emental enriquecida por l a incorpo
racion de la topografi a .
Perspectiva visual en apertura .
PLANTA EN
T e o r i a y F o rm a . ( E d i c i o n e s U n i v e r s i t a r i a s
1 5 .- IBID 19
(2
Espac io interior rotundo , es tanco .
Espac i o intermedio se propone como es tructurador de la idea cas a ,
2 ) VOLUMEN
" A r q u i t e c t u r a es
18.
Ver plano F
La dispos i cion volumetrica formul a dos espac ios definidos , norte
sur ; este-oeste .
S i s tema de c i rculacion paralela privada y pub l i c a
exterior .
S i s tema en " L " c r e a u n espac io rotular estanc o .
p o n t a n e a y v e r n a c u l a en A m e r i c a L a t i n a .
de Valpara i s o ; Alfabeta Impresiones
L
2 ) VOLUMEN
1 9 80 ) .
tectonico)
(8)
Espacio exterior ; no conforma c erramento ; planta en " L " con un lade
dominante .
1 9 79 ) .
1 1 . - C . V A L E N Z U E L A S O L I S DE O V A NDO , " C u a
Ver plano E
ESPACIO
U n i v e r s i d a d C at 6 1 i c a d e C h i l e ( S a n t i a g o
t r o c i e n t o s a ii a s d e C o n s t r u c c i o n e n C h ili"
----
Unj c o de simetria axial de ley de desarro llo formal en l i nea .
1 0 . - P. GROSS , "Pat r i m o n i o Urbano Arqui t e c t 6 n i c o y c a l i da d de v i d a " e n : R E V I S T A
1
(2 )
L a ley del desarrollo total esta en l a linea demarcando l imite in
terior y exterior .
t i a g o , C h i l e , U n i v e r s i dad de C h i l e , Facul
Corporac i o n T oesca
Ver plano D
Compuesto y organico permite su extension en diversas orientacione s .
Espac i o definido por una es tructura perimetral definida exterior
y periptera interior .
gia de l o s C o n j u n t o s R u r a l e s d e l a Zona t i a g o , Ch i l e , E d i c i o n e s N u e v a U n i v e r s i d a d
r:J
Planta oc togonal , cuadrado riguroso .
Predominio de la l i nealidad
en el orden del cuadrado y sus extensiones .
Modulo basico y cerrado .
1 9 80 ) .
7 . - R . T R E B B I DEL T . , D e s a r r o l l o
( 17)
ESPACIO
1 9 B 1 ) 1 1 0-1 1 3 .
5 . - H . RODR I G U E Z V I L L E GAS , " S i t u a c i 6 n
La primera definida
Ver plano C
VOLUMEN DE ALQUERIA
B i b l i o g r a f i c o J o s e T o r i b i o M e d i n a , S a n t ia
le
1)
Espac i o interior centrali zado , e j e central perforado , presenc i a
d e l perimetro en toda su extension que impide l a anexion d e nuevos
espac ios .
r a n t e el S i g l o X V I I I : e s t i l o " M e s t i z o , D e l
�
(2
1 9 B6 ) .
R . T R E B B I DEL T . " A r q u i t e c t u r a C h i l e n a d.".
go
Ver p l ano B
VOLUMEN UNICO PERIPTERO
l i t a n a d e C i e n c i a s d e l a E d u c a c i o n , S a n ::
t i ag o
(20)
U n solo espacio rotundo , estanco . Entrada j erarquizada por un e j e
de simetria .
Simetria y equi l ibrio otorgados por el e j e central .
ESPACIO
2 ) VOLUMEN
B
Ver plano A
VOLUMEN UNICO
1 73 2 .
2 . - M . G O L DF I N G E R , A n t e s d e l a A r q u i t e c t.".
( 16 )
2 ) VOLUMEN
I (8)
Planta dinamica con un centro ortogonal que define e l giro . L a ca
p i l l a y los volumenes que conforman el nodo , permiten un patio in
terior .
Volumen compuesto y tensional en diagonal .
1 9 . - IBID. Dibujo del Pueblo d e Guarcar gue. 1 1 1 .
2 0 . - E . BINDA, "La I g l e s i a d e l a Compania
d e G r a n e r o s ; b r e v e r e s e ii a H i s t o r i c a l! i m p r e s i o n r e d u c i da ( E s c u e l a d e A r q u i t e c t u r a ,
P o n t i f i c i a U n i v e r s i d a d C at o l i c a d e C h i l e ,
Agosto 1 9 8 7 ) Plano NQ1 1 .
J
+
PLANTA EN
1 ) ESPACIO
VOLUMEN
13
Ver plano J ( 8 )
Espacio de caracter i stica l ineal ; 1 0 interior dentro de l a casa
1 0 exterior abierto fuera de e l l a , creando patios abiertos .
y
La disposic ion volumetrica formula dos espacios definidos , norte
sur , este-oeste con un encuentro en su e j e central . Volumenes adi
Circu
c i onales a las alas principal es , producen patios abiertos .
lacion del eje principial es perifer i c a .
2 1 . - GRUPO C I E N ( C e n t r o I n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r i o
d e E s t u d i o s N a c i o n a l e s ) A G E NDA E S P E C IAL .
Arquitectura Tradicional del Valle Central
d e C h i l e 1 9 80 { E d i c i o n e s L o r d C o c h r a n e
S . A . 1 9 80 ) S a n t i ag o d e C h i l e .
K
PLANTA CURVA
I
COMO OBRA INDIVIDUAL
2 2 . - H . ECO L a E s t r u c t u r a A u s e n t e . I n t r o _
d u c c i o n a l a Se m i o t i c a . ( E d i t o r i a l L u m e n
el Signo
1981 ) Seccion C . La Funcion
336-34 1 .
1 ) ESPACIO
Uno solo , rotundo , estanco .
Entrada j erarquizada que remata en el abside curvo .
2 ) VOLUMEN
total .
Volumen ai s l ado que part i c ipa de un conjunto comp l e j o
Abside c i rcular ( serni -circulo ) como remate del total del volumen
y
2 3 . - E . GUZM A N , C u r s o de E d i f i c a c i o n ( E d i
c i o n e s U n i v e r s i d a d d e C h i l e 1 9 6 8 ) P r i m e r
T o rn o Cap . IV La V i v i e n d a d e A d o b e , 204 .
Ver p l ano K I{ 8 )
y
II COMO OBRA DE CONJUNTO
Ver plano
K
II ( 18 )
1 ) ESPACIO
Un solo espac io central trazado e n c i rculo ; insinua l a " tr i l l a "
o e l "rodeo " , ambas fiestas d e trabajo c o n animal .
2 ) VOLUMEN
Circular forman do un amp l i o patio central . Al tura s ignificativa
volumen unico l i neal de vanos pequenos , ingresos e i lurninacion ( ca
bal l e r i zas )
L
PLANTA MULTIPLE ( CASA PUEBLO )
Ver plano L ( 2 1 )
1 ) ESPACIO
Conformacion de infinidad de espac ios abiertos que definen su pro
pia especial idad con los mi smos el ementos tradicional e s .
2 ) VOLUMEN
Volurnen comp l e j o . E l muro
el volumen total .
M
y
l a suma d e patios interiores conforman
PLANTA DE PUEBLO ( CONJUNTO MULTIPLE )
Ver plano M
( 19)
y
1 ) ESPACIO
Conjunto que insinua una unidad l ineal .
Se enti ende como un todo
este-oeste .
conformado a traves de dos e j e s principal es , norte-sur
2 ) VOLUMEN
Conjunto de volurnenes de carac ter i s ticas simi lares a los anterio
res mencionados .
Co
reunion en angulo de
Se caracterizan por su angulacion
cerrados .
volumenes que forman espacios abiertos
rredores
y
y
y 90°;
CONCLUSIONES
Humberto Eco sostiene en su " Introduc c ion a l a Semiotica" ( 22 ) "que el obj eto
arqui tectonico puede demostrar la funcion 0 connotar determinada ideologia de
El obj e to de uso es , desde el punta de vista comunicativo , el sig
la func ion .
convencionalmente que es su " fun
ni ficante del s i gn i fi cado , denotando exacta
cion" , t e l obj e to arquitectonico denota una funcion ) .
y
La casa patronal que hablamos , reconoce en si misma un contexto de signos refe
ribles a un codigo conocido con 1 0 cual e l l a puede representar s in incomodar
func ional .
o innovar un habitat agradab l e
y
Podriarnos anadir que la forma arqui tectonica puede tamb ien connotar otras co
que luego
sas , en el caso de l a cas a patronal , connota l a funcion "habitar"
con el tiempo connoto ademas : "Fami l i a " , "Nuc l eo comuni tar i o " , "Nuc leo de tra
baj o " , " s eguridad" , "comunidad agr i cola" , "centro de la vida fami l i ar " , "nucleo
Siendo que la casa denota "ut i l i tas " a los fines de
de autosustento " , etc .
de importanc i a que la valoracion de
la vida asoc i ativa , no es menos ci erto
fam i l iaridad unidos a los valores simboli
connotac ion , que imp l i c a intimidad
por 1 0 tanto espaciales , son de notab l e importanc i a .
existenc iales
cos
y
y
y
y
y
D e este modo l a casa camp es ina tradicional , que evidencia estas connotaciones
simbo l i cas , se cons ideran func ional e s no solamente en sentido metafor ico , sino
porque tamb ien comunican una util idad social que no se identifica inmedi atamen
te con la " funcion" en sentido estri c to .
Cabe senalar final mente que en los casos arriba analizados , encontramos bases
hasta insospe
conceptuales ricas en soluciones diversi ficadas
espaci ales
arquitecto
chadas que adquiriran s i empre una especial importanc ia h i s torica
nicas dado el resul tado de una tradicion vigente .
y
y y
14
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
CLAY-LUMP
In England adobe buildings are
found only in East Ang lia and
were introduced around 1 8 00.
The di stribution of the
buildings and the possible
geological influence are
i l lustrated and the processes of
manufacture and construction are
outlined.
The range of building
types and the properties of the
material are described as well as
the present trends in
conservation.
Dirk Bouwens F .R . I . C . S .
paperhouse
west Harli ng
Norfolk
NRl6 2 SF
Uni ted Kingdan
EYID
K
RDS
Earthen archi tecture, adobe,
strength, conservation.
THE ENGLISH
ADOB
E
Introduction
The topography of the British I sles is remarkably varied.
Changes occur every
70
and in many places more frequently.
The vernacular archi tecture changes
in style and construction with the landscap�
km
There are clay buildings in several regions.
These are of monol ithic
construction formed either by placing a mixture of clay and straw on the wall
and paring the face level after the mixture has partly dried, or by placing the
mixture between boards.
The former Iijethod is known as ' cob' or ' wi chert' and
Adobe mud-brick construction i s
the latter ' shuttered or puddled' clay. l l l
confi ned t o the region of East Ang l i a i n parts
the counties of Norfolk,
Suffolk, cambridgeshire, Essex and Hertfordshirel 2 ] where it is loosely related
to the superficial glacial depos its of Cha
boulder clays ( see F ig.l ) . These
t�¥
are up to 60 m thick over chalk sub-strata.
These clays vary in composition
fran chalk mud with pieces of chalk mixed in to clay w i th pieces of chalk
varying in s i ze fran 1 mm diameter to over 2 5 mm diameter to clay containing a
high proportion of sand with l i ttle c
. Canmonly the clay content varies
�Jf
around 1 5 percent of the total volume.
sui table clays for making adobe
occur elsewhere; why clay-lump, as this type of adobe is called locally,
should be confined to one region is not known.
o£
km
The main area where clay-lump buildings occur measures approximately 60
square and straddles the Norfolk Suffolk border.
Further west is another area
about 45 x 1 5
around the city of cambridge.
This area extends east i nto
Much work has
Essex.
Further south are other areas in Essex (see Fig 2 ) .
still to be done in preparing the distribution map which is based on the
writer's actual s ightings and reports from several sources.
The dens i ty of
clay-lump buildings i s highest in the centre of the main area, as is
i l lustrated by the maps of the vil lage of East Harling (see F ig 3) and the
small town of Attleborough ( see F ig 4 ) .
km
Fig 1
The areas of chalky boulder clay.
clay-lump was used i n the construction o f every type o f building, fran
boundary walls and the smallest outbui ldings to small houses and at Bridgham
In between are
Hall Farm, (Ordnance survey TL9 57 2 68) a large farmhous�
thousands of small- and medium-si zed houses built detached, in pairs and i n
terrace�
All types of agricultural buildings were built of clay-lump, and
farmers are still using barns 50 m long by 7 m wide.
Shops and publ ic houses
built of clay lump are canmon.
Clay-lump was used for schools l i ke the one at
Thompson (O.S.
9 2 3 966) and for vi carages and parsonages such as at Hepworth
(O.S. 983 7 52 ) .
There were two tower windm i l ls known to have been built of
clay.
At Carleton Rode (OS TM 099 945) the solid clay m i l l was 1 5
high and
TL
m
NORFOLK
Jiw.""
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
HERTFDRDSHIRE
La ""
Fig 2
The general areas where clay-lump buildings are foun�
Fig 3
East Harl ing (population 2 0 7 1 ) clay-lump houses shown shaded.
�
n[ 1
had f V floors.
It col lapsed in 1 9 5 8 , one hundred years after i t was
bu i l t. 5
The clay-lump wincim i l l at Attleborough (O.S. TM 053 949) col lapsed
6
in 1 9 1 1 .
Hingham waterrn i l l (O.S. TG 033 088) still stands and has been
converted to a dwel ling.
The sterun traction engine shed at East Harling
(O.S. TM 9 9 5 8 8 2 ) was 3 0 m long 7 . 5 m w i d e and had wa l l s 3 0 0 mm t h i ck and 4 . 8
high and was demolished in 1989.
m
I n the centre of the main region of clay-lump construction, i t i s rare to
find any buildings built between 1 8 50 and 1 9 0 0 which are not of clay-lump.
Indeed for about 1 00 years clay-lump was the major wal ling material in this
region a
as sti l l being used in the 1 9 2 0s for public housing in a number of
vil lages.
clay-lump lost its supremacy to cheap mass-produced materials
which were more durable and became more avai lable as the motor lorry replaced
horse-drawn transpor�
ne7
r
Beginnings
rB
l
John
cann has convincingly argued that clay-lump was introduced j ust before
1 8 0 0.
He po ints out that whereas there are examples of buildings in other
clay construction techniques from all periods, no clay-lump buildings before
the early nineteenth century have been found.
He also cites numerous writers
who, in the first half of the nineteenth century, wrote in a way suggesting
that clay-lump was an i nnovation.
John McCann lists the reasons for the
adoption of clay lump and expands on than :
" 1 . The cottage movement stimulated an interest i n
low-cost construction combined with presentable
appearance .
2 . The rising price o f timber provided a n incentive
to use alternative materials.
�METRES
100 -0
100
72 30) clay-lump houses shown shaded.
Adobe 90
16
3. The tax on fired bricks introduced in 1 784
provided an incentive to seek tax-free
materials.
4 . Technical li terature on building with unfired
earth was available in 1 79 0 and in wide
circulation by 1 79 7 .
5 . Foreign and classical influences .
6 . Agricultural improvements o f the time requi red
many new buildings in an area where other
materials we
expensive owing to poor transport
f9i
faci l i ti es . ..
Manufacture
The clay was dug as near to the building as practical.
The clay for the
counci l houses at Garboldis
and Attleborough was dug from what becrune the
�� ]
back gardens of the houses.
The clay for the council houses at East
Harling was quarried a short way from the site j ust over the brow of a sl ight
Ins ea of following the road the tumbrils took the direct route across
ris�
f1 1
The clay was often dug i n winter to allow the frost to break
the fields.
it up, to let water get i nto it and to take advantage of cheaper labour.
i
l
Fig 5
a. Clay-lump and mould
b.
Keyed cl ay- lump and mould
Th
ay was laid on a bed of chaff or straw to a depth of about
r 1�
2 2 5 mm.
It was covered wi th straw and ' trodden' by a horse, pony or
donkey until the clay and straw were thoroughly mixed.
Ray Shinfield who was
a bui lding worker until he retired seven years ago was sometimes employed to
make a few clay-lumps for repair work by R Hogg and Sons, a firm of builders,
of coney weston and to do this an octagonal banker of scaffold boards was
fi lled with clay and straw and the horse was led by a man outside the banker
while another man threw water on to the mixture.
e clay was ready i f it did
[l
not fall through the tines of a fork when l i fted.
Ir
The straw mixed wi th the clay was usually barley straw, although
lumps made said dried
Mr Claude H Thompson who was over 9 0 and had seen C
t 1Y.J
other fibrous
spear grass (Agropyron repens) was considered best.
materials are also found but these probably got there by accident.
The more
chalk in the clay the less straw was used and the more sand present the more
straw was used.
Barley straw was cheap because the beard from the ears made
it unsuitable for beddi ng animals.
Harriet spr igg, who dur ing the 1 9 70s
largely rebui l t her clay- lump house and made the lumps that she needed, noted
that the larger the proportion of straw in clay-lump the better it lasted when
exposed to the weather.
The straw may give some tensile strength to the clay
lumps when they are hand led.
�
Moulding the clay was done close to the the treading bed.
The moulds
were bottomless wooden boxes with handles at both ends and could be made
wi thout nails (see Fig Sa) .
Sane moulds were reinforced with i ron straps
fixed to the edges.
I f a key were required on the blocks, battens of wood
were fixed inside the mould ( see Fig
The mould was placed on the ground,
and the clay was placed inside the box, and packed into the corners with a
shovel or fork, and scraped level wi th the mould which was immediately removed.
Ray Shinfield dusted the inside of the mould with sand to prevent the clay
sticking.
Harriet Sprigg floated the moulds in water and used them
alternately.
The mould to be fil led was placed close to the last clay-lump
made.
When the moulding was finished and the lumps had dried sufficiently
they were turned on to their sides to prevent the blocks from distorting as the
upper side dried.
The clay-lumps would be turned again on to their ends and
as soon as they were dry enough to be handled the blocks were stacked in open
formation under cover to dry canpl etely.
Harriet sprigg noticed that the
lumps were most vulnerable from rain for about two days after they had been
made.
After that moderate falls of rain had no harmful effec�
Sb).
Fig 6
a. Tarred clay-lump wal l
plastered one side ( section)
b.
Clay-lump wall rendered
externally, plastered
i nternally (section)
c.
Clay-lump wall with added
brick facing (section)
d.
Clay-lump wall built with
brick facing ( section)
e.
1 50 mm thick clay-lump
i nternal wall ( section)
f.
HoOp iron tie (sketch view )
Construction
Al l external walls have a pli nth between 1 50 mm and 1 2 00 mm high (See F ig 6 ) .
The plinths are of brickwork o r f l i n t rubble and sometimes have a split flint
facing.
The purpose of the pl i nth i s to check rising damp, however, its
height seems to have been purely a matter of choice.
The thickness of the
pli nth was equal to the wall or i f there was a course of splay bricks at the
top about 50 mm thicker.
Load-bearing internal walls sometimes have no
pli nths.
Partitions of blocks laid on edge have pli nths of brick on edge tied
together with cut bricks (see Fig 6e).
The mortar in which the clay-lumps were laid was usually canposed of the
same clay as the lumps, but with the stones removed.
Mortar joints were
between 12 mm to 2 0 mm thick.
Hydrated l ime (Ca (OH) ) was sanetimes added to
2
the cl ay.
Edward Skipper used a l ime mortar for the coun i l houses at
T
Garboldisham because the blocks were not canpletely dried. 1 5]
The blocks
must be dry i f clay mortar is used so as to absorb the moisture from the clay
and prevent i t fran being squeezed ou�
openings were formed as work progressed, with door frames placed in
position against which to build the lumps.
Lintels were of wood and were
between 300 mm and 600 mm longer than the width of the opening.
In sane
houses it is clear that the windows were put in after the walls were complete,
possibly to take i nto account any shrinkage in the clay.
Floor joists were built into the wall and bore directly on the clay-lump
or on a timber plate or on a single brick.
The wall plate at the top of the
wall on which the roof framing bears is usually substantial - 1 50 x 10 0 mm is a
common section.
Hearths on the ground floor are always of brickwork.
On upper floors the
openings are often of clay where a cast iron fi replace was fitted.
Brick
flues were always lined with clay because the condensates from the flue gasses
attack mortar, and some flues were entirely of clay-lump.
Above roof level ,
chimneys were always o f brick.
Clay-llli�p requires a cowering to protect it from the weather.
Exposed
clay-lumps gradually disintegrate at each fros�
Water alone has little
effect as the clay will absorb considerable amounts of water without damage,
provided it can dry out.
The most common surface treatment was tar, either
coal tar (a by-product of gas and coke ovens) or hot bi tumen.
Both will craze
as the oil in them evaporates, and these cracks allow moisture to escape.
Although it is not used often on houses, tar is common on agricultural
buildings and out-buildings and can b
nted or rendered if sand is stuck to
i t while it is still wet ( see F ig 6a) .
Renders were originally made of
the same clay as the clay-lump, with short straw and other fibres added.
The
clay is put on in two 9 mm thick layers inside and thicker externally.
The
first coat is scratched to fonn a key for the second coat and lime putty was
used as a finishing coat inside and sometimes outsid�
Corners and reveals
sometimes have wood beads.
L ime-tallow paint provides a durable water
resistant finish which was applied directly to the lumps and over sanded tar
as well as to renders. Nowadays cement renders laid on wire mesh fixed to the
walls are used with modern waterproof paints instead of clay renders and
l imewash.
Cf
1f
Many clay-lump buildings are faced with brickwork which was added to
existing clay-lump houses over the original render (see Fig 6c).
Hoop-iron
ties fixed with 10 0 mm nails secured the brickwork to the clay-lump.
The ties
were bent over horizontal hoop-iron bands which were built into joints in the
brickwork (see F ig 6f) .
Some houses were designed to be faced with brick
immediately and have the facing brickwork bonded to the plinth (see Fig 6d).
On the public housing in Attieborough (O.S. TM 038 9 47) the swan-necks of the
cast-iron rainwater pipes are built into the brickwork which shows that the
roof and gutters must have been completed before the brickwork facing was
finished.
Fl int rubble with brick dressings was also used as facings.
Research is hampered by the apparent similarity of such walls to walls
constructed of solid flint work.
A small number of clay-llli�p buildings still have roofs of thatch.
Thatch
was often replaced with fired clay pantiles which together with natural stone
slates are the most common roof cowering.
Roofs on clay-lump buildings
usually proj ect over the walls and, because clay-lump gables are difficult to
make stable, are often of low pitch or of hipped construction.
properties
Clay-lumps were Inade in a number of sizes:
A . 6 5 x 9 0 x 2 1 5 mm
Similar to unburnt bricks except that the chalk in the clay would prevent
its being fired.
Used on chimney stacks and as backi ng bricks to faci ng brickwork.
B . 1 4 0 x 1 4 0 x 2 9 5 mm
Found in a chimney stack.
C. 1 4 0 x 140 x 440 mm
Used to make internal load-bearing partitions at the public housing at
Garboldisham and by Harriet Sprigg who could not l i ft larger blocks.
D.
140 x 2 1 5 x 440 mm
The universal block used to make walls 2 1 5, 1 4 0 and 440 mm thick.
E . 1 4 0 x 2 9 5 x 440 rom
Used to make walls 1 4 0 , 2 9 5 and 440 mm thick.
F . 21 5 x 2 1 5 x 440 mm
[
]
Although this size has often been reported 1 7
one .
p
The author has never seen
ne clay-lump measuring 1 4 0 x 2 1 5 x 440 mm weighs about 25 kg or 1 576
kg/m .
That clay-llli�p can be used on edge or on bed suggests that there is no
compression in the manufacture of the block.
Adobe 90
The Department of Scientific and I ndustrial Research, Building Research
Board recommends "a a mum compressive strength of 1 .08 - 1 . 3 0 N/mm 2 (" 1 0 to
r1 8
Tests carried out a t Norwich city Col lege o f
1 2 tons per sq ft")".
Further and Higher Education o n 5 October 1 9 8 7 o n four clay-lumps taken from an
internal wall resulted i n failure at an average pressure of 1 .58 N/mm 2 (14.6
tons per sq ft).
In order to obtain the samples which were tested two workmen
working from both sides of the wall wi th 1.8 kg hammers and bolsters took 6
mi nutes to fragment one clay-lump.
Nails driven i nto clay-lump l i ke those
which secure the hoop i ron ties require a pull of at least 3 0 kg to remove
than .
ft-
Lime was burnt locally
an chalk which produced a mortar with a safe
�
clay-lQmp was therefore as strong as
crushing strength of 0.5 N/mm
brickwork built with this mortar.
[xl
conservation
The cob and wi chert buildings of the southwest and the midlands are thoroughly
surveyed and protected.
The same cannot be said of clay-lump.
Its
conservation i s a sorry tale of ignorance and neglect, although this s i tuation
is being changed through the work of a small number of people by lneans of
lectures and the publi cation of articles.
In the united Ki ngdom buildings are
legally protected when included on t he list of "Buildings of Special
Archi tectural and Hi storic I nteres�, . [ £ OJ
A sma l l number of clay-lump
buildings are on the list but this is chiefly because of their architectural
i nterest; very few are l i sted soley because of their structure.
The
demoli tion of the public housing at Garboldisham in 1 9 8 7 and the traction
engine shed in East Harling before they could be l i sted has resul ted in other
clay-lump buildings being l i sted.
The authorities now seem much lnore
responsive to the protection of such buildings.
The attitude of the Inortgage companies has changed in recent years so now
clay-lump houses are regarded as good securi ty.
This has helped change the
commonly held view that clay-lump is an inferior material since public
perception is based on the few dramatic collapses which do occur.
I n every
case water had got into the clay and in several recent cases structural
alterations were being made.
portland cement based renders crack and let
water in but not out.
Similar less marked effects are caused by modern
waterproof paints.
In the case of brick faced buildings the hoop iron ties eventually rust
and fail.
The traditional repair is to replace the brick veneer.
The patent
devices for repairing similar defects in modern walls of cav i ty construction
are effective on clay-lump walls.
t out the
The society for the Preservation of Ancient BUilding
f
principles of the proper repair of clay buildings in 1 9 2 9 2
but is only now
in the process of preparing a leaflet on the subj ec�
Cambridgeshire County
Counci l has such a leaflet;
other authorities expect to follow.
The
univers ities of Bristol, York and East Anglia have all i ncluded clay-llli�p
buildings in conservation conferences.
rf
conclusion
The author's own work i n preparing the distribution map i s far from complete
and only identifies the range of clay- l ump buildings.
conservation can only
be hit or m i ss until the number and density of the buildings is known.
Nearly
all clay- lump houses are l ived in and the vast Inajority are owner occupied and
wi l l have a secure future when the public understands the di fferent
requirements by way of maintenance and repair.
Agricultural buildings have a
less certain outlook.
The success of clay-lump as a building material in what
might seem a hostile climate should encourage those concerned about the high
cost of modern wal li ng materials in terms of the energy consumed in their
manufacture and distribution.
Acknowledgements
The author's research would be impossible wi thout the ki ndness of many who let
me into their houses and provided valuable information:
Harriet Sprigg of
Bridgham , Roper Reeve of East Harling, ROY Shinfield of Barningham , R V Ramm
of Attleborough, Robert Hogg of Coney Weston, Claud Thompson of Besthorpe,
Harry Apl i ng of East Dereham.
References
1.
'Cob' in Devon 'wichert' in Buckinghamshire ' shuttered or puddled clay'
are East Anglian names and differ from 'pise de terre' which entails
rarrun ing •
2.
'Building in clay-lump in Eng land seems for some undi scoverable reason to
have been confined in the past to East Angl ia'.
Department of scientific
and Industrial Research Building Research Board, Special Report No.5,
Building in cob and pise de Terre (London:
His Majesty's stationery
O f fice, 1 9 2 2 ) 1 4 .
3.
Geological Survey map, Sheet No.161 (London:British Geological society)
4.
John and Nicola Ashurst, practical Building Conservation, English
Heritage Technical Handbook, Volume 2 (Aldershot: Gower Technical
Press, 1988), 93 .
5.
Information given on 1 1 Jan 1988 by M r R V Ramm, Cypress Road,
Attleborough who was the miller at Carleton Rode until 1944.
6.
Letter from Harry Apl ing, Swanton Grove, East Derehan dated 1 8 Jan 1988.
7.
'Watton, East Harling and Gorboldisham ( sic)'
Spe c i a l Report No.5 1 6.
8.
John McCann 'Is Clay-lump a Tradi tional Building Material?' Vernacular
Architecture No.19 (Vernacular Architecture Group 1988) 1 - 16.
9.
Ibid . , 6 .
10.
Verbal information given by tenants i n both groups of houses i n 1987.
11 .
Verbal information given by Mr Roper Reeve, The Crescent, East
Har l i ng 19 8 5.
12 .
Verbal information given by Claude H Thompson, Silver Street, Besthorpe 12
Jan 1988 who was 90 years old and had helped to make clay-lumps and had
ridden the horse round the treading bed.
13 .
Verbal information given 27 May 1987 .
14.
Claude H Thompson 1 2 Jan 1 9 8 8 .
15.
Local tradition and Building Research Board special Report No.5, 1 7.
16.
Clough WilliamS-Ellis, cottage Building in Cob, Pise, Chalk and Clay A
Renaissance (London : country L i fe 1919) , 1 08.
17.
Building Research Board Special Report No. 5 , 1 7
18 .
Ibid, 1 0
19 .
George H Blagrove, Dangerous Structures
(London B T Batsford 1892) 14
20.
Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act, 1 9 53 .
21.
Building Research Board
A Handbook for practical Men
A R powys, Repair of Ancient Buildings ( London S.P.A.B. 1 9 2 9 ) 5 8 .
20
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
INSOLITA TRADICION DE TAPIAL EN CUBA
The paper deal s with a
carbonate-soi l -based
traditional bui lding
technique frequently used
in one of the easternmost
regions of the Republic
of Cuba , its historical
evolut ion , present
s ituation , construction
mistakes most commonly
encountered and the most
rationa l solutions for
both buildings and
maintenance .
Emphas i s is
made on the economical
and environmental
benef its o f this building
technique for dif ferent
kinds of architectural
programs .
The need to
di sregard certain
sUbj ective barriers
regarding its use is also
underl ined , s ince weather
proofing solves earthen
architecture ' s most
commonly s ignaled
drawback .
Recommendations for the
extended use of this
technique within and
beyond Cuba are also
included .
Arq . Francisc o T . Casal Iglesias
Union de Arquitect os e I ngenieros de la Construcc ion
Humbolt 1 0 4 Esq . A Infanta , Vedado
ciudad de la Habana
Cuba
KEYWORDS
Internacionalmente se conocen por suelos ca l i zos los que
presentan una a lta concentracion de carbona to de calcio ( CaC03 )
en todo el perf i l .
Generalmente s e trata de sue los j ovenes
formados sobre ca l i z a s blandas y margas que han retenido un alto
por ciento del carbonato de calci o , en algunos casos como
particulas y fragmentos de rocas ca l i zas , pero principa lmente
como carbonato de calcio gredoso
blando , mas 0 menos dispers�
en la masa del sue l o .
En la zona en cuest ion , los sue los perte
necen a la era geologica del neogeno .
El " coco " es un e luvio de
ca l i z a con igual
mas del 7 0 % de carbonat·o de calcio en su
composicion. l ibre de materias organicas. color blanco
o lor
caracteristico cuando se humedece .
En la region aparece como
bolsones por debaj o de la capa vegeta l , y , en algunos casos , baj o
formaciones rocosas calizas superf icia les conocidas como "diente
de perro" por su textura muy afi lada .
compact ion ,
crystal i zation , calcium
carbonate " coco soil , "
blocks , manual press ,
earth , pise , tamped earth
Introduccion
En la region de Puerto Padre , al norte de la provincia Las Tunas ,
al este de la Repupl ica de Cuba , se construyen viviendas
economicas y otras construcciones con una insol ita tecnica
denominada loca lmente como obras de "coco "
de mampuestos .
Esta
so lucian es s imilar al tapial ( "pise de terre " ) y consiste en la
compactacion de un mater ial ca l i z o , convenientemente humedec ido ,
en forma directa en el muro con el auxi l io de guarderas de madera
o metal icas ( Fotos
y 2) .
Determinados suelos ca l i zos de la
region , conocidos como "coco" , ofrecen un buen comportamiento
constructivo , ya que sin ningun aditivo logran a lcanzar despues
de diez semanas resi stencias superiores a 2 6 Kg/ cm2 .
Este
endurecimiento se origina en la crista l i zacion del carbonato
humedo consol idado en un proceso s imi lar al de la formacion
natural de a lgunas rocas .
Una vigor os a compactacion es la
condicion basica para obtener la resistencia requerida capaz de
garantizar un buen comportamiento ante el severo regimen de
l luvias tropicales sin acudir a terminaciones como resanos y
pinturas .
Estas obras de "coco " resuelven uno de los mayores
inconvertientes para el uso de la tierra en construcciones que
radica en su l imitada resistencia ante los agentes atmosfericos .
Es este , el manido argumento que se le ha sefialado casi a nivel
ecumenico para l imitar
rechazar e l uso del mas abundate y
economico material de construcc ion :
el suelo .
0
1
0
Caracteristicas del Suelo Apto
0
0
Or igen
y
y
Evo lucion
La incorrecta denominacion de mampuesto nos ayuda a deve lar
h i lo de su origen .
Los legendarios muros de mampuestos han
e j ecutados con piedras irregulares unidas con un mortero de
y cal .
En Puerto Padre el mas notable ej emplo de su uso el
VIVI ENDA DE
VIVIENDA DE
"COCO "
"COCO " CON COLUMNI TA S
PREFABRICADA S
el
s ido
arena
es
BOHIO
MAMPU E S TO CON RESANO
21
Fuerte de la Lorna ( Fotos 3 y 4 ) construido por los espanoles e l
siglo pasado como parte d e l sistema defens ivo costero .
El mismo
fue recientemente restaur ado y ostenta la distincion de Monumento
Arqui tectonico Naciona l .
originalmente en
se emp leo el " coco"
como e l emento de union de las p iedras c a l i z a s lograndrose un
hermoso e fecto de color y textural rugosa uni formes ( Fotos 5 y
6) .
Su curiosa volumetri a exalta la fuerza continua de los muros
c i l indricos , con una expres ion muy organica , a la vez sol ida y
desenfadada , como brotada de la lorna , pues en su concepcion
genera l se emparenta mas a las vanguardias del diseno
contemporaneo , que al academicismo imperante en la epoca .
Tambien en e l casco historico del poblado abundan las
construcciones de mampuestos , aunque s i empre con las superfic ies
resanadas y pintadas .
Sin embargo el nuevo aporte constructivo
aparece en las zonas campesinas . A l I i se mod i f ico l a vivienda
t ipica conocida con su nombre indigena :
" bohio" .
Este se
construia a 10 largo de l a isla aprovechando integralmente
determinadas palmaceas , principalmente la palma rea l .
El bohio
se construia a partir de un esque leto de palos redondos ( varas )
enterrados en e l sue l o , con una cubierta muy inc l i nada de hoj as
de palma ( guano) y paredes con la cort e z a endure c ida de su tronco
( tablas de palma ) 0 la resistente prolongacion de l a hoj a que la
f i j a a l tronco ( yagua ) .
leual tecnologia apropiada desarrol laron
los constructores campes inos? Tomaban el " coco" que extra ian de
los pozos para el agua y la l etrina sanitaria y con e l l evantaban
los muros de su bohio con un espesor de unos 2 5cm , invirtiendo
las proporciones del mampuesto , es decir , aumentando e l
aglomerante y d i sminuyendo las piedras que genera lmente aparecian
mezc ladas en el sue l o .
Se introducen las guarderas de madera
para conformar los muros .
En a lgunos casos se combina con e l
esqueleto de palos redondos .
Surgen l o s primeros bohios d e
" coco " .
L a cubierta continua s i endo e l tip ico guano .
Sus
ventaj as son sus mej ores condic iones sanitarias y su adecuacion
c l imatica , pues es tan fresco en verano como e l bohio
tradiciona l , pero resulta mucho mas confortable termicamente en
e l invierno .
El " coco" tambien es u t i l i zado para consol idar los
pisos de t i erra .
iH
Defic iencias
y
Mantenimiento
Su e f i c iente res istencia a l intemperismo , como ya se ha sena lado ,
depende de la compactacion .
En e l ano 1 9 6 2 , cuando un c i c 16n
tropical de gran intensidad asolo la zona durante varios dias con
fuertes l luvias , pocos fueron los casos de colapso de estas
construcc ione s .
Sin embargo la accion combinada del agua y e l
v iento debi l it o l a s aristas de l a s ventanas y l a s esquina s ,
eros iono a lgunas secciones d e l o s muros donde dej o l a p i edra a
Este
vista y solo en muy pocos casos produj o ahuecamient o .
comportamiento reflej a sus dos puntos deb i l es ; l a fa lta de un
d iseno redondeado en las aristas y la d i f icultad en obtener una
compactacion manu a l uniforme debido a l a tecnica tan primitiva a l
uso , que n o ha introducido p isones sino u n madero corto .
Vease
eros ionada una vivienda construida hace 2 0 anos ( Foto 7 ) con
muros de 2 5 cm de " coco" sin resanar y techo de hormigon armado .
El proceso de mantenimiento ( Foto 8 ) acude a un s impl e mortero de
FUERTE DE LA
TEXTURA DEL MAMPUE S TO
LOMA
EN PUERTO PADRE
Adobe 90
22
C OMPA CTA CI ON E S DEFICIENTES
arena y cemento que se adhi ere sin d i f iculdad y recupera la forma
Lo mas importante es que en ningun caso existen fal las
perdida .
de orden estructural que puedan provocar derrumbes .
Esta es una
vivienda atipica , pues ya es practica general i z ada proteger los
muros con resanos
emplear una pintura cementosa .
0
Un Nuevo Enfogue
En los ultimos afios se ha modoficado el uso de este mater ial que
cons iste en su combinacion con otros , princ ipalmente columnas de
11 X 1 1cm producidas regiona lmente segun un catalogo naciona l .
Estas columinitas estan concebidas para un prefabricado l igero
donde se combinan con paneles de pequefia dimens ion sin refuerzo
para estructurar muros , cercas y s imilares .
El las son colocadas
en la esquinas ( Foto 1 y 2 )
en otras pos iciones e strategicas .
Las guarderas se sustentan sobre e l las manteniendo e l espesor de
1 1cm .
Una cuidadosa compactacion permite inc lusive mantenerlo a
vista .
Una variante de esta so lucion le afiade una pequefia
cantidad de cemento ( 3 a 4 % ) para aumentar su durez a .
Con este
nuevo enfoque , s i bien se superan sus defic ienc ias mayores ,
continua s iendo un procedimiento sumamente agotador para e l
hombre .
Por e j empl o , l a compactacion con pisones en l a parte
alta y f ina l del muro despues de varias horas de labor produce
una gran fatiga f i s ica que atenta contra la cal idad de l a
terminacion . Aun asi , se estan construyendo numerosas viviendas
en cooperativas y comun idades campes inas .
Y
otro enfogue muy curiosa es la combinacion aparentemente
arbitraria con muros de ladr i l los ( Fotos 9 y 1 0 ) .
siempre se
mantienen las columnitas como e l emento de trans icion y refuerzo
de las esquinas .
En e l ej emplo de la biplanta donde emplearon e l
" coco" en l o s baj os y e l ladr i l lo en l o s a ltos ; a contrapelo d e
l a logica constructiva , la so lucion es todavia mas inso l ita .
El
constructor argumenta con l a d i sponibil idad coyuntural de
materiales , ya que tanto e l " coco" como e l ladr i l l o debe
tras ladarse en camiones al lugar , y el resano f inal uni f i cara e l
conj unto .
continuar Perfeccionando
COMB INA C I ON CON LADRILLO
I
Rec i entemente se ha experimentado con la fabricacion de bloques
compactos de " coco" con muy sati s factorios resultados .
Para su
ej ecucion se emplea un modele experimenta l de prensa mecanica de
Esta comprime con doble accion y su cofre es
disefio cubano .
intercambiable
que facil ita e j ecutar piezas de formas
Se han obtenido
di ferentes tanto compactas como ahuecadas .
res istencias s i empre superiores a 30 Kg/ cm2 despues de las diez
Su mayor ventaj a radica en una maj or garanti a de
semanas .
cal idad , e l iminacion de las columnas armadas y la humani z ac ion de
traba j o a pie de obra .
Tambien puede compl etarse su uso
integral , pues la cubierta puede construirse con una boveda de
bloques convenientemente impermeabi l i z ada .
La cimentacion con
c i clopeo de " coco" ( mampuestos ) completaria el esquema
constructivo que obvia la viga de z apata y reduce el uso del
hormigon armado solo a la viga de cerramento superior .
10
ERO S ION
EXTERIOR Y REPA RA C I ON CON MORTERO
23
Actualmente se e j ecuta una vivienda experiment a l con este
proyecto .
BOVEDA
DE BLOQUES
otros Programas Arguitectonicos
Hasta ahora su uso dominante se reduce a las viviendas economicas
y a lgunos e j emplos de paradas de omnibus y pequenos loca les
comerciales .
No obstant e , por sus indudables ventaj as economicas
recomendamos extender su emp l eo a otros programas a f ines como
cabanas turist icas , pequenos mote les , locale s , soc iales y ademas
pequenos a lmacene s ,
en otras construcciones que demanda el agro :
cerca s , canteros para hidroponicos , naves d e cria y otros .
; Inconveni entes?
E l mas pel igroso inconveniente que debe enfrentar esta tecnica es
de orden subj e tivo :
es e l pre j uicio genera l i z ado que asocia las
obras de prestigio y cal idad con las tecnicas y materiales
tradicionales , y considera las construcc iones con suelo como
precarias y , por tanto , sin prest igio .
Razonamiento equivocado ,
ya que sus pos ibil idades constructivas permiten disenos de la
mej or c a l idad tan imperecederos y val idos como el logrado con
mampuestos en el Fuerte de la Lorna .
Por suerte en la region ,
esta inercia subj e tiva esta decl inando , pero e l " coco" abunda en
muchas otras regiones el pais y resulta necesaria una inte l igente
campana d ivulgativa para introducir su uso como una de las tantas
soluc iones constructivas disponibles .
Valorac ion Economica
Aventa j a a las otras tecnicas en uso por la sens ible disminucion
de los costos provocada por los inf imos consumos energeticos , la
mej ora del con fort temrico de los espacios y la pract icamente
inexistente a fectacion al medio natural .
El costo de una
vivienda de " coco" se estima que es un 4 0 % menor que una de
columnitas y paneles .
Quiere decir que con e l presupuesto de
tres v iv iendas se pueden ej ecutar c inco de mej or cal idad .
Pero
si l a obra se rea l i z a por autoesfuerzo las ventaj as son
superiores ya que el costo de materiales es reducido y si se
emplea la cubierta en boveda , la cantidad de cemento y acero es
minima .
Conc lus iones
continuar perfecc ionando las tecnicas en uso , insistiendo
principalmente en la fabricacion de bloques , las soluc iones de
cubierta y la disponibil idad de sue los aptos .
Genera l i z ar estas experiencias a otras regiones del pais que
cuenten con sue los adecuados , estableciendo una int e l igente
campana de d ivulgac ion .
Tambien puede ser pos ible que estas tecnicas sean del
interes de otros paises tropicales con los que estamos dispuestos
a co-laborar .
UNA
TECNICA
ADECUADA
AL
TROPICO Y MUY ECONOMICA
Adobe 90
24
ABSTRA
REST
1
Mario
llos
Maestria. en Restauracion de Mon
tos
Facultad de Arquitectura, Universidad de San Carlos
Ciudad Universitaria, Zona 1 2 . Guatemala City.
cr
•
Collect the knowledge
on "Earth Based" construction t
ology
that exist in Antigua
Guatemala as part of
the culture inherited
from generation to generation.
echn
b.
Use this knowledge in
ent investigations .
c.
ine and apply the
knowledge to the restauration of colonial
adobe buildings in
Antigua Guatemala.
curr
Oomb
Methodology:
a.
Consult authors of pre
vious "earth" architec
ture investigations .
b.
Contribute with personal
ience from 1 0 years
of field work in the
restauration of the
cultural heritage of
Antigua Guatemala.
c.
3•
Ceba
Obj ectives :
a.
2.
AURACION DE AOOBE EN EDIFICIOS
exper
Tests and essays on
Granulornetric
sition
and general
acteris
tics of earth materials.
charCompo
SI.lllll1arY:
char compo
Adobe used in Antigua Guatemala
Granulornetric
sition, ge
neral
acteristics of earth
material , construction systems,
adobe in colonial buildings ,
deterioration agents .
4.
Conclusions :
Intervention, preservation,
consolidation, cons
tion,
restauration, maint
ce of
adobe colonial buildings .
erva
enan
KEYWORDS
Mound of earth , adobe ,
wattle and daub , rammed
earth wal l .
1•
CXJ[£NIALES
TEMALA
DE ANTIGUA GUA
urnen
Introduccion
1 . 1 Justificacion
Arne!r
cabeperU, part
La construcci6n de tierra sin cocer en Guatemala y en general en
ica data
de e
s muy lej anas , incluso pre-hispanicas , existiendo hasta ahora ves
tigios arqueol6gicos muy
tes entre los que
senalar
icul

te
nal JuyU en Guatemala,
en Truj illo,
Taos y Las Cruces
en Nuevo Mexico y otras . Con la conquista del territorio par parte de los
espaiioles , se incorpora a la tecnica constructiva del viejo mundo, el
del
adobe y tierra sin cocer en edificios con las caracteri sticas propias de la
cultura occidental
los del
erismo y el
poca
Kami
importanChan-Chan,
armen
usa
como
Mani
Barr
aco .
umamen
rtar
Arqu zmen 10 urnen enamen
tudi enos oompo10
como
0
como 10
bahar
como
como
eben
ecua
damen de
1
0
como
ervo erno
uman
permi
corne
egui
han
exper guno
campo
como
mas
Dmeda
pano guna 10 importan ocencomo lmen
chEne, Gumarcah) tamb En endo 0
una
lbar En
cornEs par ello que consideramos s
te necesario apa
todo conocimiento
adquirido en los cursos de la maestria en Restauraci6n de Mon
tos de la
Facultad de
itectura, de la USAC, a la restauracion de un material que
habia sido utilizado tan efica
te en Guatemala, y que continna usandose, y
se seguira usando en el futuro par muchos anos ,
cual justifica pl
te
todos los esfuerzos de investigacion que se hagan para mejorar la tecnologfa
de Restauracion de ese material .
1 . 2 Delimitacion del tema
Es
ar
en
pasible desde los tipas de suelo existente en Guatemala, su
naturaleza, su
sicion granulornetrica, as !
las pruebas y ensayos
para evaluar las caracteri sticas del suelo para hacer adobe
restaurar el
ya existente.
Tambien nos propanemos describir los sistemas de construccion de tierra sin
cocer que se usan en Guatemala,
son el tapial , el adobe, y el
eque .
Los materiales utilizados para construir con estos tres sistemas as i
las
causas de deterioro de los mismos . Y
conclusiones nos propanemos indicar
cuales d
ser los procedimientos y las tecnicas ad
das para su conserva
cion y los procesos de intervencion.
1 . 3 Obj etivos
El objetivo fun
tal
esta investigaci6n de construccion y restauracibn
de AOOBE en edificios coloniales de la Antigua Guatemala, es recuperar en
pasible los conocimientos que sobre las tecnologias de tie=a existen
ac
cultural de sus pabladores , s
do a ello los conocimientos tecnol6gicos mod
s , para contar con tecnicas mej oradas que
tan hacer inter
venciones en los Bienes CUlturales Inmuebles , sobre todo ante las continuas
a
tidas teluricas , tan frecuentes en este pai s .
1 . 4 Metodologia
La metodologia a s
r esta basada en la investigacion cienti fica de varios
autores , tanto nacionales como extranj eros que
dedicado horas de su vida
a la Arquitectura de tierra . Tambien apartamos de la propia
iencia en el
ya que tenemos 1 0 ai'ios de ser restauradores de bienes cul turales en la
Antigua Guatemala y en el Interior del Pai s , en donde hemos tornado al
s
ejemplos graficos asi
datos estadisticos .
2.
Contenido:
2 . 1 Los sistemas constructivos de tierra sin cocer
sus usos :
usados en Guatemala y
2 . 1 . 1 El tapial :
Este sistema consiste en a�isonar
tierra h
dentro de un encofrado de ma
dera deslizante . Fue utilizado par los indigenas antes de la llegada de los
es
les quienes ya
conocian parque era utilizado con frecuencia en su
te
tierra de origen. El tapial fue utilizado par los indigenas principa
para muros exteriores de separacibn entre linderos, asi
para construir
murallas en al
s ciudades
tes , ya que se con
ej emplos ( Ixim
en donde se alcanzan tres metros
mas de altura .
nuestros dias
ien sigue si
utilizado el tapial para construir pa
redes de colindancia.
los alrededores de Antigua Guatemala cas! todas las
fincas y propiedades principales estuvieron cercadas par muros de tapial que
algunas veces tienen 0 . 80 metros de ancho par 2 ;00 metros de alto y con
cubierta triangular en la parte superior para protegerse del agua y que se
llama "a
d6n" .
algunos lugares de Antigua Guatemala tambien se conoce
la utilizacion del tapial como relleno constructivo en muros de piedra
25
guna
binada con ladrillos , donde al
s veces la estructura principal es
queria y los muros de los rellenos son los tapiales .
una
0 rnamp
maS
nanb En
tamb
enar empo
barr emana
egUn
cuan x xdimens
x
dos
taban
bahar
tamb
perman
10 ahar una 0 caiia.
una
0
barr
amen
2 . 1 . 2 El adobe
ar
uesto :
Es probable que este sistema sea el
popular en la Antigua Guatemala y sus
alrededores y el mas utilizado desde antes de la llegada de los conquistado
res espanoles hasta nuestros d{as . Consiste en la fabricacion de
rnamp
uestos
re mas popular es el de "adobe" en toda latin
de tierra cruda . El
ica,
aunque es de origen �abe.
el altiplano guatemalteco
ien se le conocio
con el nanbre de "chan" .
�
La fabricacion mas conocida de estos ladrillos de tierra cruda consiste en re
ll
un molde de madera con
o , luego se deSl10lda y se dej a seear durante
cierto ti
que varia de cuatro s
s a dos meses , s
las condiciones
atnosfericas .
En
to a las
iones mas utilizadas , se han encontrado en Antigua piezas
de 0 . 1 0
0 . 30
0 . 60 metros y de 0 . 1 0
0 . 20 x 0 . 40 metros . Su uso mas fre
cuente es el de levantado de paredes de 2 . 50 a 3 . 00 metros de altura y se han
dado casos de construcci6n de
niveles .
Es de hacer notar que hasta hace algunos 1 0 aI'ios , el 75% de las viviendas en
Antigua Guatemala y sus alrededores es
construidas con
rnampo
steria de
adobe ( 1 0 ) .
2 . 1 . 3 El
eque:
13-
El nanbre de este sistema, muy conocido en Guatemala,
ien es de origen
rabe y se popularizo mucho en la vivienda popular en las zonas de clima c6.lido
debido a su fragilidad, ya que el techo
ece soportado por otra estructura .
En el �ea de Antigua Guatemala este sistema es utilizado con frecuencia para
tabiques interiores de
construcci6n, ya que la estructura principal es por
Existen dos variantes muy conocidas
general un marco de madera
de
del b
eque:
Casa construida con el sistema de
B
, Chiqu
a de la Sierra,
Guat
a.
AHAREQUE
emal imul
1 . El sistema de relleno de
estructura independiente de madera reforzada
con alambres
cinchos de cuero, a la que solo se agrega el
o para fo
el par
toj y
rmar
2 . El sistema de
estructura de madera ( piezas de 2 " x 3" ) dentro de la
cual se levanta con adobes puestos de canto ( 1 1 ) .
una
2 . 2 Usos del adobe en edificios coloniales de Antigua Guatemala :
2 . 2 . 1 El tapial fue muy usado en los edificios coloniales en dos formas :
En 0
A.
muros de colindancia para separar propiedades en "muros de colindancia" ,
"linderos"
"paredes
aneras"
se les conoce popul
te.
medi
AHAREQUE
armen
0
El sistema constructivo es el de apoyarlos en un cimiento de piedra,
un sobre
cimiento y luego empleando moldes
formaletas rellenandolas con tierra ap� s
nada hasta
altura aproximada de 3 varas castellanas ( 0 . 84 ) equivalente
unos 2 . 50 mts • •
una
Casa de B
, Chiquimula de
la Sierra, Guatemala.
COlOC)
0
lmen
a 0-
Actua
te se pueden ver todavia por toda la ciudad de Antigua Guatemala no
solo en propiedades privadas , sino en los conventos y monasterios
por e
j emplo en la Recoleecion .
como
0enan tamb como emen
ande rnampaban 0 COlOC)
0 tambcomo
B . Fue utilizada
ien
el
to de relleno en las grandes estructuras
de paredes ,
entre los marcos estructurales , fo
do un esqueleto de
s
ter!a y rell
do con tierra apisonada, tal es el caso de la mayor parte de
los edificios religiosos de la Antigua Guatemala. Con
se entre ellos la
Recoleecion que tiene muros de 1 7 varas castellanas de altura
1 5 mts . ) . Otro
ej emplo muy a la vista es el de el convento del siglo
de
Francisco El
. Por
Gr
dono y falta de mantenimiento qu
al desnudo dichos tapiales .
rman
tando
(
±
XVI
San
edan
rnampo
2 . 3 . 2 Los
uestos
adobes
se les conoce en Guatemala fueron utilizados
mas que todo en la construccion de muros de coli
cia y en muros de carga
pero en viviendas de tipo popular y tambien en la arquiteetura v erna
cula.
ndan
En muchas ocasiones'
ien se utilizO en la construccion de algunos edificios
religiosos
en casas de 2 niveles pero se popularize mucho este sistema sobre
todo en el altiplano;
un ejemplo podemos citar la iglesia del c
terio
de Chichicast
go dedicada al padre ROSSBACH .
emen
enan
2 . 2 . 3 El bahareque , mas que todo fue utilizado en la arquiteetura popular y
v
cula para construir muros divisorios entre ambientes
bien en s
s
niveles para "aligerar" la carga en el entrepiso. - Tambien podemos deeir que se
ext
e su uso en el altiplano aunque en el oriente y en el norte ( Depto . de
Chiquimula
el peten) se utilizo
muros de exteriores de las viviendas a
igual manera que los muros divisorios
de tabicacion ( ver fotos ) .
ernaendi
0
0
0
como
egundo
Adobe 90
2 . 2 . 4 La Recoleccien de Antigua Guatemala :
Se utilize
relleno en los esqueletos estructurales, aunque por el buen
estado de cons
ci6n de los repel los es dificil distinguirlo, en los muros
del convento
de la iglesia, pero su uso mas extendido fue en los muros peri
metrales de la propiedad recoleta, ya que por azolvamientos continuos del rio
Magdales, el terreno se Ie ha visto constant
te inundado y los muros han
sufrido mu
alteraciones causadas por las h umeda
des y cuyo efecto ha sido la
caida de los repellos afec
le direc
te a los tapiales que se
visto
afectados por todo tipo de agentes de deterioro.
comoerva
0
chas
emen
tamen
tando
2 . 3 . 5 Agentes de deterioro:
-HUMEDAD HUMANOSVERULEN IAS
Proce
erna
PRESCOO
* COO
MANTENIMIENID
0 AGUA - POL
- MACROFLORA -
3.
emal
OOES EX::ro
- ESFOLIACl
- INS
S - MICROORGANISr-DS
Oonclusiones :
3.1
La utilizacion de tapiales en la
construccion colonial , Convento
Franciscano del Siglo XvI , Antigua ,
Guat
a.
C
han
sos de intervencio'n :
De acuerdo a las normas int
en tres grupos principales :
*
ERVAClOO
cionales vigentes subdiviremos las intervenciones
SOLIDACIOO
SERVAClOO
*
*
thtimo dar trunen
ecna
La primera conclusion es detectar los deterioros, estudiando sus causas y dando
un diagnostico de que esta sucediendo con el muro y por
su dic
de
intervenirlo, de donde tenemos :
como
3 . 1 . 1 Preservacion:
nmed0 tamen rtan
eberomunegunda
imer
0
Es de suma impo
cia las labores de preservacion de un edificio detectando
i
ia
te cualquier alteracion
deterioro y encargar al t
co ad

do
especializado para iniciar
intervencion.
La s
d
c
una
una
ecua
conclusion es que
vez detectada y cortada la causa de deterioro,
� hacerse la intervencien adecuada para cada caso, mencio
s los mas
es :
a . - Repellos
namo
b . - Muros sin albardo'n
a) Repellos :
1 . 1.0 pr
o es establecer la proporcion del repel.lo original , es decir con
que proporciones fue fabricado.
Tambien en l a Construccion de la
Recoleccion , as! carro en muchas
otras , muros de
de l7 vrs . de
alto, con Tapial .
rras
2 . Se retira todo el material ( repello) en mal estado
0
lmen
Se
guna
lbar
guna
-ALBAROON
BALDOSA LAD LLO
Cuando
tamo
no
tampoco penni
3 . Se limpian con brocha
y toda la zona que va
0
desprendido .
cepillo de fibra natural las superficies expuestas
a entrar en contacto con el nuevo repello.
4. Se inicia la colocacion del nuevo repello colocando
ecomi
guar
10 10
capa muy liquida
que puede aplicarse con brocha carro si se tratara de pintura, ( se r
en
da hacer esto principa
te en tapiales ) .
5.
van agmgando con cuchara las subsiguientes capas
con el grosor del repello existente.
6 . Se recanienda dej ar al
b)
una
Muros sin a
diferencia de textura entro
dando similitud
nuevo y
antiguo.
dOn:
1 . Establecer en que condiciones se encuentran las �ltimas hiladas de adobe,
( si es tapial y existe al
grieta, ver consolidaci6n) .
2 . Si las hiladas se encuentran en mal estado, reintegrar con material fabri
cado en condiciones simi lares al existente y construirle cubi
que pue
de ser :
- DE TEJA
- DE
0
erta
RI
3 . 1 . 2 Oonsolidacion:
impo
0 como nouna
canoo
un muro no presenta deterioros
rtantes
al contrario, que la ruina
sea irreversible, es
s ante casos en que la tarea a realizar es
co
lidacion, esto quiere decir que dej ar
las casas "
es�"
innovar,
arreglar , pero
tir destrucciones, es muy
usar estas tE�c
nicas en edificios que estlm restaurando.
emos
La tercera conclusion es que la consolidacion es posible efectuarla por
nso
medi
o
de sistemas mecaru.cos y quimicos ; los sistemas
cos seran todo el aparato
co necesario para tener al alcance el obj eto a restaurar, por ejemplo
mecaru.
mecahi
andami
Labo
os , entrarnados , puntales , etc .
Los sistemas qu!micos pueden ser :
a.
b.
c.
d.
Productos industrializados
SintE�ticos
de
ratorio
Caseros ( substancias naturales
ccm::>
: vegetales y
anima
a. Los productos industrializados :
les )
de
han
1 . Las resinas pollvin!licas utilizadas desde hace ya mas
20 anos en la con
solidacion de los pueblos indios del sur de E.E.U.U. pero que no
muy
buenos resultados .
taru
2 . Consolidantes Poliure
dib Euro
cos , solubles en petroleo se
utilizado en
pa y Asia Menor, pero aUn no se ha tenido un resultado 1 00% eficiente ( 1 2 ) .
b. Los productos sinteticos :
tami
CARB Y AN'ID Se ecani bomba, ( 10
ccm::>
de CROM
1 . En Mesopo
a se ha utilizado mucho en la decada de los 80 el Silicato de
etilo, que penetra por capas sucesivas y va polimerizando. Es s
te caro y
se aplica en forma de fumigaciones , con
producen las firmas UNION
IDE
MONS
).
r
enda tener cuidado con su uso porque altera el
color de la pintura, y hay que tener mucho cuidado en presencia de pintura
mural ( 1 2 ) .
umamen
c. De laboratorio:
1 . El profesor Gia
Chiari del IC
( 1 3 ) en investigaciones realizadas en
el Peru llego a la conclusion
que los adobes fabricados con caldos en vez de
agua dieron ccmo resultado piezas resistentes al agua.
d. Caseros
impo
daban
MIEL,emen LEXlfE ARR
Es muy
rtante volver la vista atras y recapacitar sobre el uso que
en
la colonia a ciertos elementos naturales que contienen substancias ligantes de
bido al contenido de savias y almidones , por ej emplo:
.-/
ClITlois BANANA, o:xn, MBAgunaimpermeab
Construccj on de dos niveles en el
sistema de B
eque , Santo T
Chichicastenango .
ahar
DE NOPAL 0 CACl'US ,
En muchos casos al
qu!micos ligantes ,
MAGUEY,
de
n6mide
emen omogtamo
annen 10
LINO, PAPA,
Y
OZ .
s de estas substancias producen por c
taci6n procesos
i lizantes , repelentes
insectos , etc . ( 1 4 ) •
R
dacion: Dependiendo del estudio
cada caso en especial y del material
que se trate, asi
ccm::>
del aspecto eco
co, se debe el�ir el producto ade
cuado para cada intervencion, dado a que en la restauracion no se pueden
recetas de cocina.
ecomen
CUando
0
ebemo
dar
0
haya que reponer partes caidas (Anastilosis)
de
terioradas,
de integrar nuevos el
tos , es
s ante
restauracion
de donde d
s de respetar los principios de h
eneidad y continuidad ( 1 5 ) .
3 . 1 . 3 Restauracion :
una
te las arquitecturas de tierra
umed
ades en partes bajas : Particul
son atacadas por el agua y las humedades por
que tendrenos problemas
ccm::>
los siguientes :
3.1 .3.1 H
guna egmen
imper
gunaexperimen
una10
_ Malas condiciones HidrOfugas : Puede ser que no exista nin
capa aisladora
o solera de h umed
ad por
que pueden hacerse cortes horizontales por s
tos
a manera de integrar
nueva solera hidrofuga, que puede estar echa a base de
materiales eficaces para el aislamiento del agua, ( por ejemplo adobes

ilizados ) • En tapiales tener el cuidado de hacer el corte coincidiendo con
las capas de fabricaciOn . Tambie'n pueden usarse al
s tEknicas
ccm::>
las men
cionadas en el inciso anterior ( substancias qu!micas y sintE�ticas ) pero tener
mucho cuidado porque ccmo ya se dijo estan en fase
tal y son demasia
do onerosos .
meab
Construccion de adobe , ccmo
arquitectura vernacula en una
poblacjon del Altiplano , San
Xecul , Totonicapan .
Andres
_ H umeda
des Interiores : Por la cubierta;
do son provocadas por filtracio
nes en la cubierta,
pr
o es detener esta causa reparando el techo y lue
go intervenir el muro haci
las actividades que sean necesarias dependiendo
del criterio del arquitecto restaurador.
10 imerendo
una
unda de
mamp
0
cuan
_ Fisuras y Grietas : a) Si es
fisura probablemente desapar
a al detec
tar la causa, pero muchas de ellas siempre subsisten aunque pueden ser rellena
das con un llOrtero de arcilla similar al utilizado origina
t e. b) Si es
grieta mas prof
y atraviesa
lade a lade la pared se recanienda qui
tar los
uestos que sean necesarios y reintegrarlos nuev
te pero colo
olos en la posicion de punta y soga si fuera posible. c ) Si es un tapial,
puede r
se con
uestos de adobe si las
iones
ten y si
no, co
necesario y reintegrar con material similar en proporciones al
material original .
cam. rtaremendarmamp10
una
ecer
lmenamen
dimens 10 permi
d) Perforaciones de insectos y erosiones :
*
Si es en
mampo
steria
aparejos , retirar piezas destruidas y reintegrar nue-
Adobe 90
ando
empe
rtar
0
dobe
de
mamp
amen
enimi 10 enimi
comi
Racer bardo cuando tar
erno
Fumi
Notas deandr:referencia:
impo
erna
y
AS'lMFION, JAMES AS'lM tandar
NBS
ernen CART INFO
Ceba
Labo
Ceba
10.10.
tami
vas manufacturadas en condiciones similares a originales .
de abajo hacia
z
el espesor que sea necesario
Si es en tapial co
bien, si es posible, colar y api
a
uestos
y reintegrar con
te con material similar al original .
nuev
sa iba
*
arr
nar
ento: El mant
3 . 1 . 4 Mant
que se re
se deteriore por
ento es necesario para evitar que el edificio
enda mantener atencion entre otros a :
a ) Encalar periodicamente los muros .
se notan h
drenas en los muros
b)
c ) Cuidar los al
nes de los muros para evi
des .
umeda
entrada de h
d) Revisar los techos sabre todo antes de cada invi
j as rotas en los tejados .
des .
umeda
para ver si no hay te
gar contra insectos y plagas .
e)
1 . Alej
cional
sio Int
o Alva Balderrama; Universidad cat6lica del Pero, S
curso taller sabre conservacion del Adobe, Lima 1 983 .
1 979 Annual Book of
2.
S

s , part 1 9 SOIL, pp. 1 87 .
Technical Note
R: Preservation of Historic Structures,
,
3 . CLI
934, Washington D.C. National Bureau Standards 1 977, pp. 4 .
4 . ID. Ibid pp. 4 .
5.
RMA
, Supl
A
to
llos Mario, Construccion de Tierra en Anti gua
TIVA, Consejo Nacional para la Proteccidn de La Antigua Guatemala, enero/
febrero 1 98 5 , pp. 5 .
6 . Id. Ibid . pp. 5 .
7.
ratorio de materiales Fac . de Ingenieria, USAC, 1 984 .
8 . Alej andro Alva Balderrama : Notas para la manufactura del bl ogu
e de adobe
a la restauraci6n de arquitectura de tierra, Lima, 1 983 .
par
9.
llos Mario: Earth based construction in Anti gua
Guatemala, CIB/86
Shelter for the homeless in Developing Countries, Vol 4, Washington D.C.
Sept 1 986, pp. 1 221 - 1 228.
10.
Ibid. pp. 1 22 3 .
11.
Ibid. pp. 1 22 4 .
1 2 . Torraca, Giorgio y otros : Report and Mubrick preserva4;ion in Mesopo
No. VII , Universitc1 di To rino Giappachelli, edit Totino 1 972 .
a
: caracterization of adobe as building material, preserva
1 3 . Chiari , Gia
tion techniques, ICCRavI, Lima, Peru 1 983 .
caro
TuClllllful, de
1 4 . Vinuales , Graciela Marfa: Restauracion de Arqui tectura de Tierra, Insti
Historia de la Arquitectura del Ur
tuto Argentino de Investigaciones
Argentina 1 984 .
baniSIID. Universidad de
1 5 . carta de Venecia, 1 964 .
29
ABSTRACT
The use of earth , as e ither
rammed earth ( p i se de
terre) or sun-baked bricks
( adobe), i s characteristic
o f the Himalaya/Karakoram
range and central Asia .
Earth is combined with
timber and stone as the
maj or construction material
used i n this area .
Examples from
archaeological excavations
dating from 7 0 0 0 B . C .
demonstrate the importance
of this construction
technol ogy .
Methods o f
adobe and pise
construction are described
and comments made on the
variations in app l i cation
of techniques and the ir
geographical d istribution .
A mul t i-discipl inary
approach involving
archaeol ogist s ,
h istorians , architects and
craftsmen w i l l help
iden t i fy conservation
methods for earthen
structures and enable the
dec i s ion makers to
incorporate these methods
and appropriate technical
information into new
construction as wel l as the
preservation of h istoric
monuments and s ites .
KEYWORDS
Adobe ; Archaeol ogy ; Central
Asia ; H imalaya ; Karakorum ;
pise de Terre ; Tibet .
TRA
EARTHE FUTURE KARAK RAM
EARTH USED FOR BUILDING IN
CEN
L ASIA - RECENT RES
HIMALAYAS , THE
CH AND
TRENDS
O
, AND
Anne Chayet , Cornei l l e Jest* and John Sanday
2 3 Quai Ie Gal l o
Boulogne 8 2 1 0 0
FRANCE
Introduction
The use of earth for construct ion either i n pise de terre
( rammed earth) or adobe ( sun-baked) bricks is common throughout
Central Asia , especially in the provinces of West China ,
Xinj iang , Quinghai , Gansu , S ichuan , Xizang ( the autonomous reqion
of T ibet) and in the highest regions of the Himalaya Karakoram
range , located 7 0 to 1 1 0 degrees east l ongitude and 2 5 to 4 5
degrees north latitude ( 1 ) ( see fig . 1 ) .
The absence of other suitable building materia l s has caused
man to use earth as a means for construction over a period of
Archaeological excavations have shown structures
many centuries .
in rammed earth dating from as early as 7 0 0 0 BC ( 2 ) .
The latest information concerning adobe technol ogy can best
be demonstrated by using the method of house construction in
T ibet a s an exampl e .
D i fferent examples will show the diversity
of technology to be found in these regions .
The princ ipl es of construction , as wel l as the type o f
material used , provide a l ink for the architecture of this
region to that of the ancient middle eastern civ i l i zations of the
6th century BC in the Achemenide Period around Pers i a , which in
turn has i n fluenced I ndia on one s ide and Central Asia on the
other .
Techniques o f Construction for a Tibetan House .
The structural module of a Tibetan house is estab l ished by four
l oad bearing wal l s , posit ioned at right angles to one another,
which support a flat roof of rammed earth , laid over unhewn
timbers .
Thi s module can be expanded both hori zontal ly and
Generally , the houses have two fl oors
vertically as necessary .
and a terraced roof ( 3 ) .
Rel igious rituals precede a l l construct ion .
using
astrological forecasts as a guide , a s ite i s checked to see that
it i s not contaminated with ev il spirits and is not inhabited by
earth deities ( 4 ) .
1.
Foundations and wal l s
The foundat ion trench i s excavated according t o the existing
conditions of the terra in and the intended he ight of the
building .
There is never a basement and the foundations are
constructed of rubbl e stone when it is ava i l ab l e .
As opposed to the methods of construction general ly used in
China where a t imber structural frame i s empl oyed ( 5 ) , the adobe
brick wal l s in this example are load bearing .
The wal l thickness
is dependent on the type of l oad trans ferred from above .
As
rammed earth and adobe have a tendency to compact under heavy
l oads , the wal l bases are thicker and , wherever poss ible , earth
F ig . 1 .
Map showing the
region of T ibetan
c iv i l i zat ion
Anne Chayet
Charge de Recherche
Center Nat ional Recherche scient i f i que ( CNRS )
" Langues e t cultures d e l ' a ire Tibeta ine"
CNRS/URA 1 2 2 9
Corne i l l e Jest*
Directeur de Recherche , CNRS
GRECO H imalaya Karakoram
John Sanday
Conservation Architect
Getty Grant Program
Architectural Conservation Grants
*Author to whom correspondence should be addressed .
Adobe 90
30
construction is replaced with stone .
In addition , because of the
mud mortar ' s lack of cohesion and the frag i l ity of the adobe
brick structure , vertical l oads cause the structure to buckle at
its base and for this reason , the l ower part of Tibetan buildings
are heavily buttressed .
Alternatively , the wal l s may be
battered approximately 3 to 6 degrees on the outs ide , thereby
providing more resistance to earthquakes and producing a
s ilhouette characteristic to a l l Tibetan buildings .
2.
Rammed Earth
Tibetans consider this form of construction as the oldest ,
s impl e st and cheapest of building technique s .
It is widely used
throughout Tibet as wel l as in some regions on the southern
s lopes of the Himal aya such as in Bhutan where conditions are
s l ightly more humid .
The method of construction is s imilar to
that used in Western Europe .
A clay-based s o i l is wetted and worked by foot .
Aggregate
is o ften added to the mix.
Two planks are set on edge on top of
the foundation and held in place by wooden poles driven into the
ground .
Wooden cross bars set between the planks establ ish the
width of the wal l which is usual ly between 6 0 and 9 0 centimeters .
Fig . 2 .
Bhutan , process
of constructing "pise de
terre " .
Teams of women place the prepared clay between the planks
and ram it with wooden rams , beating in time to the rhythm o f
traditional songs ( see fig . 2 ) .
After two o r three hours the
planks are struck and reset at a higher l evel and the process is
repeated ( see fig . 3 ) .
The j unction between these l i fts or
l ayers , as wel l as the holes created by the cross bars , becomes a
decorative feature on the building .
In the meantime , carpenters prepare the timbers for the
doors , windows , and floors ( see f ig . 4 ) .
Doors and windows are
prefabricated on s ite , erected in pos ition as the construction
In some regions it is
progresses and are buil t in place .
customary to p lace one long t imber l intel at the correct level in
the wal l and to cut the necessary doors and windows out o f the
wal l s below the l intels .
3.
Fig . 3 .
planks .
setting the
Adobe or Sun-Baked Bricks
Adobe bricks are always made c l ose to the . building s ite and the
matrix is prepared by trampl ing the mud under foot .
Gravel ,
The mold is a wooden
grass , or straw can be added to the matrix .
frame that is 3 5 x 18 x 16 centimeters with extended side s , one
of which is removable to enable the brick itse l f to be freed .
After placement the bricks are removed from the mould and three
days later placed on edge to help with the drying proces s .
Placing the bricks on edge minimizes the bricks ' exposure
to the sun , s l ows down the drying process , and therefore prevents
cracking ( 6 ) .
The f i rst layer of bricks are placed as "headers "
and the mortar j oints between the bricks are the thickness of a
f i nger .
The next course or layer of bricks are placed as
" stretchers "
forming an alternating header stretcher bond o ften
Thicker wal l s are based on two
referred to as the Engl ish Bond .
rows o f headers to create double the width . When wal l s of a
l es ser thickness are prepared , adobe bricks are l aid on edge in
para l l e l s imilar to boards and the matrix is placed in between .
This method of construction , however , is not as strong because
the matrix is not compacted and it l acks the cohesion found in a
properly bonded adobe brick wal l .
4.
F loors and roofing
The ground f loors of houses are usually set on virgin ground
Sometimes , a layer of
that has been l evel l ed if required .
rammed earth i s used to provide the necessary finish .
The f l at roof or terrace is constructed in the f o l l owing
manner .
Unhewn beams are set close together and a layer o f
twigs from the " Caragana" shrub placed above the beams t o
A layer of rammed
prevent the moist earth from rotting them .
earth is p laced over the twigs and covered with a final layer of
waterproofing clay to prevent water penetration .
Fig . 4 .
windows .
Placing the
5.
3I
Plastering
occas iona l ly , when an appropriate material with a high content
of c l ay is ava i l able , the rammed earth or adobe wal l s are
Otherwise the wal l s are l e ft plain .
An
plastered externa l ly .
appl ication of wet c l ay of porridge-l ike con s i stency is prepared
and appl ied by hand .
This a l l ows for some form of decoration to
be added to the exterior of the building .
Some example s earthen construction in the region
1.
The Himalaya
In Dolpo , a Tibetan valley l ocated in northwest Nepal at an
a l titude of 4 0 0 0 meters , the d i fferent types of material
described above are also in common use .
The foundation as wel l
a s the back and s ide wal l s are in rubbl e stone and the facade is
in adobe ( 7 ) .
F ig . 5 .
Bhutan , Val l ey o f
Paro : Construction o f a
farm house using "pise de
terre" with a l ight timber
framing for the upper
f loor .
I n Bhutan , l ocated in the eastern Hima l aya , where the
population is of Tibetan origin , the houses f o l l ow the same model
as those in the Tibetan cultural area . In addition , above the
f l at roo f , the Bhutanese extend a l ight t imber pitched roof
structure which generously overhangs the external wal l s .
The
foundations are made of l arge stones and the wal l s are of rammed
earth . The Bhutanese house is an impres s ive architectural
achievement combining util ity and technical skil l with a great
aesthetic sensibil ity ( 8 ) ( see fig . 5 ) .
In Ladakh , in the western Himalaya , the oldest
constructions are always o f rammed earth .
Today , pise de terre
has been replaced by the adobe brick .
The Pal ace of Leh
presents an interesting exampl e of the use of sun-baked bricks
( see fig . 6 ) .
The palace was built in the early 1 6 0 0 ' s as a
royal residence and is a building of great dimens ions .
The
palace is the largest of a group of buildings crowning a seven
k i l ometer ridge overlooking the city of Leh .
The fortress of Namgyal peak l ocated high above the pal ace
of Leh , was built in the 1 6th century out of rammed earth and
adobe brick ( see fig . 7 ) .
Fig . 7 .
Namgyal .
The Fortress o f
Fig . 6 .
Ladakh , 17th century palace o f Leh overlooking the
city .
32
The palace is buil t into the rocky outcrop with the ma in
facade measuring about 60 meters in length and 5 8 meters in
The foundat ions , which are of
height overlooking the city .
granite , grow out o f the bed rock itsel f and the l ower part of
the battered wal l s i s formed in cut and dressed granite .
As the
wal l s rise , the structure becomes l ighter and the windows in turn
become wider .
The upper third of the building is constructed o f
mud bricks with the roof terraces formed o f earth and clay .
The
method o f construction for the adobe structure is almost exactly
the same as for a traditional dwe l l ing .
Fig . 8 .
Central Tibet , a
fort in "pis6 de terre"
surviving from the 18th
century
The palace was abandoned and , because of the total lack of
maintenance , snow and water have infiltrated the adobe wal l s
causing damage and col lapse t o much o f the upper structure ( 9 ) .
2.
Karakoram
An interesting example of re inforced adobe structure can be
found in buildings such as the 1 5th century Baltit and Altit
Forts in the region of Hunza , in northern Pakistan .
Here , the
use of a timber cribbage at the corners of the tower with an
i n f i l l of adobe brick creates a flexible structure capable o f
withstanding the seismic activity which i s preval ent in this
region .
3.
Central and western Tibet
The oldest monuments to be found in Tibet are the Royal Tombs
l ocated in central Tibet , the most wel l known being the Tsetang
( pyong Rgyas ) , which are tumu l i of rammed earth interlayered with
s late and t imber planks dating from 6 5 0 - 8 1 5 AD ( 1 0 ) .
More recentl y , the fort i f ications have been bui l t in adobe
and rammed earth .
For example , in Lha-artse , l ocated in central
Tibet , defense towers s t i l l rema in in a state of decay and
neglect .
These structures therefore show the l ower l evels in
rammed earth and the superstructure in adobe .
From t ime to time
during previous restoration e fforts random stonework has been
used instead of earth ( see f ig . 8 ) .
Fig . 9 .
Turfan , Citadel
of J iaohe , part of the main
thoroughfare .
In eastern Tibet , the v i l l age of Tsaparang is another
particul arly interesting example of the use of earth in
construction .
It i s here that certain unusual technical deta i l s ,
such a s the u s e o f pebbles as a capping for the wal l s and the
presence of forms of arches that have not been found elsewhere ,
can be seen .
with i n the c l i f f dwe l l ings above Tsaparang some
unique structures us ing adobe wal l s have been studied ( 1 1 ) .
4.
Xinj iang
The architecture of the oases around xinj iang are entirely of
adobe .
In Turfan , the c ities founded during the Han Period ( 2 0 6
For
BC to 2 2 0 AD) demonstrate the diverse uses of earth .
examp l e , Jiaohe was built on a l imestone spur and Gaochang was
built on a flat plain , both of which were undoubtedly abandoned
in the Ming Period .
In Jiaohe , the main thoroughfare of the town
has buildings constructed of rammed earth at ground l evel , with
large adobe bl ocks at mid-level and sma l l er adobe bricks at the
upper l evel ( see fig . 9 ) .
The monuments , including the enclosure
wal l s , temples , and stupas in these two town s , are of s i z eable
dimensions ( see fig . 1 0 ) .
Interesting architectural features
such as the arch and the tiered vault can be seen in Turfan where
they have been used to support several floors .
Eros ion ,
espec i a l ly wind attrit ion , has caused maj or damage which is only
apparent when comparing early photographs taken by such wel l
known explorers as L e Coq and stein a t the beginning of this
century .
F ig . 1 0 .
Turfan , city o f
Gaochang , central part o f a
stupa .
I n the graveyard of Astana there are examples of rammed
earth tumul i covering funeral chambers which have been decorated
with mura l s .
A series of monasteries carved out of c l i ffs , such
as those at Bez ekl i k , were enclosed with adobe structures as the
external facades . These structures have remained unchanged to
this day .
The l arge mosque of Turfan built in the 1 7 th century was
The structure i s capped with a series o f domes
restored in 1 9 8 0 .
and the method of decoration for the minaret has been used as a
model throughout Central Asia and Iran ( 1 3 ) ( see figs . 1 1 , 1 2 ) .
5.
33
Qinghai
Circa 2 0 0 0 - 5 0 0 BC , earth has also been used in the areas
between T ibet proper and Central Asia .
Three s ites from the
Nuornhong Period have been d iscovered in the Tsaidam Region .
These correspond to a nomadic civil i z at i on l argely independent of
the bronze period of the Qinghai-Gansu .
Remnants of architecture
cons isting of foundations of house s , wal l s , and ditches using
adobe and rammed earth have been found on a s ite which may have
been a resting place for these nomads ( 14 ) .
Conclus ions
The above examples drawn from Central Asia and Tibet demonstrate
the unique qua l i t ies of earth when used as a bui l ding material .
The technology used in earth construct ion advances the f o l l owing
observations :
·,
Fig . 1 1 .
Turfan : General
view of the Friday Mosque .
The house is o ften regarded by architects and planners as a
geometric el ement that needs to be " rationa l i zed" to suit the
assembly of structures , voids , and spaces .
In practicing
architectural conservation , however , it i s necessary to d iscover
through analys i s how building des ign has been adapted to suit
speci f i c conditions and cl imates .
Central Asia provides an
excel lent example o f thi s principl e .
Today , due to the fashions fostered by the pressures of
development , it i s unl ikely that new buildings in these regions
w i l l be permitted to evolve from traditional technol ogy .
There fore , in order to retain these traditional structures ,
restorers and " conservationists " need to not only f ind ways o f
preserving traditional technol ogy , but a l s o convince potential
cl ients that the traditional structure will provide suitable , i f
not preferab l e , l iving cond itions .
For obvious reasons , one
cannot expect new hosp ita l s to be bui lt in adobe , but perhaps
some of the l e s s sophisticated structures may employ thi s
technique in recognition o f thi s l ongstanding tradition .
As many archaeological s ites along the s i l k Road in such
places as Turfan and Khocho have been explo ited , and where many
of the s ites are sti l l being "mined" by farmers as a source of
fert i l i zer for their f ields , it i s hoped that the Adobe 90
Conference w i l l promote an active interest in the technology o f
adobe .
Thi s kind o f information w i l l help local deci s ion makers
respon s ible for the conservation of h i storical s ites to protect
the ir cultural heritage and prevent the exploitation of these
ruins .
Final l y , it i s essential to sens i t i z e the conservat ionists
in thi s region to help them avoid the indiscriminate use of
"modern" materia l s , such as cement , and to teach them s imple but
appropriate conservation techniques as wel l as some speci fic ways
to preserve thi s unique but fragi l e bui l ding trad it ion .
F ig . 1 2 .
Turfan : Deta i l of
the minaret o f the Friday
Mosque .
NOTES
1.
S . Hummel , " Tibeti s che Architektur , " Bul letin der
Schwei zerschen Gel l schaft fur Anthrol ogie und Ethnol ogie 4 0 ,
( 19 6 3 - 1 9 6 4 ) :
62-95 .
J . Qimi n , L . Jan , S . Hail lang , Earth-sheltered Architecture
1 9 8 5 ) in Chinese and Engl i sh .
in China ( Peking :
2.
G . Quinron , " L ' Architecture Neol ithique de Mehrgarh , " Les
cites Oubl iees de l ' Indus-Archeologie du Pakistan ( Paris :
1989 ) :
4 7 - 5 1 ( Exhibition Catalogue)
J . F . Jarrige , " Chronology of the Earl ier Periods o f - the
Greater I ndus as seen from Mehrgarh , Pakistan , " in South Asian
C . U . P . , 1 9 8 9 ) , 2 1 -2 8 .
Archaeol
, ed . B . Al lchin ( Cambridge :
ogy
oppe
3.
Demeure des Hommes, Sanctuaires des Dieux, Sources,
Devel
ment et Rayonnement de l ' Architecture T ibeta ine , ed . G .
Beguin , P . Mortari ( Pari s :
1 9 8 7 ) ( Exhibition Catal ogue )
Series of chapters by F . Meyer et C . Jest on Tibetan
Architecture .
34
Adobe 90
L . Gyatsho , Gateway to the Temple ,
Pustak Bhandar 1 9 7 9 ) .
( Kathmandu :
Ratna
L ' Homme et la Ma ison en Himalaya , ed . L . Barre , C . Jest , G .
Toffin ( Paris :
CNRS , 1 9 8 1 ) .
4.
C . Jes t , Monuments of Northern Nepal
1981) :
2 5 -2 8 .
( Paris :
5.
L . Dunzhen , La Ma ison Chinoise ( Paris :
198 0 ) •
UNESCO ,
Berger Levraul t ,
6.
I n Tibetan Architecture baked bricks are not used , except
in a few rel igious buildings in Central Tibet influenced by
China ( esp . the monastery of Kumbum)
7.
C . Jest , Dolpo, Communautes de Langue Tibetaine du Nepal
( Pari s :
CNRS , 1 9 7 5 ) :
7 4 -8 1 .
8.
P . Denwood , " Bhutan and its Architecture , " objets et
Mondes , XVI , 4 , ( 19 7 4 ) :
337-346 .
C . Jest , J . A . Stein , " Dynamics of development and
tradition :
the architecture of Ladakh and Bhutan , " in Himalaya
Ecol ogie et Ethnologie , ed . C . Jest ( Paris :
CNRS 1 9 7 7 ) :
343350 .
A . D . Ranade , " Bhutanese Architecture , " Journal of the
14-19 .
Indian Inst itute of Architecture 3 8 , 4 , ( 19 7 2 ) :
9.
A . H . Francke , Antiguities of Indian Tibet ( New Delhi :
1 9 1 4 - 19 2 6 ) .
C . Jest , J . Sanday , "The Palace of Leh in Ladakh , an
Exampl e of Himalayan Architecture in Need of Conservation , "
Monumentum 2 5 , 3 ( 19 8 2 ) :
1 7 9 - 19 3 .
R . Khosla , Buddhist Monasteries in the Western Himalaya
( Kathmandu :
Ratna Pustak Bhandar , 1 9 7 9 ) .
Bsod
10 .
S . Wangdu i , Qiongi ie xian wenwu shi ( In Tibetan :
nams dbang- ' dus , Cultural rema ins in the district of Chongye)
( Lhasa :
Xisang z i zhiqu wenwu guanl i puchadui , 1 9 8 6 )
11.
J . Ascho f f , Tsaparang Konigstadt im westtibet ( Echin V . M . :
Verlag , 1 9 8 9 ) .
Kwang Chen Yian , et al l ' Architecture des Ruines du Royaume
de Guge ( Peking :
1 9 8 8 ) ( in Chinese)
nggu
12 .
Liu Dunzhen et al . Zho
o gudai jianshu shi
Architecture of China )
( Peking :
1980)
( Ancient
M . Ma i l l ard , Grottes e t Monuments d ' Asie Centrale
Ma isonneuve, 1 9 8 3 ) .
( Paris :
13 .
G . A . Pougatchenkova , Che fs d ' Ouvres d ' Architecture de
l ' As i e Centra l e XIV-XV siecle
( Paris :
UNESCO , 1 9 8 1 )
( see for
comparison ) .
14 .
Wenwu no . 6 ( 19 6 0 ) :
Kaogu Xuebao n . I ,
37-40
( 19 6 3 ) :
1 7 -4 4 .
Xu xinguo , " Qinghai sheng wenwu kaogu gongzuo sanshi nian , "
( Thirty years of
in Wenwu kaogu gonzuo sansh i nian 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 7 9
archaeological f indings in the province o f Qinha i )
( Peking :
197 9 ) :
160-167 .
35
ABSTRACT
EARTHEN WALL S FROM FRANCE AND ENGLAND
F OR NORTH AME R I CAN F ARMERS , 1 8 0 6 - 1 8 7 0
T h i s pape r d i s cu s s e s the
t ra n s f e r of e a rthen w a l l
b u i l d i n g t e chn o l ogy f rom
F ra n c e and England to
North Ame r i ca dur in g the
n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
conne c t i o n s which have
rema i n e d obscure for many
r e a s on s .
Empha s i s is here
p l a ced on the rat iona l e s
and va r ia t i o n s o f earthen
wa l l i n g methods f rom
F ra nc e , whe r e , i n the
cont e xt of the French
Revolut i o n ,
( rammed
e a rt h ) wa s hera l ded as a
t e ch n i que f or the " common
man , " to England and
Ame r i c a , whe r e the v i r t u e s
of u s i n g e a rt h for ru ra l
s t r u c t u r e s were
s u b s e quent l y
e xt o l l e d .
In d i s cu s s i ng ma j o r
p e r s on a l it i e s ,
pub l i cat i on s , a n d t rends ,
the paper ar gu es that
e a rthen wall c onst ru ct ion
wa s more w i d e s p r e ad than
has s omet ime s been
a s sume d . It
demon s t r a t e s
that not a l l Ame r ican
" a dobe " b u i l d i n g s are in
the S outhwe st and that
they were s t y l i s t i c a l l y
a n d t e chn o l o g i c a l l y
v e r s at i l e . P ro t e ct ive
me a s u r e s t a k e n by t h e i r
b u i l d e r s a r e l ik e w i s e
explained .
A pr ope r
h i s t o r i c a l and
t e chnolog i c a l cont e xt i s
thus p rovided for
unde rs t a n d i n g t he
s ign i f i c a n c e of e a rthen
wa l l s t ru c t u r e s i n areas
not norma l l y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e i r e x i s t en c e .
�
KEYWORDS
Je f f re y W . Cody
D ep artment o f City
R e g i o n a l P lann i n g
Corne l l U n i ve r s i t y
Ithaca , NY 1 4 85 3 - 6 7 0 1
&
Int oduct
r
I n Ame r i ca n a r c h it e ct u r a l t r a d i t i o n s t he l o g i c and
v i ab i l i t y of b u i l d i n g with earth h a s b e e n docume n t e d only
supe r f i c i a l l y , hence t he a s t o n i shment o f most who l e a r n o f
the u s e of rammed e a r t h o r " unburnt " b r i ck s e a s t o f t he
Mi s s i s s ip p i R iver as e a r l y a s 1 8 0 6 .
Although one doe s not
norma l l y a s s o c i a t e N e w Je r s e y with adobe , it wa s in t h i s
s t a t e t h a t s ome o f t he e a r l i e s t E a s t C o a s t e xp e riment s
w i t h e a r t h e n w a l l t e chnology were conduct e d . [ 1 ]
To
unde r s t a n d how a n d why t h i s o c c u r r e d , it i s n e c e s s a r y t o
cro s s the At l ant i c O cean .
�,
or rammed e a rt h w a l l s in w e s t e rn Europ e ,
were e re ct e d mo st o f t e n o n a masonry founda t i on .
The
wa l l s were fo rmed b y pounding a m i xture o f s a n d , s i lt , and
c l ay into a c a s e , o r s hut t e r , which was charact e r i z e d by
move ab l e frame s o f wood h e l d pa r a l l e l by a s e t o f
support s .
Th i s s e t o f t e n con s i s t e d o f lower and upp e r
hor i z on t a l s t rut s , vert i c a l s upport p o s t s , count e r s ha ft s ,
and we dge s ( s e e F i g .
Eu ropean t ra d i t i o n s o f rammi n g
e a r t h i n t o s o l i d wa l l s o r o f drying so il mixt u r e s i n t he
sun to y i e l d a su it able b u i l d in g mat e r i a l have be e n t ra c e d
to the Phoe n i c i a n s , t he Roma n s and the c u l t u r e s that came
1).
under t h e i r i n f luence . [ 2 ]
By the e i ght e e n t h c e n t u r y ,
c e r t a i n r e g i on s , at l e a s t p a r t i a l l y b e c a u s e o f t he i r
favorab l e geo l o g i c condit i on s , were b e t t e r known than
othe r s for t he i r s u c c e s s in ut i l i z in g t ime-worn bu i l ding
t ra d i t i o n s r e l a t e d t o e a rt he n wa l l s .
One o f the mo st
famous wa s the F re n c h Lyonna i s , w he r e t he r i ch ,
s e d iment ary dep o s i t s a l o n g t he Rhone River provided a
u s e f u l va r ie t y of c l a y s and s a nds f o r bui lde r s t o mix i n t o
e conomi c a l and f i reproo f bu i l din g mat e r i a l s . [ 3 ]
T hi s
pap e r w i l l concent rate on t h i s c i r c u it o u s docume n t ar y l in k
between s o u t h cent r a l F r a n c e and the e a s t e rn Un i t e d
S t at e s , e st a b l i s h i n g t hat f i rm rat i ona le s , b u i l d i n g
methodo l o g i e s and Europ e a n p r e c e d e n t s e x i s t e d a s Ame r i c a n
farme r s in t he n in e t e e n t h centu ry b e g a n c o n s i d e r i n g
whether t o a dopt , adapt o r r e j e c t t h e s e p r e c e dent s under
n e w condi t i on s .
Between 1 8 0 6 and 1 8 7 0 they t ri e d a l l
three a l t e rn a t i ve s , f in a l l y r e j e c t i n g earthen wa l l s i n
favor o f wood o r b r i ck .
�
The
, or rammed e a r t h , conn e c t io n
f r om Lyon t o N e w Je r s ey can f i r st be t r a c e d by exami n i ng
the k e y publ i c a t i on s that e me r g e d in lat e - e i ght e e n t h
century F r a n c e t o e n c ou rage mo r e s c ient i f i c ana l y s e s and
p r a ct i c a l app l i ca t i on s o f rammed earth s t ru c t u r e s .
The
mo st imp o rt an t o f t h e s e ana l y s e s w as by F ra n 9 0 i s
C o i n t e raux in 1 7 9 0 , but other
p ropagan d i s t s h e l p e d
s e t the s t a ge f o r h i m .
F o r e xamp l e , Geo rge s - C l aude
G o i f fon ' s " L ' Art du Ma90n P i s e u r "
( 1 7 7 2 ) w a s a n ob s cure ,
u n s u c c e s s ful t reat i s e w r i t t en by a nonpra c t i c i n g
a c adem i c i a n f o r p ract i c i n g ma s o n s ( s e e F i g . 2 ) , but it
repre s e n t e d t he eme rgence o f a rat io n al unde r s t anding o f
t e chno l o g y , b r i e f l y r e f l e ct e d in 1 7 7 7 by D iderot in
his
lement, and more subs t an t i a l l y n in e y e a r s lat e r by
F r a n 90 i s Boulard i n Abbe Ro z i e r ' s popu l a r
P I St
RAMMED EARTH
UNBURNT B R I CKS
TAP IA
EASTERN UN I TED STATES
N INETEENTH CENTURY
�
�Supp
c"
Fig . 1 .
S chemat i c a s s emb ly
of a mou ld use d in Auvergn e ,
P . Doat , et a l . ,
Source :
Construi re en Terre,
ion
16.
Cours Complet
d' Agr iculture . [ 4 ]
Boulard f i r s t focu se d on the
c o a gu la t i n g qua l i t i e s o f s o i l app rop r i at e f o r rammin g
( " st rong e a rt h , " a hu mid mixture o f c lay and sand w i t h n o
root s o r gravel ) .
He then empha s i z e d c o n st ruct i on
p r o c e dure , p a y i n g p a rt i c u l a r attent ion to t he p roblem o f
h o w t o merge t w o p e r p e n d i c u l a r w a l l s e gment s , a n d he
s ugge s t e d a rough - ca s t p l a s t e r in g a s an exte r i o r f i n i sh
( s ee F i g . 3 ) .
Adobe 90
T,1
D• j,Ic:;;:;
jl!lImllt;!IIID'!Miil1Mimrl;;;:l\illltlllIlilIMIII'llII!ii151
A
Bou l a r d ' s d e s c r ipt i o n , a lt hough emp i r i ca l ,
Such cou ld not be s a i d of Franco i s
lacked zeal .
C o i n t e r au x , a n a v i d Lyon b u i lder and a g r i c u lt u r i s t , who i n
the l 7 8 0 s began e xp e r iment i n g in northern France w i t h the
rammed e a rt h t e chnology he had l e a rn e d i n the s outh .
Aided in 1 7 8 8 by
roya l o f f i c i a l s of the newly formed
Soc iete R
le d ' Agr iculture , Cointe raux moved to P a r i s
t h e f o l lowing year , when h e inaugu rated a " s chool for
ru ral a r c h i t e cture " in o rder t o promote the use o f
as
an e conomi c a l method of e rect ing f a rm s t r ucture s and a s a
way of b u i l d i n g " i n combu s t i b l e " s t r uctures for French
cities .
C o i nt e raux, who s e mott o was " Theory i s b e aut i fu l ,
but p r a ct i ce surpa s s e s it , " sought t o make a "pat r i ot i c
cont r ibut ion " in t h e s p i r i t o f t he Revolut ion .
oya
�
�
Fiq .
of
2 .
G o i f fon ' s dep i ct ion
con s t ru ct ion , 1 7 7 2 .
�
OM
m bJ
HME¥i'
"My de s i re i s
b e c ame h i s pa s s i on .
adva nce o n l y that wh i c h i s pract i ca l , " he wrote .
engage s me t o p rove it b y a l l t he me ans within my
My s t y l e p e rhaps is not b r i l l iant , but it w i l l be
I w i l l render i t c l e a r and s imp l e , t o b e w i t h i n reach o f
eve ryone , part i cu l a r l y wo r k e r s . " [ 5 ]
C o i n t e raux viewed h i s
m i s s ion a s a c o u r s e o f pub l i c i n s t ru ct i o n , e f fe ct ive ly
e l imina t i n g pove rt y b y o ccup y i n g b e g g a r s i n " ma j o r
wo r k s . " [ 6 ]
For Cointeraux,
wa s not s imp ly a man-made
a r c h i t e ct u r a l t echn i que ; rathe r , it was :
�
a g i ft o f Provide n c e .
a p r e s ent whi ch God
has made to a l l people . I f a g r i c u lture is the
b a s i s for a l l s c ience ,
is a l s o t he f i r s t o f
a l l t h e a rt s .
. F a c t o r i e s wi l l mul t i p l y w i t h
and comme rce w i l l f l our i s h .
. One s hou l d
emp l o y t h i s k i n d o f b u i l d i n g t h roughout t h e
r e a l m , for t he decency o f v i l l ag e s and the honor
o f the nat ion , t o s ave wood , which is used in
such great abundance in construct ion s , t o avo i d
f i re s , t o prot ect labore rs f r o m c o l d o r
exce s s ive heat , at t h e same t ime t o
cons e rve a n d p rot ect t h e i r hea l t h , a n d for s o
many other o b j e c t ive s , too long to l i st , s o
u s e f u l t o the s t a t e a n d t o pr iyate
landowne r s . [ 7 ]
�
�
Fig .
of
Bou l a rd ' s dep i ct i on
3 .
�
" [1
'i ''; �"1
"t:","fl['j�::I, ,," ',*I :-"1" ",
c o n s t ru ct ion ,
1'1. I "'" ...J·WJI:� -';....'1:."11'1.1
...,.1
____
____
" ,l,: .
,
17 8 6 .
1'1 Ill'. .
,
Fig . 4 .
P l a t e s I I and I I I
C o i n t e raux ' s F i r s t Cah ier
to
" Honor
powe r .
u s e fu l ;
T h i s rat i on a l e i l lu st ra t e s the conn e c t i on Cointe raux made
between nature and
const ruct ion , and the rapport he
saw between an a r c h i t e ct u r e for t he common man and the
p o l it i ca l upheava l s .
C o i n t e raux was thu s e xpre s s in g , in
t e rms o f
�
' s o r i g in ( the s o i l ) and ut i l it y ( f or the
common good) , what Vol t a i r e and Rou s s eau were a r gu ing in
t e rms of p o l i t i ca l p h i l o s ophy - - t hat s o c ie t y should
recogn i z e it s natural l i n k w i t h t he soil upon which men
and women t re a d .
�
Coint e raux pub l i shed fou r cah iers, or
" notebook s " between March 1 7 9 0 and Novemb e r 1 7 9 1 . The
f i r s t provided const ruct i on de t a i l s made more p a l p ab l e by
c o s t l y , copp e r - e ng raved p l a t e s ( se e F i g . 4 ) , whi l e the
s e cond (pub l i s hed in March 1 7 9 1 ) was c o n c e rned w i t h s o i l
qua l i t ie s , furthe r con s t ru ct i on det a i l s , a n d the art i s t i c
rende r ing o f w a l l s u r f a ce s .
The t h i rd cahier was a p l e a
t o " men o f comme rce " to con s i der incorporat i n g some
e a rthen wa l l s w i t h t h o s e of b r i ck in order to e conomi ze
factory const ruct ion .
In the fourth
ier, C o i n t e raux
e x t o l l e d the " n e w
, " r e f e r r i n g t o the construct ion of
more p o r t ab le and adapt able unbak e d b r i c k s o f rammed earth
which cou l d be mou lded indoors and u s e d at a later date
( s ee F i g . 5 ) .
C o i n t e raux ' s notebooks were mo re popu l a r
than earlier
pub l i c a t i o n s n o t o n l y becau se o f t h e
II I
�
�
cah
author ' s pa s s ion for h i s sub j e ct , b u t a l s o b e c a u s e o f the
ima g i n a t i ve and g r aphi c way he addr e s s e d a w i de r audience
and the i nnovat ions in t e chn ique he e spou sed .
Fig .
5.
P l ate I I f r om
C o i n t e raux ' s Fourth C a h i e r
37
Three of t h o s e i n n ovat i o n s a r e part i c u l a r l y
noteworthy :
C o i n t e r au x ' s
p i c k , h i s con s e rvat i o n
p r e caut i on s , and h i s re comme n da t i on s t o adopt mo re t han
one s o r t o f
t e chnology ( s e e F i g s . 6, 7 ) .
The " p i c k "
wa s a cu rved h o e , adapt e d f o r t h e r e qu i s i t e m i x i ng o f c l a y
a n d s a n d , a n d t he engaging w a y t h e author dep i c t e d t h i s
new t o o l h e l p e d m a k e i t s u s e m o r e unde r s t andab l e .
Regarding c o n s e rvat i o n , C o i n t e ra u x adro i t l y d i s cu s s e d
t h o s e mat e r i a l s - - stone o r b r i c k - - which could mo s t
e f f e c t ive ly b e u s e d around doors a n d wi ndows , whe r e j o int s
were more s u s cept i b l e to dama g i n g mo i s ture int r u s i o n s a n d
whe r e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s l e d t o s t ru c t u r a l weakne s s e s .
In
t h i s r e g a r d , he s ugge s t e d u s in g more e xp e n s ive l in t e l s and
s i l l s i n p la c e o f t h o s e made f rom wood , because t h e harder
mat e r i a l s j o i n e d mo re s o l i d l y t o the e a rt h e n wal l .
Furthermo r e , t he hot l ime-wh it in g which C o i n t e r a u x
s u g g e s t e d app l y i n g a s a coa t i n g wou ld adhe r e , he a s s e rt e d ,
mo re e a s i l y t o t h e s t o n e or b r i ck t han to the wood
B e c a u s e Coint e raux envi s i on e d rammed e a r t h a s a
e lement s .
l iberat i ng t echn i que , he was mo re amenab le than any o f h i s
contemp o r a r i e s t o i n c lude variat i on s , a s we l l a s the
" s t a n d a r d " Lyon me thod, i n his r e c ommen da t i on s .
The r e f o r e , C o i n t e raux not o n l y p romo t e d t he " n e w
but he a l s o l au de d the s o r t o f rammed earth t e ch n i que
devi s e d i n Bugey ( B re s s e ) .
The Bugey method d i f f e r e d f rom
that o f Lyon b e c a u s e o f t he u s e o f wood b r ace s ang l e d f rom
t h e ground t o t he f rame , whi ch kept t he ve rt i ca l pane l s of
the
shut t e r i n g more perpendicu l a r t o t he ground, t hus
e n s u r i ng a f l a t t e r and mo re r e gu l a r wall surface ( s e e F i g .
7) .
By u s i n g t he e x t e r n a l b r a c e s it be came unn e c e s s a r y t o
i n s e rt lowe r h o r i z o n t a l supp o r t s a t the b a s e o f t h e
shut t e r s .
The s e l ower support s r e qu i r e d l eaving gap s i n
the wal l s , whi c h then had t o be f i l l e d once t he w a l l w a s
comp l et e .
B y u s i n g the Bugey met hod, C o i n t e raux ob s e rve d ,
i s who l e from t h e ground l eve l t o t h e roo f . " [ S )
C o i n t eraux ' s i n c l u s ion o f the Bugey me thod made a s t ronge r
case for
b e c a u s e it demo n s t r a t e d t h e ve r s a t i l it y o f
t he t e chnology .
�
�
Fig .
P l ate XI I f rom
C o i n t e raux ' s S e cond �ah ier ,
s ho w i n g w o r k e r s m i x i n g s o i l .
�"
�
"All
�
�
Through C o i nt e r au x ' s pe r s i s t e n t l i t a n i e s ,
be came a t e ch n i qu e f o r rur a l hous i n g known far b e yond t h e
Lyonn a i s , a lt hough t h e author ' s p e r s o n a l s u c ce s s l a g g e d
b e h i n d h i s a r c h i t e c t u r a l n ot o r iety . [ 9 )
There was an
a lmost imme d i a t e r e i s su inq o f C o i n t e raux ' s f in d i nq s , f o r
examp l e , i n s e v e r a l other Eu ropean count r i e s . [ 1 0 )
In
B r i t a i n , t h e i n i t i a l i mp u l s e f o r con s i de ri n g rammed e a r t h
s p r a n g f r om p e r s on a l f r i en d s h i p between C o i n t e r a u x , h i s
d i s c i p l e s , a n d B r i t i s h patrons rathe r t ha n f rom F re n c h
pub l i c a t i o n s .
B e t we e n 1 7 9 1 and 1 7 9 3 , C o i n t e ra u x made a
j ourney to t h e B r i t i s h e st a t e of P h i l i p Yorke , t h e t h i rd
E a r l of Hardw i c ke , a l e a r n e d agr i cu l t u r i s t who had
p u r cha s e d C o i n t e raux ' s cahiers in P a r i s and f inanced
C o i n t e r au x ' s t r ip i n order t o s e e
being i mp l e me n t e d
f i r s t ha n d . [ 1 1 )
But even b e f o r e C o i n t e rau x ' s j o u r n e y , t wo
�
UJ . "'" .
P· ?
l.
Fig . 7 .
P l at e X from
C o i n t e raux ' s F i r s t Cahier ,
1 7 9 0 , compar i n g t w o ,
common l y -emp l oyed F re n ch
methods f o r ramm i n g e a rt h :
Lyon ( above ) and Bugey
( b e low) .
Adobe 90
�
F r e n ch
c r a ft smen t ra ined by C o i nt e raux at h i s
" s choo l " i n P a r i s we re contracted i n 1 7 8 9 by Thoma s
E c c l e s t o n , of the Academy of Art s o f London , to ve nture t o
Lan c a s h i re i n o r d e r t o e r e ct expe r imental w a l l s there . [ 1 2 ]
B r i t i s h w r i t i n g s f o l l owed qu i ck l y on the s e h e e l s of
experime n t s w i t h , and o n , Eng l i sh s o i l .
�
By the mid- 1 7 9 0 s , B r it i s h r u r a l a r c h i t ect s ,
s e e k ing a cheap a l t e rnat ive t o wood framing , began t o
con s i der
a s a counte rpart t o the more common B r i t i s h
met hodology o f e rect ing e a rthen wa l l s , known a s c lay- lump
wa l l in g or " c ob , " whereby c l a y wa s mixed w i t h s t raw and
then super impo s e d b y layers b e f ore wall s u r f a c e s were
pared down unt i l f l at . [ 1 3 ]
John P la w , in his Ferme Ornee
�
( 1 7 9 5 ) was the f i r st to a cknowledge C o i n t e raux in pr int ,
but he was more an i nt e rmediary voice w i t h a c ce s s to a
pub l i sh e r t h a n a p ra ct it ioner of e a rthen
c o n s t r u c t i on s . [ 1 4 ]
The most important B r i t i s h archit e ct
to g i ve l e g i t imacy to e a rthen w a l l s was Henry Hol l a n d , who
probably was i n t roduced to the French methods by v i rtue o f
the c u r i o s i t y o f h i s pat ron , Fran c i s , the f i ft h Duke o f
B e d f o r d , a renowned a g r i c u l t u r a l p romot e r .
The Duke ' s
s urveyo r , Robert S a lmon , l a t e r r e c a l l e d how Fran c i s was s o
int e re s t e d in t h e Lanca s h i re
expe r i me n t s that h e p a i d
for a F rench w o r k e r t o re s i de at h i s Woburn e st a t e t o
Ho l land a n d Sa lmon be came
bu i l d
�
w a l l s there . [ 1 5 ]
imme d i a t e conve rt s , but b e c a u s e Ho l l and was en l i st e d t o
o f the Board of
cont r ibute t o t he popu l a r
Ag r ic u l t u re , h i s wo r k , though mo re imitat ive than
i nnovat i v e , b e c ame more we l l -known than S almon ' s .
Sa lmon ,
for e xamp l e , p r op o s e d u s i n g i ron c l amp s to k eep the
shut t e r i ng taut , and at the t roub l e s ome j un c t u r e s of t wo
p e rpend i c u l a r w a l l s e gment s he s ugge s t ed u s in g a long i ron
ba r , conn e c t i n g t he shutt e r i n g of e a c h s e gment , to
ma i n t a in a r i ght angle ( s ee F i g . 8 ) .
�
Communications
�
In p r a i s ing
bu i lding s , Ho l land s imp ly
o f fe re d a d i g e s t of C o i n t e raux ' s first two cahiers for the
E ng l i sh p r a c t it ione r .
H o l l a n d empha s iz e d Cointe raux ' s
p r i n c ip a l s e ct i o n s conce r n i n g the e r e ct ion and d i smant l in g
o f the wood f orms , p rope r s o i l compo s it i on , a n d wa l l
In mo st c a s e s he even reproduced C o i n t e raux ' s
cove r ings .
But H o l l and omit t e d what he deemed l e s s cru c i a l
graphi c s .
to the case for
:
Coint eraux ' s
�
p i c k , t he Bugey
met h o d , the " ne w
, " and t he d i s cu s s ions about the
p r e f e r r e d use of stone and b r i c k l inte l s and s i l l s .
E it h e r H o l land knew of C o i nt e r au x ' s other w r i t ings and
s i mp ly cho s e t o i gnore them, or he rema i n e d i n t he dark
c o n c e r n i n g the later cah iers .
In any event , H o l l a n d ' s
e d i t e d t ra n s lat ion h e l p e d l e n d enormou s cre dence t o the
At the dawn of the n i ne t e e n t h century ,
t e c hn i que .
s ev e r a l B r i t i sh b u i l d e r s and a g r i c u l t u r i s t s e l ab o r a t e d
u p o n H o l l and ' s sugge s t i o n s . [ 1 6 ]
��
Fig .
8.
Sa lmon ' s dep i ct ion
o f p i s e con s t ruct i o n ,
1 80 9 .
�
J'J I
So , too , d i d s ome Ame ri ca n s .
The mo st notable
wa s S t ephen W . John s on , a lawyer and b u i l d e r who h a i l e d
from New Brun s w i c k , New Je r s e y .
P re c i s e l y what drew
John son to H o l l a n d ' s work is unknown .
By 1 8 0 4 t he
and n e a r Trenton he
Ame r i can had read the
wa s i n the midst o f e rect ing h i s own
exper iment , 2 7
ft . l o n g , 1 9 ft . w i de , and 1 5 ft . t a l l ( s ee F i g . 9 ) .
Cont emp o r ar i e s gawked and John son de c i de d to pub l i s h h i s
ob s e rvat i o n s a s p a r t o f a t e xt con c e rn i ng rur a l e c onomy .
Johnson ' s approach was to qu ot e H o l l a n d f r e e l y w i t hout
p rope r a cknowl edgment , a l t e r t he p l a cement of who le
s e ct i o n s o f H o l l a n d ' s t ra n s lat ion , and t hen lace t h e s e
s e c t i o n s w i t h h i s o w n ob s e rva t i on s , c r i t i c i s ms , a n d
sugg e s t ion s .
Alt hough he i n c luded dep ict i on s o f h i s own
work ( a long w i t h cop i e s of H o l l an d ' s i l l u s t r a t i o n s ) ,
Joh n s o n never e x p l a i n e d oddit i e s such a s c i rc u l a r w i ndow
ope n i n g s .
B a s e d upon h i s own pract i c e , John son a l s o
s i g n i f i c a n t ly a l t e r e d Ho l l and ' s t ra n s lat i on o f C o i n t e raux .
For e xamp l e , he redu c e d opt imum foundat ion he i ght from 2
ft . 6 inche s t o 2 ft ; whe re H o l l a n d spe c i f i e d a frame 1 0
ft . long , Joh n s o n sugge s t e d 1 0 t o 1 5 ft . ; where H o l land
Communications �
II
;7 r
FW10
Fig .
9.
�
Stephen John son ' s
cons t ruct i o n ,
180 6 .
39
su gge s t e d u s i n g t w i s t e d rope as a means of keeping the
f rame s p a ra l l e l , John son re commended wood c l amp s ; and
whe re Ho l l and saw the l o g i c in bat t e r in g the wa l l s to
a l l e v i a t e t e n s ion at t he bui l d in g ' s ba s e , Joh n s o n thought
t h i s unnec e s s a ry .
John son , t he n , had only a dub i o u s f a i t h
Undaunt e d by c r i t i c s who even
predece s s o r s .
in h i s
be fore pub l i cat ion t r i e d t o v i l i fy him, John son hoped to
appe a l t o Ame ri c a n s who might buy a con s t ruct ion manu a l
for a n e w l y sett l e d , soon-to-be- improved farm .
�
�
John son h it a respons ive cho r d , but w i t h regards
John
to
he wa s n ot the only Ame r i can t o do so .
Stuart S k i n ne r , the B a lt imore-ba s e d e d i t o r and pub l i s h e r
o f The Amer ican F a rmer from 1 8 1 9 to 1 8 3 0 , wa s the mo s t
not ab l e o f John son ' s contempora r i e s t o d i s s eminate
E uropean knowledge about e a rt hen wal l s t o North Ame r i c a n
f a rme r s .
He not o n l y ent i r e l y reproduced H o l l a n d ' s
t ra n s lat i on , but he a l so publ i c i z ed actual Ame r i can
e xp e r iment s which docume n t e d the u s e of John son ' s book .
S k i n n e r f i r s t demonst rated an i n t e r e s t in earthen
a g r i c u l t u r a l st ruct u r e s in 1 8 2 0 , but it was a year l at e r
b e f or e h e re i s s u e d H o l l an d ' s t ra n s lat ion
for a n Ame r i ca n
By t h i s t ime S k i nner was i n t r igued w i t h
audience . ( 1 7 )
J o h n Hartwe l l Cocke ' s e xp e r iment s w i t h rammed earth s lave
qua r t e r s and outbu i l d i n g s at B remo P l antat ion , n e a r New
Canton ( Bu c k i ngham Count y ) , V i r g in i a .
Cocke admi t t e d
u s i n g John son ' s b o o k a s h i s guide , but he had p rob lems
w i t h workmen be coming con f u s e d about how to e r e ct the wood
frame s , and he d i s cove red t hat the mo i s ture of
Virg i n i a
wa s mo re dama g i n g to t he w a l l s t h a n h e had ant i c ipat e d .
There fore , he wrote Sk inne r , it wou l d be more s e n s ib l e t o
m a k e u s e o f sma l l e r shut t e r i n g s y s t ems , fort i f i e d by iron
c lamps instead o f woo d , y i e l di n g mo re adapt able blocks of
unbaked b r i c k .
Uncon s c i ous l y , by u s ing John son ' s book
Cocke had " d i s cove r e d " C o i n t e r au x ' s " n e w
�
" w i t h the
h e l p o f S a l mon ' s s ugge st ions about iron c l amp i n g .
As S k i nner i n d i c a t ed for h i s s ub s c r ib e r s , Cocke
was not a l one in his f a s cinat ion w i t h rammed e a rt h .
W i l l i am Ande r s on ' s e xp e r iment s in State sborough , South
C a r o l i n a were part i c u l a r l y noteworthy ; between 1 8 2 1 and
1 8 2 4 this p l antat ion own e r proudly constructed f ive
�
s t ru c t u r e s on h i s land .
Three of t he s e are e xtant , and
together w i t h a ne arby
church e re c t e d at Ande r s on ' s
b e h e s t in the 1 8 5 0 s , t he s e bui ldings represent the l a r g e s t
e x i s t ing concent rat ion o f rammed e a r t h examp l e s in e a s t e rn
North Ame r i c a . ( 1 8 ) Ande r son wrote S k i nner that he
�
d i s a greed w i t h C o c k e ' s sugge s t i o n s about making sma l l e r
wa l l s e c t i on s .
In S outh Carol ina , he ma i n t a i n e d he had
e xp e r i e n c e d l it t l e d i f f i cu l t y in t r a i n in g wo r k e r s t o u s e
t h e l a rg e r shut t e r s , a n d furt he rmore h e c l a imed great
s u c c e s s w i t h a l ime stucco wh i c h , whe n t rowe l e d smoot h ,
wa s e a s i l y marked t o r e s emb le a s h l a r stone . ( 1 9 )
In t he
�
Ame r i can s outhea st , the n , by the 1 8 2 0 s , two
methods
were being adapt e d concurrent ly .
T h i s was a l s o t he c a s e
I n Balt imore , at l e a s t one
further n o r t h a l ong t he coast .
l a n down e r used John s on ' s book to e r e ct l a rge wall s ec t i o n s
in 1 8 1 3 , a n d i n the s t a t e o f Maine , t wo patent s were
s e cu r e d in the late
1 8 2 0 s f o r devi c e s that cou l d fab r i c a t e
" unburnt b r i c k " b l oc k s . ( 2 0 )
By 1 8 2 7 t h e s e t wo methods were r e l a t e d t o a
t h i r d ana logous t e chn i que in the Ame r i can s outhe a s t ,
w a l l s d i ffe red f rom
called
or t abby . ( 2 1 )
�
�
�
in the qu a l i t y of the s o i l mixture rather than in the
method o f mou lding that mixture .
She l l s , sma l l s t one s ,
and l ime were cru c i a l i ng r e d i e nt s i n tabb y , whi c h , whe n
rammed w i t h correct p roport ions o f s a n d a n d wat e r , forme d
a mo i s t cement i c i ou s m i x by mo l e c u l ar and c ap i l l ary
Whe n d r y , the m i xture formed a s o l i d mas s .
a c t i on .
shared w i t h t abby the u s e of wood mou lds , b r a ce s , and
ramme r s ; a masonry foundat ion ; s im i l a r wa l l t h i ckne s s ; and
the common rat i on a l e s of cheapn e s s and durab i l i t y .
,
however , wa s charact e r i z e d by d i f f e rent s o i l compone n t s
a n d was l e s s mo i s t when ramme d .
�
�
Adobe
90
A l e xander Macomb and Thoma s Spalding were two o f
t h e m o s t important tabby e n t hu s i a s t s i n t he l a t e 1 8 2 0 s .
The i r e x p e r iment s in South C a r o l i n a demo n s t ra t e d that t h e
t e ch n i qu e o f rammed e a rt h c o n s t ru ct i o n wa s j u s t a s
Macomb ,
s i g n i f i cant a s t h e mat e r i a l b e i ng ramme d .
Spa l d i n g , and t h o s e who cont inued u s in g rammed e a rt h
t e chnology i n t h e 1 8 3 0 s , s u c h a s Ben j amin R i v e r s C a r ro l l ,
N i c ho l a s H e rbemont , a n d P h i l i p S t . George Cocke ,
to bu i l d
concent r a t e d upon the e conom i c r a t i o n a l e f o r
f a c t o r i e s , f e n c e s , a w i de range o f a g ra r i an b u i l dings , and
They a l s o ob l i qu e l y i n d i c a t e d
even ra i l road t i e s . [ 2 2 ]
The s e
some o f the p i t f a l l s a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h e metho d .
i n c luded t h e damage i n f l i c t e d by wat e r i f wa l l s were not
p r op e r l y coped o r if a w i de e n ough ove rhang wa s not
c on st ru c t e d , and t h e s pa l l in g that r e s u l t e d f r om app l y i n g
a l ime-b a s e d cove ri n g t o a p redom i n an t l y c l a y wa l l . [ 2 3 ]
�
Once a ga i n , the i n t e n s i fy i n g i n t e r e s t in
t abby s t ructu r e s i n t h e coa s t a l s outhea st during t he
wa s mat ched b y s im i l a r cu r i o s i t y i n the northea s t .
S e ve r a l l e t t e r s and short art i c l e s f r om 1 8 3 4 to 1 8 3 8
the Gene
Fa rmer ( b a s e d i n Roch e s t e r , N . Y . ) a t t e s t
But i t was not unt i l the 1 8 4 0 s
t h i s popu l a r i t y . [ 2 4 ]
see
or
�
1830s
in
to
t hat
rammed e a rt h t echno l o g i e s be came most accepted by Ame r i ca n
T h e f igure m o s t r e s p on s ib l e f o r t h i s
a g r i c u l t ur i st s .
a c c e p t a n c e wa s Henry L . E l l s wo rt h , Ame r i ca ' s f i r s t P a t e n t
s b e t we e n 1 8 4 3 and 1 8 4 5
Comm i s s ione r , who s e annual
l auded the u s e o f " u nburnt b r i ck " a s a s e n s i b l e " mode o f
E l l sworth b a s e d h i s p r a i s e upon
con s t ruct i ng h ou s e s . " [ 2 5 ]
Report
h i s own expe r iment s with rammed e a rt h i n Wa s h ingt on , D . C .
and i n G r a n d P r a i r i e ( T ippecanoe County ) , I n d i a n a ( s e e
Although n o t imme d i a t e ly apparen t , E l l sworth ' s
F ig . 1 0 ) .
rts were w i de l y r e a d , [ 2 6 ]
and h i s o p i n i o n s s p a r k e d
e d i t o r s o f m a n y a g r i c u l t u r a l p e r i o d i c a l s t o a s k t he i r
s ub s c r i b e r s f o r advice b a s e d upon emp i r ic a l e xp e r i e n c e
w i t h e a rt h e n b u i l d i n g s on the Ame r i can front i e r .
Repo
The m o s t support ive e d i t o r wa s John St ephen
Between 1 8 4 3 and
.
Far
Wri ght , o f Chicago ' s Prai
1 8 5 5 there were over forty r e fe r e n c e s i n this p e r i od i c a l
w h i c h d i s cu s s e d e a rt h e n w a l l mixtu res and e xamp le s , mo re
F a rme r s t h roughout t he
than any other Ame r i can j ourna l .
upp e r M i dw e s t wrote to t h e P r a i r ie F a rmer with t h e i r
B u t b y the e a r l y 1 8 5 0 s
favorab l e o r c r it i c a l comment s .
other cheap mat e r i a l s f o r e c onomi c a l hou s e s , such a s s awn
lumb e r and f ir e d b r i c k s , were more popu l a r , mo re abundant ,
ea s i e r to handl e , more p o rt ab l e , and they mo r e e a s i l y
c o i n c i de d w i t h p r e va i l in g t a s t e s o f what c o n s t i t u t e d
p rope r dome s t i c archit ecture f o r t h o s e n o l on g e r poor and
B a s e d upon the few docume n t a r y
i n d i gent on the p r a i r i e .
examp l e s i n t he e a s t e rn u . S . o f rammed e a rt h o r unburnt
b r i ck c on s t ru ct i on du r i n g t h e two decades a f t e r 1 8 5 0 , the
peak p e r i od f o r e a rthen w a l l popu l a r i t y c o i n c ided with the
After 1 8 7 0 , t h e r e w a s n o a rt i cu l at e d rat i on a l e i n
1840s .
the Ame r i ca n a r c h i t e c t u r a l o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p re s s f o r
e a rt h e n w a l l con s t ruct i on unt i l a ft e r World W a r I .
Howeve r , a d i s cu s s i o n o f Ame r i ca n i n t e r e s t in adobe and
its a f f i l i a t e d t e ch n o l o g i e s du r i n g t h e t went i e t h c e n t u r y
r e ache s b e yond t h e s c ope o f t h i s pap e r .
rie
F ig . 1 0 . Henry E l l sworth ' s
rammed e a r t h hou s e
i n I nd i a n a ,
Conclusion
cahiers
mer
E a s t e rn North Ame r i can adopt i o n of rammed e a r t h
b u i l d i n g me thods de rived most s i gn i fi cant l y f rom Henry
H o l l a n d ' s 1 7 9 7 t ra n s lat i o n o f Francoi s C o i n t e rau x ' s f i r s t
( 1 7 9 0 - 9 1 ) , a s pub l i shed i n t h e
two
ions
of the B r it i s h Board of Ag r i cu lt u r e .
C o i n t e r a u x , an
a dventurous r u r a l a r c h i t e ct , p romo t e d a method o f b u i l d i n g
i n d i genous t o h i s nat ive Lyo n , b e c a u s e h e s a w the n e e d f o r
an e conomi c a l , f i reproof mat e r i a l t h a t " t he common man "
c o u l d g r a s p and b e c a u s e n o one had yet adequat e l y
O n t h e Ame r i can
e xp l a i n e d h o w t h i s cou l d b e done .
cont i n e n t , C o i n t e raux ' s i de a s , f i lt e red at f i r s t t hrough
H o l land and h i s Ame r i ca n i m i t at o r , S t e phen John s o n , took
Ru r a l b u i lde r s were a n x i o u s f o r an a n s w e r
root qu i ck l y .
t o t he qu e s t ion o f h o w t o b u i l d a cheap , durab l e , and
e a s y-to-e rect st ructure .
Communicat
But in t he face of b i t ing northern f r o s t s and
abundant r a in f a l l , pr e j ud i ce about " mud hou s e s " p e r s i s t e d ,
d e s p i t e t h e pub l i c i ze d s u c c e s s fu l e xp e r iment s .
The
economy o f s u ch hou s e s w as a l s o unde rmined by the
i n c r e a s ing cheapn e s s of other b u i lding mat e r i a l s that were
made more a c ce s s ib l e by canal and ra i l road expan s i on .
The
e a s e o f e a rthen w a l l con s t ruct ion w as l ik e w i s e c a l l e d i n t o
qu e s t ion b y t h o s e w h o want e d home s w i t hout h a v i n g t o w a i t
for a p roper s e a s on t o d r y a spe c i a l ly -mou lded b r i c k ,
fo rmed f rom a s p e c i a l r e c ipe o f s a n d , g r ave l , c l a y , o r
loam .
The s a feguards t hat a l l e v i a t e d t h e s e p roblems
p rovide l e s s o n s f o r today ' s c on s e rvat ion i s t s who mi ght
Bu i l din g a
conf ront an Ame r i can rammed earth s t ru c t u r e .
p rope r foundat i on w as a lmost mandat ory .
C o n s t r u ct in g
eave s t hat f l a r e d s u f f i c ient ly t o throw wat e r f a r enough
from the wa l l and i t s base t o pr event int ru s i on was
another p r e r e qu i s it e .
Jo i n i n g t he b r i ck s c a r e f u l l y w i t h
w o o d j o i s t s , s i l l s , l inte l s , s a s h , lath a n d r a f t e r s w as
also c r it i ca l , a s was f inding t he p rope r coat in g t o appl y
over the p a rt i cu l a r k i nd o f e a rt h u s ed t o make t h e wa l l .
The dive r s it y o f t e ch n i qu e , funct i on , s t y l e , and
mat e r i a l t hat charact e r i z ed Eu ropean and North Ame r i can
e a rthen wa l l c o n s t ru c t i on f r om the l at e - e i ghteenth t o t he
m i d - n i n e t e e n t h cent u r i e s , as dep i ct e d in t he rema rkable
range of pub l i cat i o n s s u rveyed above , s ugge s t s t hat n o
s i n g l e formula e x i s t e d f o r e a rthen home s o n e m i ght b u i l d .
F u l l e r app r e c i a t i on f o r t he u n i que comb i nat i o n s that
bu i lde r s emp l oyed can be gained by examin ing the rammed
The s e ve r a l
earth or unburnt b r i c k s t ru c t u r e s t hems e l ve s .
that survive a t t e s t t o t h e du rab i l i t y o f t h i s b u i l d i n g
t e chno logy , even i n a c l imate n o t norma l l y conduc ive t o
the f lou r i sh i n g o f adobe .
ENDNOTES
Conta i n i ng a
[ 1 ] Stephen W . John s o n , Rural Economy:
W i l l i am
i s e on P i se B u i l d i ng ( N e w B r un s w i c k , N . J . :
Tr
E l l i ot t , 1 8 0 6 ) .
eat
[ 2 ] S e e , e . g . , V it ruv i u s , Ten Book s on A r ch i t e c t u re ( N e w
ral
D ove r , 1 9 6 0 ) , 3 9 ; P l i n i u s S e cu n du s ,
York :
Harvard Unive r s it y P r e s s ,
Hi story ( C ambr i dge , Mas s . :
1 9 5 2 ) , 3 8 5 ; Mar c u s Var r o , On Agr icu lture ( C amb r i dge ,
Harv ar d Unive r s i t y P re s s , 1 9 6 7 ) , 2 1 7 ; and
Ma s s . :
Sheppard F r e r e , " Ex c avat i on s at V e r u l amium, 1 9 5 6 , S e cond
I nt e r im Report , " Ant iqu a r i e s ' Jou r n a l 3 7 , n o s . 1 , 2
1-15 .
( Janu a r y , Apr i l 1 95 7 ) :
Natu
to
E a rt h ( Ne w Y o r k :
F a c t s on
[ 3 ] Je an D et h i e r , Down
F i l e , I n c . , 1 9 8 3 ) , 5 7 ; P . Doat , A . Hay s , et al . ,
ir
Ter re ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s A l t e rn at ive s ,
nnais
1 9 7 9 ) , 1 3 - 2 9 ; Mau r i ce G a r d e n ,
XVI I Ie S i e c 1e ( P a r i s :
L e s B e l l e s L et t re s , 1 9 7 0 ) , 6 - 2 4 ;
and Rene Ab r a r d ,
(Paris :
P ayot ,
de la F
1 94 8 ) , 32 2-40 .
Constru e en
Lyon
et
les
Lyo
au
Geologie rance
sur
,
ique
Phys
la
Introduct Aux Obseetvations
sur
Sciences des Art et desuppMetiers,
Agricultu
Ecole d'Architecllret ale
Cah
Ecole d'Architectllre Rllrale.
[4]
George s - C l aude Go i f fon , " L ' Ar t du Macon P i s e u r , "
r
i ons
I ' H i s t o i re N atu r e l l e
sur l e s Arts, 1 (March 1 7 7 2 ) :
lement aux D ictionna i r e s des
6 8 2 - 9 7 ; D e n i s D i de rot , S
V o lume IV ( P a r i s :
s
C h e z Panckou c k e , St o upe , B ru ne t , 1 7 7 7 ) ; and C . F r anco i s
Bou l a r d , " P i s e , " i n Abbe F r an c o i s Roz i e r , C ours Complet
re, Volume V I I ( P a r i s :
Rue et Hot e l
d'
S e rpent e , 1 7 8 6 ) :
72 2 -3 6 .
[ 5 ] F r a n co i s C o i n t e raux ,
P remier
Che z l ' aut e u r ,
ier ( P a r i s :
[ 6 ] Franc o i s Cointe raux,
Deuxieme Cahier ( P a r i s :
C h e z l ' aut e u r ,
Rllr
1790) .
1791) ,
10 .
,
42
Adobe 90
Ecole Architecture Rurale,
[ 7 ] Franyo i s C o i nt e r aux ,
d'
C h e z l ' aute u r ,
P remier
ier (Pari s :
Cah
1 7 90) ,
33-4 .
[ 8 ] F ra n y o i s C o i nt er a u x , Eco le d ' Arch i t e ct u r e Rurale,
Che z l ' aut eur , 1 7 9 0 ) , 3 8 ,
P remier Ca hier ( P ar i s :
[ 9 ] C o i n t e raux ' s l ament at i o n s about t he un coope r a t i v e
way p o l i t i c i a n s t re a t e d him i s f o u n d in h i s
(Paris :
Chez Ve z a rd
s de
Fac i le
et Ie Normant , 1 7 9 3 ) , 6 - 7 , and in La
h
Economique de Ree d i f i e r l es Egl i
Paroissiales ( P a r i s :
De laun a y , 1 8 1 6 ) , n . p .
Co i n t e r aux s ent "many c op i e s " o f
his
to P ru s s i a , Swede n , Ge rmany , E n g l a n d , I t a l y ,
See Andre Bourde ,
Ru s s i a , H o l l an d a n d North Ame r i ca .
Agron
Agronomiste s en France au XVI I I e S i e c 1e
(Paris :
S . E . V . P . E . N . , 1 9 6 7 ) , Vol . 1 1 , 9 4 6 .
Distribution des Batiment Pis6ses Met ode� et
cahiers
Omes et
CostruzionePossident
delle Casei diAbitatori
Terra,
Opusco10Dell'irettoEconomicaAgli Industriosi
Schule andbau
M6thode Facile,
aphy
The Complete age
Communicatto of the Board of
Internal&Impro the Country
Ouarte evie
The gli Country Cottage
Orn6e; or
Architectural
isto
sto
Architecture, Mouyements,
uite
Encourage of Art Manusactactures Commeetyrce
tect
&
Important
Hints
and
sco
Syste &
Buildings
Designs for Cottages, Cottage Farms, and.'I.h.e.Other
Complete Farmer; orsbathe General Dictionary of
[ 1 0 ] The mo st notable are :
in I t a l y , G i u s eppe de l
Ro s s o ,
e
D
J . A . Bouch a r d , 1 7 9 3 ) ;
de l l ' Agro T oscano ( F i r e n z e :
der L
k0nst
in Germa n y , F . Coint e raux ,
( H i lderberghau s s e n :
n . p . , 1 7 93 ) .
and
[11]
C o i n t e raux ment io n e d h i s B r it i s h expe r i ence in
n.p.
F o r Yorke , s e e Le s l i e Stephen and
S i dn e y Le e , e ds . , D ictionary of National B iogr
( London :
Oxford U n i ve r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 1 7 ) , Vo l . 2 1 , 1 2 6 8 ;
and G . E . Cohayne e t a I , e ds . ,
Peer
( London :
St . C a t h e r i n e P r e s s , 1 9 2 6 ) , Vo l . 6 , 3 0 7 .
[ 1 2 ] The l o c at ion of t he s e e xp e r iment s , none of wh ic h
S e e Rob e rt
s u rvived, wa s p robab ly S c a r s b r i c k H a l l .
Beat son , " On C ot t a ge s , "
ions
the Husbandry and
Agr iculture, or Subje c t s Re lat ive
( L ondon :
W.
vements of
Bulmer
Co . , 1 7 9 7 ) , I , 1 1 1 .
[ 1 3 ] The mo st comp l e t e de s c r ipt ion of t h i s methodology
i s in The
rly R
w 5 8 , n o . 1 1 6 ( F ebruary/Ap r i l
1837 ) :
524-40 .
A l s o s e e Norman Dave y , A H istory of
Bui l d i ng Mater i a ls ( Ne w York :
Drake P ub l i s he r s , 1 9 7 1 ) ,
1 9 - 2 0 , and R . J . B rown ,
En
sh
( London :
Robe r t Ha l e , 1 9 7 0 ) , 1 4 7 .
[ 1 4 ] John P la w , F erme
Rural Improvements
( London :
I . and J . T ay lo r , 1 7 9 5 ) .
F o r a p roper cont e xt
of P l aw ' s mot i ve s , s e e S andra B lutma n , " Bo o k s of D e s igns
for Country Hou s e s , 1 7 8 0 - 1 8 1 5 , "
H
ry 1 1
(1 968) :
2 5 -3 3 ; J . M . Rob i n s o n , "Mode l Farm B u i l d i n g s in
the Age o f Improvement , " Architectural Hi
ry 1 9
( 1 97 6 ) :
1 7 -2 3 ; a n d G e o r g e s Te y s s ot , " Cottage et
P it t o r e s qu e :
L e s Or i g i ne s du Logement Ouvr i e r e n
An g l e t e r re , 1 7 8 1 - 1 8 1 8 , "
34 ( 1 9 74 ) :
Contin
2 6-37 .
[ 1 5 ] Robert S a lmon , "Method of Con s t ru c t i n g Commo d i o u s
Hou s e s wit h E a rthen Wa l l s , " T ran
ions of the Soci
f
ment
and
s,
for the
27 ( 1809) : 185-97 .
F o r Henry Ho l l an d and the Duke o f
B e d f o r d , s e e D o rothy St roud , Hen ry Hol land'
His L i fe
and Arch i
u re ( South Brun s w i c k , N . Y . :
A . S . Barnes
Co . , 1 9 6 6 ) and Cha r l e s D r u r y ,
Di
ver ies in Agr iculture; or, a New
m of Farmi ng
in Gene r a l ( 4 t h e d . ; Londo n :
She rwood , Nee ly
Jon e s ,
1818) , 214 .
[ 1 6 ] In addit io n to Robe r t S a lmon , s e e Wi l l iam B arb e r ,
( London :
J . Ty l e r , 1 8 0 2 ) ; Joseph M .
Farm
Gandy ,
Rural Bu i ldings ( London :
John H a r d i n g , 1 8 0 5 ) ; and The
S o c i e t y of Art s , " Rammed Earth B u i lding s , " in
Agr iculture and Hu
ndry
( 5t h e d . ;
London :
W.
F l int ,
43
1 8 0 7 ) , vo l . I I , n . p .
H o l l an d ' s cont r ibut i o n s in t h i s
regard w e r e b e s t a rt i c u l at ed b y John B . P apwo rt h , in h i s
( London :
J . D igge n s , 1 8 1 8 ) , 1 5 .
RuralAmerican
Residences mer
Far
, 2 , no . 2 8 ( O ct obe r 6 ,
[ 17 ]
2 , no . 3 6 ( D ecembe r 1 , 1 8 2 0 ) :
2 8 8 ; 3 , nos .
3 1 - Apr i l 2 7 , 1 8 2 1 ) .
1820) :
224 ;
1 - 5 ( March
[ 1 8 ] The p lant at ion b u i l d i n g s were p l aced on the
Nat i o n a l Reg i s t e r o f H i s t o r i c P l a c e s on March 2 3 , 1 9 7 2 .
The Church o f the H o l y C r o s s was de s igned by E . C . Jone s .
S e e unpub l i s h e d 1 9 2 6 report ( lo c a t e d at C l emson
Unive r s i t y , South C a r o l ina ) by Thoma s A . H . Mi l l e r ,
A s s o c ia t e Agr i c u l t u r a l E n g i ne e r , Bureau o f P ub l i c Roads ,
U . S . D e p artment of Agr i cu l t u r e .
Amer Farme
[ 1 9 ] F o r Ande r s on , s e e
ican
24, 1821) :
1 7 6 ; 6, no . 1 ( March 2 6 ,
188 .
Agr i cu l tu r i s t , 9 ( Ap r i l 1 8 3 6 ) :
r 3 , no . 22
182 4 ) :
6;
( August
rn
Southe
[ 2 0 ] S . Cha s e e re c t e d a t w o - s t o r y , wh i t e w a s h e d , " v e r y
f i rm " p i s e dwe l l ing i n B a l t imor e , a s i n d i c a t e d i n the
2 , no . 2 ( Ap r i l 6 , 1 8 2 1 ) :
14 .
For the
Ma i n e patent s by E . Mayo , T . Norcro s s and G . P o l l a r d ,
s e e M . D . L e ggett , comp . ,
ct Index of Pate nts for
I nve ntions Issued by the U . S, Patent Of f i ce f rom 1 7 90
( Wa s h i n gt on , D . C . :
Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,
187 4 ) , I, 13 9 , 1 4 8 .
American Farmer
�
Subje
to
[ 2 1 ] S e e Janet B igbee G r i t z ne r , " Tabby in t he Coa s t a l
the Culture H i s t ory o f an Ame r i can Bui l d i n g
Southe a s t :
Mat e r i a l "
( Ph . D . d i s s . , T h e Lou i s i a n a S t a t e Unive r s i t y
a n d Ag r i c u l t u r a l a n d Mechan i c a l C o l lege , 1 9 7 8 ) .
,
American
Farmer
Agriculturi
[22]
353 ;
8 , no . 4 5 ( January 2 6 , 1 8 2 7 )
( February 2 3 , 1 8 2 7 ) :
3 9 1 ; Southern
6 1 7 -2 4 ; 9 , no .
st 3 , no . 1 2 ( Decembe r 1 8 3 0 ) :
1 ( January 1 8 3 6 ) :
i i ; no . 8 ( August 1 8 3 6 ) :
4 0 0 ; and
no . 1 2 ( D e cemb e r 1 8 3 6 ) :
6 4 1 -4 4 .
no .
49
[ 2 3 ] For examp l e , B e n j amin Carro l l re commended u s i ng one
of three , n o n l ime s t u c co s :
( 1 ) a mixture of l i n s e e d
o i l , l i t harge ( wa t e r - i n s o lu b l e PbO) , red l e a d ( Pb 3 0 4 ) ,
and l e a d a c e t at e ; ( 2 ) t u rpent ine gum b o i l e d in s a l t
wat e r ; or ( 3 ) t a r mixed w i t h hot wat e r and s a lt .
9 , n o . 8 ( August 1 8 3 6 ) :
406 .
n
Souther eseeAgriculturist,
[24]
Gen
Farmer , 4 , no . 3 9 ( Sept emb e r 2 7 , 1 8 3 4 ) :
3 0 9 ; no . 4 4 ( Novemb e r 1 , 1 8 3 4 ) :
3 4 5 ; 5 , no . 5 ( January
31, 1835) :
3 4 ; 7 , no . 6 ( February 1 1 , 1 8 3 7 ) :
4 2 ; and
8, no . 3 ( Augu s t 4 , 1 8 3 8 ) :
244 .
[25 ]
Annual Report of the Commisioner
s of atents 1843
P
,
( Wa sh i n gton , D . C . :
U . S . Governmen t , S e n a t e Document
1 5 0 , 2 8 t h Congre s s , F i r s t S e s s ion , Hou s e Document 1 7 7 ) ,
4 5 - 6 , 9 8 - 1 0 1 ; I b i d . , 1 8 4 4 ( Senate Document 7 5 , 2 8 t h
Congre s s , Second S e s s ion , Hou s e Document 7 8 ) , 2 3 9 - 4 1 ;
I b i d . , 1 8 4 5 ( S enate D ocument 3 0 7 , 2 9th Cong r e s s , F i r s t
S e s s i on , Hou se Document 1 4 0 ) , 4 5 0 - 5 4 .
[ 2 6 ] The 1 8 4 4 and 1 8 4 5 report s were r e i s s ued by Congre s s
i n p rint i n g s o f 1 5 , 0 0 0 and 5 0 , 0 0 0 r e sp e c t i ve l y .
See the
n o . 6 ( June
New
5 4 and the Ohio Cultivator 1 , no . 5 ( Ma r c h 1 ,
1844) :
Genesee Farmer and Gardener' S Journal S,
1845) :
36.
44
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
EL USO DEL ADOBE EN E D I F ICIOS EN EL AREA METROPOLI TANA DE LA
CI UDAD DE MEXI CO ; EL PASADO , EL PRESENTE Y LAS EXPECTATI VAS
PARA EL FUTURO .
The exp l o s ive growth of the
Mexico C i ty Metropo l i tan
Area , and the deep c hange s
in the l i fe s ty l e s o f its i n
habitan t s , have brought the
use of trad i t i o n a l building
methods in adobe pra c t i c a l l y
to an end ; adobe i s n o w s e l
dom used , but an enormous
number of bui ldings of a l l
type s made o f t h i s mate r i a l
s t i l l e x i s t . B y breaking the
metropo l itan area into z o n e s
r e l at i n g to s o i l t y p e s and
environme n t a l condi t i o n s , we
have found that , within a
gene ral framewo r k o f build
ing us age app l icable for the
who l e area , adobe and i t s
r e l ated bui lding methods c a n
b e studied a s t h e r e s u l t o f
truly regional and even l o
c a l deve lopments , responding
succ e s s fu l l y to the require
ments o f the se loca l i t i e s .
KEYWORDS
Adobe , Mexico C ity , geogra
phy , h i s tory , characte r i s
t i c s e x i s tents .
Segi smundo Enge l k i n g K e e l ing
Saul Alc antara Ono fre
Univers idad Autonoma Metropo l itana-Az capo t z a lco
Av . San Pablo No . 1 8 0
Col . Reyno sa Tamau l ipas
0 2 2 0 0 Az capot z a lco , D . F .
Mexico .
I ntroducc ion
E s te traba j o e s parte de una pr imera e tapa de organ i z ac �on de un
programa de inve stigac ion academi ca que se e s ta rea l i z ando dentro
de l marco de las a c t ividades docentes de l Departamento de l Medio
Ambiente de l a D iv i s ion de Ciencias y Artes para e l D i seno ,
Univers idad Autonoma Metropo l itana . E s to s traba j o s se o r i gi nan en
nuestra preocupacion por l a cons tante destruccion de edi f i c ac iones
real i z adas e n adobe , como producto de l rapido crecimiento de la
C i udad de Mexico y e l consecuente o lvido de l a s tecno logias de
construccion en e s te mate r i a l fundamenta l .
No come n z ar su e s tudio ahora , impl icara una cada v e z mayor
d i f i cultad para su ana l i s i s de sde el punto de v i s ta e s ta d i s t ico .
La me ta de e s te programa de e s tudios sera e s tablecer c r i t e
r i o s p a r a determinar l a monumental idad q u e l o s e d i f i c i o s de ado
be pueden a l c a n z a r e n el contexte de l medio construido e x i s tente
en e l p a i s , y as i gnar j ui c i o s de valor que no necesar iamente
e s te n vinculados a la nocion de que e s te mate r i a l se usa solo en
c o n s trucc ione s paupe rrimas y de sprec i able s .
E l ambito geogr a f i co ;
condic i ones f i s ic a s
En e s ta i nve s t igac ion nos hemos dedi cado a l e s tudio d e la cons
truc c ion de adobe e x i s tente en a lgunos poblados absorbidos por
el crec imiento de l a C i udad de Mexico y las areas r iberenas de l o s
antiguos Lagos d e C h a l c o y Texcoco , i n c luyendo los Mun i c i p i o s de
Atenco , Ecatepe c , Texcoco , Chima lhuac an , I xtapaluca y Chalco , y
los Mun i c ip i o s de T l a lmana lco y Amecame ca , que mue stran una s e c
c ion tipica d e l a orogr a f i a y d e l a s variaciones c l imat i c a s de
flora y fauna , a s i como la comp o s i c ion geologica y de sue l o s que
se pueden encontrar en la mayor parte de l Va l le de Mexico . E s t a s
areas a u n cuando conservan muchas d e sus c aracte r i s t i c a s rura l e s ,
se encuentran en un proce s o de trans i c ion a forma s de vida urba
nas , i n c l uyendo l a adopc ion de me todos de cons trucc i on no tradi
c ionales .
Caracter i s t i c a s geogr a f i c a s de l Va l le d e Mexico
a
A l t i p lano Mexicano , se
En e l extremo sur de la Meseta Centra l
encuentra , a una a l tura de unos 2 2 4 0 m. s obre el nive l de l mar , l a
depre s ion conocida tradic iona lmente como e l " Va l l e d e Mexico " .
E s te termine , que por r a z one s de orden h i s torico y de uso genera l i
z ado seguiremos ut i l i z ando , e n rigor n o e s correcto , pues debe ser
de f i n ido como cuenc a , dado que se encuentra rode ada por cadenas
montano s a s que , por su pecu l i ar ordenac ion impiden l a exi stenc i a
mode
d e una l i n e a d e drena j e supe r f i c i a l que permite la eros ion
lado , caracteri st i c a de un Va l l e .
0
Dicha cuenca tiene una forma aproximadamente ova l , cuyo e j e
mayor , de Nore s te a Sureste e s de unos 1 1 0 km , y e l meno r , de
E s te a Oeste de unos 8 0 km . ( ver f igura 1 ) .
La cuenca de Mexico debe su forma c i o n a proc e s o s vo l c a n i c o s
y t e c t o n i c o s q u e se han ido desarro l lando en los u l t imos 5 0 m i l lo
n e s d e anos como parte d e la forma c i o n d e l a f a j a vo l c a n i c a trans
mex i c a na .
0
cuenca se encuentra rodeado a l Sure ste por l a
E l va l le
S ierra de R i o Frio y p o r l a S ierra Nevada , q u e i n c l uye los vo l c a
n e s Popocatepe t l , con 5 4 3 8 m . S . N . M . y e l I z tacc i huatl , c o n
5 2 8 6m . E s ta se l i ga p o r e l S u r c o n l a cadena de l Chichinaut z i n y
la de l A j usco , c o n s t i tuyendo parte integral de la cordil lera neo
vo lcanica . D e l Suroeste a l Noroe ste se ext ienden l a s Sierras de
Tepo z o t l a n y de Te z o n t l a lpan , l i gando se con l a serrani a de Pachuc a .
Por e l Nororiente encontramos l a s S ierras de Chichicuaut l a , de l
Tepo z an y Ca lpulalpan .
* ama
45
Figura 1 . Las S ierras y Lagos del Va l le
de Mexico .
Dentro de e s ta cuenca se encuentran otras forma c ione s meno
re s , como la S ierra de Guadalupe , la de Santa Catalina y la de
Caldera , al Oriente , a s ! como eminenc ias a i s lada s , como e l Cerro
de la Estre l l a , el Pefi6rr de l Marques y a l guno s otros .
C l ima
Dadas las grande s var iac iones orogr a f i c a s , l a s caracte r ! sticas
c l imat icas de las dive r s a s zonas de 1a cuenca son igualmente va
r iadas . En terminos generales se encuentran dos regimenes c l ima
ticos e s tablecido s : al Norte , segun el s i s tema de Koppen para con
dic iones medias , exi s te un c l ima de t ipo " seco e s tepa r i o " con l lu
vias e s c a s a s . Al Sur , inc luyendo la gran ma sa de la Ciudad de Me
xico , se t iene un tipo templado moderado l luvio so , con precipita
c iones mayores a 7 5 0
anua le s , resultantes princ ipalmente de
los vientos a l i s io s humedos provenientes del Noreste . Por otra
parte , hay una tendenc ia a tener una mayor precipitac i6n en las
faldas de l a s montafias que en las areas p lana s . La temporada de
l luvias se extiende en genera l , entre los me s e s de Mayo y Octubre .
mm.
La temperatura media anual para la cuenca es de 1 5 ° C . ; la
maxima a la sombra e s de 3 1 ° C . y la m!nima de 4 ° C · a 6 ° C , con a lgu
nas he ladas en invierno , aunque e x i s ten di ferencias segun a lturas
y cercania s a las montafias . Por otra parte , l a temperatura ha au
mentado en areas como la Ciudad de Mexico a 8 ° C , 6 1 0 ° C , debido al
gran aumento en la contaminaci6n ambienta l .
Hidro log!a
La condici6n de cuenca de l Va l le de Mexico determina que todas l a s
corrientes supe r f i c i a l e s provenientes d e la serranias c i rcundante s ,
f l uyan hac ia la depre s i6n centra l , la cua l , no teniendo s a l idas de
descarga , ha formado una serie de lagos y lagunas , entre l a s que
se pueden sefialar como ma s importantes l a s de Texcoco , Chalco ,
Xochimi lco , Z umpango , San Cri s t6bal y Xaltocan . De e stos poco exi s
te ahora debido por una parte a la tala inmoderada en los bo sques
exi stente s y a la extracc i6n de grandes volumenes de agua fuera de
l a cuenca desde el Siglo XVI I I . U l timamente , gran parte ha s ido
bombeada del subsuelo con la cons iguiente de formac i6n d i f e renc ial
de l mi smo .
Geolog!a
Las principa l e s forma c ione s petreas son de rocas {gneas extru s ivas
( ande sicas , r i o l i t ! c a s y basaltica s ) de l terciario y cuaternario ,
que yacen di scordantemente sobre l a s roca s me sozoicas mar i nas , cu
briendo la mayor parte de la cuenca ; en las f a ldas de las serra
n {a s tambien e x i s ten rocas sedimentarias c la s t ic a s ( aren i s c a s y
grava s ) y a r c i l l a s , asociadas con piroc l a s ticas ( tobas ) . La mayor
parte de la planicie de la cuenca e s ta formada por a r c i l l a s lacus
tre s , practicamente impermeab le s ,
c o n dep6s itos permeables
0
0
gravas y arena s , concentradas especialmente en l a s areas de desem
bocaduras de rio s .
Sue los
y
f lora
La compl e j idad l i tologica de la con formacion del area ocupada por
la zona metropo l i tana , determina que en e l l a s e haya desarrol lado
una gran cantidad de t ipos de sue l o . S in embargo , la relativa j u
ventud de l a s formac ione s geo logicas exp l ica la exi s tencia de
ando s o l e s ricos en c e n i z a s volcanica s , y l i to s o l e s con formac ione s
petreas aparente s , predominante s hacia el Sur y e l Oe s te , a s i como
l a s grandes extensiones de rego s o l e s y f l uvi s o l e s de origen a l u vial vo l c anico , presentes en la vec indad de los volcane s popocate
petl e I xtacc ihua t l . Por otra parte , hacia el Norte predominan for
mac iones como ver t i s o le s , ( Cuaut i t lan a Texcoco ) , muy a r c i l l o s o s
c o n concentrac ione s de c a lc io , y sue los feozem , ricos en materia
organ ica y de gran productividad agricola , denotando una mayor an
t i guedad . Finalmente s e t i enen sue l o s so lonchac en l o s fondos de
los antiguo s lago s , complementados por h i s t o s o l e s y gleysoles en
e l antiguo lago de Chalco ( Xochimi lco y Mixquic ) , con altas concen
centraciones de s a l e s y cambio s o l e s humidos en l a s areas bos c o s a s
cercanas a l o s vo l c ane s .
Los sue los mencionados de f inen amp l i amente l o s t ipos de vege
tacion exi s tente : bosque s de montan a s , yendo de caduc i fo l i a s
a
con i feras segun la a ltura , pa s t i z o l e s con matorral en l a s parte s
b a j a s , con a lgunas e spec i e s mayores como pirul , fre sno , etc . ,
y en
l a s z on a s mas aridas exi s tencia de plantas de t ipo desertico , como
nopa l e s ( opuntia sp . ) y magueye s ( agave sp . ) . En muchos lugares e l
crec imiento desorbitado de la mancha urbana h a deteriorado e l ba
lance ecologico en forma irrevers ible .
De sarro llo de la Ciudad de Mexico
adobe
y
la pre s en c i a historica de l
Al igual que en otras regiones de l mundo , Mexico ha conocido una
larga h i s toria en el uso del adobe . En " La ven t a " , Edo . de Taba s c o ,
exis ten piramide s recubiertas de piedras y lodo , que datan de l ana
800 A.C.
en Cuicui lco , en el Valle de Mexico , desde el ana 6 0 0AC .
s e cons truyo el pr imer basamento de piedra de grandes dimensione s ,
en que se usa barro como aglutinante j en Coma l c a lco , Taba s c o , ya
en tiempo s c l as i c o s ( c . 7 0 0 D . C . ) los Mayas cons truyeron piramides
y templos en ladr i l lo crudo y quemado a falta de piedra en la zona .
Y
En e l ana 1 3 2 5 D . C . , fecha tradicional de la fundacion de la
C iudad de Mexico-Tenocht i t lan , e l Va l l e de Mexico s e encontraba ya
cons iderablemente poblado , con una economia ba sada tanto en agri
cultura de tempora l , incluyendo agricultura por terra z a s , como de
chinampas en l a s areas lacustre s . Era gene r a l i z ado el uso de tec
nicas de b a j areque y de adobe para l a s con s trucc iones de los mac e
hua l e s ( c iudadanos comune s ) y a u n d e c l a s e s ma s a l ta s , como l o s
comerc iantes ( pochte c a )
la construcc ion de mampo steria c o n morte
ro de c a l s e reservaba princ ipa lmente para la noble z a 0 l o s tern plos .
j
Tras la conqu i s t a de la Gran Tenocht i tlan , l o s E spano l e s no
tuvieron gran d i ficul tad en entrenar a los indigenas en l a s tec n i c a s de edi f icac ion europea para l o s traba j o s de reconstrucc ion ,
pue sto que muchas de e l l a s se uti l i z aban en Mexico , entre e l la s
l a s d e adobe .
Figura
2.
Figura 3 .
Un buen e j emp lo de adobe prehispanico fue encontrado en l a s
excavac ione s d e s a lvamento e fe c tuadas durante 1 9 8 9 en la c a l l e de
Fran c i sco Gon z a l e z Bocanegra , Colonia More los , por l a s Arqueologas
Maria de l Jesus Sanche z Vazque z , Margarita Carba l l a l Staedt ler y
Maria Flore s Hernande z , Subdirecc ion de Sa lvamento Arqueologico ,
I . N . A . H . La excavac ion , loca l i z ada en 10 que aparentemente fue un
barrio de nobl e s y pochteca s , descubrio r e s to s de con s trucc ion
habitacional corre s pondiente a l po s t c l a s ico tardio ( 1 4 7 3 - 1 5 2 1 ) .
E s ta incluye c imientos de piedra b a s a l t i c a y de t e z ontle de s o lo
2 2 cm . de ancho y 3 . 8 cm . de a ltura , sobre l o s que de splantan mu
ros de adobe de 47 cm . de largo ,
2 2 cm . de ancho y 8 c m . de a ltu
ra , evidenc iando poca preocupacion por los problemas de humedad
a scendente y una cubierta nec e s a r i amente l igera , probablemente
arma zon de madera con p a j a , 10 que s e con f i rma por hue l l a s de pos
t e s . ( ver f iguras 2 y 3 ) .
Durante e l s iglo XVI exis tio una c lara d i ferenc i a entre la
construcc ion e spano la hecha en mampo s t e r i a de piedra con argama s a
de c a l , en e l centro de l a Ciudad de Mexico y otros poblados impor
tante s , y l a s cons trucciones indigenas de la per i feri a , rea l i z adas
en su gran mayoria con adobe . Kubler ( 1 ) menc iona que , s egun Cer
vantes de S a l a z a r , l o s mater i a l e s de barro eran cons iderados vile s ,
47
comparando con l a piedra . E sta nOClon se mantuvo en todo s l o s n i
ve l e s s o c i a le s , incluyendo a los remanentes d e la nob l e z a indfgena
que 10gr6 sobrevivir a l o s pro fundos c ambios s o c i a l e s promovidos
por un progre so de colon i z ac i6n , mi smo que dentro de sus pos ib i l i
dade s adopt a l a s formas E spano l a s , incluyendo la construcc i6n de
c a s a s de mampo sterfa y mortero de c a l con pue rtas , ventanas y cu biertas de vigue r f a e scuadrada .
Otra condic ionante para la exi s tencia de construcc ione s de
adobe fue la vec indad de l : Lago de Texcoco y e l con s tante pe l igro
de inundaci6n que pre sentaba s i l a precipi taci6n pluvial era exce
s iva . E s te fen6meno era conoc ido de sde mucho ante s de la conqu i s ta
y era de con s i derable importanc i a , dada la gran dependenc i a de la
economfa de los habitantes del Valle con los Lagos . Se ha detecta
do de sde tiempos pre c l a s icos un cons tante cambio de ubicaci6n de
poblados r iberenos a la re lac i6n de l o s c ambios de nive l de l a s
agua s .
Figura 4 . Los lago s de la epoca
diluvial .
Ant e s de la l legada de los E spano l e s hubo inunda c ione s impor
tante s i la de 1 4 4 9 ( 2 ) l lev6 a l a cons trucc i6n del a lbarrad6n de
Ne tz ahua lcoyot l , que extend fa desde e l poblado de Ixtapalapa ha s t a
Atzacoa lco , cercano a l c e r r o del Tepeyac . Los primeros a n o s d e l a
Colonia transcurrieron s in grande s inc idente s , h a s t a 1 5 5 5 en que
la C i udad de Mexico y otros pueblos r iberenos quedaron inundados
con gran dana a las cons trucc ione s . S iguie ron las inundac iones de
1 5 7 9 - 1 5 8 0 , de 1 6 0 4 , 1 6 0 7
la de 1 6 2 8 , que continu6 hasta 1 6 3 3 ,
obligando a l a s autoridades a buscar una soluci6n al problema la
que , tras mucho argumentar , fue dada por e l ingeniero Aleman ,
Enrico Martfne z . E s ta con s i s t i6 en desviar l a s aguas del Lago
Z umpango , hacia e l Rio Tula , que queda fuera de l a cuenc a , por 10
que se debfa hacer un socav6n de unas 1 4 , 8 5 0 varas
( unos 1 1 , 8 8 0m )
Y
A partir d e e s to s traba j o s y posteriormente c o n l a apertura
de l ta j o de NOc h i s tongo , comenz ado en 1 7 9 8 , el gran canal del
de saglie real i z ado durante el s iglo pas ado , y los traba j o s del
s i s tema de drena j e pro fundo de la Ciudad de Mexico , de rea l i z a
c i6n rec iente , l o s nive l e s de l o s lagos han ido b a j ando ha s t a
hace r l o s c a s i des aparecer (ver figura 4 ) .
o � 10 15 20 25 !(N.
A comienzo d e l Siglo
XVI .
la o
Que e s c a s i impo s ible encontrar e·d i f ic i o s anter iores al ana
1 7 0 0 (y aun po s te riormente ) , debido al pe l igro que s e corre con
construcc ione s de adobe en areas inundable s . Por 10 tanto , se
puede dec i r que practicamente todo s los edi f ic ios de adobe perte
necientes al perfodo 1 5 2 1 - 1 7 0 0 se podran encontrar en regiones
tradic iona lmente seca s , como l o s antiguos pob l ado s de Mixcoac ,
Tacubaya , T l a lpan , Huexo t l a , Texcoco , T l a lmana lco , Teotihuacan ,
Amecame c a , T l alnepantl a , etc .
Xaltocan
TACUBAYA•
--XIX
L a s inundac iones produc idas por l o s lagos y pos te r iore s medi
das de control t r a j eron dos resultados importantes para la cons trucc i6n de adobe :
...."""",... CHALCO
A comienzo del S iglo
y en e l ana 1 8 8 9 .
2a.
Que , debido al drenado de los lagos a partir de l Siglo XVI I I
s e construy6 mucho e n adobe e n l a s tierras ganada s . En terminos
generales s e podr fa e s tablecer una cronologfa de construcc ione s
en ba s e a su ubicac i6n relativa a l o s nive l e s de s e c ac i6n a l c a n z a
d o s en f e c h a s dada s , como en e l caso d e Chalco , en q u e encontra
mo s un edificio con rasgo s barrocos tfpicos de mediados de l S iglo
XVI I I , pero con muros de adobe , 0 de l o s pueblos de I xtac a lco ,
Santa Anita Z a c a t l a lmanco , y la Magda lena Mixhiuc a , cercanos a la
C iudad , en que la construcci6n de adobe s e r f a posterior a 1 8 0 0 ,
o Ayo t l a en que l a s construc c ione s son ma s reciente s .
El pr inc ipio del fin
El de sarrollo de la construcc ion en adob e en e l Valle de Mexico en
t iempos en que los camb ios sociale s , t e cnologicos y economicos eran lentos y
paulatinos garantiz aron la supervivencia de t e cnologfas netamente tradic iona les como el adob e . Pero con los t iempos de paz que a partir de 1 9 2 1 se experi mentan en la Ciudad de Mexico , con el f in de la Revolucion Mexicana , comienza
un proceso d e a c e lerado c r e c imiento en todos los ordene s .
La poblac ion del D istrito Federal , que en 1 8 9 5 era de 4 2 6 , 8 04 habitan
tes , para 1 9 00 era ya de 540 , 4 78 . A partir de 1 9 3 0 la poblac ion comienza a
mod i f icar con mayor rapidez todos los patrones tradic ionales , incluyendo for mas de constru c cion .
Como indicador claro se mue s tra el crecimiento de la poblac ion en la
tabla I .
Tabla I : Crecimiento demografico en la cuenca :
Cuenca
Distrito Federal
426 804
1895
1 90 0
1 930
1 9 40
1 9 50
1 9 60
1970
1980
1
1
3
4
6
9
540
229
757
050
870
874
639
478
575
530
442
876
165
800
1
2
3
5
8
12
625
225
633
807
643
600
935
000
407
232
425
0 0 0 (aprox . )
( fuent e : censos de poblacion 1 8 9 5 - 1 9 8 0 )
0
Se e s t ima que para este ana la poblacion ha l legado a los 1 8
20 millo
nes , que equivale al 20% del total del pafs . Tan rapido crecimiento solo se
puede atribuir a un fuerte proceso de inmigracion , que es explicable si se con
sidera que en la zona metropolitana existe mas del 30% de la planta product iva .
Figura 5-6 . Ixtapaluca .
Las cifras anteriores se ref lej an c laramente en los tipos de construc c�on que se han detectado en los diferentes levantamientos censales . Los de
1 9 50 , 6 0 , 70 y 80 , muestran la tendencia irreversible a la desaparicion de la
tecnica del adobe en el Valle de Mexico . Para efectos comparativos la tabla II
presenta los datos de vivienda total y las hechas en adob e , tabique
b lock de
cemento , y madera , en e l Distrito Federa l .
0
Tabla II : Vivienda
Total
1 9 50
1 960
1970
1 98 0
Figura 7 . Casa colonial en Chalco .
784
902
219
747
082
083
419
102
en adobe
128
191
73
46
0
en tabique
709
314
256
144
394
618
076
637
012
962
766
070
b lock
en madera
53
44
33
16
924
466
417
438
( fuent e : censos de poblacion 1 95 0 - 1 9 8 0 )
0
E s t a s cifras indican que , mientras e l numero de construcciones de adobe
en solo 3 0 anos se ha reducido en un 60% , la construccion en tabique roj o
b lock de cementa con refuerzos de concreto armado ha crecido en mas de 400% ,
constituyendo mas del 9 3 % del total .
Caracterfsticas del adobe existente
Al respecto , hemos realizado una encuesta preparatoria de treinta construccio nes en varios sitios del Valle , ya mencionados al principio de este trabaj o . S e
obtuvieron l o s siguientes resultados :
1.
Perfodo de construccion . Mas del 50% de las construcciones datan de
finales del S iglo pasado y solo el 1 5 % son atribuibles a las primeras decadas
del presente .
Figura 8 . Troj e en Texcoco .
Otro 1 5 % fue diffcil de datar , por no incluir elementos estilfs t icos ,
pero tenderfa a corresponder al primer grupo . (ver f iguras 5 y 6 ) .
Se encontraron ademas tres construcciones coloniales de especial inte
res , (ver figuras 7 , 8 y 9 ) . En todos los casos los constructores son anonimos .
0
2.
Uso s , original y ultimo . En el 85% de los casos el uso , original y ul timo , es habitacional , con algunas variantes que incluyen establos
comercios ,
(ver f igura 1 0 ) . Solo se encontro un caso en que el uso original era de caba lleriza y troj e y el actual es habitacion . Dos de los tres ej emplos coloniales
son atfpico s : uno es una iglesia y otro un troj e .
Figura 9 . Iglesia abandonada
Texcoco .
en
10
3.
Cimiento s . En todos los casos se encontraron cimientos hechos con piedra ,
de preferencia volcanica extrusiv a , para evitar en
posib l e la humedad ascen
dente . El aglutinante fue en el 40% de las veces mortero de cal . Solo en dos
ej emp los de lodo y el restante en mez c la de ambos . Siempre se construyeron so
bre e l nivel del suelo , variando entre 30 y 3 0 cm . con algunos ej emplos que
pasan el metro .
4.
Adobes . Se encontraron en una gran diversidad de dimensiones . Se supone
que el dimensionamiento se hac{a por cuartas , u o tras medidas corporales , va
riando entre los 35 y 50 cm . de largo , 30 y 40 cm . de ancho y 8 a 10 cm . de
alto . Todos los ej emp l o s coloniales l legaban a mediar has ta 6 0 x 50 x 15 cm .
0
Las j untas var{an igualmente entre 2 . 5 cm. y 4 cm . y algunas veces mas ,
casi siempre con raj ueleo de piedra
barro recocido para f i j ar aplanados .
Figura 1 0 . Casa con estab l o . Gpe .
Victoria , Ecatepec .
5.
Cubiertas . En casi todos los casos las cub iertas son p lanas con enladril lado y viguerfa , en correspondencia con las areas p lanas del Valle . En las
areas altas como Tlalmanalco y Amecamec a , hay una decidida preferencia por
cubiertas a dos aguas , dada la mayor incidencia de heladas y probabilidad de
nieve . Los e lementos portantes son casi universalmente de viguerfa . Por otra
49
14 )
parte , es muy raro encontrar edificios de adobe en dos nive les , (ver figuras 1 1 ,
12, 13 y
.
6.
Acabados . E l aplanado de cal es e l mas usado , aunque en tiempos recien tes se usa cemento por facilidad . Tambien es comun utilizar unicamente una
lechada de cal , p intura casi universa l .
E n cuanto a l a composicion d e l o s adobe s , s e encontro que e n las partes
p lanas del Valle hay una tendencia a mez clar material que ayude a dar adheren
cia tal como paj a , estiercol de caballo y cenizas , esp e cialmente en suelos
feozem y so lonchac cercanos al lago , a diferencia de los f luvisoles de Ameca meca y areas cercanas , c onde esto no parece ser necesario .
Conclusiones
Figura 1 1 . Construccion tfpica de
cub ierta p lana ; Ayot la , Edo . de
Mexico , C. 1 90 0 .
En el Valle de Mexico hubo una larga tradicion en construccion de adobe con
gran capacidad de adaptacion a las condiciones naturales imperantes de compo
sicion de suelos , accidentes geologico s , variac ion c limatica y diversidad de
vegetacion . Este sistema constructivo hoy se encuentra en proceso de ext inc ion
ante la dificultad de adaptarse a los rapidos cambios que impone el desmesura
do crecimiento de la zona metropolitana de la Ciudad de Mexico , y , a su incapa
cidad para competir con ventaj a ante materiales como el tabique recocido , e l
b lock de cemento y e l concreto armado . Por tant o , es d e gran importancia comen
zar cuanto antes su estudio sistematico y la identificacion de ej emp los rele vantes para su conservacion .
Notas
1.
G . Kub l e r , Arquitectura Mexicana del S iglo XVI ; Mexico 1 9 84 , 1 7 4 .
2.
J . F . Ramfrez , Memoria Acerca d e las Obras e Inundaciones d e l a Ciudad
de Mexico ; 1 9 7 6 , 3 4 .
BibliograHa
V. J . Moya Rubio , "La Vivienda Indfgena en Mexico y el Mundo " ; Mexico 1 9 8 2 .
P . Gendrop , "Arte Prehispanico en Centro Mesoamerica" ; Mexico 1 9 88 .
Figura 1 2 . Construccion a dos
aguas con lamina Galvanizada , C .
1 9 0 0 . Tlalmanalco , Edo . d e Mexico .
Ch . Gib son , "Los Az tecas Baj o el Dominio Espanol , 1 5 1 9 - 1 8 1 0 " ; Mexico 1 9 8 3 .
Depto . del Distrito Federa l ; "Memoria de las Obras del Sistema de Drenaj e
Profundo del Distrito Federal" ; Mexico 1 9 7 5 .
I . N . E . G . I . " Sfntesis Geografica Nomenclator y Anexo Cartografico del Estado de
Mexico" ; Mexico 1 9 8 7 .
I .N . E . G . I .
Figura 1 3 . Cons trucciones a dos
aguas con tej a p lana , C 1 9 00 ;
Amecamec a , Edo . de Mexico .
14.
Figura
Construcciones a dos
aguas con teja p lana , C 1 9 00 ;
Amecamec a , Edo . de Mexico .
4 0 , 50, 60, 7 0 , 80, 90
Y
1 0 0 Censo General de Poblacion .
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
This contribution does not claim
to be a complete catalogue of all
the mud brick architecture that
has been built in Italy over a
span of almost thirty centuries .
Instead it aims to show that this
ancient technique has a conti
nuity of its own in Italy , too ,
and has produced good examples
of building construction . It was
not , however , a technique that
ever became a practice with deep
rooted traditions and , conse
quently , it did not attain high
levels of maturity.
The paper denounces the past
responsibilities of archaeolo
gists who , with their Classical ,
academic training that was direc
ted towards the study of great
monuments of Greek and Roman
civilization , paid little
attention to , or even destroyed,
the evidence of buildings in
mud brick , especially of the
Etruscan period.
The article also emphasizes the
fact that , in spite of the recent
interest in this subject that
has been recorded over the past
twenty years in Italy , very
little has been done by the
competent authorities to gain
better knowledge of , or to cata
logue and conserve these nume
rous , important testimonies of
our past.
KEYWORDS
TURE
ITALY ' S HISTORICAL EARTHEN
ARCHITEC
ARQUITECTURA DE TIERRA EN ITALIA : DESDE LAS COLONIAS GRIEGAS HASTA LA
DOMINACION ESPANOLA
Eugenio Galdieri
Via dell ' Accademia Platonica 12
00147 RONA , ITALY
Hasta hace algunos anos Italia no estaba incluida entre los paises dignos
de ser citados en el campo de las construcciones de tierra: uno de los
primeros estudiosos de este fenomeno tecnico, social y economico - el Prof.
P. Vidal de la Blache - en su obra p6stuma del ano 1948 ( 1 ) , ignora
completamente Italia como lugar de " casas de tierra" , asi como 10 ha
ignorado la Exhibici6n de Paris en el ano 1982 . Estudios efectuados en los
ademas de otras investigaciones
anos treinta de geografos como Baldacci
mas recientes efectuadas en los anos ochenta ( 3 ) , han permitido modificar
sustancialmente este juicio negativ�, poniendo a la luz un panorama bastante
interesante , sea desde un punta de vista cuantitativo como cualitativo .
Aunque de manera geograficamente discontinua ( y esto tambien por causa de
la naturaleza del terreno en Ital ia) en vastas zonas del territorio
peninsular e insular son muchas las pequenas ciudades compuestas en gran
parte por edificios de tierra y numerosas son las construcciones en el
campo , aisladas 0 agrupadas en grupos homogeneos . Se puede afirmar que
la practica de la construcci6n de casas de tierra se llev6 a cabo por 10
menos hasta el ano 1950 , cuando , por motivos higienicos , pero a traves
de leyes no escritas , las autoridades impidieron que se continuase
construyendo con dicho metodo . Al estado actual de nuestros conocimientos
y a pesar de tener en cuenta las numerosas demoliciones y sustituciones de
los ultimos decenios - el patrimonio de las casas de tierra en Italia
( entendemos referirnos a aque11as en normal y continuo uso civil ) abarca
a una decena de millares de edificios . Estos estan distribuidos en el
tamientos , con las mayores concentraciones
territorio de al menos setenta
en las provincias de Alessandria ( Piemonte ) , de Cagliari ( Cerdefia) y de
Catanzaro ( Calabria ) . Una catalogaci6n completa de tales nucleos de edificios ,
y de las respectivas tipologias se lleva actualmente a cabo en un proyecto
que une algunas Universidades italianas y centr�s aut6nomos de investigaci6n
ento que nos interesa tratar en este encuentro es de
( 4 ) • Pero el ar
caracter hist6rico. Nos interesa efectivamente ver que hay detras del notable
n6mero de construcciones todavia existentes ; nos interesa, por 10 tanto
intentar entender si tambien en Italia se puede hablar de una tradici6n
constructiva de la tierra. Ante todo hay que decir que nuestras
investigaciones nos han llevado a dos conclusiones : la primera es que , no
obstante la gran difusi6n de las casas de tierra ( fen6meno Mucha mas
extendido y rico de cuanto se haya imaginado hasta ahora) , la tecnica del
adobe no ha logrado nunca en Italia , convertirse en una verdadera y
radicada tradici6n. En consecuencia tal tecnologia especifica no se ha
desarrollado mas alIa de un cierto limite , ya que han faltado los apoyos
fundamentales de la creatividad y de la continuidad temporal . La segunda
es que el uso de la tierra no ha sido casi nunca aut6ctono sino importado
del exterior , a traves de inmigraciones - mas 0 menos pacificas - de
otras culturas . Si se quieren buscar los periodos y la naturaleza de
estos aportes externos , sobre todo en 10 que concierne la antigliedad , se
pueden individuar cuatro rumbos principales : El p6nico-fenicio desde el
Sur , dirigido sobre todo hacia Cerdefia meridional ; aquel proveniente de
Asia Menor , en el cual pueden incluirse sea la corriente griega en el Sur y
en las Islas , sea el etrusco , presente en Italia central y en el Veneto ;
el rumbo de Europa Oriental ( los Balcanes islamizados ) , dirigido
principalmente hacia las zonas adriaticas de Italia centro-meridional , hasta
en el interior; por fin el rumbo espanol , dirigido hacia Cerdefia, las costas
tirrenicas y , quizas , las zonas de tierra adentro de la Liguria . Para estas
ultimas areas y para aquellas cercanas a la Francia meridional , se habla de
una posible influencia de poblaciones islamicas expulsadas de Espana . Pero
ento que , no obstante me interese particularmente, tendra
este es un ar
que ser estudiado mas profundamente .
(2),
ayun
gum
gum
Por 10 menos cuatro , entonces , fueron las contribuciones externas al
desarrollo de la arquitectura de tierra en Italia, dichas contribuciones
comienzan en el siglo VIII a . C . ( influencia p6nico-fenicia ) para llegar
al siglo XVI con la ocupaci6n espanola. En este lugar nos interesa examinar
solamente los periodos mas antiguos , para demostrar que , favorecida por
las influencias exteriores que hemos individuado hace poco , la tecnica de
las construcciones de tierra en Italia tiene raices muy remotas .
58Como
largo
y de poca utili dad ocuparnos de todas las obras
serfa demasiado
edad antigua real izadas en tierra en Italia ( muchas de elIas han side
en efecto reducidas a importantes pero mfseros testimonios arqueo16gicos ) ,
sera quizas mas interesante concentrar nuestra atenci6n sobre algunos
ej emp10s de mayor importancia historica.
En Tuscania existe 1a gran insta1aci6n etrusco-romana de Roselle (VIII _
III a . C . ) . Excavaciones recientes pero tambien descubrimientos casuales
han puesto a la luz algunos edificios civiles del perfodo arcaico ( c . VII
a . C . ) , formados por grandes ladrillos de tierra.
51
El hallazgo de los restos es importante sobre todo porque confirma la
hipotesis de finales del siglo pasado ( 5 ) , segUn la cual casi todas las
construcciones civiles etruscas estaban hechas de tierra . De Tuscania
pasamos a Lucania y precisamente a Elea ( la moderna Velia) . De esta colonia
griego-ionica fundada por los focenses entre finales del siglo VI y la
primera mitad del siglo V a . C . , se conoce sobre todo la parte monumental
de la Acropoli s . Pero en la zona casi llana, en la desembocadura del rfo
Alento , los restos de la antigua instalacion ( aquella en la que ensefiaron
el filosofo Senofane y luego el mismo Parmenides ) , muestran numerosos
edificios civiles realizados en ladrillos de tierra ( 6 ) . La tecnica etrusca
del ladrillo de tierra paso directamente , como es sabido , a los
constructores romanos . Es apenas el caso de recordar que buena parte de las
habitaciones medio-bajas de Roma estaban construidas en pise 0 en adobe
( segUn Plinio y Varrone , el nombre de lateres indicaba exclusivamente los
ladrillos de tierra ) y que Octaviano Augusto en los afios treinta a . C . se
vanagloriaba de haber sustituido con piedras y marmoles aquellos barrios
de Roma que habfan sido construidos con arcilla cruda .
Mas imponentes y de mayor impacto visivo son los tres ej emplos elegidos
entre las murallas urbanas , que aquf describimos rapidamente :
En Gela, en la parte meridional de Sicilia , el general Corin�io Timoleonte
es obligado en el 340 a. C . , a potenciar y a reparar las mural las de la
ciudad , hechas con bloques de arenisca. La solucion mas rapida y
economica fue la de subir las murallas ( hoy quedan de elIas casi 350
metros , algunos puntos con una altura de mas de 9 metros ) con bloques
de tierra de 40x40x8 cm .
Las murallas de Arezzo en Toscana , una de las mas importantes de la
confederacion de doce ciudades etruscas , fueron construidas en el siglo
III a . C . con ladrillos de unas dimensiones de 42x28x12 cm. de solida
arcilla roj a ; el examen de los restos de a��ellas mural las dio lugar
a la hipotesis que refiere la nota ( 5 ) .
En Reghion, una de las mas ricas colonias griegas de Italia meridional
( la actual Reggio Calabria ) , el cerco de mural las urbanas tenfa una
longitud aproximada de 4 km en forma de anillo, con una parte de
contacto con el mar y con otra opuesta sabre la llamada Colina de los
Angeles , entre las cotas +100 y +200 • Hacia el final de los afios sesenta
fueron descubiertos y puestos a la luz mas de 150 metros de la parte mas
alta de las murallas , datadas en el sig10 III a . C . ; estas a diferencia del
trecho hacia el mar, realizado con solidos b10ques de caliza, estan
realizados en ladrillos de tierra de unos 30x30x8 cm . Sobre uno de estos
ladrillos por efecto del enarenado , se ha conservado afortunadamente una
breve inscripcion esgrafiada con el nombre del lugar
P
N (7)
�
Para terminar una curiosidad ; justamente en el centro de Roma , durante las
recientes excavaciones arqueologicas realizadas para liberar la Crypta
Balbi , ha side hallado y afortunadamente conservado un manufacto circular
de unos 5 , 80 metros de diametro y unos 4 , 00 metros de altura, posada
directa - e inexplicablemente - sobre un mosaico de epoca romana ; acerca
de la fecha y de la funcion de esta singular estructura , realizada con
sutiles y regulares ladrillos de arcilla clara y depurada . Los estudios
se encuentran todavia en curso . Sin embargo , se puede atribuir la
construccion a los siglos II 0 III de nuestra era . De los datos hasta
ahora en nuestro poder podrfa individuarse el perfodo antiguo mas
interesante , aquel etrusco y etrusco-romano , mas
menos entre el
V y el III sig10 a . C . Acostumbrados como estamos a considerar la
arquitectura etrusca ligada al uso de los bloques de toba 0 de nenfro 0
incluso a las obras excavadas , en negativ� , en la roca ; y aquella romana
realizada en marmol , piedra 0 fuertes ladrillos cocidos , el estudio de una
tecnica tan diferente serfa para nosotros de extrema importancia. Pero , por
desgracia, de aquel periodo tenemos mas citaciones li terarias que
testimonios concretos , mas documentos que monumentos : la responsabil idad
de tal hecho ( y por consiguiente de la destruccion de muchos restos
etruscos de tierra) recae en gran parte sobre la preparacion academica de
nuestros arqueologos del siglo pasado ( pero tambien de nuestros dfas • • • ) .
Para ellos , un "monumento" era tal solamente , si estaba construido con
materiales nobles , pues la atencion cientffica que ellos prestaron a
estructuras aparentemente inestables e informes fue muy escasa . El mismo
fenomeno , por otra parte , se habia verificado en los primeros tiempos en
Oriente Medio , con la destruccion de aque1los que se confundfan con
pequefias colinas de fango .
0
Esta es pues la situacion en Italia; una situacion que tiene que ser
estudiada todavfa en su total idad , seguramente mas rica y prometedora de
cuanto se pueda imaginar . Pero se esta llevando a cabo una furiosa lucha
con el tiempo : por una parte nuestro deseo de descubrir, registrar ,
salvar ; por otra el avanzar del cemento , el bienestar , el desinteres de
las autoridades . Este ultimo es el aspecto mas preocupante del pr.Oblema,
no obstante el interes suscitado tambien en Italia en estos ultimos afios ,
las autoridades municipales y aquellas nacionales de tutela parece que no
se dan cuenta que un patrimonio singular - no solo aquel de valor
historico sino tambien aquel todavia hoy de uso normal y civil - esta
lentamente , pero inexorablemente yendo hacia la destruccion.
52
Adobe 90
Termino aqui mi intervenci6n pidiendo que en las recomendaciones finales del
Convenio se haga un apelo explicito para la salvaguarda de todas las
construcciones de tierra existentes en Italia.
NOTES
l�
( Paris : 1984 ) .
P . Vidal de la Blache , Principes de geographie humaine ,
LXV
O. Baldacci , "L ' Ambiente geografico delle case di terra in Italia" ,
2.
( 1958 ) .
Rivista Geografica Italiana ,
3 . E . Galdieri , Le meraviglie dell ' architettura in terra cruda, ( Roma-Bari :
1982 ) .
y y
la Asociaci6n
Udine ,
4 . En particular , las Universidades de Pescara
"Later" de Roma. Una investigaci6n de grande escala esta tambien los futuros
programas de la facultad de Ingenieria de Perugia.
5.
G . Sordini , Vetulonia, Studi e Ricerche ( Spoleto : 1984 ) .
6.
G. Greco , "Velia" , Annal i del Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli ,
--IX ( Napoli : 1987 ) , 194.
F. Costabile , "Ricerche di topografia antica tra Motta S . Giovanni e
7.
1-2
Reggio Calabria" , Rivista Storica Calabrese , n . s . , anno I ,
(Reggio Calabria: 1980 ) .
nn.
ABSTRACT
The u s e of adobe has had a
l ong t rad i t i on i n the a r i d
of
Ame r i can
the
r e g i ons
Sou t hwes t . The evo l u t i on o f
t h i s t rad i t i on f rom 1 8 48 t o
1 9 48
has
p roduced
three
d i s t inct
c on s t ruc t i on
( I nd i genous ,
s y s t ems
V i c t o r i an and Rev i va l )
and
has
left
beh i nd
a
w i de
of
va r i e t y
h i s t o r i ca l
r e s o u r c e s . De t e r i o r a t i on o f
o f t en
is
resources
adobe
re l a t e d
to
the
of
m i s app l i c a t i on
c on s t ruc t i on p r i nc i p l e s f r om
one
of
these
sys tems
to
anothe r . The c on s e rv a t o r o f
adobe
bu i l d i n g s
mu s t
unde r s t and the bas i c n a t u re
these
s y s t em s ,
the
of
prob l ems
wh i ch
arise
when
they are comb i ne d and how t o
approach
p r e s e rva t i on
i n t e rven t i on s
by
i mp ac t i ng
the
least
s i gn i f i c ant
e l em e n t .
KEY WORDS
ADOBE CONSTRUCT I ON SYSTEMS
DETER I O RATION INTERACTION
CONS ERVAT I ON PRINC I PLES
EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE
53
ADO
AND
THE EVOLUTION OF
BE CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS IN THE SOUTHWEST ( USA )
RELATED CONSERVATION ISSUES .
James W . Ga r r i s on , H i s t o r i c a l Arch i t e c t
JANUS ASSOC IATES INCORPORATED
6 0 2 No r t h 7 t h S t r e e t
Pho e n i x , A Z 8 5 0 0 6
U . S .A.
Int roduc t i on
W i th the s i gn i n g o f t h e Trea t y o f Guada lup e - H i da l go i n 1 8 48 and
the comp l e t i on of the Gad s d e n Purcha s e in 1 8 5 3 ,
that area now
known a s t h e Ame r i c an Southwe s t came under the c on t ro l o f t h e
Un i t e d S t a t e s .
I mp r i n t e d ov e r the n a t u r a l
topography o f t h e
r e g i on a n d the e a r l i e r Nat i v e Ame r i c an ,
Span i s h
Co l o n i a l
and
Mex i c an cu l t ura l t rad i t i ons came Ame r i c an s e t t l e ment p a t t e rns and
arch i t e c t u ra l de ve l opmen t .
Adobe a s a p r i mary bui I d i ng ma t e r i a l
has
had
a
l ong
t rad i t i on
within
this
pat t ern
of
regi ona l
d eve l opmen t .
Evo l u t i onary i n n a t u r e , the w i de v a r i e t y o f adobe
resources
can
be
c l ass i f ied
into
three
bas i c
sys tems
of
c on s t ru c t i on : I n d i genous ( 1 8 48 - 1 8 8 1 ) , V i c t o r i an ( 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 1 4 ) , and
Rev i v a l ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 48 ) .
The t i m i ng of the p r i mary use of each o f
these
s y s t em s
is
t i ed
to
the
deve l opment
of
the
reg i on ' s
t ra n s p o r t a t i on , and i ndu s t r i a l i n f ra s t ru c t u re .
As t h e cu l t u r a l
accep t ance o f adobe r o s e
and
fe l l
wi thin
this
evo l u t i on
the
It
t r ans i t i on f rom o n e c on s t ruc t i on s y s t e m t o the n e x t occurre d .
i s i mp o r t an t t o remember t h a t each o f t h e s e u n i que s y s tems was
b a l anced i n i t s use o f mat e r i a l s , d e t a i l ing and me t hod o f r e ac t i on
t o t h e cau s e s o f de t e r i o rat i on .
Today many adobe r e s ou r c e s c ons t ru c t e d between 1 8 48 and 1 9 48 a r e
c on s i d e red h i s t o r i c a l l y or a rch i t e c t u ra l l y s i gn i f i c ant .
At the
s ame
t i me m o s t
of
these
r e s ou r c e s
have
unde rgone
add i t i on s ,
repa i r s and reha b i l i t a t i on mea s u re s ;
many t i me s m i x i ng toge t h e r
the three
a s i c s y s t ems o f c on s t ru c t i on .
Con s e rv a t i on mea s u r e s
und e r t aken t oday on h i s t o r i c a d o b e s mu s t cons i d e r t h e bas i c n a t u re
of
these
c on s t ruc t i on
sys tems
and
t he
s i gn i f i c ance
of
each
bu i l d i ng f e a t u re .
p
H i s tor i c Adobe Cons t ruct i on Sys t ems in the Southwes t
F r o m 1 8 48
to
1 9 48
three
s ep a r a t e
adobe
cons t ru c t i on
s y s t em s
evo l v e d
in
the
Ame r i can
Southwe s t ;
the
I n d i genous
Sy s t em
( 1 8 48 - 1 8 8 1 ) ,
the V i c t o r i an S y s t e m
( 1 882 - 1 9 1 4 )
and
the
Rev i v a l
Sys t e m ( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 48 ) .
Each o f t h e s e s y s t em s i s de s c r i be d be l ow .
The Ind igenous Sys tem ( S e e F i gu r e 1 )
The
I n d i genous
Sys t e m
of
Cons t ruc t i on ,
der ived
f rom
Nat i ve
Ame r i c an , Span i s h Co l on i a l , and Me x i c an I n f l uenc e s , max i m i z e s t h e
u s e o f e a r t h t h roughou t the bu i l d i ng . Th i c k a d o b e wa l l s ( 46 t o 6 1
Open ings
c m / 1 8 t o 2 4 i n c he s ) r i s e d i re c t l y f r om s ha l l ow t renche s .
a r e s ma l l and f ramed w i t h l oc a l wood 1 i n t e l s .
S i mp l e doors a r e
F l oo r s a r e
u s ua l l y bat t en wh i l e w i ndows h a v e s hu t t e r s on l y .
Roo f s a r e f l a t hav ing packed e a r t h
packed e a r t h or a d o b e pave r s .
o v e r a s i mp l e s y s t e m o f l og beams ( v i ga s ) branche s ( l a t i l l a s ) and
s t raw ( o r gra s s ) .
Ra i nwa t e r runs o f f the roo f t h rough wood or
m e t a l d r a i n s ( c ana l e s ) .
H i gh c e i l i ngs
4 . 2 7 m / 1 4 f e e t ) m i gh t
have
mus l i n
l i n i ngs
( man t a s ) .
F i r e p l ac e s a r e
u s ua l l y
of
a
bee-hive sty l e ,
l oc a t e d i n a corner of
the
room
and
bu i l t
e n t i r e l y o f adobe .
W a l l s are rende red i n s i de and out w i t h mud
p l a s t e r s i m i l a r to the adobes .
(.:!.
Th i s s y s t e m o f c on s t ruc t i on r e a c t s
e a r t hen ma t e r i a l s s oak up the ra i n
and dry out o v e r a numb e r o f hours
e a s i l y repa i re d .
Ma i n t enance was
The ma s s i v e
s i mp l e i n execu t i on .
t e mp e red the ho t - a r i d c l i ma t e .
t o s t o rms l i ke a s p onge .
The
wa t e r d u r i ng i n t e n s e downp o u r s
.
L e a k s were n o t uncommon but
requ i re d more o f t e n but was
w a l l s and s ma l l open i ngs a l s o
A l t h ough v i r t ua l l y every commun i t y deve l oped i t s own va r i a t i on s o f
t h i s s y s t em based upon t h e l oc a l c l i ma t e ,
t y p e s o f p l ant s and
t re e s ava i l a b l e and the t rad i t i on s of l oc a l c r a f t s man ; the bas i c
approach , app l y ing s i t e - f o rmed adobes w i t h l oca l l y c u t wood and
b ranch e s , was c on s t an t . De t a i l s o f t e n v a r i e d by l oc a t i on w i t h wood
cana l e s in many pa r t s o f New Me x i c o and me t a l c ana l e s i n many
p a r t s of A r i z ona . I n Tuc s on l a t i l l a s were o f t e n made o f Saguaro
c a c t u s r i b s wh i l e in Yuma they u s e d Arr owwe e d .
F i gure 1
The Indigenous System
( 1 848 - 1 8 8 1 )
Adobe 9 0
54
The Victor i an Sys tem ( S e e F i gure 2 )
wl-UI"\r?-5�JiR.tibINtiLES
wofAAMl
As the U . S . M i l i t ary e s t ab l i s h e d camp s , pos t s and f o r t s i n the
age
V i c t o r i an
c on s t ruc t e d ,
were
r a i l roads
as
and
s ou t hwe s t
Two
i ndu s t r i a l produ c t s and p r o c e s s e s a r r i ved in the region .
i ndu s t r i a l s t ru c t u r e s changed t h e m e t hod of c on s t ru c t ing adobe
Us i ng d i men s i oned l umbe r
bu i l d i ngs , t he s awm i l l and the l i me k i l n .
i n p l ac e of l ogs and branches and l i me as an e x t e r i o r coat i n g ,
They c ou l d a l s o p a s s a s
adobe s t ru c t u r e s needed l e s s ma i n t enance .
more t rad i t i ona l b r i c k or s t one V i c t o r i an s t ru c t u r e s t h r ough t h e
u s e o f g i ngerb read wood de t a i l i ng a n d s c o r i ng o f the l i me s t ucco .
The V i c t o r i an Con s t ruc t i on Sys t e m o f adobe re t a i n s t h e bas i c t h i c k
s t one
c on t i nuous
on
c on s t ructed
are
they
but
wa l l s ,
adobe
The s e founda t i on s were used for t wo r e a s ons ; f i r s t ,
f ound a t i ons .
to reduce the p o t en t i a l f o r r i s ing damp and , s e cond , to supp o r t
W i ndows have
wood f ramed f l oo r s above a n adequa t e c r a w l s p a c e .
or
cas ement
wood
s i mp l e
with
p ropo r t i ons
V i c t o r i an
l a rg e r
d i mens i oned
of
are
cas ings
L i n t e l s and
doub l e -hung w i ndows .
Ra f t e r s and
l umbe r .
Doo r s a r e u s ua l l y four pane l s w i t h mo l d i ngs .
c e i l ing j o i s t s are u s u a l l y 5 x 1 0 cm ( 2x 4 i n ) w i t h spac i ng a s w i de
Wood s h i n g l e s a r e s u p p o r t e d on 2 . 5 x 5
as 76 cm ( 3 2 i n ) on cen t e r .
Ra i n wa t e r f a l l s d i re c t l y f r om
spaced she a t h i ng .
( lx4 in )
cm
mode r a t e eaves o r is channe l l e d away f rom the bu i l d i ng t h rough
Ce i l i n g s may s t i l l be
ha l f - round gut t e r s and round down s p ou t s .
c l o t h o r 2 . 5 x 5 c m ( l x 4 cm ) beaded t ongue and groove f i r o r p i ne ,
but have been l owered 6 1 t o 1 22 cm ( 2 t o 4 f t ) .
ap p l i e d
p l aster
l i me
s mo o t h
Ex t e r i o r wa l l s a r e rendered w i t h
T h e l i me s t ucco i s
d i re c t l y t o the s c o red or raked adobe s u r face .
L i me
u s ua l l y wh i t ewashed and i s o f t en s c o re d a s s t one o r b r i c k .
L i me i s rare l y
i s a l s o u s e d f o r m o r t a r i n the s t one founda t i on .
u s e d a s adobe m o r t a r .
I n t e r i o r wa l l s rema i n p l a s t e re d w i t h mud
S i mp l e wood j i gs aw d e t a i l s
and e i t h e r wa l l papered o r l i mewa shed .
Me t a l i s l i m i t e d t o h i nge s , ha rdwa r e ,
o r mo l d i ngs a r e o f t e n u s e d .
F i rep l ac e s
f a s t e n e r s , s quare n a i I s ( p re 1 8 9 0 ) and anchor b o l t s .
a r e mos t o f t en c on s t ru c t e d o f f i re d c ommon r e d b r i c k , w i t h m i dwa l l
p l ac e ment and d e t a i l e d w i t h V i c t o r i an man t e l s and overman t e l s .
F i gure 2
The V i ctorian System
( 1 8 82 - 1 9 1 4 )
In New
The V i c t o r i an adobe a l s o has many d e s i gn var i a t i on s .
Mex i c o adobes w i t h f l at roo f s and V i c t o r i an d e t a i l i n g are re f e r r e d
t o a s " T e r r i t o r i a l " des i gn s wh i l e i n Ar i z ona t h i s t e rm i s m o s t
o f t e n app l i e d t o hou s e s w i t h s qu a re p l an s a n d pyram i d a l roo f s .
S t y l i s t i c a l l y m o s t d e s i gn s f o l l ow Go t h i c Rev i va l , Qu een Anne o r
T h e mos t v i s u a l change du r i ng t h i s
t rends .
Co l on i a l Rev i v a l
p e r i od i s t h e s h i f t f rom p r op e r t y l i ne row hou s e s i t e p l acement t o
F i red red
d i s c r e t e d e t ached and o f t e n s e t back s i t e p l a c e me n t .
It can be found in
b r i c k is o f t en found comb ined w i t h adobe .
f i rep l ac e s , a t open i ngs , and a l ong parap e t s a s c op i ngs .
The Revival Sys tem ( S e e F i gu re 3 )
that
rea l i z ed
f i na l l y
Southwe s t
the
in
set t l ers
the
When
sudo - V i c t o r i an d e s i gn s f rom the Ea s t l acked reg i ona l c l i ma t i c and
cu l t u ra l approp r i a t e ne s s , they s p e n t a good dea l of t i me l ook i ng
at the I nd i genous examp l e s to deve l ope M i s s i on , Span i s h C o l on i a l
and Pu e b l o Rev i v a l Arch i t e c t u re .
A l t hough b a s e d upon e a r l i e r
and
func t i on
in
new d e s i gn s a r e c o n t e mporary
these
examp l e s
Adobe , p r i ma r i l y found in Pue b l o Rev i v a l
c on s t ruc t i on m e t h o d .
bu i l d i ngs , i s now found comb i ne d w i t h Port l and c e ment c on c r e t e and
s t e e l component s .
The t h i c k adobe wa l l s are t h i nn e d t o 2 5 o r 3 0 c m ( 1 0 or 1 2 i n ) .
The n a t u r a l sun - d r i e d adobes a r e d i f f i cu l t t o s ee , be i ng t o t a l l y
Re i n f orced c onc r e t e f ounda t i on s are t opped
e n c a s e d i n concre t e .
The adobes r i s e to
by a " damp proof c ou r s e " o f b i tumen o r m e t a l .
c on c r e t e s i l l s , s t e e l l i n t e l s and re i n f o rced concre t e bond beams .
The wa l l s are p l a s t e re d i n s i d e and out w 1 t h Po r t l and cement s t u c c o
a t t ached t o ch i c ken w i re o r w i r e l a t h w i t h na i l s d r i ven i n t o the
F l oo r s a r e a l s o cons t ru c t e d o f conc r e t e u s i n g t h e " s l a b on
adobe .
The s l a bs a r e o f t e n t opped w i t h very hard t i n t e d
grade " method .
W i n dows f e a t u re s t e e l s a s h u s u a l l y us i ng
and / o r scored c o n c re t e .
Doors a r e
Corner w i ndows a r e used s p a r i ng l y .
c a s ement s t y l e s .
i ron ha rdware a n d f a c e
m o s t o f t e n bat t e n w i t h ru s t i c wrought
moun t e d h i nge s .
The roo f s a r e s t ru c t ured w i t h t e l ephone p o l e beams , heavy t i mb e r
parape t s .
beh ind
roofs
f lat
d e c k i ng a n d comp o s i t i on bu i l t - up
Mud m o r t a r i s
C e i l ings may be p l a s t ered or l e f t n a t u ra l wood .
t i l l p r e f e r r e d when l ay i ng the adobe s .
Rounded c o r n e r s , a rched
d oorways and r e c e s s e d n i t c h e s a r e o f t en found .
F i rep l ac e s a r e
Many
m o r e ru s t i c b u t found i n b o t h c o rn e r a n d m i d wa l l l oc a t i on s .
bu i l d i ngs c on s t ruc t ed dur i ng t h i s t i me p e r i od are s t y l i s t i c a l l y
t i e d t o e a r l i e r adobe s t y l e s , but have n o a c t u a l adobes i n t he m ,
b e i ng rep l a ced by f i re d red b r i c k or c a s t - i n - p l a c e concre t e .
s
F i gu r e 3
The Rev ival Systea
( 1 9 1 5 - 1 9 48 )
55
De teriorat i on Prob lems
It i s i mp o r t an t to f u l l y unde r s t and how each of t h e s e d i s c r e t e
adobe s y s t e m s w a s d e s i gned t o r e a c t t o t he caus e s o f d e t e r i o r a t i on
and t h e re f o r e t h e weakne s s e s i n t he i r d e s i gn .
But i t i s a l s o
i mp o r t an t t o rea l i z e t h a t t h rough t i me , repa i r s c an have been made
to adobe s des igned under one s y s t e m w i t h ma t e r i al s and t e c h n i que s
f rom anothe r .
The hapha zard comb i na t i on o f c on s t ruc t i on s y s t e m s
h a s , i n m a n y c a s e s , l e d t o acce l e r a t ed de t e r i o r a t i on p r o b l ems .
At
the s ame t i me comb i n e d e l emen t s
may have
b e c ome
h i s t o r i ca l l y
s i gn i f i cant and t h e re f o r e r e qu i re u n i que p r e s e rv a t i on t re a t m en t s
i n o r d e r t o p r e s e r v e i n c ompat i b l e d e t a i l s and ma t e r i a l s toge t he r .
A p r i me examp l e o f t h i s proce s s was t h e V i c t o r i an i z a t i on of many
of The Span i s h Co l on i a l churches i n New Mex i co .
Curren t l y many
V i c t o r i an f e a t u r e s , many over 1 0 0 y e a r s o l d are b e i ng removed f o r
" a e s t he t i c pu r i t y " , w i t hout documen t e d h i s t o r i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i on .
The m a i n de t e r i o r a t i on p r o b l ems o f each s y s t em o f c on s t ruc t i on and
c omb i na t i on s of s y s t em s are d e s c r i be d be l ow .
I n d i genous Sys t e m De t e r i orat i on Prob l em s
1.
Ba s e wa l l e r o s i on , c a u s e d f rom r i s i ng d a m p becau s e the
adobe s e x t end d i re c t l y i n t o t h e ground .
2.
S u r face e r o s ion and / o r c oa t i ng f a i l u re ,
m a i n t enance .
c au s e d by l a c k o f
3.
Cracks o r l ean ing wa l l s , c au s e d by ground movement and
l ac k of any s u b s t an t i a l founda t i on .
V i c t o r i an Sys t em De t e r i o r a t i on Prob l e m s
F i gu r e 4
Indigenous /Victorian
Comb i n a t i on Prob l e m s
1 .
Ba s e wa l l e r o s i on , cau s e d by the u s e o f p o rous s t one
( s and s t one o r l i me s t one ) for t h e founda t i on , wh i ch a l l ows
r i s i ng damp .
2.
Surface c oa t ing f a i l u re , c au s e d by l ac k o f a mechan i c a l
key b e t we e n the l i me p l a s t e r and the adobe .
3.
Cracks or l ean ing cau s e d by d i f fe r e n t i a l s e t t l ement
of the s t one founda t i on , or i mp r op e r t r i angu l a t i on of the
roof f r a m i ng s y s t e m .
Rev i v a l Sys t e m De t e r i o rat i o n Prob l e m s
1.
Mo i s t u r e bu i l d-up i n t h e adobes , cau s ed by l ac k o f a
damp - p ro o f cour s e , . c ra c k s in the conc r e t e s t ucco , or l a c k
o f p r o p e r r o o f d r a i nage .
2.
S u r f a c e c o a t i ng f a i l u r e , caused by t h e c o r r o s i on and
rus t i ng of me t a l e l eme n t s i nc l ud i ng ch i c ken w i re , w i re
l a t h , n a i l s and r e i n f o r c i ng bars .
3.
C ra c k s , c au s e d by the d i f f e rence i n expan s i on
c o e f f e n c i en t s b e t ween c onc r e t e and adobe .
4.
Ro t t ing o f v i ga ends and o t h e r wooden e l eme n t s ,
c au s e d by t h e t rapp i ng o f mo i s t u r e beh i n d t h e conc r e t e
s t uc c o .
I n d i genou s / V i c t o r i an Comb i nat i on Pro b l e ms
1.
S t ones u s e d t o repa i r b a s e wa l l e r o s i on r a r e l y extend
comp l e t e l y t h rough the wa l l a l l ow i ng r i s i n g damp to
r i s e h i ghe r .
2.
Wooden f l oo r s are i n s t a l l e d d i re c t l y on e a r l i e r e a r t h e n
f l oo r s w i t h l i t t l e o r no c ra w l space .
3.
Frame ga b l e roo f s over e a r l i e r d i r t roo f s a l l ow f o r
p o t en t i a l i n c re a s e i n damage f rom i n s e c t o r mo i s t u r e
damage t o v i ga s a n d l a t i l l a s b y h i d i ng f o rme r l y open
areas .
I n d i genou s / Re v i v a l Comb i n a t i on Prob l em s
1.
F i gu r e 5
Indigenous /Rev ival
Comb i na t i on P ro b l e m s
( S e e F i gure 4 )
( Se e F i gu r e 5 )
Con c r e t e f l oo r s poured i n t o rooms over d i r t f l oo r s f o r c e
ground mo i s t u r e i n t o t h e s u r round i ng a d o b e wa l l s .
2.
Conc re t e aprons or boo t s a l s o t rap ground mo i s t u r e
i n t o t h e s u rround i n g adobe wa l l s .
3.
Framed roo f s over d i r t r oo f s h i d e mo i s t u r e and i n s e c t
p r o b l ems .
Adobe 9 0
V i c t o r i an / Rev i v a l Comb i n a t i on Prob l e m s
1.
Conc r e t e f l oo r s l ab s , o f t e n u s e d f o r p o rch e s ,
a l l ow mo i s t u r e t o bu i l d - up i n the b a s e o f t h e wa l l s .
2.
Chang ing the s u r face coat i ng to c ement s t ucco i n c r e a s e s
damage d f r om na i l s a n d ch i cken w i re c o r r o s i on a n d t raps
mo i s t u re i n the wa l l s .
3.
Remov i ng V i c t o r i an r o o f f r a m i ng t o c r e a t e a f l a t roo f
c a u s e s a s i gn i f i c ent l o s s o f h i s t o r i c f a b r i c .
4.
P l a c i ng m i s s i on t i l e on V i c t o r i an roo f f ra m i ng can
s ev e r e l y ove r l oad the s t ru c t u r a l memb e r s s i z e d for wood
s h i ng l e s .
Conservat ion Principles
When
wo r k i ng
on
an
h i s toric
p r i n c i p l e s s h ou l d b e f o l l owed :
adobe
bu i l d i ng
the
f o l l ow i ng
1.
Document a l l ex i s t ing c ond i t i ons e s p ec i a l l y t h e e v i dence
and t h e s o u r c e s o f de t e r i o r a t i on .
C o s me t i c rep a i r s
shou l d be avo i de d .
2.
Fu l l y unde r s t and the p r i ma ry method o f c on s t ruc t i on .
An a l y z e b o t h t he ma t e r i a l s u s e d a s we l l a s a l l o r i g i n a l
de t a i l s ( i e . f l oo r t o wa l l c onnec t i on s , roo f t o wa l l
conne c t i on s , wa l l t o op e n i ng connec t i on s , and wa l l t o
founda t i on connec t i on s . )
3.
Eva l u a t e t h e s i gn i f i c ance o f a l l bu i l d ing e l ement s .
Based upon ch rono l ogy , a r t i s t i c va l ue o r
h i s t o r i c a l a s s oc i a t i on d e f i n e wh i ch e l e men t s shou l d b e
t re a t e d w i t h t h e gre a t e s t s e n s i t i v i t y a n d h i ghe s t
c on s e rva t i on s t andards .
4.
Make repa i r s based upon t h e p r i mary method o f
c on s t ruc t i on .
Avo i d u s i ng hard ma t e r i a l s t o p r e s e rve
s o f t mat e r i a l s .
Remove as much c on c r e t e as p o s s i b l e
f rom I nd i genous o r V i c t o r i an adobes .
Exp l o re t he u s e
o f l i me a s a comp r om i s i ng measure on e i t h e r I nd i genous
o r Rev i v a l adobes .
5.
Pre s e rve and ma i n t a i n t h e ex i s t i ng cond i t i on s , un l e s s a
l e s s s i gn i f i cant e l ement i s damag ing a more s i gn i f i c an t
e l ement , t h e n i mp a c t t h e l e s s s i gn i f i c a n t e l ement .
6.
Make repa i r s that a r e reve rs i b l e whe reve r p os s i b l e .
The
wrong i n t e rvent i on can o f t e n not be c o r r e c t e d by the n e x t
c on s e rv a t o r .
Conc lus i on
D e t a i l o f a V i c t o r i an Adobe
TOMBSTONE , ARI ZONA
Janus As soc i a t e s I n c .
Many t i me s t h e f o c u s o f adobe c on s e rvat i on i s p l aced upon t h e
ma t e r i a l i t s e l f a n d t h o s e mechan i ca l a n d chem i c a l p rop e r t i e s wh i c h
cause the mat e r i a l
t o de t e r i o r a t e .
The
focus
of
the
above
d i s cu s s i on h a s been t o p l ac e adobe w i t h i n a c on s t ruc t i on s y s t e m or
c on t ex t , spe c i f i c a l l y three h i s t o r i c c on s t ru c t i on s y s t e ms found i n
t h e Sou thwe s t e rn reg i on o f t h e Un i t e d S t a t e s .
By und e r s t and i ng
t h e n a t u re o f each s y s t e m as we l l as t he i r i nd i v i dua l m a t e r i a l s
the c on s e rv a t o r can make approp r i a t e i n t e rven t i on de c i s i on s ; and
t h e reby , p r e s e rve adobe in i t s n a t u ra l , o r i g i n a l , a e s t h e t i c s t a t e .
ABSTRACT
F r o m t i m e i m m e m o r i a l , c l ay
h a s p l ayed a n i mportant
ro l e in the bu i l d i ng of
houses in Germany. I ts
g r e a te s t i m p o r t a n c e l ay i n
i ts u t i l i s a t i on a s i n f i l
l i n g m a te r i a l for w a l l s
and c e i l i n g s , for l ay i n g
fl oors and as mortar. Al l
of t h e s e tec h n i q u e s w e re
common u n t i l the n i ne
t e e n t h c e n t u ry a n d w e r e
sti l l occasi onal ly em
p l oyed i n t h e twe n t i e t h
cen tury. Sol i d ( " monol i
t h i c " ) c l ay s t r u c t u re s ,
t h a t i s , bu i l d i ngs w i th
l o a d - be a r i n g w a l l s c o n
s i s t i n g o n l y o f c l ay ,
w i t h o u t t i m b e r o r s tone ,
h a ve b e e n i n e x i s te n c e i n
G e r m a ny s i n c e t h e M i d d l e
Age s . The i r number i s c o n
s i de r a b l y l a r g e r t h a n h a d
f o r me r l y b e e n a s s u med a n d
t h ey a re f o r m a l l y a n d
te c h n i c a l l y i n te re s t i n g
b u i 1 d i ngs. Few of these
bu i l d i ng s h a ve b e e n p l a c e d
under protec t i on as
h i s to r i c m o n u m e n t s be c au se
the pecu l i ar i t i e s of th i s
b u i l d i n g te c h n i q u e a re o n
the w h o l e u n k no w n . T h e re
h a ve b e e n m a ny a t te m p t s i n
G e r m a ny t o r e v i ve c l ay
a r c h i te c t u r e . T h e m o s t
i mportant reasons for the
u s e o f c l ay a s a b u i l d i n g
m a te r i a l w e re i t s i n c o m
b u s t i b i l i ty a n d t h e s a v i n g
of wood and ene rgy.
KEYWORDS
C l ay a r c h i te c t u r e ;
A r c h i te c t u r a l h i s to r y ;
B u i l d i n g te c h n i q u e s ;
Propag a t i on of the u s e o f
c l ay a s b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l ;
U t o p i a n a rc h i tecture.
ON
THE
Jochen
H I STORY
Georg
OF
57
C LAY
BUI LDI NGS
IN
GERMANY
GUntzel
D e p a r t m e n t o f A r c h i t e c t u r e a n d I n te r i o r D e s i g n
F ac h h oc h s c h u l e L i ppe
0 - 49 3 0 Detm o l d , B i e l e fe l de r s t r a Se
F e de r a l R e p u b l i c o f G e r m a ny
6
N e x t to t i m b e r a n d s t o n e , c l ay h a s b e e n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t b u i l d
i ng m a te r i a l u se d i n Germ any. I t s e r ved a s i n f i l l i ng m a te r i a l for
w a l l s a n d c e i l i n g s , a s a s e a l a n t for c re v i c e s i n l og c a b i n s , and
was u sed for the con struction of f l oors, v a u l ts and ovens.
M o s t c e r t a i n l y , c l a y" s g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e l a y i n t h e r e a l m o f
t i m b e r - framed bu i l d i n g s ( " F a c h w e r k b a u " , See f i g . 2) w he re i t w a s
u s e d a s a f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l . I n c i de n t a l l y , th i s type o f w o r k
( d a u b i n g ) w a s n e a r l y a l w ays d o n e b y t h e o w n e r h i m se l f , o r w i th
the he l p o f h i s ne i g h bours, and i t i s for th i s reason that i t
n e v e r d e v e l o p e d i n t o a p r o fe s s i o n a l c r a f t a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y s e l d o m
e n j oy e d h i g h s t a t u s .
H O I,/ e v e r , t h i s p a p e r d o e s n o t n e e d t o a d d r e s s t h e u s e s o f c l a y i n
t i m b e r - f r a m e d a r c h i te c t u re : T h e n u m b e r o f p u b l i c a t i o n s o n t h i s
s u b j e c t , a l w ay s t h e f a v o u r i te c h i l d o f b u i l d i n g h i s t o r i a n s a n d
ethno l og i s t s , i s l eg i on . The prob l ems of the restorat i on of
f r a med b u i l d i n g s are not n e a r l y as g r e a t as t h o s e o f s o l i d c l ay
s t r u c t u re s , s i n c e t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e s e b u i l d i n g s , t h e " p r i m a ry
s t ruc t u r e " ( " P r i m a r s t r u k t u r" ) , i s o f t i mber. I n s te a d th i s p a p e r
w i l l f o c u s o n t h e h i s to ry o f s o l i d ( " m o n o l i t h i c " ) c l ay s t r u c t u r e s
i n G e r m a ny , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h o s e b u i l d i n g s w h o s e s u p p o r t i n g w a l l s
c o n s i s t s o l e l y o f s o l i d c l ay ( S e e f i g s . 1 ,
and 4 ) . Unti l re
c e n t l y , l i t t l e w a s k n o w n a b o u t t h e h i s t o ry o f t h e s e e d i f i c e s , t h e
s pe c i a l tec h n i q u e s u s e d i n t h e i r (on s t r u c t i o n , t h e i r a d v a n t a g e s
and d i s advantage s , the i r number and the areas o f the i r d i s t r i bu
t i o n . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , a g re a t m a ny m i s c o n c e p t i o n s a n d p r e j u d i c e s
a b o u t t h e m a re i n e x i s te n c e . O n e c an i n deed m a i n ta i n t h a t t h e re
h ave been few type s o f a rc h i t e c t u re i n the c o u r se o f G e r m a n
h i s t o ry a b o u t w h i c h s o m a ny f a l s e h o o d s h a v e b e e n p r o p a g a te d .
3
I f a G e r m a n a r t h i s to r i an , a rc h i te c t o r c u r a t o r o f p u b l i c bu i l d
ings
w e re a s k e d i f he k n e w o f a ny s o l i d c l ay s t r u c t u r e s i n
G e r m a n y h e I'/ o u l d p r o b a b l y b e u n a b l e e v e n t o n a m e a f e w , l e t a l o n e
c o r re c t l y t o d i f f e re n t i a te b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s b u i l d i n g t e c h
n i q u e s . He i s n o t l i k e l y to k n o w t he a g e a n d g e o g r a p h i c a l d i s t r i b u
t i on of these bu i l di ngs or cond i t i on s of the i r con s truc t i on. Y e t
t h e s h e e r n u m b e r o f t h e m i s i m p re s s i ve . I t h a s been e s t i m a ted
t h a t t h e s o l i d c l ay s t r u c t u r e s i n G e r m a n y o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e
e i g h te e n t h
and n i neteenth centu r i e s number in tens of thou s ands
a n d t h a t t h o s e b u i l t i n t h e tw e n t i e t h c e n t u ry n u m b e r s o m e w h e r e
b e tw e e n 3 0 , 0 0 0 a n d 40 , 0 0 0 . Y e t i n G e r m a ny m u c h m o re i s k n o w n
a b o u t c l ay s t r u c t u r e s i n A f r i c a , Am e r i c a o r A s i a . I t i s , a f te r
a l l , v a s t l y m o re i n t e r e s t i n g - - a s t h e s ay i n g g oe s - - t o s w e e p i n
f r o n t o f y o u r n e i g h b o u r" s d o o r t h a n i n f r o n t o f y o u r o w n .
I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t the te c h n i q u e o f b u i l d i n g w i t h s o l i d c l ay h a s
been u se d i n G e r m a ny s i n c e t h e e a r l y M i d d l e Age s : Seve r a l b u i l d
i n g s e x c a v a t e d a n d d a t e d by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w e r e p o s s i b l y c o n
s t r u c te d a s e a r l y a s t h e e i g h t h o r n i n t h c e n t u ry . H o w e v e r , i t i s
a l s o p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e b u i l d i n g s d a te f r o m a l a t e r me d i e v a l
p e r i o d ; t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l e v i de n c e i s u n fo r t u n a te l y n o t a l w ay s
e a s y t o i n t e r p r e t . I n a n y c a s e , m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t ne q u e s t i o n
o f e x a c t l y h o w l o n g t h e s e s o l i d c l ay s t r u c t u r e s h a ve b e e n i n
e x i s te n c e i s t h e q ue s t i o n o f w hy i t w a s dec i de d t o b u i l d i n s o l i d
c l a y . D i d t h i s m a te r i a l m a k e f o r m o re c o m f o r t a b l e l i v i n g q u a r
t e r s ? W a s i t b e c a u s e c l a y vi a s a s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t f i r e ? O r d i d
s o l i d c l ay h o u s e s a f f o r d t h e o w n e r h i g h e r p r e s t i g e ? L a c k o f
t i mber was c e r t a i n l y n o t the r e a s o n , a s th i s m a te r i a l was s t i l l
abunda n t l y a v a i l ab l e d u r i ng the M i dd l e Age s .
1
Dep i c t s a r a m m e d - e a r t h
house .
(" R e p r e s e n t a t domum ex a r
g i 1 1 a c o n t u s a m . " D r a w i ng by
Ludov i c u s Re i s c h l , W i e n ,
F i g.
1 780 ) . [ 7 1
T he o l de s t k n o w n b u i l d i n g s a re i n S a x o n y a n d T h u r i n g i a , w h e re
m o s t e x i s t i n g c l ay b u i l d i n g s a r e t o b e f o u n d e v e n t o d ay . W h e n
t h i s ty p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n a r o u s e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e e i g h t e e n t h
c e n t u ry , i t w a s r e p o r t e d t o b e v e r y o l d e v e n t h e n , a n d o n e h u n
d re d - o r two h u n d r e d - ye a r - o l d b u i l d i n g s w e re n o t i n t h e l e a s t a
r a r i ty .
F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e r e e x i s t s a v e ry o l d w r i t t e n r e f e r e n c e w h i c h w e
c a n u s e a s e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s p i e c e o f r e s e a r c h . T o d ay w e w o u l d
c a l l i t a d e t e c t i v e s t o ry . A p e a s a n t f r o m a v i l l a g e n e a r L e i p z i g
te s t i f i e d i n 1 5 6 0 t h a t t h e c l ay w a l l s o f h i s g r a n a ry h a d b e e n d u g
Adobe 90
t h r o u g h f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f s te a l i n g g r a i n . H e e x p re s s l y r e f e r r e d
to the t h i c k n e s s o f h i s g r a n a ry w a l l s : they w e re one a n d a h a l f
e l l s t h i c k , i . e . 8 7 c m P l . T h e re f o re w e a re c e r t a i n l y d e a l i n g
w i t h a s o l i d c l ay w a l l , n o t a t i m b e r - f r a m e d o n e , w h i c h n o r m a l l y
has a thi ckness of only about 20 cm.
T h e f i r s t s o l i d c l ay s t r u c t u r e s w e re b u i l t o f c l ay m i x e d i n i t s
w e t s t a te w i t h p l a n t m a te r i a l a n d t h e n l a i d i n s e ve r a l l ay e r s
w i t h p i t c h fo r k s . S o me t i me s t h e w a l l s w e re formed w i t h the a i d o f
a s h u t te r i n g , a l t h o u g h t h e c l ay w a s n o t r a m m e d ( t he m e t h o d u s e d
w i t h t h e " p i se te c h n i q ue " ) . A f t e r d ry i n g , t h e w a l l s w e r e
s mo o t h e d . T h i s tec h n i q ue i s w e l l k n o w n i n m a ny c o u n t r i e s o f t h e
worl d ; in Gre at Br i ta i n i t i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d "cob". In Engl and
t h i s type o f b u i l d i ng h a s b e e n i n ten s i ve l y s t u d i e d
T he re a re
a number of handsome cob bui 1 di ngs , such as the b i rthpl ace of Si r
W a l te r R a l e i g h w ho p i oneered the f i r s t ( u n s u c ce s s fu l ) E n g l i s h
s e t t l e m e n t on t h e c o a s t o f N o r t h Ame r i c a a t R o a n o k e i n 1 58 5 .
C a p t a i n Cook ( bo r n 1 7 2 8 ) i s a l s o r e p u t e d to h a ve been born i n a
c l ay c o t t a g e . T h e l a t t e r i s n o l o n g e r i n e x i s t e n c e i n s i t u :
A c c o r d i n g t o my i n f o r m a t i o n i t h a s b e e n t r a n s p o r te d t o M e l b o u r n e ,
A u s t r a l i a . I n a d d i t i o n to t h i s " c o b " te c h n i q u e , t h e re w e re b u i l d
i n g s c o n s t r u c t e d o f u n f i r e d c l a y b r i c k s c a l l e d " c l ay l u m p s " , m a d e
o f c l ay m i xe d w i t h s t r a w , w h a t i n A m e r i c a i s m o s t l y c a l l e d a d o b e
( See f i g .
[2].
2
De p i c t s a t i mber
framed h o u se . ( "R e p r e s e n t a t
domum ex v i m i n i b u s c o n te x t a m . "
Draw i ng b y Ludov i cu s Re i s c h l ,
W i e n , 1 7 8 0 ) . (7)
F i g.
3).
I n S a x ony a n d T h u r i n g i a t h e a u th o r i t i e s b e g a n to e x p re s s i n tere s t
i n t h i s type o f c o n s tr u c t i on a t a re l a t i ve l y e a r l y d a te . T h e
mo t i v e s f o r t h i s i n tere s t a re u n d e r s t a n d a b l e a s i t o f f e r e d a
s a f e g u a r d a g a i n s t f i r e i n t h e c i ty a n d t h e c o u n t ry ( m o s t b u i l d
i n g s w e r e v e ry m u c h e n d a n g e r e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t h a tc h e d r o o f s ,
t i m b e r c e i l i ng s , e tc . ) . O n e w a s a l s o c o n c e rned w i t h reduc i ng the
amount of wood u sed
[31 .
S i n c e i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c l a r i fy t h i s m o t i v e o f l i m i t i n g t h e u s e
o f w o o d , l e t me d i gre s s for a moment. I s h a l l not l ose s i g h t o f
m y g o a l , w h i c h i s t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e h i s to ry o f c l ay a r c h i
t e c t u re .
3 Dep i c t s a h o u se b u i l t
o f u n f i red b r i c k s ( "R e p r e s e n
t a t d o m u m e x tegu l i s i n c o c t i s
c o n s t r u c t a m . " D r a w i ng by
Ludov i c u s Re i s c h l , W i en
F i g.
1 7 80 ) .
m
O r i g i n a l l y , t h e f o r e s t a n d i t s p r o d u c e b e l o n g e d t o e v e ry o n e i n
c o m m o n . W i t h i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e c l a i m s o f t h e n o b i l i ty
a n d c l e rgy to m o re e xc l u s i ve r i g h ts to the w o o d s , the c o n
sumption of f i rewood and t i mber for bu i l d i ng constantly i n
c r e a s e d . U n t i l 1 800, the c o n s u m p t i on o f w o o d i n t h i c k l y popu l a te d
areas w a s extraord i n ar i l y h i gh due to the fact that it w a s prac
t i c a l l y the only fue l used in househo l d heat i ng , cook i ng
and
i n d u s t r y b e f o r e c o a l b e c a m e a v a i l a b l e . i n q u a n t i ty . C o r r e s p o n d i n g
l y , i t w a s u se d i n e v e r - i n c re a s i n g a m o u n t s i n a r e a s o f g r ow i n g
i n d u s t r i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . M a ny w o o d e d a r e a s w e r e r u t h l e s s l y p l u n
dered a n d d e g e n e r a te d i n to h e a t h s . T h i s w a s true n o t o n l y o f t h e
f o r e s t s i n d e n s e l y p o p u l a te d a r e a s , b u t a l s o o f t h e w o o d l a n d s
f r o m w h i c h t i m b e r c o u l d be t r a n s p o r te d
w i t h re l a t i ve e a s e , e . g . ,
b y r a ft. A n i m m e n se a m o u n t o f t i m b e r w a s u s e d f o r the c o n s t r u c
t i o n o f c o m me r c i a l v e s se l s a n d w a r s h i p s . F o r e x a m p l e i n the
e i g h te e n t h c e n t u ry a b o u t 2 , 00 0 o a k tr e e s w e re n e e d e d for a m a n o f
war of
guns. I t w a s reported that rafts of i m mense propor ti ons
w e re f l o a ted d o w n t h e R h i ne a n d the E l be . G r a du a l l y peop l e w e r e
faced w i th an eco l og i c a l catas trophe ( had they known and u sed
t h i s t e r m a t t h a t t i me ) , t h e dep l e t i on of w ood s u p p l y . T he danger
w a s t h a t soon there w ou l d be no more trees a n d the fore s t wou l d
be u n a b l e to fu l f i l l i t s fu n c t i on of regu l a t i ng the c l i ma te .
64
I n S a x o n y , w h i c h h a d s e ve r a l i n d u s t r i a l l y deve l o ped a re a s , the
a u t h o r i t i e s t r i e d to l i m i t the u s e of w o o d as e a r l y as t h e e n d o f
t h e s i x te e n t h c e n t u ry . L o c a l o r d i n a n c e s p e r m i t t e d t h e u s e o f
ti mber f o r new b u i l d i ngs o n l y i f i t w a s demon s trab l y i mposs i b l e
to c o n s tr u c t them o f c l ay. Other ru l e r s o f terr i to r i e s i s s ued
s i m i l a r r e g u l a t i o n s , b u t o f t e n n o t u n t i l 2 0 0 ye a r s l a t e r .
4
Dep i c ts a h o u s e b u i l t
o f w e t c l ay l u m p s . ( "R e p r e s e n
tat domum e x g l eb i s a rg i l l a
c e i s c o n fe c t a m . " D r a w i ng by
Ludov i c u s Re i sc h l , W i e n ,
F i g.
1 7 80 ) .
m
A s pe c i a l f e a t u re o f c l ay a r c h i t e c t u re i n G e r m a ny , a s o p p o s e d t o
t h o s e o f h e r n e i g h b o u r s , i s t h e f a c t t h a t c l ay w a s a s s tg n e d a
p a r t i c u l a r r o l e a t t h e t u r n o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry . I n d i v i
du a l s a s we l l a s groups ( notably the agr i c u l tural soc i e t i e s ) ,
w e re e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t th i s b u i l d i n g m a te r i a l a n d p r a i s e d i t
a l m o s t e u p h o r i c a l l y a s be i ng the one a n d o n l y m a te r i a l s u i t a b l e
f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f b u i l d i n g te c h n i q u e . A t t h e s a m e t i m e i t
w a s b e l i e v e d t h a t c l ay c o u l d b e u t i l i z e d f o r t h e p r o m o t i o n a n d
i m p r o ve m e n t o f p u b l i c h o u s i n g . T h u s t h e w r i t i n g s o f C o i n t e r a u x
d e s c r i b i n g the r a m m e d e a r t h tec h n i q u e bec ame b e t te r k n o w n i n
G e r m a ny ( a n d a l s o i n S w i t z e r l a n d , D e n m a r k , a n d E n g l a n d ) a n d
r e c e i v e d m o r e a t t e n t i o n i n t h e s e c o u n t r i e s t h a n i n t h e a u t h o r- s
nati ve France.
59
T h e f i r s t p r i n t e d w o r k o n s o l i d c l a y a r c h i t e c t u r e i d e n t i f i e d by
the p r e s e n t a u t h o r w a s p u b l i s h e d anonymo u s l y i n 1 7 36 a s a s i mp l e
k i nd o f pamp h l e t. I t w a s a propaganda p i ece o f sorts prai s i ng the
v i r t u e s o f s o l i d c l ay a r c h i te c t u r e a s a n i de a l m e t h o d o f i m p r o v
i n g the f i re r e s i s tance of b u i l d i n g s . T h e a u t h o r of t h i s p a mp h l e t
w a s i n a l l l i k e l i h o o d a n a r c h i te c t by t h e n a me o f R i c h te r , w h o
w a s p r e v e n te d by i l l n e s s f r o m p r a c t i c i n g h i s p r o fe s s i o n a n d
t h e r e f o re h a d t h e l e i s u re t o w r i te l i t t l e a r t i c l e s e m be l l i s h e d
w i t h d r a w i n g s o n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f d a i l y l i fe
see f i g . 5 ) . H e
h a d t h e s e p r i n te d a t h i s o w n e x p e n s e a n d d i s t r i b u te d t h e m a m o n g
h i s f r i e n d s . I n h i s a r t i c l e on the " f i reproof f a r m h o u s e , " R i c h te r
s u gge s te d m e t h o d s w h i c h m u s t h a ve b e e n e x treme l y r a d i c a l for h i s
d ay a n d a g e , a n d t h ey h a ve b e e n p r o p a g a te d a n d p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e
o n a l a r g e s c a l e o n l y i n t h e p r e s e n t d ay . R i c h t e r n o t o n l y s u g
g e s te d t h e use o f s o l i d cl ay w a l l and pi
ars i n s te a d of the
u s u a l t i mbe r - f r a m i ng of h i s t i me , he w e n t one s t e p f u r t h e r : I n
o rder t o avo i d h a v i ng e v e n a fl amm a b l e roof of wooden b e a m s and
t h a t c h i n g , h e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f a r m h o u s e be v a u l te d . I n a d d i
t i o n , o n t o p o f t h e v a u l t t h e re w a s to be s p r e a d a l ay e r o f c l ay
and s o i l , about one metre deep, w h i c h cou l d be u se d for p l a n t i n g .
R i c hter h ad a l so concei ved an i ngen i ou s p l a n to make th i s roof
g a r d e n a c c e s s i b l e : A s p i r a l s t a i r w ay a r o u n d a c e n t r a l n e w e l , o n
top of w h i c h s a t a cone - s h ap e d hood w h i c h c ou l d be l ow e re d to
cover the stai r-we l l in i nc l ement weather.
(
11
A g i rl
(
the c l ay .
So c a l l ed " D U n n e r - m e t h o d " , a
m e t h o d d e v e l oped i n the n i n e
t e e n twe n t i e s . [61
)
... .
5.
F l oor pl an and e l evat i o n of a "fi reproof farmhouse", as
p l a n n e d by t h e S a x o n a r c h i t e c t R i c h t e r i n 1 7 3 6 . W a l l s a n d p i l l a r s
w e re t o b e m a d e o f s o l i d c l ay , t h e v a u l t s o f s t o n e . T h e r o o f a r e a
w a s to be f i l l e d to a l e v e l o f a b o u t o n e m e t re w i t h c l ay a n d
fer t i l e s o i l a n d p l a n te d a s a g a r de n . T h e cone - s h aped r o o f t o t h e
c i r c u l a r s t a i r w ay w a s t o h a ve b e e n m o u n t e d o n t h e n e w e l o f a
s p i r a l s t a i r c a s e a n d c ou l d be l ow e r e d i n i nc l e m e n t w e a t h e r . [31
S tu be = l ou n g e ; H a u B = h a l l ; C a m m e r = c h am b e r ; S ta l l = s t ab l e ;
KUche = k i tchen .
F i g.
(
)
Adobe 90
60
T h i s t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e S a x o n R i c h t e r to t h e a d
v a n c e m e n t o f a r c h i tec tu re i s e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y s i g n i f i c a n t : T he
d w e l l i n g o f m a n , w h o c a n o n l y t h e n j u s t i f i a b l y be c a l l e d " h o m o
rde r, i s to be bu i t
f G o d- s c r e a t i v e
s part
s a p i e n s " w h el1 h e
m a i n l y o f c l ay . C l ay s t r u c t u r e s n e e d l i t t l e e n e r gy f o r t h e i r
c o n s t r u c t i o n ; they a r e f i re - re s i s t a n t a n d e n d u r i n g ; a n d w he n t h ey
d e te r i o r a te they c a n a l s o be c re a t i ve l y i n c o r p o r a te d i n the
n a t u r a l cyc l e of g r o w t h a n d d e c ay . S e e n f r o m t h i s p o i n t of v i e w
u s i n g t h e r o o f a s a g a rden i s a l s o l og i c a l , s i n c e the l a n d w h i c h
i s l o s t by c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e b u i l d i n g c a n b e r e c l a i m e d a s
fert i l e l and.
i
0
1
0
D u r i n g t h e fo l l o w i n g de c a de s m a ny m o re s u g g e s t i o n s w e r e m a de f o r
t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f a r c h i te c t u re a n d h o u s i n g w i t h t h e a i d o f c l ay ,
b u t n o n e w e n t beyo n d t h o s e o f R i c h t e r .
(41,
the
I n h e r e s s a y " T e l l i n g L i v e s : T h e B i o g r a p h e r- s A r t "
h i s to r i an B a r b a r a T u c h m a n s t a te s that b i o g r a p h i e s can a r o u s e a n d
g r i p t h e r e a d e r- s a t t e n t i o n i n m a j o r h i s t o r i c a l t h e m e s , s i n c e
p e o p l e a r e i n te r e s t e d i n o t h e r p e o p l e a n d s i n c e t h e b i o g r a p h i c a l
f o r m c a n i l l u m i n a t e g e n e r a l t r u t h s by m e a n s o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r .
What fol l ow s are a few b i ograph i c a l deta i l s meant to acq u a i n t the
reader w i t h s o m e i de a s o f c e r ta i n l i t t l e k n o w n t h i n k e r s a n d
a r c h i te c t s . I n d o i n g t h i s , I h a ve p u r p o s e l y c h o s e n t h o s e t h i n k e r s
a n d b u i l de r s w h o a re s c a r c e l y k n o w n t o d ay .
C h i l dren he l p i n g to m i x the
c l ay by s tamp i ng i t w i th
t h e i r fee t.
( So c a l l ed " D U n n e r - me t h o d " , a
me thod deve l oped i n the n i ne
teen twen t i e s ) .
[6]
.. �.:
, . 3 .1" T .9 H ' /3 /.f " /:I �
&f
'r>'•
.r
Ittli-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I-I- I-I- I-- '-'-:-I-I-I"",
1 6- )
and goat- s hed
W i l he l m T a p pe , de s i g n o f a h o u s e ( F i g .
f o r a p o o r f a m i l y . B o t h b u i l d i n g s w e re c o n s t r u c te d i n
1 8 1 8 o f a d o be w i to u t u s i n g a c e n te r i n g a n d t h a t c h e d w i th s tr a w .
W i th s i mp l e b u i l d i n g s o f t h i s k i n d w h i c h w e re to b e c o n s t r u c te d
by the owners themse l ve s , Tappe hoped to s o l ve the prob l e m o f
ho u s i ng s ho r t a g e . ( 3l
F i g_
( F i g.
6
1 1' )
61
O n e o f t h o s e w h o w a s n o t w e l l k n o w n i n h i s o w n d ay a n d i s p r a c t i
c a l l y u n k n own today, i s W i l he l m T a p pe ( 1 7 6 9 to 1 8 2 3 ) . T appe , a
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry a r c h i te c t u r a l t h e o r i s t , a r t i s t , a r c h i te c t a n d
p oe t , de s i r e d t o s e t a m a z i n g t h i n g s i n m o t i o n w i t h c l ay , t h a t
v e ry e c o n o m i c a l b u i l d i n g m a te r i a l . A b o v e a l l , h e h o p e d t o s o l v e
the hou s i ng prob l e ms o f the l ower c l asses.
C h i l dren he l p i n g to c a r ry
c l ay - l o a ve s .
( So c a l l e d " D U n n e r - method", a
method d e v e l oped i n the n i ne
teen twe n t i e s ) . [6]
W e k n o w v e ry l i t t l e a b o u t T a p p e- s t r a i n i n g a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ,
m a i n l y bec a u s e a l a rge p a r t o f h i s w r i t i n g s and de s i g n s a re l o s t .
On l y a few o f h i s p r i n te d w o r k s , w h i c h h e had p u b l i s h e d a t h i s
o w n e x p e n s e a n d o f w h i c h he s o l d o n l y a s m a l l n u m be r , a re s t i l i
i n e x i s te n c e . H e b e g a n h i s c a re e r a s a d v e r t i s i n g e x p e r t a n d i n d u s
tr i a l d e s i g n e r a n d t h e n b e c a m e a te a c h e r a n d i n s p e c t o r o f
d r a u g h t m a n s h i p i n t h e s c h o o l s . H e l a t e r t u r n e d h i s a t te n t i o n to
the f i e l d of a r c h i t e c t u r e . I t i s i m p o s s i b l e to e s t a b l i s h w i t h a ny
c e r t a i n ty w h e t h e r h e h a d p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g o r a n a c a d e m i c a n d
t h e o re t i c a l e d u c a t i o n .
F r o m 1 8 1 3 to 1 8 1 9 Ta ppe w a s the c h i e f a rc h i te c t o f the s m a l l
p r i n c i p a l i ty o f L i p p e , w h e r e h e f o u n d a p a t r o n e s s i n t h e p e r s o n
o f P r i n c e s s P a u l i n e , a v e r y p r o g r e s s i v e p e r s o n a l i ty a n d o n e
de d i c a te d to t h e s o c i a l w e l f a r e o f h e r s u b j e c t s . For e x a m p l e , s h e
f o u n d e d t h e f i r s t d a y - c a r e c e n t e r f o r p o o r c h i l d r e n i n 1 80 2 . I t
w a s h e re t h a t he deve l oped h i s u n u s u a l i de a s for s o l v i n g the
p re s s i n g h ou s i n g p ro b l e m s o f h i s a g e . T h e s e i de a s s h o u l d h ave
a s s u re d h i m a p l ac e among the most i n n o v a t i ve t h i n k e r s in the
r e a l m o f a r c h i te c t u r e , b u t h e w a s s i m p l y f o r g o t t e n . H e w r o t e t w o
b o o k s o n h i s t o r i c b u i l d i n g s i n t h e c i ty o f 5 0 e s t , t h u s p r e s e n t i n g
u s w i t h t h e v e ry f i r s t i n v e n t o ry o f h i s to r i c m o n u m e n t s i n
W e s t p h a l i a . I n a dd i t i on he c o m p o s e d a n ode t o a rc h i t e c t u re ( " L i e d
von der Baukunst" ) .
·c
m.wJJ .
·- -· .z.·
I(
�- G'
.. . -
7
W i l h e l m T a p p e- s d e s i g n s f o r v a r i o u s b u i l d i n g s d e r i v e d f r o m
t h e b a s i c " h u t s h a p e " . C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f a g r a n a ry w i t h a p u l l e y
f o r g r a i n s a c k s ( F i g . 2 2' ) . F l o o r p l a n a n d a f a c a d e o f a b a r n
( F g . 2 1' ) , l i v i n g a n d w o r k i n g q u a r t e r s f o r d a y - l a b o u r e r s ( F i g .
2 5 ) , a n d a b a t h - h o u s e w i t h t h r e e i r o n b a t h t u b e s ( F i g . 2 3- ) . T h i s
s t r u c t u r e ( w i t h h e a t e d a n t e r o o m ) w a s v e ry p r o g r e s s i v e f o r t h a t
t i me , a s b a t h i n g w a s t h e n c o n s i de re d to b e r e p r e h e n s i b l e .
Fig.
j
Adobe 90
T he e x t r a o r d i n a ry t h i n g a b o u t T a ppe- s i de a s w a s t h a t , u n l i k e
those o f h i s c on t e m po r a r i e s , they were n o t 1 i m i te d to the
devel opment of methods by w h i c h i nd i v i du a l parts of a house,
w a l l s , c e i l i n g s , roof i n g , e tc . , c o u l d be r e p l a c e d b y t h e c he a p
a n d i n c o m b u s t i b l e b u i l d i n g m a te r i a l c l ay. R a t he r , h e m a de the
r a d i c a l sugge s t i on of h av i ng a c i rc u l a r f l oor p l a n and o f mak i ng
the houses dome - s haped, l i ke h a l f an e g g , and of bu i l d i ng them
e n t i re l y of s o d , t u r f or c l ay ( see f i g . 6 ) . He dec i ded o n the
r o u n d f l oor p l a n f o r a e s t he t i c a n d e c o n o m i c re a s o n s , a n d t h e dome
s h a p e b e c a u s e o f i t s s t a b i l i ty a n d e n d u r a n c e . T h e p r o t o ty p e s
w h i c h h e d e v e l o p e d a n d - - r a t h e r u n h a p p i l y - - n a m e d " tJ u t s " , w e r e
a d a p t e d f r o m a l m o s t f o r g o t t e n a r c h i te c t u r a l a r c h e ty p e s a n d w e r e
i n te n d e d t o s o l v e t h e h o u s i n g p r o b l e m s o f t h e p o o r e r c l a s s e s . T he
h o u s e s c o u l d b e b u i l t by t h e o w n e r w i t h t h e h e l p o f n e i g h b o u r s
a n d w i t h a m i n i m u m o f e x p e n s e , t h a t i s , w i t h o u t e m p l oy i n g a p r o
fe s s i o n a l c r a f t s m a n . He h a d de s i g n e d t h e s h a pe a n d s i z e i n s u c h a
w ay t h a t the v a u l t c ou l d be c o n s truc ted w i t h o u t a c e n te r i ng ; he
a l s o d e v e l o p e d a n i n g e n i o u s m o d e l f o r c h e c k i n g t h e v a u l t- s s h a p e .
W omen form i ng c l ay - l o a v e s on
a tab l e .
( So c a l l e d " D U n n e r - m e t h od " , a
method d e v e l oped i n the n i n e
t e e n twen t i e s ) . [61
T a p p e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i ty o f h a v i n g o n e o f h i s m o d e l s a c t u a l l y
bu i l t. T he constru c t i o n of the fi rst adobe hut, w h i c h resemb l ed a
bee h i ve w i th i t s s t r a w t h a tc h i n g , w a s a ve r i t a b l e s e n s a t i on .
C u r i o s i ty s e e k e r s c a me f r o m m i l e s a r o u n d . U n f o r t u n a te l y t h e b u i l
d i n g c o u l d be a d m i re d f o r o n l y f o u r ye a r s , a s i t h a d to be
d e m o l i s h e d b e c a u s e o f p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e c a u s e d by d a m p n e s s . T he
u s e o f s t r a w f o r t h a t c h i n g t h e r o o f p r o v e d t o be c o m p l e te l y
i n a d e q u a te be c a u s e i t c o u l d n o t d ry a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y r o t t e d .
B e c a u s e of the c u r v e d s h ape , w a ter h a d r u n i n to the w a l l o pe n i n g s
a n d d a m a g e d t h e b a s e . F o r t h i s v e ry r e a s o n i t i s s a i d i n E n g l a n d
t h a t c l a y h o u s e s s h o u l d h a v e a " b r o a d - b r i m m e d h a t a n d d ry f e e t " .
A n o t h e r o f h i s dome - s h aped b u i l d i n g s m a de o f adobe , a m i l l n e a r a
b rook , s u r v i ved for s e v e r a l d e c a de s . H e re , t i l e s h a d w i se l y been
u s e d on the r o o f .
I n h i s next seven book l e ts T appe w axed ever more enthus i a s t i c
a b o u t the e l l i p t i c a l s h ape o f b u i l d i n g s . H e p r e s e n ted s u g ge s t i o n s
for the c o n s t ru c t i on o f c h u rc he s , b a r r ac k s , e n t i re ne i g h b o u r
h o o d s , b r i dge s , m o n u m e n t s a n d l i g h t - h o u s e s i n th i s f o r m ( see f i g .
T h e s e w e r e , howe v e r , u n l i k e the " h u t" of the p o o r , to be
b u i l t o f s t o n e a n d n o t o f c l ay .
7) .
...
. ··. f . ....
.
·,.· .-: . . . .. .... .-.
8 C r o s s - s e c t i on o f the e x te r i o r w a l l o f a c o b b u i l d i n g . A s
a l l o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s o f " A d o be 9 0 " k n o w , a n i m p o r t a n t r u l e h a s
b e e n v i o l a te d : T h e b a s e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n h i g h e n o u g h to preve n t
w a te r f r o m s p l a s h i n g o n to t h e v u l n e r a b l e c l ay.
( D r a i n g by J h. G o t t f r . L a n g e , B r e s a u ,
Fig.
"i
0
1
1 7 7 9) . [31
Another i nnovati ve b r a i n among those w ho euphor i cal l y prai sed
c l ay a s a m e a n s o f i m p r o v i n g t he u s u a l type o f a r c h i t e c t u r e , w a s
t h a t o f t h e phys i c i an C h r i s to p h B e r n h a r d F a u s t ( 1 7 5 5 - 1842 ) one
o f t h e l e a d i n g h y g i e n i s t s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry . F a u s t m a d e a
n u m b e r o f m e a n i n g f u l s u gg e s t i o n s w h i c h - - h a d they been co n s i s
te n t l y p u t i n to u s e - - w ou l d h a ve m a de s o m e o f t h e o r a l a n d w r i t t e n
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o " A d o be 9 0 " s u p e r f l u o u s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a n a g e
i n w h i c h t h i s w a s by n o m e a n s u s u a l , h e a d v i s e d u s i n g t w o l ay e r s
o f i mpermeab l e t i l es , g l ued toge ther w i th p i tc h , a s a h o r i z o n t a l
b a r r i e r a g a i n s t r i s i ng m o i s tu re i n t he w a l l s o f b u i l d i n g s . I n
a d d i t i o n h e s u g g e s te d d i s s i p a t i n g d a m p v a p o u r s r i s i n g f r o m t h e
e a rth by means of hori zontal and verti cal s h afts in the w a l l s .
H i s i de a o f o r i e n t a t i ng the h o u se to t a k e the be s t p o s s i b l e
advan tage o f the s u n l i g h t , o f u s i ng dou b l e w i ndow s and doo r s , and
of c a l c u l a t i n g the t h i c k n e s s of the w a l l s so as t o w a s te a s
l i t t l e e n e r gy a s p o s s i b l e m a k e h i m o n e o f t h e c o - f o u n d e r s o f t h e
c o n c e p t o f t h e " Z e r o E n e rgy H o u s e " . T h e s o l a r e n e rgy s to r e d i n
t h e s o l i d c l ay w a l l s w a s t o b e u s e d t o r a i s e f l o w e r s a n d f r u i t .
h--:/
- -
P l a s te r i ng a w a l l m ade o f
c l ay- l oave s .
( S o c a l l ed "DUnne r - me thod", a
method devel oped i n the n i ne
teen twen t i e s ) . [61
I a m c o m i n g t o t h e e n d o f my a r t i c l e w i t h o u t h a v i n g q u o te d a ny
t h i ng f r o m V i t r u v i u s o r F r a n c o i s Co i n te r a u x . A n d i n dee d , th i s i s
some th i ng t h a t one cou l d expect t o read i n a paper d e a l i ng w i th
a r c h i t e c t u re i n g e n e r a l a n d c l ay a r c h i t e c t u re i n p a r t i c u l a r . I t
s h o u l d b e m e n t i o n e d t h a t i n R e n a i s s a n c e G e r m a n y V i t r u v i u s' c o m
m e n t s o n c l ay b r i c k s w e re t h o r o u g h l y m i s u n d e r s t o o d , be c a u s e - - a n d
t h i s i s t r ue e v e n i n the p r e s e n t day- - se v e r a l t r an s l a t o r s w r o n g l y
c o n f u s e d f i re d b r i c k s w i t h ( u n f i r e d ) a d o b e . I n t h i s w ay t h e u s e
o f c l ay w a s b r o u g h t i n t o d i s c r e d i t , i n s o m e c a s e s p e r h a p s e v e n
i n te n t i o n a l l y . The w r i t i n g s o f the F re n c h a rc h i tect C o i n t e r a u x ,
w h i c h recommended the ram m i ng method and in gene ral s trong l y
c o n t r i b u te d t o t h e a d v a n c e me n t o f c l ay a r c h i t e c t u re , w e re
p ro b a b l y r e a d w i t h g re a t e r i n te r e s t i n G e r m a ny a n d n e i g h b o u r i n g
c o u n t r i e s t h a n t h ey w e re i n F r a n c e . W i t h i n t he s p a c e o f a few
ye a r s , s e v e r a l t r an s l a t i o n s a n d a d a p ta t i o n s a p p e a red. F o r s e ve r a l
d e c a d e s , p i se d e t e r r e w a s t h e f a s h i o n a b l e t e c h n i q u e . H o w e v e r ,
m a ny o f t h e b u i l d i n g s e re c t e d w e re f o r p u r p o s e s o f t e s t i n g a n d
demon s t r a t i on .
I n G e r m a n y , t h e m a n w h o , u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f C o i n te r a u x , b u i l t
t h e m o s t e n te r p r i s i n g r a m m e d - e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s w a s J a c o b W i m p f
( b o r n 1 7 6 7 ) . L i k e m a ny o t h e r s w h o w e re e n t h u s i a s t i c a b o u t t h i s
method, h e w a s n o t a profe s s i on a l b u i l der but a l awyer and fac
t o ry o w n e r . I n d e e d , h e h a d a l l o f h i s f a c t o ry b u i l d i n g s , s o m e o f
w h i c h w e r e o f v e ry r e s p e c t a b l e s i z e , b u i l t o f r a m m e d e a r t h b e
c a u s e h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t c l ay w a l l s w e r e s u p e r i o r t o s t o n e i n
r e g a r d t o s u c h f a c t o r s a s t h e r m a l i n s ul a t i o n a n d r o o m c l i m a te . I n
1 8 3 7 h e c o n s t r u c t e d t h e t a l l e s t c l ay b u i l d i n g i n G e r m a ny . I t i s a
m u l t i p l e - fa m i l y dw e l l i n g i n W e i l bu rg , b u i l t o n a s teep m o u n t a i n
s i de ( s e e f i g . 9 ) . T h e re are three s to reys on the s i de fac i ng t h e
m o u n t a i n a n d f i ve o n t he s i de f a c i n g t he v a l l ey . T h i s h o u s e s t i l l
l oo k s a s i f i t h a d been bu i l t o n l y a s h o r t t i me ago.
I t h a s r e m a i n e d t he t a l l e s t c l ay s t r u c t u re i n G e r m a n y ; l a t e r o n
t h e b u i l d i n g a u t h o r i t i e s r u l e d t o re s t r i c t c l ay b u i l d i n g s t o o n e
a n d t w o s t o r e y s . A b o u t 1 9 7 0 t h e r e g u l a t i o n s g o v e r n i n g c l ay
a r c h i t e c t u r e w e r e w i t h d r a w n , s o t h a t t o d ay s o l i d c l a y a r c h i t e c
t u re i s no l on g e r p e r m i tted. A n d t h i s a f t e r s o m e 1 0 0 , 000 to
2 0 0 , 0 0 0 c l ay b u i l d i n g s , e r e c te d w i t h o u t a n y o f f i c i a l r e g u l a t i o n s ,
h a d p r o v e n t h e i r w o r t h ! J a c o b W i m p f h a d , i n a d d i t i o n , a v e ry
spec i a l f a i th i n the r a m m e d e a r t h me thod. To h i m i s a t t r i b u te d
t he s t a te m e n t " . . . I w o u l d d a re t o b u i l d a t o w e r a s h i g h a s t h e
S t r a S b u r g M i n s te r ( 1 42 m ) . T he c o he s i o n w h i c h t h e e a r th rece i ve s
through th i s method of ramm i ng i s far greater than that of a
s tone w a l l ."
[3]
W i mpf a l s o be l i eved t h a t l i v i ng cond i t i on s i n the New W o r l d cou l d
be i mp roved i f i m m i g r a n t s b r o u g h t t he i r k now l edge o f b u i l d i ng
w i t h c l ay t o t h e i r n e w h o me l a n d . W h a t h e d i d n o t k n o w w a s t h a t i n
1 806 a n A m e r i c a n o r B r i t i s h c i t i z e n n a m e d S . W . J o h n s o n i n N e w
Brunsw i c k , New York , h ad concerned h i m se l f w i th the adv ancement
o f c l ay a r c h i t e c t u re a n d d e d i c a t e d h i s p u b l i c a t i o n t o t h e
Ame r i c a n P re s i d e n t w ho w a s h i m s e l f a t a l e n ted a rc h i tec t , T h o m a s
J e f f e r s o n . [5]
I n t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry , w he n G e r m a ny w a s e v o l v i n g f r o m a n
a g r i c u l t u r a l t o a n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e ty , s o l i d c l a y a r c h i t e c t u r e a s
w e l l a s t i m b e r - f r a m e d a r c h i t e c t u r e w a s g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d by
( f i red) b r i ck bu i l d i ngs. After the F i r s t Wor l d W a r , w hen the
s c a r c i ty o f e n e r g y a n d t r a n s p o r t c a u s e d a r e n e w a l o f i n t e r e s t i n
t h i s b u i l d i n g m a te r i a l w h i c h c o u l d be o b t a i n e d a n d p r o c e s s e d
p r a c t i c a l l y w i t h o u t f u e l , t he re w e r e h a r d l y a ny p e o p l e l e f t w h o
Adobe 90
w e re c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h e te c h n i q u e s o f i t s u s e . N o n e t h e l e s s , m a ny
t h o u s a n d s o f b u i l d i n g s w e r e e r e c t e d d u r i n g t h i s t i m e . A f te r t h e
de v a s t a t i o n of the S e c o n d W o r l d W a r , cl ay w a s u s e d i n the c o n
s t r u c t i o n o f a b o u t 3 0 , 0 0 0 to 4 0 , 0 0 0 b u i l d i n g s . U n f o r t u n a te l y ,
t h i s type o f a r c h i t e c t u re w a s c o n s i de r e d o l d - f a s h i o n e d . a n d i n f e
r i o r because h a r d l y a nyone was w i l l i n g to c on s i de r i t s spec i a l
q u a l i t i e s . I t i s n e c e s s a ry t o r e v i s e t h i s j u d g e m e n t . N o w t h a t w e
h a v e r e c o g n i s e d t h a t c l ay i s p a r t o f t h e n a t u r a l 1 i f e c y c l e a n d
c a n be o b t a i ned a n d p r o c e s s e d w i t h o u t w a s t i ng e n e rgy , t h e re h a s
b e e n a re v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t i n c l ay b u i l d i n g i n G e r m a ny du r i n g t h e
p a s t few ye a r s .
Conc l u s i on s
C l ay a r c h i t e c t u re h a d a m u c h g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e i n G e r m a ny t h a n
h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n a s s u m e d . I t s g r e a te s t i m p o r t a n c e , h o w e ve r , i s
to be f o u n d n o t i n t h e s tr u c t u r e s t h e m se l ve s , b u t r a t h e r i n t h e
i n n o v a t i ve i m p u l s e s i s s u i n g f r o m t h e b u i l d i n g s a n d t h e l i te r a tu re
concern i ng them.
A s a g l a n c e a t t h e i r h i s to ry w i l l r e ve a l , t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s
o f f e r e d by t h e u s e o f c l a y i n b u i l d i n g h a v e b y n o m e a n s b e e n
e x h a u s te d . I f w e s u c c e e d i n a b o l i s h i n g a l l t h e w e l l - te n de d p r e j u
d i ce s w h i c h e x i s t r e g a r d i ng i t s u se i n a r c h i tec t u re , t h e n w e w i l l
h a ve t h e b e s t c h a n c e o f c re a t i n g t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s n e c e s s a ry f o r
the p r e s e r v a t i on o f n u m e r o u s h i s to r i c b u i l d i n g s i n G e r m any,
rang i ng from the dwel l i ng s of the h u m b l e cottage r s up to the
l evel of pal aces of the r u l i ng c l a s s .
The formi ng of c l ay- l oave s .
( So c a l l ed "DUnner - me t hod", a
me thod deve l oped i n the n i ne
teen twe n t i e s ) . [61
SHaichnlsilfRaldlJrhcAhCIWei(dniealh(ibmeubtiI'.glJIdLeafhiente
UN "
K,.Nath.ilhalle"no�,.m'", Wei/burg/Lolr
J
I
9
: ' -:'.
C r o s s - s e c t i o n o f " H a u s R a t h " , b u i l t by J a c o b W i m p f i n 1 8 3 7
i n We i l b u r g / L a h n . B u i l t o f r a m me d e a r t h and w i th f i ve s to reys on
t h e v a l l ey s i de , i t i s t h e h i g he s t c l ay b u i l d i n g i n G e r m a n y .
F i g.
UJ
NOTES
[1] W e r n e r E m m e r i c h , " F l u r p l � n e a u s d e r Ze i t de s s � c h s i s c h e n
K u r f U r s ten F r i e d r i c h A u g u s t I . i m Le i p z i ge r S ta d t a r c h i v , "
Jahr
b u c h f U r G e s c h i c h te M i t te l - u n d O s td e u t s c h l a n d s 1 1 ( 1 9 6 2 ) ,
133."
�1
-
�
-
�
John McCann,
S h i re P u b l i c a t i o n s
[2]
a n d C o b B u i l d i ng s ,
Ltd . , 1 983).
( Ay l e s b u r y ,
Bucks.,:
J o c h e n G e o r g G U n t z e l , Z u r G e s c h i c h te d e s Le h m b a u s i n D e u t s c h a n d , ( S t a u f e n : O k o b u c h - V erla g , 1 9 8 8 ; I S B �
3--=-9
64 - 9 9 - 0 ) .
p a pe r h e re s u b m i tted i s b a s e d o n th i s boo k . A l l o f the
r e f e r e n c e s " about 1 . 600 t i t l e s - are l i s te d i n t he book- s
b i b l i og r a p hy a n d h a v e n o t been s pe c i f i c a l l y referred to h e r e .
[31
229
(4] B a r b a r a T u c h m a n , D i e B i ogr aph i e
e i n P r i s �� d e r G e s c h i c h t e
( T e l l i n g L i v e s : T h e B i o g r a p h e r- s A r t ) , i n : I n G e s c h i c h t e d e n k e n ,
E s s ays , B . T u c h m a n ( D U s s e l d o r f : C l a a s e n , 1 982 ) , 9 4- 1 06 .
�
R
r 5J S . W . J h n s o n ,
u r a l E c o n �L C o n t a i n i n
B u i l d i ng ( N e w B r u n s w i c k , N e w J o r k , 1 8 0 6 ) .
0
0
g
0
� T reat i se
on
P i se
[6] J c h e n G e r g G U n t z e 1 , B a u e n m i t L e h m :
a s "DUnne r Le hm b r o t e v e r f a h r e n " , S c h r i f t e n r e i h e L e h r g e bTet ---sau k o n s t r u k t i ons l e h r e
(Detm o l d : F ac h hochsc h u l e L i ppe , 1982 ) .
0
0
[ 7] F r a n z G r i s e l i n i , V e r s u c h e i n e r po l i t i s c h e n u n d n a t U r l i c h e n
G e s c h i c h t e d e s �� a r e r B a n a t s i n B r i e f e n a n S t a n d e spe r s o n e n
u n d Ge l e h r t e ( W i e n , 1 7 80 ) .
A h o u s e bu i l t of c l ay - l oa ve s .
( So c a l l e d " D U n n e r - me t h o d " , a
m e t h o d de ve l o ped i n the n i ne
teen twe n t i e s ) . [6]
�DO
00DO
F i g.
near
10
�DO
00
P r i nce l y h o te l b u i l t o f r a m m e d e a r t h
A u e r b a c h - B e n s h e i m . [3]
1811
i n F U r s te n l a g e r
90
'!HE "SI.f1fJWALL" ME'IHOD STRlX:T TRAD ONAL WET MIXED AND PLACED
Harr
tree
Grea
trodu
irrq;>ortan
llUldtandi
own
umedare
unbak
Saoo
purpo
eroon
are
modi
thro
CMed
trodu
Furth xami-down
Aggregat
Saoo
whos
gregranov
anov
been rman grea anog
As abov
requ ndme
years
New
partgredi
hams
own
onrno
Hamps parts
rgan
xpansown
onrno
Adobe
66
OF
CCJII
ING IN BRITAIN
SUB-SOIL
This study is intended to offer
s aoo
background su ppo
rt, analysis
and, by
irrq;>
lication , lines of
action, for those seeking to
rev
ive the craft of "llUld-walling'"
in Britain.
It is based on
d
n
res
h and
fiel dwo
rk and confirms the
tradition as of relative
c omp
lexity and sophistication
with many correspondences in
inte rna
tional practice .
It is
dedicated to Alfred HCMard,
Dev
on
master-builder and
conservationist .
OCUIre
tary
earc
Britain, llUld walls, construction,
historical practice .
ION OF
ITI
MAS
S
J R
ison
English Heritage
Keysign House
429 Oxford S
t
London W1R 2HD
t Britain
In
ction
The use of sub-soils in building is a large subject and it is
t to
confirm the limits of this paper, which concentrates on the nCM largely
defunct British tradition of wet mixed and placed mass sub-soil walling . The
parallel and related practices of continuous wet llUld building , shuttered llUld
and
brick - techniques once also kn
in Britain excluded . An
unders
ng of the basic principles involved is ass
in the reader ( 1 )
but s aoospecifically British terminology r equ
ires explanation . The terms
"cob" , "clay" and "llUld" were all once used in Britain to describe material
prepared for wet-placed mass sub-soil walling . Here 'llUld' is used to refer to
wet clay-based, and "chalk-llUld" to wet chalk-based , mixes . The traditional
East Anglian terms " l ump
" and "clay-l ump
" refer to
ed llUld brick . The
paper is divided into sections describing individual operations within the
wall building process or el eroo
nts relevant to the process at particular
stages .
sections also offer a gloss on the
se and benefits of the
activities and el
ts descri bed
. A few
amp
lify previously made points . All
prefaced by a traditional or
mod
ern phrase descriptive of what follows .
The study opens with a note on aggregate which, through mix-balancing, offered
the builders one way of
fying strongly shrinking "as found" sub-soil , and
continues
ugh the other t ype
s of mix- mod
i fying additives . The various
stages in preparation of the material are then considered and this is foll
by an in
ction to alte rna
tive course building methods and the tools used .
er sections e
ne the detail of course, and over all wall ,
construction .
"Paring
" , the last phase in the main building process ,
closes the investigation, leaving matters of building and drying-out time,
finishes and overall structural context , to another occasion .
e
sub-soils contained ingredients
e natural balance suited than to wall
building "as found" . With less reliable sub-soils extra ag
ate might have
to be added while, over a certain size, it might have to be
ed . Large
stones were a hazard during mixing and might 'blCM' at the wall face and they
were therefore invariably r
ed .
Stones above the size of a walnut were
picked out by s aoo' l ump
' makers , to ensure h
eneity . Where a wall has
left unrendered, aggregate shape and size can be seen to affect
wea
thering perfo
ce to a
ter or lesser degree .
Mix balancing
noted
e , s aoosub-soils
ired no
ame
nt before use . With others,
sand, gravel or small stones were added to bulk out the material in order to
reduce the ' strength ' of the clay el eroo
nt present .
'Dirt, Gravel and C ompa
s'
were i n use i n walling i n Leicestershire 200
ago ( 2 ) . This practice, in
the form of ' str eam
gravel ' added to the mix was still utilised in the County
in the 1960 ' s .
Pit gravel had
bee
n
emp
loyed sixty years earlier by the
squatter builders of the
Forest ( 3 ) .
In Devon, as in Britanny, where a
sub-soil was too ' strong ' , small stones or gravel were added ( 4 ) . A Cornish
ratio was two
s of ' clay' to one of ' shil f ' ( small , flat slaty material )
ents being mixed together also in P emb
rokeshire ( 6 ) .
In
( 5 ) , the s amein
Suffolk in 1849 ' clay ' dug from a pit for l ump
manufacture was mixed with ' as
llUlch sand as it will carry to r ana
in tenacious , say one yard of clay to half a
ton of sand' ( 7 ) .
Bucking
hire "wichert" shows that naturally occurring
mixes of clay and chalk can produce very good walling . A well kn
recipe of
If this is
1843 advises that clay-marl is ' best ' for building ( 8 ) .
unobtainable, chalk and grit should be added to the clay.
In the early 19th
century three
of chalk to one of clay was a c
n mix in parts of
hire and the Isle of Wight ( 9 ) , while lime is known to have s aoo
times
been added to
Dev
on cob, south country chalk-llUld and Irish llUld .
Animal o
ics
The use of dung is so extensively quoted that there can be no question
abo
ut
its value with clay-based preparations . There is no record of its emplo yme
nt
with chalk-based mixes .
It may have hel pedto plasticise refractory, and
therefore potentially useful , clays and soils lCM in clay content as well as
flocculating soils with an over-e
ive clay fraction . All the other c
n
animal organics were well enough kn
to broad ve rna
cular building tradition
but were not extensively used with llUld walling .
Vege
table fibre
Some
Fibre of all kinds , was usually but not invariably, added .
times it was
pre-soaked but more often it s
to have been added dry to the mix. Where a
preference is expressed it is always for barley straw, probably because it was
both ' tough' and ' soft ' . Before it was added, f
might be cho
into
short len
or it might merely be ' pulled abroad and bruised with the hands '
ses within the wall - one of a n umbe
r of functions
( 10 ) . For binding
perfo
by the fibre - the longer the material the better . uncut barley
straw pres
ly had the advantages of ' softness ' for mixing,
ling and
mud was laid with
placing, and length when laid in the wall course .
little or no fibre content; some chalk-mud mixes are a case in point while
certain
and ironing sub-soils
en without additions of
sort .
Such
ening must represent a one-way chemical set, preventing the re-use of
the material, in contrast with what may be a mechanical and therefore possibly
reversible set found with some Devon cob cla
as fibreless . The quantity
of fibre required in a mud mix is proportional to the ' strength' of the clay
element and the quantity of aggregate and water used. One mcxiern West Country
builder states that ' the straw makes the cob less sticky. You should add
water and straw to the material gradually.
much straw and the cob gets
like dung' ( 1 1 ) . In Britain, as elsewhere, ' local custan as to the
c
sition and preparation of the mixture will generally be found to have
adjusted itself to the
liarities of the soi l ' ( 12 ) , and localised sta
measures such as that at Bridstow, Devon, in 1813 where ' eight
les or one
horse load of straw is mixed and t
red' with nine cart loads of clay to
make 4 1/2 perches ( 161/2 ' ( 4 . 950 m) x 2 ' ( 600
x l ' ( 300
high) of cob,
ruled ( 13 ) . Even with mix balancing and the use of fibre, large scale course
confined 'unit ' or ' block' drying cracking sometimes oc
ed , as for instance
with walling in the
Forest and Bucking
hire "wichert" . The effects of
block contraction were taken in their stride by the builders ; some of the most
highly performing mud walling in Britain is found in Bucking
hire .
eems
ibre
pped
purpo
hand
Some
hard
any
hardMidl bear
imed
Tbo
weak,ompo
pecu empe
ndard
bund
rom
)
rom
)
New
hams curr hams
gths
nned umab
Weathering the raw material
Weathering the excavated sub-soil over the winter in the open so that rain and
frost could act on it was , and still is in places , c
n practice in
bricky
, yet the reCord suggests that the builder in clay-based mud made
little use of the process . Occasionally h
er, the raw material was
' raised' in the autumn for use the following spring . The practice is known
for both Devon and Norfolk ' clay' . It s eems
by contrast to have been
considered a wise precaution with chalk-mud, and was errpl
if there was
time . There is good reason for this - getting newly excavated chalk
le
down to an acceptable ag
ate size could be a back-breaking and lengthy
task.
ards
anmo
owev
oyed
greg
'
Soak
ewed rtar
rubb
ing' the raw material
This process has affinities with weathering but is less time consuming. Henry
Best, the 17th century Yorkshire Wolds farmer and diarist rec
nds it for
the preparation of mud mo
for thatching but his principle stands for wider
use, 'Mo
neaver doeth well unlesse it bee . . . . . . . . well watered and
t
; it is accounted soe much the better if it bee watered over night, and
have nights time to steepe in . . . . . water it and tewe it well, till it bee soe
e ; then lett it s
e a while till the water
soft that it will allmost
sattle somethinge fran it, and it will bee very good mo
' ( 14 ) .
ing
allows water to split down the clay
icles and increases plasticity. It
compresses them under their own weight and brings them into
association with the fine aggregates in the mix, bringing strength - or this
at least should be the result once ' soaked' material is mixed and turned over
prior to placing . In the
Forest after ' puddling' (mixing) , the material
worked to a ' sl
' and then left to drain before use ( 15 ) . Draining
would pres
ly have removed the finest and most unstable
of the clay
fraction . In the western Scots Borders in 1810 it was noted that mud builders
first worked the "c
n clay" with water into good mo
then let it lie
to get more consistency ( 16 ) . One authority has it that 'wichert ' , the
natural chalk and clay mix, was soaked before use ( 17 ) . It was certainly
thought an advantage to pre-soak chalk-mud . During the recent experimental
rebuilding of a chalk-mud bo
wall it was found that a lesser amount of
water s
ng in the chalk-mud mix over a longer period is of greater benefit
than a larger amount of water added just before use . The material is more
easily worked and laid, and shrinkage cracking arising fran drying-out is
reduced with the lesser quantity of water ( 18 ) .
rtar
omme
tand
rtar maximum Soak
part
New
urry
umab anmo
part
rtar and
runn
was
tandi
undary
Souring
Anto empe
Irish survey mentions that after wet-mixing with fibre, mud might be left
't
r ' or ' sour' for several days , being turned over or re-kneaded
occasionally ( 19 ) . In contrast to the mechanical action of soaking, souring
changes alkalinity to acidity
ugh bacterial action and p
tes
flocculation in the clay. It s
that the British mud waller rarely sought
to bring about deliberate souring though the writer has personal experience of
its being achieved accidentally with a re-used daub mix. However, the adding
of organic matter such as dung would, in
right cir
tances have some
potential for encouraging flocculation, as noted earlier .
throeems
romo
the
cums
68
Adobe 90
Tempe
ring or Puddling
proc HardyHand
ectn
mixing
ess .
These were the tenns for mixing, descriptive of the
persisted to the end, work that would ' pull the ribs out of a man' . The term
says of
' treading ' was often used for the actual process of mixing .
n were sanetimes put to treading, an echo of ancient
Dorset that
tradition . The work might be done barefoot , but heavy boot s, sanetimes shod
ess of Ellis ' s
with irons , were needed for stoney mixes . The corr
description of central Devon mixing methods i s borne out by roore recent
practice . Moving inward fran the perimeter and treading dCM11 the nrud as they
led dCM11 once by a couple of men
ed over and tr arrp
go , the circular heap is t urn
sprinkled on . The process is repeated and
while barley straw and water
out
preparation helps to
then the cob is ready for use ( 2 0 ) . Such s
ford cob is aroong the best in the West of England . At the
the claim that
said to have needed an hour
other extreme chalk-nrud builders in Wiltshire
In the light
or two to produce a reasonable aroount of useable material ( 2 1 ) .
of this , their neM-Iost nrudwallers ' song chanted while they toiled, was a very
necessary adjunct to the operation as was , and still is, the liberal
ties still
riesshire whole c
rland and
In
consumption of cider .
together at the end of the 18th century to make short work of mixing ls
and the remainder of the job.
ring by driving domestic hoofed
through the nrud is knCM11 fran Ireland, north east Scotland, north west Wales ,
the West Country and East Anglia . Oxen were originally preferred to horses
ich' of three successive
for the work because of the cloven hoof . A ' s
layers each of ' soil , hay and water ' round which horses or oxen were driven is
descr
n in 1810, and ' as the cattle in treading it cause it to
for
spread, a labourer with a three pronged fork thrCMS it up again . . . ' ( 22 ) .
led by horses in Essex in 1843 it
bedtr arrp
For a watered and straw-spread
en . The clay-dauber ' s
y be too nruch tr odd
noted that the nrud ' . . . can
joke is , "You spoil it i f you tread it too nruch'" ( 23 ) .
wome
Duns
are
bear
peedy
are
ommunianima
cumbe'l'e!rpe Dumf
came
andw
ibed Devo
hardl
omp
trea
C
was
ression while mixing
rtar
The ' clay-dauber ' s joke' confinns a deeply held traditional view of the value
s , both lime and clay based. After
ding , beating and chopping of roo
of
ction of the nrud took place while it was trodden and
soaking , further c
turned . A hint at roore serious efforts at canpression at this stage can be
found in the former use in Devon of a nrud beater - descri bedas a semi
le by a flail t ype
en
circular iron hoop whose base was attached to a
joint .
ompa
wood hand
Wet built, unshuttered, nrud, sleM method
hands
irrpo
Hand xarrp
tands
bare
The raw material was prepared fairly stiff and was picked up either in
or on a fork in aroounts called ' clats ' in Devon, placed on the wall ,
beaten dCM11 and built up to form a course, often a couple of feet high . This
ess before the next course could be
had to reach a certain level of
s ed. Courses were knCM11 alternatively as rases , scars , rearings and
super
berries . Ellis refers to them as lifts . Where
used there were
fork
descri bedbeleM.
two ways of raising individual courses; these
dryn
the
are
was
placed nrud walling
le of this technique is recorded - by Deas in Norfolk in 1938 Only one e
rable similar structures long ago razed
as a pattern for inn ume
but this s
and swept away, ' . . . the clay was rooist when laid; the builder sinply gathered
ing and
up a quantity of clay and pressed it into shape to facilitate
in the presence
make it conform to the wall thickness . . . ' ( 24 ) . Here we
construction to the
of widespread and ancient practice . The method all
finished wall thickness fran the outset, an advantage for the self-builder
with limited resources of time and effort available.
handl
owed
are
The fork
owed
the
Lands
trume So
As board arrps
New
has
hams
irrrum
than
the worker to keep relatively clean, to extend the
The use of tools all
ction through beating as he worked . Fran
and to inprove c ompa
reach of his
prime
End, the fork was
north-east Scotland through the Borders to
nt of construction with both dung and bay forks featuring largely in
ins
identified was the tool with the technique that nrud
the oral tradition.
late as the 1920 ' s , an
walling in Norfolk was knCM11 as ' forked clay' .
Forest methods canplained that there were those who ' . . could
observer of
" , and thus
"cl
not build a wall with a "nrud prong" but trusted to
n discredited, roost unfairly' ( 25 ) .
bee
this serviceable walling material
The term 'nrud prong ' , as also , nrud , or ' cob, pick' , suggests a specialised
tool and there was indeed such an inplement . KnCM11 recently fran Cornwall to
Ellis accurately
hire this took the form of a small trident .
Bucking
. The prongs were set at an angle to the haft to alleM
illustrates the t ype
for a scoop action and the small size of the head underlines the need to keep
the weight of each ' clat ' rooved . Strain on the worker was
to the min
reduced since material was taken in small packets , while many small packets
fewer, larger, ones .
consolidated better in the wall
ann
Using the fork
'
thre
e
the
tands
inmedi ammourns urth
became
Compression continued during the mud moving and placing stages . After mixing,
a 19th centw:y Devon labourer is described as taking his
pronged and
s
t flatted' fork and ' striking the soil therewith until it lies like a
cake' - a IOOdern Devon builder does exactly
same - ' he takes it up with
the fork and lays it on the wall, striking it there repeatedly at top and
sides until he
packed it close' ( 26 ) . once the wall reached any height
two men were needed, one s
ing on, or next to, the wall head . For this
stage as recorded in Bucking
hire, ' one man then s
on the stone
grunq;>
ling (wall base) and holds the fork in front of him with its tines
resting on the
ling. Another man . . . digs a forkful of wichert and
smacks it down on the fork of the builder, who
ately t
it over and,
with a
pat, puts it in position' ( 27 ) . Each 'pat' brings f
er, if
minor, compression. Beating the material on the wall was c
n practice,
with the back of a spade or IIDre usually the fork; it was sanetimes ccmbined
with treading. Ellis confinns the use of treading, noting that the heels
should be well used. Latterly scaffolding was little used and only then in
certain specific ci
tances . Rose says that when wall height
'
ter than a man
pitch to, a third man is needed, who stands on a
raised stage, also with a fork, taking the wichert from the first man and
passing it up to the builder' . Recent practice in Devon follows the same
approach; elsewhere carts might be used as pitching levels . C
nt above
relates to average 2 ' 0" ( 600 nm) to 2 ' 6 " ( 750 nm) thick walling for buildings
- for the thinner bo
walling, down to 1 ' 0" ( 300 nm) thick or less it is
to see hCM staging could be avoided .
cxrewha
has tandhams
grunq;>
smart
grea
hard
rcums
can
omme
undary
Course building by diagonal layering
xami has
trodd
CMed eedi tand theampedhard
rodu
He �ards
yers
part eyew
tand
trodd
peak mana
unduight
maximum
nnan
imar
whil
him
Oll'pi
i
ammo
Sane
rmed
Sane
hard
a.vev
hard
the
trea
Ellis notes that under the system he e
ned cob was laid and
en in
diagonal layers to a course height of about two feet ( 600 nm) ( 28 ) , an
approach also seen outside Devon. The method
parallels with the
herringbone effect seen in sane masonry as well as in peat block and sod work .
It all
each succ
ng layer of angled wet mud to bond with the previous
one, p
cing a continually advancing r
face against which it was easy
to work . The builder took his s
on
ened top of the course belCM.
IIDved backw
, away from the advancing mud work, convenience perhaps
dictating
course height would be the level to which the ' boot heel ' could
easily reach.
Course building by horizontal layering
This approach used thin la
, a n umbe
r of which made up a full course
height . A Devon report says that successive layers were about 6 " ( 150 nm)
deep, were coated with long straw and were then trodden down. A few layers
were done at one mixing and then left to harden ( 29 ) . Much thinner layers
have been observed in walls in other
s of the country. It was nonnal for
workers to s
on the wet material . A Devon
itness notes that straw was
spread on the top of a 12" ( 300 nm) to 18" ( 450 nm) high course and well
en in. In Ireland, with courses of similar height, a light person or
child might be given this task ( 30 ) . In Devon in 1980 one of Alfred HCMard' S
workers had to operate on top of the wet material of a small cob structure in
a constructionally awkward situation, a gable
, and this was
ged
without
e difficulty.
Course he
For those aiming for
course height , perfo
ce depended pr
ily on
physical matters and especially the aIIDunt of water present,
e by contrast
the course height possible for a self-builder might be limited by the time
available to
in the evenings . The n umbe
r of thin horizontal layers going
to make up a course was controlled by wall thickness , wetness , overhang of the
wet material at each side and the inherent properties of the sub-soil involved
when mixed with fibre and perhaps dung, all this follCMing c
ction .
Courses ranging between 18" ( 450 nm) and 30" ( 750 nm) high are very c
n
with clay and chalk based mud.
times a lesser range of between 12" ( 300
nm) and 18" ( 450 nm) was preferred .
Course joints
Though generally fo
without mechanical connections , occasionally attempts
to ' pin' courses together with pegs between lifts have been observed - a
reminder of the close relationship between mass-mud and daubing .
times
straw laid across the wall fonns a physical course-break . A Devon tradesman
believes that such layers prevented the upper, wet, course from destabilising
the l�r,
ened, course, and if so this would also prevent the new work
losing lIDisture content at too quick a rate into the old . H
er, a recent
practitioner wets the top of the
ened layer before placing the next to
help courses "knit" together ( 3 1 ) . The straw bed here may relate to
"
ding down" stage in the l�r course , not to overall structural or
constructional requirements .
Adobe 90
Paring dCMn
has
The IlDJd-work
always ini tially built overhanging the ( stone) plinth . In
one
late walling
a pe
ent overhang but usually the face of the IlDJd
was brought into line with the base by paring. Paring
knCMn as "dressing"
or "facing" . Various tools
used, c
nly the fork or spade but also
mattocks , hay knives and even axes . It was done either fran the side or fran
the wall head, depending on the tool errployed . Initial overhang varied
s
t with the raw material . In Ireland paring could either be by course
or on full height completion ( 32 ) . In the
Forest by contrast it was done
by course ( 33 ) . Nationally both approaches were used, choice being
ly
influenced by the nature of the material involved .
chalk-mud for
instance proves e
ly
when all
to go fully off , as was found
during the rebuilding experiment mentioned earlier. Paring dCMn by the course
could thus be seen as the logical approach with this
icular material .
was
area
anewha
rman
were
was
Oll1llO
New Good
xtreme hard owed part
comp has
tandi
tandibearmany
redd
Conclusion
part
It is hoped that this brief and in
lete survey
demonstrated the variety
- and incidentally the extent - of one part of the former tradition of the use
of "llDJd" in building in Britain. This was a tradition - nCM generally, but
not entirely, disregarded ing a deep unders
ng of the potential of
the material , an unders
ng nicely displayed in the wards of Henry Best on
the subject of flooring-clay, "when a floore is decayed, that there
holes
warne, they usually leade as
coupe loades of
e clay, or else of
clottes from the faugh ( fallCM) field, as will serve, but they IlDJSt leade
their clottes from such places where the clay is not mixed with sand" ( 34 ) .
are
NJI'E
S
Harr
1.
For background to the nature of the method and its distribution in
ison, "The IlDJd wall in England at the
England in recent times see J. R.
close of the vernacular era , " Transactions of the Ancient Monuments Society
N. S . , 28 ( 1984 ) : 154-74 .
Seabo
omllDJni Mr
earc Board
Danes amum Mr
hampHarrps rthamp
tonshire, " No
2.
M. V. J.
rne, "Cob cottages in Nort
Past and Present, Vol . 3 , Part 5 ( 1964 ) : 218-19 .
3.
Personal c
cation,
tonshire
hire .
J . James , Sway,
4.
C . Williams-Ellis , Cottage Building in Cob, Pise. Chalk and Clay (lDndon :
CountIy Life, 1920 ) , 5 1 .
Terre,
Building
5.
Res
J. L. Manson, "Cob walls , " Building in Cob and Pise de
h
Special Report No 5 ( lDndon : H.M.S .O. 1922 ) , 6 .
6.
Personal c
ication,
E . Wiliam, Keeper, Dept . , of Buildings and
tic Life, Welsh Folk Museum.
7.
W . Raynbird and H . Raynbird, Agriculture of Suffolk ( 1849 ) , 283-84 .
urnal of the Rqyal
8.
Copinger-Hill, "On the Construction of Cottages , " Jo
Agricultural Society, XXVI ( 1843 ) : 359 .
Hamps
Devo annh Appe
amum
Mr
hard
Agr
ture
omy(Durham:
nry
amum
Mr
unpub
Mans
nham Mr Andrhams
, General View of the Agriculture of
9.
Vanc
Isle of Wight ( lDndon: 1810 ) , 67 .
ouver
hire including the
ndix 2 , Cob walling, "
ouse,
n F
10 . C . H. Laycock, "The Old
Transactions of the Devonshire Society Vol . 52 ( 1920 ) : 179 .
11.
Personal c
12 .
Williams-Ellis , "Cottage Building in Cob, Pise, Chalk and Clay, " 36 .
13 .
Vancouver, General View of the
Surt
Mr Broomf
Mans
Nelms,
ication,
A. HCMard, Morc
14 .
ees Society, Rural Econ
Best
and Account Books of He
15 .
C.
of Devon ( lDndon:
1813 ) , 94 .
armi
ng
in Yorkshire in 1641. being the F
1857 ) , 145 .
Personal c
ication,
J. James , based on an interview in 1980 with
ield, retired builder, born 1909 .
16 . Infonnation contained in an
Earl of
field, dated 1810 ,
17 .
icul
Road, Devon .
l ished letter from his Factor to the
field Muniments N . R.A. ( S ) , 0776 .
Personal c
omllDJni
cation,
M.
builder, o f Hadde
, Bucking
ew , based on an interview with
hire .
Mr
J.
71
npub undary
18 . G. P
on, "Report on the rebuilding of the chalk bo
wall to the
staff car park at Andover, Cricklade College" (U
lished Report, The County
Architect, Winchester,
hire, 1984 ) , 14 .
ears
Hamps
urna o. Dana
19 .
Jo
chair, "Materials and methods in Irish traditional building , "
C.
l o f the Roval Society of Antiquaries of Ireland ( 1957 ) : 66 .
20 .
Williams-Ellis, "Cottage Building in Cob, Pise, Chalk and Clay, " 37 .
21.
R. Whitlock, Folklore of Wiltshire (London:
22 .
(New
S . W. Johnson, Rural Econ
York : 1806 ) , 7 8 .
23 .
Copinger-Hill , "On the Construction of Cottages , " 359 .
24 .
J. H.
25.
omy
: containing a
Deas,
Sumn
New
Harman, Appe
Gardi Extr
o. Dana
camrun
Mr
o. Dana
onmm
Mr
H.
1967 ) , 87 .
Trea
tise on Pise Building etc
"Building in Norfolk" ( R . I .B.A. thesis, 1939 ) , 4 1-47 .
er, A Guide to the
Forest ( 1923 ) :
62 .
26 . Johnson, "Rural Econany: containing a Treatise on Pise Building etc . , "
78-79 .
hams
unda
27 .
"
ndix, Method of Wichert Construction, " Bucking
Dialect ( 1929 ) , 165-168 .
28 .
hire
Williams-Ellis, "Cottage Building in Cob, Pise, Chalk and Clay, " 38-39 .
29 . Rex
ner, "
act fran a short talk on the repair of cob buildings , "
ted.
given to the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings :
30 .
66 .
C.
31.
Personal
32 . C.
66-67 .
33 .
chair, "Materials and methods in Irish traditional building, "
ication,
hard
A. HOINard, Morc
Road, Devon .
chair, "Materials and methods in Irish traditional building, "
Personal c
ication,
J. James , interview with
Mr Brocmf anni
C.
ield .
34 . Surtees Society, "Rural Econany in Yorkshire in 164 1 , being the F
and Account Books of Henry Best , " 107 .
ng
Adobe 90
72
EARTH · CULTURE · ARCH I TECTURE
ABSTRACT
The
technique of
----
earth
in China
construction has a l ong h i story
of 6000 years ,
and
maturity in China
The Protection and Deve l opment of Rammed Earth and Adobe Architecture
reached
by the t ime
of Q i n Dynasty (221 B . C ) . The
earthen cave-dwe l l ings in the
Professor Hou J i yao and Master J i a Weitung
reaches of Huanghe r i ver va l ley
Department of Arch itecture
are an
embodiment
of Huanghe
X ian I n stitute of Meta l l urgy and Construction Engineering
va l ley cu l ture . The Great Wa l l
X ian , Shaanx i Prov ince
(6350km in length ) was rebu i l t
Peop l e ' s Repub l ic Of China
repeated l y
from
476
B . C . to
A . D . 1344 . The ancient c i t ies
V ice
of Gaochang and J iaohe of Tang
Road have a
h i story
of
of
The
Cave
Dwe l l ings
and
Earth
Architecture
Institute
of China
dynasty ( 6 1 8 - 907) on the S i l k
year s ,
Cha i rman
1500
and the i r h i storical
&
cu l tura l value must be protected .
The present engineering conserva
t i on
is
of
a
need
the
prime
to
X i an
c i ty
examp le
A
Background
wa l l
of
A- 1 A Long H i story of Earth Construction in China
the
protect rammed earth
architecture .
For over 6000 years , the Chinese peop l e in the Banpo V i l lage have used the
technique
of
earth
dwe l l ings . Dwe l l ings
to
KEYWORDS
Banpo
Adobe ,
V i l l age ,
Ter races ,
Huanghe R i ver
Cu lture ,
Rammed Earth
J iaohe and Gao
China
or square in p l an ( see Fig 1 ) . I n
Yangshao cu lture is a
in
the
Because
potte r i es
w i th
pa laces
bu i l t on the rammed terraces , according to some Chinese characters
Shang
and
Dynasty
�,
Jj{
,
ii
i
'
OU'
( 16th Cent . B . C ) , for examp l e ,
Many earth dwe l l ings , cave-dwe l l ings , pa laces and rammed earth and
( 475 B . C ) period . Seven States bu i l t defensive wa l l s compet i t i ve l y . Then
Qin Dynasty conquered the other states and estab l i shed the
fi rst
technique of earth construction in China had reached matu r ity .
Pottery
Cuture .
in
China
to
of
Neo l ithic
a
society
in
Chinese h i story
and bu i l t the unif ied Great
the
centra l i zed
Wa l l .
The
The
index
c i v i l i zation dur ing the
adobe
terrace arch itecture were constructed in b i g c i t ies during the Warr ing States
the rema i ns , so it i s a l so
pottery is the
wa l l s ,
' ( see F i g . 3 ) .
feuda l
Pai nted
from
' . The earth
wooden Shutte r i ng ramm ins techniques were used to bu i l d
co lour patterns were d i scovered in
ca l l ed
,
of Huanghe R i ver va l l ey dur ing the Chinese Bronze Age . The houses and
cu lture
Neo l i thic period
reaches of Huanghe r i ver va l ley in
A - 2 Cave Dwe l l i ngs I n The Area Of Huanghe R i ver Va l l ey And The Huanghe Va l l ey
Cu l ture .
certain
extent .
The area of Huanghe R iver va l ley is the crad l e of Huanghe va l l ey cu lture ,
These are script
she l l s
As
has recorded h i story s ince the X i a Dynasty ( 2 1 00 B . C - 1600 B . C )
according to other shang dynasty characters ,
NOTE ,
• •
order
reaches
the
period
semi-cave
f i rst s l ave system regime . T h i s cu lture was formed in the midd l e
the
ramm ing
pai nted
and
meet the needs of l ife , the technique of making pottery was deve l oped .
were
China .
c i rcu l a r
caves
good shapes and painted patterns ( see F i g . 2 ) '
Cave-dwe l l i ng ,
Va l l ey
the
were
to bu i l d v i l l ages ,
exemp l if i ed by archaeo log ica l f i nd i ngs , the pai nted potter i es ' have
Chang ,
of
construction
or
o r i g i na l
character .
of
anima l
s
Chinese
Located
on tortoise
bones ,
the
pictogrphic
in the northwest Ch ina loess p l ateau region . Our ancestors made
use of the physica l qual i t i es of l oess
and
fu l l
---its p l asticity , therma l insu lat ion
easy workab i l ity . S i mp l e too l s were used to excavate cave-dwe l l ings .
By
comb in ing expert i se in s ite selection , space organization and the techn ique of
earth
construct ion , cave dwe l l ings w i th r i ch Chinese
cu ltura l
charte r i st ics
were created . For examp l e , Mangshan , in the suburb of Luoyang , Henan Prov ince ,
is a wonder among cave-dwe l l ing v i l l ages , a treasure of human cu l ture and a l so
the
crysta l l ization
of Chinese Huanghe va l ley c i v i l ization ,
awaits preservation a n d deve lopment ( see F ig . 4 ) .
which
urgent l y
A- 3
73
The Great Wa l l And Chinese Cu l ture
The Great Wa l l i n China i s one of the greatest engineering
on our
constructions
earth
The
construction
of
the Great Wa l l started 2200 ye�rs ago .
From
the
period of the Warr ing States ( 476 B . C ) to M ing and Q ing dynasties ( 1368 - 191 1 ) ,
efforts were made t ime and aga in to extend and strengthen it . As a resu l t , its
fu l l
length exceeds 6350 k i lometres . The Qin , Han and M i ng
bui lt
dynasties
most l y
with rammed earth and adobe . A t the t ime o f the Q i n dynasty ( 22 1 B . C . ) ,
the Great Wa l l , starting from L i n Zhao of Gansu Province to the east of L iaoning
Province , requi red 300 , 000 peop l e and 10 years to comp lete by A . D . 2 13 .
The
in
portion of Great Wa l l in the suburb of Be i j ing was rebu i l t
dynasty
over
a
period
of
100 years .
The
Great
Wa l l ,
a
great
Ming
m i l itary
construct ion , is the crysta l l ization of the ancient Chinese peop l e ' s labor and
( see
Fig . 5 ) .
L. I.'---�
--�?J�
---'" �-J,
----•---c- �j
and is the pr ide of ancient Huanghe R iver va l l ey cu l ture
inte l l i gence
'iiWI-l at?!.t.
B . The Protect ion And Deve l opment Of Earth Defense Ramparts In China
The Ancient C i t ies Of Gaochang And J iaohe In Tang Dynasty ( 6 1 8 - 907 )
B- 1
.-+
...J
�..�
.. r
The ancient c i ty of Gao Chang bui l t during the Tang dynasty is l ocated in
Turfan
d i str ict
Gaochang
of
the X i nj i ang Province .
It had been the
cap ital
of
the
Empire for 1500 years , and was the on l y one of 5 states on the
Silk
Road i n Han dynasty . Rema ins of city wa l l bu i l t with rammed earth st i l l exist .
. ..
The
area
is
sections
200
square km w ith a 5 km per i meter , and
is
d i v ided
the pa lace , the inner and the outer c ity , w i th ramains
into
of
arch itecture scattered over a wide area . An intact temp l e sti l l e x i sts in
southwest
F 9. I
i
S e c t i on I - I
Square
S e c t i on
Ear then
P t an
House
1 -n
corner
chambers
and
of
c i ty , w ith an area of 1 0000m" , I t s
gates ,
the
squares ,
pagoda are st i l l v i s i b l e . There is an earthen pagoda ,
height , in the inner city . A l l construct ions within the city were
15m
bu i l t
rammed earth and adobe . There is a great adobe dome-shaped roof in the
in
with
tem p l e
w i t h an amazingly h igh l eve l o f bu i l d i ng technique ( see F ig . 6 ) .
In
The
c ity
i s bu i l t a l ongside an earth precip ice without a city wa l l . I t
V i t luge,
long
from north to south , and 300m wide from east to west . There
and
a
The
ancient c ity of J iaohe is l ocated 10km away from Turfan county .
S an p o
X i an Sh aanX i
3
adobe
is
1 000m
were
gates
road l eading to the centre of the city . The road is 350m l ong
and
3m
wide . There are h i gh and th ick rammed earth wa l l s on the side of the road , and
the
bu i l d ings
northwest
behind
the wa l l s are d i v ided by l anes into 3
sections .
The
section are most l y sites of temp l es w ith pagodas which house Buddha
images in n iches . The northeast section is a resident i a l zone where court-type
houses are dense l y c l ustered , most of which are we l l preserved . The
F i g . 4( a)
T h e B i r d ' s-e y e
V i ew O f
Pi t
Cove
Dwe l l i n g s
Vi l luge In
Jll J: rl r,
A
A
The Epoch
�. "
Of Yangshao
Pa i n t ed
P a t t. e r n s On
C o l our
P o t t e ry
In
GU l
ture
M
ang s h an
southeast
Adobe 9 0
74
section buidings are most l y r u i ned , except f o r a l a rge edif ice w i t h chambers ,
E n y l i sh
S c r i p t on
Modern
Ch i n e s e An i m a l B o n e s
{·n
rt1
fiR
-7·'to
-#>r,
-trIi>J
"'I1*'
fig.
courtyard ,
steps
po l i tical
am
the
c ity
poss i b l y
Cap i t a l
J iahe f l our i shed more than 1865 years from Han Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty ( 1272-
H i gh
1368) ( see F ig . 7 ) .
l ng
F i e ld
J
These
Road .
two
lotus
bu i l t
w i th
t
and t i l es . The eave t i les have the Tang dynasty
is
ed if ice
House
Hun
br ick
and w i d ing corrider ; T h i s area of
On the north termination of the road is an
centre .
ancient c i t ies were important c i t ies a l ong the
Because o f the dry c l imate , i t i s a arch itectura l
pattern .
ancient
wonder
Silk
that
the i r
adobe and rammed earth structures are s o intact .
C i ty
B- 2
Wa l l
in
--
M i ng Dynasty ( 1368- 1644 )
The
Protection
And
Deve l opment Of X i an C i ty Wa l l
c ity
The
wa l l of X ian was constructed dur ing the M ing Dynasty .
It
13 . 7 k m in per imeter , a n d l ies 4 . 2km l o n g from south t o north and 2 . 65km
from
at
east to west . The wa l l is 12m h i gh , 1 5 - 18m w i de at the bottom ,
the
top .
combat
the
I ts rammed earth core i s encased with br icks .
of the wal l . On the outside of the wa l l there
are
w i de
1 2 - 14m
There
are
quarters in a lO X 12m area a long the wa l l . Br icks are paved
top
is
concave
98
a l ong
crene l s
spaced a t 2 . 36m interva l ; the parapet wa l l s ins ide are 0 . 75m h igh .
There
are gates on each s ide of the c ity , with a main tower ,
embrasured
watchtower and locktower at each gate . The c ity canal i s around the c i ty wa l l ,
and
i s 14 . 6km long and 1 4 - 24m w i de . There i s a l so a suspended
br idge
under
the l ocktower .
Zhu
Shuang ,
estab l i shed
Typ e s O f Cave
Dwe t L i n g s I n
T h e N o r t hwe s t
Ch i n a
P l a teau
R e g i on
Loess
u. t
Pi
1h.
Cave
O w e t i ng
C l i f f Cave
Owe t t i fig
c.
Ear th
She l t e r e d
Dwe l l i n g
Ming
Dynasty )
Wh ich
was
bu i l t on the base of the Feng Yan city of the Yuan Dynasty ( 127 1 - 1368 )
and
extended
t i mes .
F i g . 4C b )
the son of Zhu Yuan zhang ( f i rst emperor in
h i s pa l ace in X ian and began to bu i ld the X ian c ity wa l l ,
the area by 1 / 4 . From then on the wa
11
It was f i rst bu i l t by the rammed earth method
had been
rebu i l t
and was
then
encl osed
w i th br ick in 1558 . Dur ing the Q ing Dynasty ( 1 781 ) , the c i ty wa l l was
repa i red ,
and
a sewer system was constructed .
and
protected
devel oped
a
third
t i me
by
In 1983 , the
the
c ity
committee of
many
heav i l y
wa l l
c ity
was
wa l l
conservation in X i an .
From the t ime of the construct ion of Daxing c i ty in the Sui Dynasty ( 581
- 618)
to
that o f Changan c i ty in the Tang Dynasty , the
h i story
of
1400 years , it is the crysta l l ization of the
inte l l i gence
the
k ing ' s
Dynast ies
and labor . The section o f X i an c ity
X ian
c ity
Chinese
has
labourer ' s
where there i s evidence
pa l ace , has rammed earth wa l l s dating from
the
Sui
which are 4600m in length . A very precious h i stor ica l and
re l ic , the X ian c ity wa l l was the f i rst cultura l re l ic
a
and
of
Tang
cu l tura l
to be protected by the
government in 1961 ( see Figs . 8 , 9 . ) .
Because
of
F i g . 4( c )
Pi t
G ov e Dwe l l i n g s
war , l ack of ma intenance and erosion by w i nd and rain ,
the
X ian
city
was
75
ruined severe l y after the Qing Dynasty .
counc i l a l located
a spec i a l
In 1983 .
the
of X ian c i ty . A committee of city wa l l conservation in
conservat ion
founded ;
the
project
transform
the
woods
state
fund of 53 m i l l ion yuan ( RI'tB ¥ ) to assist in the
goa l s were to restore and renovate
around the city wa l l . br ing the o l d
the
X ian
city
c i ty
was
wal l .
cana l
under
contro l and open the road enc l osing the c ity wal l . The construction budget for
forty -four main projects was 135 mi l l ion yuan ( RI'tB¥ ) and ut i l ized labor of 8
m i l l ion
c i ty
v o l unteers . Before the ra in season in 1985 . the conservation
of
the
wa l l and canal were most l y f i n i shed and has benefitted society and
the
envi ronment .
C
It is an important m i l estone in Chinese arch i tectura l h i story .
Conc l u sion :
China
continuous
is
one
of the five ancient countr ies in the wor l d
with
h i story . Rammed earth and adobe were the f i rst matera l s
a
long
used
for
arch itectura l construct ion . From the prehistoric age through s l ave and feudal
nea r l y a l l of the construction in the wor l d depended on the
societies .
technique .
peop l e
In the reaches of Huanghe r iver va l l ey . there are st i l l 40
who
l ive
in
the
cave-dwe l l ings
and
other
earth
earth
m i l l ion
architecture .
Consequent l y . the h i story of adobe and rammed earth arch i tecture and the
of
s ite
Great Wa l l bu i l t with rammed earth embody the course of Huanghe cu l ture .
It shou l d be recorded in the treasure home of human cu lture . and compared with
such constructions as the pyramids in Eygpt .
The
ancient
act i v i t ies
earth .
wars st imu l ated the bu i l d i ng of defense ramparts .
and
of bu i l d ing c i ty wa l l s advanced the techn ique of adobe and
The Great Wa l l . the ancient c i t i es of Gaochang and
J iaohe
and
the
rammed
other
rema ins are l ike a l l the rare cu l tu r a l rel ics in the wod d . worthy of protection
and restorat ion .
The good example of deve l op ing and protecting the ancient city in China is
the
conservation engineering of X i an c ity wa l l . Now . through the renovation
by X ian peop l e .
It has been the ma in re l ic
in X ian and has benefitted society
and economy for 3 years .
I'tA I N REFERENCE
1 . Zhang Yuhuan . Research and Survey of Ancient Archi tectures . ( J iangsu Press .
1988)
2 . Zhang
Jingfei . The Present Construction of X ian C i ty Wa l l (Shaanxi Press .
1988)
3 . D ict ionary of Chinese Rel ics ( I'tanagement Bureau of Fhanghai Cu l tura l Re l ics .
i
I EJ: : : J"!I! I
,
I:
:
L,:"""
1980
ii
, 'I
It_
___
___" :
i.� !Ii UU
1
Ii
P l an
Gamba t t I n g
G e n e r a l P t an
Qu a r t e r O f
The
Wa l t
Great
Fig. 5( a)
T h e V i ew O f T h e G r e a t W a l t
I n Bad�
d i ngJ
Belj Ing.
Adobe 90
4 . L i u Dunzhen , H i story of Ancient Architecture In China (Ch inese Construction
Engineering Press , 1984 )
5 . Hou J iyao , Cave-Dwe l l ing (Chinese Construction Engineering Press , 1989)
6 . Ren
Zheny ing , The Spr ing of 40 m i l l ion People L i v i ng In
China ( The Report for V I A , 1989)
F i g. 6
The V i ew O f
Anc i en t C i t y
Of
G a o ch n n g
F1 9. 7
The Fu l l V i ew
O f The
l\n c i e n t
O f J i ao h e
Fig.
SCb)
T h e P t an O f
r: ..."J
X i an
UJ
Wa
In
t1
M l n g Dyn a s t y
Fig. 8ea)
T h e V i ew O f
M a i n t e n an c e
O f X i an C i t 1'
Wa l l
F i g. ( 9 )
The V i ew O f
X i an C i t 1'
W a l t Wh i ch
Renova t e d b y
X i an P e op l e
Cave-Dwe l l ing
In
ABSTRACT
C YC L I CAL MA I NTENANCE OF EARTHEN ARCH I TECTURE AS A F UTURE POL I C Y I N TANZA N I A
In s p i te of the fact t h at t h e
conservat i on of c u l t u r a l her i t age
i s a concern of t he wor l d today ,
t h e heterogene i ty o f t h i s heri t age
has c a u sed confl i ct i ng conserva
t i on p hi l o s op h i e s among p o l i cy
makers and profe s s i o n a l s who do
not agree on common s o l u t i o n s to
common prob l ems . Conservat i on
phi l osoph i e s and pract i ce s become
di ffi c u l t when t a l k i ng of arc h i
tectural con s ervat i o n , a s o n e i s
de al i n g wi t h s t ructures exposed
to a l l t h e envi ronmen t a l h a zards
and much wor s e when deal i ng w i t h
earthen s t ru ct u re s , bu i l t of a
materi a l descri bed as poor ,
fragi l e , arc h a i c , and pri mi t i ve .
Donat i u s Msobwe Kamana Kamamba
Mi n i st ry of Labour , C u l t u re and Soc i a l Wel fare
Department of Ant i qu i t i es
P . O . Box 2280
DAR E S SALAAM
I t i s o bv i ou s t h at i n
deve l op i ng countri e s l i ke Tanzan i a
both pol i cymakers and profe s
s i ona l s have be e n promo t i n g a n d
advoc at i ng t h e u s e of modern
b ui l di ng mater i a l s and cons i gn i ng
t h e vernac u l ar arc h i tecture , earth
struct ures i nc l ude d , t o v i l l age
museums .
The act u a l fact i s t h at
modern b u i l d i ng tech n i q u e s are
beyond the reach of the general
rural popu l at i on in Tanzan i a , a s
i t i s i n some o t h e r deve l opi ng
countri es . Regar d l e s s of t h e
above fact , po l i cymakers and
profes s i ona l s are encourag i n g and
promot i ng t h e use of modern
bui l d i ng t e ch n i qu e s . Despi t e t h i s
confl i ct between t h e i dea l s of
pol i cymakers and actual real i ty ,
i t must b e understood t h at t h e
heri t ag e h a s t o be pas sed o v e r t o
th e next generat i on . I am o f t h e
opi n i on t h at cyc l i c a l mai ntenance
and con servat i on of t h e earthen
arc h i t ec t ure cou l d be a compromi se
in ou r co untry . Tec h n i ques o f
trad i t i o n a l e a r t h e n arc h i tecture
s h o u l d be perpet uated and yet
adapted to c h angi ng condi t i on s .
KE YWORDS
Cyc l i c a l mai ntenance , t r ad i t i o n a l
craft s , l eg i s l at i on , t r a i n i n g ,
i mproved des i gn s , d i s s emi n a t i on of
i nformat i on , con servat i on wi t h i n a
rural b ui l t envi ronment .
77
I nt roduc t i on
Despi t e prejudi c e s t h at h ave conti nued to f l ouri s h under many g u i s e s ,
condemn i ng earth as poo r , fragi l e , arc h ai c , and pri mi t i v e , evi dence from a l l
over t h e wor l d - poi nt s i n prec i s e l y t h e oppo s i t e d i rec t i on : earth i s a versati l e
and durab l e b u i l di n g materi a l wi t h many q u a l i t i e s t o j u st i fy i t s u s e today .
S u pport i ng t h e u s e o f earth a s a b ui l d i ng materi a l , Dr . J u l i u s Nyerere ,
Pres i dent of t h e Repub l i c of Tanzani a , dec l ared i n 1 97 7 :
Peop l e refu se t o b u i l d a ho use o f burned bri c k s and t i l es ,
t h ey i n s i st on wai t i ng for a t i n roof and N E uropean s o i l N
- cement . If we want to progre s s more rapi d l y i n th e
f u t u r e we m ust overcome at l e ast some of t he se men t a l
b l o c ks . [ 1 ]
And Mrs I n d i ra Gandh i , Pr ime Mi n i ster of I nd i a , st ated i n 1 980 :
A l l t h e new h o u s e s are b ui l t for energy c o nsumpt i o n . They
are hot i n s ummer and c o l d i n wi nte r , where as our o l d
h o u s e s are not . So we have not o n l y to h ave new techno l ogy ,
but l oo k a bi t to t h e o l d techno l ogy . There i s much sense
in what peop l e have evol ved over t h e years to s u i t t he i r
c l i mate , t he i r envi ronment , t he i r way of l i v i ng . You c an ' t
keep a l l o f i t , beca u s e o ur way o f l i fe h a s c h anged , but I
t h i n k a l ot of i t can be adapted and made effi c i ent . [ 2 ]
Archaeo l og i c a l research h a s reve a l ed t h at earthen arc h i t ec t ure was i n u s e
duri ng t h e n i n t h cent ury A . D . a l ong th e E a s t Afr i c an coast , e s pec i a l l y i n Ki l wa
Ki s i wa n i and probably much e ar l i er i n s ome i n l and areas . I t i s a her i t ag e t o
be proud of , a symbol a n d i dent i ty of o u r arc h i tectural devel opment . Today ,
t h i s type of bu i l di n g domi nates t h e v ernacu l ar arc h i tec t ure i n t h e country .
The I nternat i on a l Charter for t h e conservati on and restorat i on o f monumen t s
and s i te s - The Ven i ce C h arter - wh i c h was adopted b y t h e Second I nternat i on a l
Congres s of Arc h i tects a n d Tec hn i c i ans o f Hi stor i c Monume nts c at i t s meet i ng i n
Ven i ce from May 2 5 t h t o 3 1 st 1 964 ) , e xp l i c i t l y s t ate s :
Imbued wi t h a mess age from t h e past , t h e h i stor i c monument s
o f generat i ons o f peop l e remai n t o t h e present day a s
l i v i ng w i t n e s s e s o f t h e i r age-o l d tradi t i on s . Peop l e are
becomi ng more and more consc i ou s of the u n i ty of h uman
v a l u e s and reg ard anci ent monume nts as a common heri t ag e .
The common respon s i bi l i ty to s afeguard t h em for fut ure
generat i on s i s recogn i se d . I t i s o u r duty to h a n d t h em
on i n th e fu l l ri c h n e s s of t h ei r aut hent i c i ty . [ 3 ]
Whi l e Pre s i dent Nyerere and Mrs I ndi ra Gandhi h ave encouraged t h e u s e of
earth a s the best way of deve l op i n g our bui l d i ng i n du stry , the I nternat i on a l
C h arter too , advocates t h e h andi ng over of a country ' s arc h i t ectural heri t age
to s ucceedi ng generat i ons in the f u l l r i c h n e s s of i t s authent i c i ty . Thi s i s a
c l ear i ndi c at i on of t h e need to conserve t h i s arc h i t ecture i n every pos s i b l e
way . But i t i s obvi o u s t h at c u l t ure i s never s t at i c and so conservat i on of
earthen arc h i tec t ure has to take i nto c o nsi derat i on not o n l y the conservat i ve
and s c i e nt i f i c way of archi tectural conservat i on but a l s o t h e soci a l and
econom i c factors wh i c h neces s i t at e t h e i de a of cyc l i c a l mai ntenance .
H i stori c a l Background
Earthen archi tecture i s s t i l l a l i v i ng art i n Tanzani a , as wel l as e l s ewhere i n
t h e worl d . I t h a s been u sed for t ho u s ands o f years , not o n l y i n rural hou s i n g ,
b u t a l so for monuments t h at ref l ect t h e materi a l and s p i r i t ua l devel opment of
commun i t i e s : warehou s e s , aqueduc t s , pyrami d s , re l i g i o u s b u i l di n g s , and defen s i ve
wa l l s . Earth i s one of t h e most pract i c a l and vi a b l e b ui l d i ng materi a l s as i t
i s an eco l og i c a l resource t h e u s e o f wh i c h i s b a s ed o n regi o n a l l y deri ved
techni que s . N E arth structure s , b u i l t of l oc a l materi a l s by l oc a l peop l e , do not
demand a h i gh l evel of technol ogy . They are not b u i l t to s c i ent i f i c p r i nc i p l e s
nor are prec i se q u ant i t i es and mi xes u s ed . Each new generat i on h ad to reas sert
t h e way and pass on t h e met hod t o the next generat i on . N [ 4 ]
I n Tanzani a , t r ad i t i o n a l b u i l di ng construct i on i n rural areas was a l ways a
h i gh l y cooperat i ve venture . I t was a major soci a l occ a s i on i n wh i c h both men
and women cooperated . There was very l i t t l e d i vi s i on of l abour and everybody
was s u pposed to know everyt h i n g . Gi ven t h e se c o n s i derat i ons - very l i tt l e
d i v i s i on o f l abour , t he need t o u s e e s s e nt i a l l y v o l unt ary manpower , and t h e
u n i formi ty of t h e structures - one wou l d t h i n k t h at c o n struct i on te c h n i ques
wou l d h av e t o be ext reme l y s i mp l e . I n fact gett i ng any sort o f earthen
dwe l l i ng t o s t and u p req u i res a good deal of s k i l l and t h e u s e of techn i ques
devel oped consci enti o u s l y over a l ong peri od of t i m e . These te c h n i q ue s i n vol ve
c h oo s i ng t h e so i l , prepari ng t h e soi l for b u i l d i n g , and s e l ect i ng admi xtures
and fi n i s h e s . The durabi l i ty of these structures depends very much on t hei r
mai n t e n ance . They c an s u rv i ve n i c e l y as l ong as t h ey are i n u s e .
Types of Earthen Arc h i tecture
There are t h ree mai n types of earthen arc h i tecture in Tanz an i a . B ui l di n g s are
mai n l y curvi l i near or rect i l i near i n p l an . Roofs are e i t h er f l at , coni c a l ,
pyrami d a l , or beeh i ve type , u s ua l l y s upported by a central p o l e and made of
c l o s e l y space d , heavy rafters t i ed t oget her to form a strong s u pport for
t h atc h . Thatch may be tucked i nt o the framework or app l i ed i n l ayers fastened
t o the framework and t i ed together by means of t h i n reeds and st i c k s . F l oors
are made by beat i ng mud wi t h a wooden beater whi l e it set s . The mud i s mi xed
wi t h c h arcoa l , sma l l aggreg ate , or cow dung and t hen smeared w i t h a s h e s , c l ay
or cow dung . Mud fl oors can become a l mo st as hard as cemen t and q ui te smoot h .
The most popu l ar type of earthen arc h i tecture i s watt l e and daub wh i c h i s
found i n both r ur al and urban areas . Wal l s of b ui l di ngs are made of upri g ht
wood p o st s t o wh i c h hori zont a l s ar e t i ed in p ar al l e l pai r s . Thi s framework i s
fi l l ed wi t h mud and p l astered on th e i n s i de and o u t s i de w i t h cow dung , a s hes ,
or c l ay . The p l a s t e r , wh i c h acts as a protect i ve l ayer , i s u s u a l l y app l i ed i n
several coat s , and i n some c a ses vegetab l e o i l s are added t o create a k i n d of
water repe 1 1 ant . The r i g i d i ty of the struct ure depends very much on how deep
the p o st s are p l anted i n the groun d . The mud wh i c h i s used for bot h framework
fi l l i ng and p l asteri ng i s prep ared by di g g i ng a p i t and di scardi ng t h e top
soi l . Then t h e red soi l i s broken i nt o c l o d s whi l e wet , pudd l ed by s t amp i ng
and t h en app l i ed by han d s .
Anot her pri nci p al type of e arthen arc h i tecture i s made of s un-dri ed c l ay
bri c k s . T h i s type i s u s ed wi d e l y and i s probab l y of a recent devel opment .
C l ay br i c k s are s h aped i n mou l d s , dri ed i n t h e s u n ( preferab l y under s h ade ) ,
and then used t o b ui l d w al l s . These w al l s are u s u a l l y b ui l t on stone founda
t i o n s , but i n some c as e s a foundat i on trench i s excavated and the w al l b ui l t up
from i t . The soi l i s prepared in the s ame way as th e wat t 1 e-and-d aub
construct i on , u s u a l l y wi t ho u t admi xture s . Much c are i s needed i n t h e s e l ec t i on
of soi l s for t h e s e bri c k s , so as to avoi d cracks and sh r i n k i n g .
z
A t h i rd type i s rammed eart h , wh i c h i s l i mi ted t o ve y few areas i n t he
country . A bui l di ng i s erected in courses of ab o ut 30 c m , wh i c h ar e l eft to
h arden before t h e next course i s app l i ed . Soi l s are prep ared i n t h e s ame way
as t h e other examp l e s and u s u a l l y a 3D-cm wi de trench i s dug i n wh i c h t h e wal l
construct i on s t art s . The w al l s are p l ast ered o n l y o n t h e i nteri or , u s i n g cow
dun g , a s h e s , or vari o u s types of c l ay .
Exi s t i ng Con servat i on Strateg i e s
Archaeo l ogi c a l Si te s
Earthen arc h i tecture h a s sur vi ved in arc h aeo l og i c a l s i te s and in v ery o l d
set t l emen t s i n Tanz ani a and e l sewhere i n Afri c a . I t i s t h i s heri t age t h at must
be handed over to t h e next generati o ns i n i t s authent i c form . Experi ence h a s
sh own t h at e a r t h e n structures wi l l n o t surv i ve i f t h ey a r e s u b jected t o
envi ronme n t a l hazard s : i n o t h e r word s , unexcavated arc h aeo l og i c a l s i te s s t and a
better ch ance of s urvi v a l .
The conservat i on of t h e s e arc h aeo l og i c a l rema i n s - for s c i ence , c u l t ure ,
and t o u ri sm i s i n i t s i nfancy i n Tanzani a , not o n l y bec ause of t h e l ac k of
expert i s e and fundi n g , but a l s o , t o a great extent , due t o l ack o f wi l l . Both
t h e government and t h e general p u b l i c are comp l acent about t h e con servat i on of
t h e s e s i t e s and the preservat i on of the s k i l l s and techn i qu e s t h at c o u l d s ave
them. The exi s t i ng l eg i s l at i on only covers t h e con servat i on o f structures
b u i l t before 1 86 3 , but does not i nc l ude ( or recog n i ze ) th e s k i l l s and techn i q ues
used to b u i l d th e se structure s . Th u s , wi t h t i m e , t h ey wi l l v a n i s h , and it may
become di ffi c u l t or i mpos s i b l e to conserve struct ures u s i n g trad i t i o n a l
materi a l s and s k i l l s . Thi s wi l l then open t h e way for th e u s e of expen s i ve
synt h et i c mater i al s .
These earth structure s , wh i c h h ave been st andi ng for t h o u s a n d s of years ,
may i n sp i re l i tt l e i nterest i n and of thems e l ve s . What i s i ntere s t i ng i s h ow
t h e s e structures co u l d h ave s urvi ved for so l ong i n suc h condi t i on s ; and what
i s even more i nteres t i ng are t h e t ec h n i ques and s k i l l s that have a l l owed these
structures t o go on t h rough cent ur i e s in s uc h a s a t i sfactory manner .
79
The B u i l di ng Research Un i t , a Dep artment i n t h e Mi n i stry of Local Govern
ment , Commun i ty Devel opment , Cooperat i ve s and Market i ng in Tanzan i a , has been
undert a k i ng s c i ent i f i c research t o fi nd out t h e s ecret to the earth structure s '
durabi l i ty . T h e se s uperfi c i a l research fi ndi n g s have res u l ted i n t re atments
t h at are not o n l y expen s i ve but a l so c umbersome t o u s e and contro l . They n eed
spec i a l expert i se , exot i c admi x t u re s , and mai ntenance . I have c a l l ed t h i s
research s uperfi c i a l beca u s e , wi t h t h e archi tecture st i l l ext ant , i t s eems s uc h
studi e s s ho u l d h a v e concent r ated on t h e t r ad i t i o n a l s k i l l s a n d tech ni q ues and ,
. i f need be , th e n i mprovements c ou l d b e t aken a s a s up p l ement .
I n Tanzan i a , conservat i on l eg i s l ati on i s g eared towards t h e s e l ecti on ,
l i st i n g , or schedu l i ng of b ui l d i ng s t h at are of h i stori c or arc h i tectural
s i g n i fi cance as h i stori c o r n at i on a l mon ument s . Th i s l eg a l prov i s i on i s deemed
adeq uate for - securi ng the protect i on and preserv at i on of monume nt al remai n s of
past c u l tures o r c i v i l i z at i ons - archaeo l ogi c a l s i tes - wh i c h i n most c a ses are
e i ther r u i ned o r s i t uated i n abandoned settl ement s . However , when we t a l k of
conserv i n g t he c h aracte r , tec h n i q ue , s k i l l , o r cr aft , wh i c h are the backbone of
t h i s h er i t ag e , s uc h l eg i s l at i on i s i n adequate s i nc e i t does not addr e s s t hes e
i s su e s .
Museum Conservat i on Approach
Tanzan i a has e s t ab l i s hed a vi l l age museum i n Dar e s S al aam , at Ki j i tonyama ,
where examp l e s of t h e country ' s vernacu l ar arc h i tect ure , eart hen archi tecture
i nc l uded , h ave been recreated for di s p l ay and con servat i on purpo s e s . The
e s t ab l i s hment of such mu seums h a s in most c a s e s been i nf l uenced by t h e
E uropean open-ai r museum concept w i t hout a c r i t i c a l a n a l ys i s of t he rati on a l e
for s uc h types o f museums . *Whereas earth arch i tecture i n E u rope i s genera l l y
speak i ng a phenomenon o f t h e p a st , i n Afr i c a i t i s s t i l l a l i v i ng r e al i ty
prov i d i ng h o u s i n g for t he major i ty of t h e r u r a l i n h a b i t a nt s , about 85% of t he
popul ati on . * [ 5 ] I t st i l l domi n ates the r u r a l b u i l t envi ronment and t h e bas i c
prob l em i s n ot t h e preservat i on o f t h e dyi ng t radi t i on o r even a n exti nct one ,
but how best to achi eve rati o n a l and p l anned devel opment of such arc h i tecture .
I t i s f a l l ac i ou s and r i d i c u l o u s to start rec onstruct i ng b ui l di ng s i n
vi l l ag e museums for di s p l ay and cons ervat i on when s u c h b u i l d i ng s are wi de
s pread i n t h e country . It i s a b s u rd not to understand t h at i n a country l i ke
Tanzan i a - wh e r e t h i s arc h i tect ure i s vari ed in t erms of materi a l s ,
construc t i on s k i l l s and techni q ue s , and des i g n and s p at i a l arrangement s - t h e
recon struct i on or a s s emb l i ng of a represent at i ve s amp l e i s a gargantuan un der
t ak i n g . I t i s a l so contrary t o conservat i on p hi l o sophy because s u c h mu seums
are out of context , and it i s not pos s i b l e t o recreate the envi ronment i n wh i c h
t h e b u i l d i ng s were concei ved , deve l oped , and l i ved i n .
Of cours e , bri ngi ng together a l l these di fferent b u i l d i ngs s i mp l i fi e s
thei r man agement and c o n servat i o n , but what i s forgotten i s t h e envi ronmen t a l
i nf l uence so i mportant in archi tectural devel opment . I t i s pract i c a l and
l og i c a l to b u i l d an earthen fl at-roof b u i l d i n g i n Dodoma where i t doe s n ' t r a i n
very muc h , b u t not t o b ui l d t h e s ame i n Dar e s S al aam where i t rai n s heavi l y
for most o f t h e year .
Future P o l i cy
It i s evi dent t h at ex i st i ng conservat i on pol i cy i n Tanzani a , as wel l as i n
other Afr i c an countr i e s south of the Sah ara , needs to deve l op new percept i on s
a n d t arget s . I n the formu l at i on o f po l i c i e s and t h e p l anni ng of progr ammes
there i s a need t o foster a concept of conserv a t i o n wh i c h - wi thout abandon i ng
the trad i t i o n a l l i st i n g , schedu l i ng , and preserv i n g of monuments accordi ng t o
thei r arc h aeo l og i c a l , h i stori c a l , and arti s t i c s i g n i fi cance - wi l l have a wi de
scope to embr ace the conservat i on o f s k i l l s , craft s , and tradi t i on a l techni q ue s .
Thi s concurs we l l w i t h what Dr . J u l i u s Nyerere dec l ared i n 1 97 7 and Mrs I nd i r a
Gandhi i n 1 980, as quoted e ar l i e r i n t h i s paper , w h o were emph a s i zi ng t h e u s e
o f l oc a l a n d tradi t i on a l resources i n o u r b u i l d i n g i nd u s t ry . T h u s l oc a l and
tradi t i on a l resources , e s pec i a l l y e art h , wi t h proper p l an n i ng and management
can contri bute both to t h e b ui l d i ng i nd u s t ry and t o t h e soci oeconomi c devel op
ment of the commun i t i e s wh i c h c re ated t hem and so t o the n at i on at l arge .
Earthen arc h i tecture i s s t i l l a l i v i ng ent i ty i n Tanzan i a , as we l l as i n
other count r i e s . Th i s does not mean t h at i t s future i s u n a s s a i l ab l e or un
t h reatened . On t h e contrary , i t s future i s very i n s e c u re , and modern devel op
ment p o l i c i e s represent a major t h reat . Urban devel opment h a s not yet reached
a poi nt where i t i s fast destroyi ng the rural areas , but the att i t ude of the
pol i cymakers , p l anner s , profe s s i on a l s , and b ui l d i ng materi a l i nd ustr i a l
managers make t h e future o f earthen archi tecture uncert a i n . Th i s t endency h a s
been pert i nent l y descri bed b y J e a n Det h i er :
A l t hough unb aked earth no l onger needs any r e al
j u s t i fi c at i on on tech ni c a l or mater i a l ground s , r e si stance
t o it p e r s i s t s from q u arters whose economi c , p sycho l og i c a l ,
c u l t u r a l , i n s t i t ut i on a l and p o l i t i c a l we l l -bei ng i s
t h reatened by i t . Such oppos i t i on i s somet i me s c a l c u l at i ng l y
s e l f-i nterested , for t h e economi c systems c h aracter i s t i c
of e a r t h construct i on mi ght i n jure i nfl uent i a l i nterest
groups . I nd u str i a l corporat i ons and m u l t i -nati o nal s wh i ch
80
produce b u i l di ng materi a l s , as we l l as t h e techni c a l
c o n s u l t ants respon s i b l e f o r empl oyi ng t hem , occa
s i o n a l l y seek to d i scred i t unbaked earth i n order t o
protect t he i r own market . [ 6 J
T h u s i t i s upon the pol i cymakers , p l anners , and profe s s i ona l s i n t h e fi e l d
of arc h i t ec t u r a l conservat i on t o come forward wi t h con servat i on l eg i s l at i on ,
conservat i on programmes , and tr ai n i ng opport u n i t i e s t h at offer t h e po s s i bi l i ty
of preser v i ng t h e arc h i t ect u r a l c h aracter , s k i l l s , t ec h n i q ue s , and c r aft s
t h rough t r a i n i n g , d i s semi n at i on of i nformat i o n , and des i g nat i on of con servat i on
areas wi t h i n t h e r u r al envi ronment . Trai n i ng c ou l d t ak e a form of formal
educ at i on i n both second ary schoo l s and i n s t i t u t i o n s of h i gher l e arni ng ,
apprent i c e sh i p , on-t h e-job tr ai ni ng , work s h op s , refresher course s , and
semi n ar s . These peop l e h ave t o be a s s u red of job opport u n i t i es and market
demand for t h e i r product s , otherwi s e such programmes wi l l never attract t h e m .
S u c h probl ems c o u l d be reduced b y s t art i ng b i g g overnment hou s i n g s c hemes u s i ng
earth as a b u i l di ng mater i a l i n d i fferent p art s of t h e country , e s pec i a l l y i n
r u r a l are a s .
Conc l u s i on
The s uc c e s s of cyc l i c a l mai nten ance of e arthen b u i l d i ng c an be pos s i b l e i f most
of t h e popu l a ti on has the necess ary s k i l l s , te c h ni q ue s , and wi l l t o l i ve i n
t h o s e b u i l d i ng s . Therefore i t s h ou l d be t h e duty of t h e profe s s i o n a l s , not
only t o record and document the heri t age , but a l so t o st udy in det ai l t he soi l
as a b u i l d i ng materi a l , i t s con struct i on te c h ni que s , and t h e soci oeconom i c and
c u l t u r a l patterns a s s oc i ated w i t h t h i s heri t age . These stud i e s s h ou l d be made
eas i l y a v a i l ab l e and the country ' s trai n i ng i n s t i t ut i on s s h o u l d teach t h e s e
tec h n i ques , s k i l l s , a n d craft s so t h at peo p l e l i v i ng i n t h e s e earthen b ui l di n g s
can understand t he i r s t r uc t ures i n a better and s c i enti fi c way . T h i s under
s t a n d i n g s ho u l d h e l p t h em t o do the construct i on , repai r , and m a i n t e n ance of
thei r h o u ses , a tradi t i on w h i c h i s now d i s appear i n g rapi d l y .
Peop l e have t o underst and not o n l y t h e v a l u e o f earth as a b ui l d i n g
materi a l but a l so t h e comfort and p l e a s ure of l i v i ng i n s u c h b ui l di ng s , an
a s pect wh i c h c a l l s for i mproved de s i g n and fi ni s h e s . The b u i l d i ng s h ave to meet
today ' s needs and funct i o ns i n order to prov i de a comfort ab l e envi ronment . As
s a i d abov e , t h i s has t o be done t hrough trai n i n g . Young peo p l e must b e t r a i ned
t o de s i gn and use earth as a b ui l di n g materi a l , a s ubject wh i c h now i s never
t aught i n arc h i tectural tr ai n i ng i n s t i t u t i o ns . Howe ve r , i t i s agreed t h at
eart hen structure s , j u s t as any other struct ure s , are i mportant i n t erms of
funct i on , s c i ence , and c u l t ure , and t h i s i s why the wor l d i s concerned w i t h
thei r conservat i o n .
Whereas a l ot o f research and stud i e s h ave been done i n t h e i nd ust ri a l i zed
wor l d and a l ot of tr ai n i n g i s a l so avai l ab l e , often t h i s i nformat i on i s not
di s semi nated t o p l aces where it mi ght be u s eful . The use of modern b ui l di ng
mater i a l s i n th e deve l opi ng wor l d i s promoted wi t hout c o n s i der i ng t h at t h e
economy a n d expert i se do not a l l ow t h e u s e o f s uc h materi a l s i n most r u r a l
area s .
I n addi t i on to t h e research tr ai n i ng and d i s s emi n at i on of t h e fi ndi n g s ,
s u c h a her i t age c ou l d be protected and preserved wi t h i n t h e r u r al b u i l t
envi ronment i n c l e a r l y demarcated conservat i on areas wh i c h s h ou l d be i ntegrated
wi t h the v i l l age p l anni ng and devel opment proc e s s . Thi s , as opposed to t h e
museum approac h , i s rooted i n real i ty s i nce t h e b ui l d i ngs k e e p t he i r ori g i n a l
set up and func t i on and recei ve c are , repai r and mai ntenance from t h e owner .
Cyc l i c a l mai ntenance by t h e owner reduces t he fi n a n c i a l commi tment from
government and addre s s e s i t se l f to funct i on a l requi rement s of t h e peop l e who
u s e t h e b u i l d i ng s .
Notes
1977) .
1 . J u l i u s Nyerere , The Arusha Dec l arat i on : Ten Years Aft e r . ( Dar e s S a l aam :
Tanzan i a P u b l i s h i ng Hou s e ,
2 . HTak i n g an a l l -round Att i t ude t o Sci ence : I ntervi ew w i t h I nd i r a Gandh i , N
Nature , v o l . 285 , n o . 5 7 6 1 Londo n , ( 1 980 ) .
3 . I nternat i on a l Con gre s s o f t h e Arc h i tects and Tec h n i c i ans o f Hi stor i c
Monume n t s - Dec i s i on s a n d Re s o l u t i o ns Vene z i a ( 1 964 ) , 2 .
4.
S u s an Denyer , Afr i can Tradi t i o n a l Arch i t ecture ( London : Hei neman n , 1 978 ) .
5 . Ami n i Mturi , NThe conservat i on of t h e Afr i c an arc h i tectural her i t age I I , H
Monument u m , v o l . 2 7 , no . 4 ( London : Butterwort h s , 1 984) 2 76 .
6 . Jean Det h i e r , Down to Earth : Mud arc h i tecture ( London : Th ame s and Hudson
Ltd , 1 982 ) , 1 0 .
81
ABSTRACT
Ear t h
is
SOME
one
of
ma t e r i a l s
bu i l d i ng
Br i t a i n .
mor t a r ,
The
f r ame ) ,
mass
though
deve l oped
f a l l en
the
o t her
h i " t or
ic
and
into
mater i a l
consequent
I ts
in
f or m .
c o mmand
that
( on
p l as t er
t ec hno l ogy
now
occurs
It
b l oc k
not
mos t
Shawn
R
ON
H
EARTH
Kho l uc y
B U I LD I NG
BSc (hons )
IN
B R I TA I N
Arch
Dip
Arch
t r ad i t 1 0na l
common
mesh
the
NOTES
a
Ear t hen
bu i l d i ngs
pr i nc i pa l
and
p r o t ec t i on
I ts
spec i a l
has
suppor· t ed
has
cons t ruc t i on
respec t
i nf i l l
on
not
P ar t i c u l ar
and
spec i f i c
p r o t ec t i on
mater i a l s
bu i I d i ngs
of
do.
is
cr i t i ca l .
KEYWORDS
Br i t a i n .
pane l s ;
c)
b)
They
are
f ound
bu i l d i ngs
mono l i th i c
mono l i t h i c
spec i a l
is
t ypes
areas
f ound
used
ear t h
a)
t he
wea t her
s t r uc t ures
w i t ho u t
laid
f o un da t i on s ;
as
( t he
b e t ween
and
d)
s h u t t e r i ng
ear t h
b l oc k
f ounda t i ons .
pa r t ! c u l ar l y
Devon ,
c ons t r uc t i on
the
(genera l l y
c oun t r y .
t he
in
the
is
Hampsh i r e ) .
t he
< and
part
of
is
far
1 97 1 >
The
of
the
know
in
t he
in
to
of
eas t ern
in
as
(See
the
t he
A rc h i t ec t ure
of
of
in
t he
manuf ac t ur e
and
among
to
embr i on i c
bu i l d
t h roughout
nor t h .
t ype
par t
par t s
Because
p l ann i ng
any
< W i l t sh i re ,
spec i f i c
i ts
ma t e r i a l
(C ornwa l l ,
east
d i s t r i bu t ed
areas
c ommonp l ac e .
or
Br i t a i n
occ upat i on
< be f or e
l ong
The
t ype
< c a l l ed
N o rw i c h
c) ,
t he i r
t he
sou t h
Type
and
d)
in
d i s t r i bu t i ons
<London
be f o r e
of
But
we l l
The
mono l i t h i c ,
s urv i ves
in
is
t hose
maps
Bos t on ,
in
Faber
probab l y
c o n t i nued
un t i l
l i mi t ed
the
to
In
both
is
due
t he
to
re l evant
t oday
above
t he i r
a t t r i bu t ed
bu i l d i ng
f orm
is
has
Mono l i t h i c
to
n i ne t een t h .
of
use
in
was
I nf i l l
f r om
t he
t he
w i de
t we l f t h
daub
t he
is
are
pane l s
or
to
t he
bu i l d i ngs
t he
has
grea t l y ,
by
or i g i n
t ypes
of
t r ad i t i ona l l y
t ypo l og i es
be
of
defec t i ve
ocass i ona l l y
use
of
the
have
to
wou l d
in
sugges t s
t he
d i r ec t ) .
The
ana l ys i s .
of
m i d- e i gh t een th
They
date
f or
and
found
h i s t or i c a l
subs t an t i a t e d
t y po l ogy .
as
records
now
wi th
t he
c e n t ur y
cons t r uc t i on
cons i der a t i ons
of
c er t a i n l y
c o un t r y .
t ypo l ogy
o t he r
above ,
f i f teen t h
d i m i n i shed
archaeo l og i s t s
subj ec t
f r om
b)
t he
has
uncer t a i n t y
( t he
f ormed
date
Th i s
roof
i ts
but
than
t he
bu i l d i ngs
t hought
as
date
f rom
I n t er m i t t e n t
t ypo l ogy
and
ex i s t
been
too.
T i mber- f r a med
younger
not
the
a
h i s t or i ans
f r ame
it
ear t h
f rom
as
a
ear t h
wer e
that
accep t ed
date
desc r i be d
pen i nsu l a
par t
of
bu i l d i ngs .
i n t eres t ed
f rom
unk nown .
emp l oys
t y pe
when
c ases
l ac k
t he i r
ex i s t
is
as
Roman
l ikely
ex i s t s
ear l i er
sout hwe s t
t he
wh i c h
above ,
used
date
These
t i mber- f r a m i ng
south-west
much
is
we l l
to
of
Wa l l .
it
may
Br i t a i n
ear t h
mor t a r )
Examp l es
But
a)
of
as
too .
un f o unded
t he
AD ) .
wor k
t ype
ear l i er
b e ear l i er
t han
Hadr i an ' s
examp l es
t h r o ughout
as
may
we l l
and
t i mber- f r amed
examp l es
century .
4-00
cons t r uc t i on ' .
tha t ,
examp l es
< o ther
and
wat t l e-and-daub ) ,
spr-ead
daub
C as t l e
shu t t ered
used
s ur v i v i ng
in
are
b l oc k
a t t r i bu t a b l e
ma t e r i a l
Roman
wa l l s
are
as
and
was
c oncen t r a t ed
c oun t ry
Cambr i dgesh i re ) .
same
Vernac u l ar
ear l i es t
and
not
the
the
f o und
and
bui I d i ng
is
fur ther
w i th
c ommon
1 90- 1 92 ) .
bu i l d i ng
the
to
more
is
most
t i mber
encountered
for
found
do
I
c)
assoc i a ted
the
b)
of
congrega t i ons ,
are
conf i ned
Type
i ns t r uc t i ons
church
chape l s
is
wherever
par t
and
pub l i shed
usua l l y
a)
unc ommon
Type
Essex
were
Brunsk i I I ' s
not
c ommon l y
c en t ury ,
Br i t a i n .
l a rge l y
areas
is
Su f f o l k ,
churche s ,
c o un t ry
southwest
but
Oxfordsh i re ,
c o un t ry
are
Type
w i despread ) .
Somerse t )
non- c onf orm i s t
D I STR I B UT I ON ,
of
of
t h r o ughout
e i gh teen t h
REPA I R .
in
t i mber- f ramed
o n spec i a l
cons t r uc t i on
H I STORY ,
in
f ound a t i ons ;
Norfo l k ,
TYPE,
abound
e l eme n t
d i suse .
does
conserva t i on
bec om i n g
of
as
es t a t e
are
founded
d) ,
apa r t
shut t e r i ng
c en t ury
maps
and
t he
c)
m i d
records
as
or
br i c k
f ew
Roman
f l int
on
( t ype
to
pI i n ths _
Earth
b l oc k
f ragmen t s ,
b u i l d i ngs
are
compar i t i ve
the
now
t ypo l ogy )
m i d- n i ne t een t h
ear t hen
to
in
t r ad i t i on ,
i s so l a t e d
on
a l so
f l i nt
o f t en
ear l i er
ones
courses
are
A
do
at
in
or
not .
In
t han
s l ur r y
f r om
was
an
t he
a
or
records
m i d- e i gh t een t h
br i e f
of
t oo .
resurgence
c en t u r y ,
bu i I d i ng
t end
v i l l age
l i me
mor t a r .
Th i s
has
is
o t herw i se
used
for
to
They
century
damp
to
of
this
They
Twent i e t h
and
earth
conse n t r a t i ons .
b i t umen
N or f o l k
t he
maps ,
ex i s t i ng
ones
h i gh
p I i n t hs .
one
f ro m
es t a t e
beg i nn i ng
had
unexpec ted
s l a te
in
date
t he
br i c k
have
f r om
Ther-e
wh i c h
r a t he r
bedded
c l ay
l arge l y
areas
examp l es
s t r uc t ures
e l sewh e r e .
the
but
< a l so
cen t ur i es .
c on s t r uc t i on
espec i a l l y
founded
< t ype
t hought
proo f
ear t hen
c o urses ,
t he
bo t t om
not
been
bedd i ng .
be
are
t hree
n o t i c ed
Adobe
The
90
method
s l i gh t l y
t he
or
of
in
c o un t r y .
t h i rd
Broad l y ,
in
a
d i v i s i ons
may
be
no t h i ng
the
c ross
s t raw,
1 50
mm
l i mewahed
have
Decay
the
l i fe
of
l a rge l y
1 .
were
t he
Mono l i t h i c
pared
to
usua l l y
top.
ovens
are
house)
as
t i mbers ) .
t he
as
once
is
daub
s l a ts
where
or'
t wo
s t o rey
mm,
t he
wa t t l e
be t ween
bars
the
daub
f r om b o t h
s i des
t i mbers
a
for
th i n
a
has
f rom
The
l i me
one
1 00
be
render
f i n i sh .
s i gn i f i c a n t
then
the
use
in
then
smoo t her
set
ho l d
< sand ,
< ab o u t
wou l d
grea t l y
of
ha l f
eas t ,
wedged
who l e
no t
i nto
c r oss
wa t t I e ,
The
ma t er i a l .
this
shaped
sur f ac e
the
one
600
var i es
par t s
wooden
the
branches
on
t
of
of
Some t i me s
bu t
thin
in
adj acen t
t h i c k ness > .
usua l
a
in
i ts
Roya l
of
daub
j ob
to
is
P a l aces
d i ed
out
is
been
p i l ed
s t r a i gh t
500
c o r ners
f or med
and
the
mm
-
are
w i th i n
on
The
mm
t i mber
and
be
f ound
and
rounded .
The
of
th i s
f or
by
of
the
t aper
Suc h
t he
wa l l s
domes t i c
in
as
< us ua l l y
resu l t i ng
wa l l s
t h i c k ness
Any
ma t er i a l s
The
thick
usua l l y
t he
same
i t se l f .
s i des ,
1 000
l i mewashed .
can
c en t ur y
t ramp l ed
a rc h i tec t ur a l l y .
b u i l d i ng
hove l s .
used
t horough l y
s i mp l y
f orm
f i f t een t h
earth
Shropsh i r e .
cons t r uc t i on
expressed
rendered
the
b u i l d i ngs
Ha l l ,
about
The
1
t hrown
of
of
mm -
t he
Domes t i c
mans i.on
hav i ng
b u l l oc k s >
we l l
bui
P i t c h f ord
mix,
pane l
then
across
is
300
haz e l
of
d i v i ded
Those
upr i gh t s
pane l s
d i f f er e n t
seve n t een t h c e n t u r y .
rena i ssance
are
s k i mmed
are
i n t ermed i a t e
face
t he
wa t t l e
the
was
t he
wes t
wa t t l es
about
ver t i c a l
tot a l
f i n i shed ,
downwards
dur i ng
mi x )
to
( i nc l ud i ng
t he
of
I r r espec t i ve
in
been
of
t h an
in
pa t t e r n .
spaced
Some t i mes
dung
s i de )
by
f r amed
wat t l e
the
f i l l ed
width
more
t i mber
t he
in
wea v e '
c l ose l y
pane l
p l ac e .
< per
mm
may
a
beams .
in
c l ay ,
coat
squares ,
are
w i th
of
of
f r'ames
' ba s k e t
he i gh t
these
c ons t r uc t i on
s t orey
arr anged
the
c o n s t ruc t i on
t he
and
is
are
or
t hen
b u i l d i ngs
s l i gh t l y
wa l l s
The
c ows
mass
dev i c es
and
as
grand
are
to
t he
bread
therefore
usua l l y
a l l i ed
ma t er i a l ,
daub .
( i . e.
l i me
out
houses
as
2.
n i n e t ee n t h
A
Chr i s t c h ur c h ,
c e n t ur y
Hampsh i r e
< Pho t ograph
bas i c
mono l i t h i c
c o t t age
<now demo l i shed ) .
reproduced
c our t es y
of
t he
Hampsh i re
Museums
Serv i c e )
3.aearthmediaeval
Pulhambuilding
ManortimberFarm
is
and
with
nineteenth
century
block addition. earth
a
Mono l i t h i c
ver t i c a l
-
mID.
500
They
this
t ype
t wo- c o a t
a l so
by
f r om
of
t ar e d .
repet i t i on
f or
N a t ur a l l y
of
t y pe .
bu i l d i ngs
mm
that
was
use
i t not
the
of
wr i t er
c en t ur y
resurgence
eng i neered
wi th
t he
needed
t he
speed
of
b l oc k
The
a va i l ab l e
base
is
in
is
added
cent
cent .
ma t e r i a l
t he
These
of
and
f or
wh i Ie
no t .
all
of
bu i l t
and
1
to
but
on l y
new l y
is
are
are
mak i ng
a l ways
1
t hought
bui
c orners .
and
t
of
Th i s
garden
grown
whe r e
twen t i e t h- c en t ur y
wor k ,
of
in
' ar c h i t ec t ur e '
of
<an
b l oc k .
t ypes
houses
be
i m i t ed
br i c k
c)
wor l d
and
war
wh i c h
bu i l t
l esser
es t a b l i shed
to
c ommon l y
areas
even
f i rs t
of
one
were
in
t he
number
had
were
t hen
qu i c k l y
success
i mposed
and
occ ured
due
l ater
was
cope
resurgence
and
d)
to
to
t he
c onc r e t e
bureauc r a c y
wh i c h
s i tes .
t he
c lay
Genera l l y
mono l i t h i c
t he
bu i l d i ng
t he
b u i l d i ng
percent age
or
the
peach
capac i t y
p i ece
s i m i l ar
the
t rees
r e t urn i n g ,
A
at
in
i t se l f
are
It
f arm
af ter
great
f ue l .
second"' .
r e c ov e r y
produc t i on ,
l i m i ted
t he
so l d i ers
expens i ve
a f t er
in
They
a
were
c en t ur i es
C h i mneys
f ound
t he
with
b l oc k s ,
wh i c h
fo l l y)
government
for
t he
one
o c c ur .
wor k .
Exc l ud i ng
' Go t h i c '
do
mm
mm
mm.
s i gn
t hey
mos t
c o t tages ,
t he r ma l
on l y
the
225
and
t oge t her ,
l i mewashed .
are
f or
x
225
900
c overed
O f ten
l ends
are
-
mm
tel l-tale
n i n e t ee n t h
mm
and / o r
aga i ns t
i n t er es t
t he
need
by
w i thout
of
by
wa l l s
of
and
shu t t ered
commo n .
k n ows
barns
225
t i mbers
ma t er i a l ' s
o t herwi se
e i gh t ee n t h
A
the
t he
t a r i ng
me t hod
s t ra i gh t
be
bo l t s ,
t he
usua l l y
and
var i a t i ons
p r i ma r i l y
Orchard
x
t ared
bond i ng
used
bu i I d i ngs .
and
is
l i mewashed .
this
mm
Sma l l
and
were
and
e i gh t een t h
450
supp l a n t ed
Some t i mes
me thod
t he
wa l l s .
t oo
i ts
can
600
t h rough
t hese
l i mewash i ng
Chape l s
of
rendered
they
made
of
c omposed
thick
br i c k .
They
of
f or
about
s t aggered
render
exist .
B l oc k
two- c o a t
c l ay
k nown
t h i c knesses
usua l l y
f i l l i ng
Rec i pes
s t r uc t ures
225
of
is
Wa l l
are
rows
l ater
and / or
found
genera l l y
l i f ts
t wo
t he
c o rners .
cons t r uc t i on .
l i me
opera t i on ,
shut t er i ng
shut t e r
he l d
l ef t
us i ng
and sharp
The
were
scars
work
s i des
near
above
to
sand
is
t he
or
cha l k
same ,
and
the
var i a t i on
wh e t her
s t raw
daub
has
a
c l ay
content
be l ow
5
per
b l oc k
has
a
c l ay
c on t ent
above
5
per
Adobe
90
%
(si te)
SAMPLE
CLAY
Hoxne
Hoc k ha m
Gt.
%
(s i t e )
SAMPLE
25
25
35
15
35
15
35
wor l d"' :
SAND
S I LT
C L AY
GRAVEL
4-6
26
2 4-
Esc a l an t e
27
55
18
Sama r r a
26
12
62
lIr
15
68
17
Choche
3 4-
59
7
Aqar
Quf
28
58
1 4-
Te l l
Omar
19
4-9
32
not i ced
yet
s t raw
t he
wor k
and
made
have
work
but
far
shr i nk age
overa l l
where
that
l ump
in
good
' a
to
not
daub
In
the
reduces
content
c l ay
the
reduc i ng
We
have
prob l em
a
not
-
assumed
and
s t raw
per- f orman c e .
shr i n k age
t he
spread
he l ps
t he i r
in
di f f erenc e
any
' none '
is
dec ayed .
a l ready
has
w i t ho u t
and
2
f r om
it
that
repor t
it
f ound
wi th
b l oc k s
new
laid
not
is
s t raw
t he
var i 8d
samp l es
Teuton i c o
and
A l va
our
in
content
s t raw
dea l ' .
t he
to
c ompar i s i on
in
l ow
t he
in
Tumac a c o r i
The
30
30
30-35
f rom e l sewhere
f o l l ow i ng samp l es
GRAVEL
15
i n t er e s t i ng l y
is
c o n t en t
c l ay
The
f o l l ow i ng :
SAND
S I LT
5- 1 0
She l f or d
Lt le.
Su f f o l k ,
Cambr i dgesh i re ,
the
revea l ed
respec t i ve l y has
N or f o l k
in
v i l l age
represen t a t i ve
one
f rom
and
c o l l e c t ed
samp l es
of
and
b l oc k
t he
of
t es t i ng
above )
d)
and
c)
( t ypes
work
mono l i t h i c
sed i men t a t i on3
and
ana l ys i s
V i s ua l
more
sat i sfac tor i l y .
• w i c her t ·
i n C umbr i a .
name .
Is
c)
where
area
t he
.
!:luc k i nghamsh i r e .
in
t rad i t i ona l
no
B e r k s h i re
to
f rom W i l t sh i r e
' c l a y daub i ns '
c)
HampSh i r e .
to
Cor-nwa l l
mud '
' c ha l k
Br i t a i n
t h roughout
' da u b '
from
• cob'
b)
t o r-eg i on
a c c o r- d i ng
f o l l ows
C a l l ed
a)
Type
as
named
i s
ma t e r- i a l
The
used
are
P i se ,
and
cob
f ound
but
t he y
are
in
modern
names _
d)
to
repa i r
it
to
t he
been
s l ow
is
ma t e r i a l
hos t
wi th
Th i s
is
now
a t t emp t s
or
rema k i ng
etc .
l ump '
' c l ay
' cob' ,
recons t i t u t ed
wi th
marry
so
and
f abr i c "
or
br i c k
in
concre t e .
mass
wi th
anc i en t
the
of
des t r uc t i ve
usua l l y
p i ec i ng
by
repa i red
vo i ds
f i l l i ng
or
b l oc k
concrete
were
ma t e r i a l s
o t her
The
and
recep t i ve .
made
been
has
sur f ac e
host
uncomp l i c a t ed
is
Repa i r
a l t e r a t i ve
wi t h
r e p l acement
repa i red ,
the
t o Essex .
Nor f o l k ,
in
i n Cambr i dgesh i re .
c ommon p l ac e .
onc e
a c h i eve
to
s i mp l e
bat '
bec ome
has
mat er- i a l s
l um p '
' c l ay
i n f requen t l y
on l y
is
Daub
• c lay
now be i ng pursue d .
CONCLUS I ON
Br i t a i n
has
in
i n t er e s t
The
wa t e r
to
be
i ts
t ha t
subs t i t u t e s
t he
equa l l ed
ones
the
of
respec t .
and
been
addressed
f or
have
popu l a r
care
of
t hese
1
i t i es
been
daub
of
to
anc i e n t
for
suc cess f u l
t he
o t her
ma t e r i a l
At
the
adequa t e l y .
repa i r
has
momen t
Knowl edge
t ec hn i ques
t r ad i t i ona l
the
h i gh l i gh t ed
this
in
is
B r i ta i n
have
i ty
need
aspec t
an
and
I
prac t i c a l
l ags
b u i l d i ng ma t e r i a l s .
now
t he
t han
b l oc k s
ab i
t herma l
are
i mewash
f r a mes
Conc r e t e
used .
approv a l
1
and
A l t ho ugh
per i ods
wi th
of
been s us t a i ned .
not
have
have .
repa i r
The
qua
p r o t ec t i ve
b u i l d i ngs .
e a r t hen
punc t ua t ed
regu l ar l y
c apab i l i t i e s ,
proof i ng
more
i ts
respec t
to
is
here
h i story
i ts
far
t ha t
f or
that
seen
modern
not
yet
ear t hen
grea t e r
has
not
app l i c a t i on
beh i nd
that
NOTES
J oh n
1 .
1 983 )
Depar t me n t
2.
Bu i l d i ng i n C o b
Conse r v a t i on,
4.
on
t he
Vo l ume
and
B u i l d i ngs
Cob
Sc i en t i f i c
de Terr e ,
N i co l a
2,
( Ay l es b u r y ,
Ph i l i p
Sheet
( Rome ,
Hughes ,
4-
Adobe
I C C ROM,
The
(London ,
I nd us t r i a l
Need
S P AS ,
and
B l oc k s
1983)
f or
Sh i re
Researc h ,
1 92 2
1988 )
9 4-- 9 7 .
J ean
Mar i e
for
and
t he
1 94- 9 )
B u i l d i n�
Teuton i co ,
Res t or a t i on
of
8-9 .
Old
1 98 5 ) .
HMSO ,
P r ac t i c a l
Gower
B a l derrama
of
and
(London ,
Ashur s t ,
( A l dersho t ,
A l va
Man u f a c t ur e
A r c h i t ec t ure
I n f orma t i on
of
P i se
and
A l ej andro
Ear t hen
5.
and
J oh n
3.
N o t es
C l ay
McCann ,
1 3- 1 4- .
B u i l d i ngs
to
B r e a t he .
90
86
Adobe
ABSTRACT
PREHISTORIC MOGOLLON AND ANASAZ I EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE
OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES
Between
A . D.
1150
and 1400 ,
Mogol lon peoples of the Chihuahuan
Desert in the Amer ican Southwest
built pueblos ( settlements ) us ing
puddled adobe const r uction tech
nique s .
The
ruins
of these
pueblos are found across southern
New
Mexico
and
west
Te xas .
Sma l l e r pueblos had one or more
l inear room blocks , while 50-room
or larger pueblos were generally
U-shaped
or enclosed a pla z a .
Large , me lted adobe mounds may
indicate the remains of mul tistory
room blocks .
Archaeologists have e xcavated and
studied preh i storic Mogollon adobe
s t r uctures over
the
past
50
years .
The arch i tectural deta i ls
of these s tructures a r e descr ibed
w i th prehistoric
compared
and
Anasaz i adobe sites in northern
New Mex ico of Pindi and Pot Creek
pueblos
and
w i th
the
large
prehisto r i c
of Pacquime,
s i te
Casas Grandes , Chihuahu a , northern
Mexico .
KEYWORDS
Prehi s to r i c ; United States ; Jor
nada
Mogol lon ;
Puddle d ;
New
Mexico ; Earthen Arch i tecture .
David Teal K i r kpat r ick
Human Systems Research
3 2 0 1 Linden Avenue
Las Cruce s , NM 8 8 0 0 5
U . S . A.
Introduct i on
Shelter can be simple or complex--a brush hut , a shallow cave , an adobe puebl o ,
or a steel apartment bui lding . As prehistor ic peoples across the wor ld moved
i nto new , unsettled areas , a pr imary concern was to provide shelter for the i r
fami l ie s . They b u i l t short term occupation structures using hides , t r e e l imbs
and branches , d i r t and mud, and other locally obtained mater ia l s . With
increased sedentism, these peoples used other mater ials to build more permanent
structures , including large t rees , rock s , and native soi l .
The people o f the southwestern United States between 5 5 0 0 B . C . and 3 0 0
B . C . were h ighly mobile , moving across t h e landscape , hunting sma l l mammal s , and
gather ing nat ive plant foods .
About 3 , 0 0 0 years ago these peoples began
planting cor n , and late r , beans and squash , eventually becoming full-time ,
sedentary agr iculturalists by A . D . 5 0 0 . They developed the i r own d istinc t ive
cultures , recogni zed today by the dist inctive rema ins of the i r a r ch i tecture and
potter y . The Anasazi of the northern Southwest uplands are character i zed by
gray ware pottery and well-bu i l t masonry pueblos , such as those at Chaco
Canyon , New Mexico , and at Mesa Verde, Colorado ( see fi g . 1 ) . The Mogollon of
the southern Southwest occupied regi ons of well-water ed uplands and desert
lowlands . The i r culture is character i zed by brown ware pottery and masonry
arch itecture in the uplands and puddled adobe structures in the deser t
lowlands .
The Hohokam of southcent r a l � r i zona l ived a long major r ivers and i n
adjacent a r i d regions . The i r culture i s characte r i zed b y brown ware pottery,
e xtensive i r r igation canal networ k s , monumental archi tecture , and sur face
ear then s t r ucture s . � l l of these sur face arch i tecture tradit ions evolved from
pit structures or pi thouse s .
The topic of t h i s paper is the mud or earthen arch itecture of the desert
Mogollon peoples , with compar isons to earthen ar ch itecture of the Anasazi of
northern New Mexico , of the Hohokam of southern Ar i zona , and at Casas Grandes ,
Mex ico .
Archaic Architecture ( 6 0 0 0
NecrEC>SoW9nMEto FeXICO OKLAHOMA
TEXAS
MEXICIOOC>
o
Figure 1 .
S i t e Locations
1.
Chaco Canyon
2.
Mesa Verde
3 . Keystone Dam
Los Tu1es
Brad fie ld S i t e and
Condron F i e l d Pueblo
6.
Alamogordo S i t e s 1 and 2
7.
McGregor S i t e
8.
Pindi Pueb l o
9.
P o t Creek Pueb l o
10.
Paquime
4.5.
�.�.-�.�.
�)
The
Archaic
hunters a n d gatherers--who l i ved in southern New Me xico ,
southwestern Texas , southeastern Ar i zona , and northern
Mexico--are
the
ancestors
of the later peoples that archaeolog ists called the Jornada
Mogollon . The ear l iest evidence of Archa ic arch itecture in the southern
lowland desert was found dur ing archaeological e xcavations at Keystone Dam in
northwest El Pas o , Texas ( 1 ) . Remains of 2 3 to 4 1 houses were i dent i f ied
dur i ng excavation and soi l core sampl ing . Radiocarbon dates are between 4450
and 3 7 5 0 BP ( years before present ) .
The structural remains a r e shallow
depressions averag ing approximate ly 3 m in d i ameter and 10 cm deep at the
cente r . The unplastered floors are loose to sl ightly compacted native sand .
The data on the roof s t r ucture is very minimal . poss ible post holes are present
a round the exter ior edges of three house depress ions . The tapered holes range
f r om 5 to 14 cm in d iameter and from 7 to 14 cm deep . No post holes were found
in the interiors of the house depressions . The supe r s t r ucture may have been
l imbs leaning together , which were then covered w ith smaller branche s , r ushes ,
and grass . F i re-hardened clay fragments have been recovered f rom the rema ins .
A clay mud was probably placed over the grass to form a weatherproof roof , as
impress ions of g rass and reeds were found in the roof rema i n s . Hearths a r e the
only interior feature found in these structu r e s , informal shal low depress ions
f i l led w ith cha r coa l . Ent ryway locat ions are infer r ed by eros ional patterns on
the east and southeast sides of the structures .
The infer r ed construct ion sequence ( 2 ) starts with excavat ion of a
shallow , saucer-shaped depression . Leaners ( poles placed at an angle from the
per imeter of the depression to the center of the depression above the floor at
an unknown heigh t ) were placed around the exterior edge of the depress ion ,
possibly in holes or sockets , to help suppor t the roo f . Small branches on the
leaners were covered with reeds and gras s . The superstructure was then covered
w i th a thin clay layer . The houses were probably not occupied on a permanent
basis but may have used for r e latively long per iods of t ime , such as over a
winte r .
Early Jornada Mogol lon Architectu r e , Mesi l l a Phase
(�.�.
�-1 20 0 )
(50 B.C. ) ,
The Archaic peoples added cor n to thei r diet around 2 0 0 0 B . P .
s ta r t ing the i r sh i f t f r om nomadic collectors of wild foods to sedentary
producers of domest icated agr icultural foods . With i nc r eased sedentism came
the need for more permanent shelter .
This culture is k nown today as the
Mes i l la phase of the Jornada Mogollon ( 3 ) . The type site i s Los Tules , on the
west bank of the Rio Gr ande , just west of La Mes i l la , New Mexico . These people
l ived in pithouses that were sl ightly
deeper
than
the
Archaic-age ,
saucer-shaped depressions , w i th vertical walls . Two types of pithouses were
orig inally descr ibed by Lehmer ( 4 ) .
The f irst is rectangular with ramp
ent rances to the east and southeast .
The second is c i rcular with a roof
entrance . Mes i lla phase s ites i n the El Paso area are similar in shape and
s i ze but have plastered walls and floors ( 5 ) . The roof construct ion is poo r ly
k nown . Post holes are found around the edge of the pit and in the center of
the floor .
Unl i ke the Archaic pit structures , no dr ied mud r oo fing mater ia l
has been found in t h e excavat ion of the Mes i l l a phase pithouses . In the Hueco
Bolson east of El Pas o , the st ructures are similar , with shallow hearth
features located just ins ide the structure , pas t the rampway ( 6 ) .
Late Mogollon Achitectu r e , El
� (�.E:
Phase
1 2 0 0 - 1 40 0 )
The E l Paso phase represents a n establ ished , sedentary l i f eway based on
full-scale agr icultural pract ices . The basic arch itectural shift , as in other
parts of the Southwest , i s f r om a pitstructure t o a sur face room unit ( 7 , 8 ) .
The El Paso phase Mogollon ( A . D . 1 2 0 0 to 1 40 0 ) sites are recog n i zed by their
ear then architectu r e and brown ware pottery. These peoples used puddled earth
const r uct i on techniques t o build the i r homes . Puddled earth i s wet soil that
contains s u f f i c ient calcium carbonate so that the soil dr ies to a hard mass
capable of suppor t ing the we ight of the add i t i onal upper wal l s . The walls were
built in cour ses .
Wet earth was usua lly placed i n a foundation t rench and
shaped by hand into a l inear course that e xtended s l ightly above g roun d .
When
this earth dr ied, another layer o f wet earth was placed on top, shaped i nto
place by hand , and a llowed to dry. The process was r epeated to ach ieve the
desired wall height . I n cross-section , each layer of the wall can be ident i fied
by a drying crack at the bottom and top of the course .
N
1 9 9,
o 4m �
II
'----'
Figure 2 .
Brad f i e l d S i t e ( a fter
Lehmer 1948 : f i g . 14)
No evi dence of roof structures rema ins in the Jornada Mogol lon a r ea . The
two large post holes often found insi de the north and south walls indicate
large supports for north-south beams ; these may have held smaller east-west
posts , which rested on the walls . These were probably covered with branches
and grass and d i r t for insulation . The roofs may have been covered with mUd .
The ruins of smaller pueblos have one o r more l inear r oom blocks with 3 to
2 0 rooms for a fami ly or an extended family unit . Larger pueblo ruins are
U-shaped, with enclosed plazas and 5 0 or more rooms . The very large ruins of
extensive, melted adobe mounds may represent the remains of multistory room
block s . These larger communi t ies probably housed sever a l e xtended family
un i t s .
I n the fol lowing sect ion, I present descr iptions of El Paso phase
All of these
a r ch itecture found at selected excavated a r chaeological sites .
s ites are located i n the Tularosa Basin east of Las Cr uces and north of El
Paso, Texa s .
Bradfield Site
II
N
\
[ r
I
\I
Pa
o'---4m-'
Figure 3 . Alamogordo S i t e 1 , House
1 ( a fter Lehmer 1948 : f i g . 1 6 )
The Bradfield Site was excavated by Lehmer ( 9 ) in 1 9 4 0 after port ions of the
1 6 - r oom pueblo were dug i nto by pothunter s . The east-west l inear room block
measures 2 5 m ( north-south ) by 95 m ( east-west ) ( see fig . 2 ) . A study of wall
abutments determ ined the g r owth o f the pueb lo . The walls were started in
foundat ion t renches 2 0 to 2 5 cm below floor leve l . No stones were used in the
foundation trenches or in the walls . Wal l s were built f i rst and then the roo f ,
followed b y t h e plaster ing of t h e floors . The walls aver age 2 5 c m in w i dth ,
w i th a range between 10 to 60 cm. The wet-laid cour ses were 20 to 35 cm h igh .
The excavated wall rema ins were no h igher than 7 5 cm , indicating a severe
amount of erosion occurred a f te r the abandonment o f the pueblo over 600 years
ago .
Ver t ical and h o r i zontal drying cracks marked individual courses . Mud
floors ranged f r om 5 to 15 cm thick , based on the number of replaster ing
events .
The f i rst floor was laid over native soi l . Room features include
hearths and post holes ; however , it is thought that roof beams were laid from
wall to wal l , with the posts in the r ooms used as secondary supports . Roof
beams were probably covered w ith smaller beams and br ush , then with a layer of
d i r t . Entry was probably through the roo f , although some evidence for doorways
in walls was present .
Alamogordo Site 1 , Houses 1 and 2
I, q So,,,
W,n. ,
,I I,
o'---'4m
Figure 4 . Alamogordo S i t e 1 , Hous e
2 ( a f t e r Lehmer 1948 . fi g . 2 3 )
The excavations were conducted at Alamogordo Site 1 by Wesley Brad f i e ld in 1 9 2 9
a n d b y Stanley stubbs in 1 9 3 0 ( 10 ) .
House 1 i s an east-west room b lock
measur ing 1 0 m ( north-south ) by 45 m ( east-west ) ( see fig . 3 ) .
The 1 5 r ooms
are laid out two rooms dee p . The walls were set in foundat ion t renches 20-25
cm below the surface . Bradfield did not record wall measurements in h i s notes ,
a l though he noted the presence of coursed lumps of dr ied mud that were part o f
t h e wal l . F i re pits were located near t h e center of t h e r ooms . Severe e r os ion
of the walls r emoved evidence of possible doorways . Roof const r uction is
thought to be s imilar to that at the Bradfield S i t e .
House 2 , located approximately 230 m f rom House 1 , i s a room block built
a round the three s ides of a plaza that opens to the west ( see fig . 4 ) . The
Adobe 90
88
room block measures 8 5 m ( north-sout h ) by 80 m ( east-west ) .
F i fty-si xe room
were excavated, with an estimated total o f 75 to 100 room s . Rooms averaged 3 . 5
by 4 m , ranging f r om 2 . 5 b y 3 m t o 8 by 9 m . Wal l foundation trenches were
25-30 cm below floo r sur faces with stone slabs l i n ing some trenches . The walls
were made o f i rregular courses of mud , 25-30 cm thick and o f unknown height .
Floor features are pr imar i l y Shallow hearth pits and roof support post holes .
Roofs were constructed of hori zontal poles measur ing 2 . 5 to 10 cm in diameter
and spaced 30 cm apar t , often laid from the walls to a cent ral beam . The poles
were covered with reeds , grass, cornsta l k s , and brush and were topped with
dirt .
r- - - - ��--L-+_�
I
II
!
1 OJ-+II
I
� 5. 8
m
------
�lamogordo Site 2 , House 1
-- --- ---- --
Figure
Alamogordo S i t e 2 , Hous e
1 ( a fter Lehmer 1948 : fi g . 24)
This s i t e , located southeast of �lamogordo ( 1 1 ) , consists of a rectangular room
b lock enclosing a plaza ( see f i g . 5 ) . The e xterior wa l l s measure 60 by 60 m .
Twenty-two of t h e est imated 6 0 rooms have been excavated .
The r ooms average
3 . 5 by 4 . 5 m , ranging from 3 by 3 . 5 m t o 7 by 8 m . The dr ied earthen wal l s ,
which average 45 cm thick , often had large stones ( up to 2 5 - 3 0 cm in d iameter )
i ncorporated into the . Wal l foundation trenches had stone slab floor s . Roof
construction was s imilar to that at �lamogordo S i t e 1 .
Dur ing excavat i on s ,
Bradfield a n d Stubbs noted the presence o f ear l ier , eroded wal l foundations and
wall rema i n s .
Condron F i e l d Pueblo
tv
I
d l
o
Sm
'-----'
Figure 6 .
Condron Field Pueb lo
( a fter Hammack 1962 : f i g . 1 )
tv
I
r-�d o
"
5m
Figure 7 .
McGregor S i t e ( a fter
Brook 1966 : map 2 )
The r emains of Condron F i e ld Pueblo are located under the ai rport for Wh ite
Sands Missile Rang e , just south o f the Post Headquarter s . The s i t e , excavated
in 1 9 6 0 ( 12 ) and 1 9 7 0 ( 1 3 ) , consisted of two l inear room blocks with a total of
seven rooms ( see fig . 6 ) . The wal l thickness averaged 2 0 cm . No evidence o f a
foundat ion trench was foun d . The rooms ranged in s i ze from 3 . 3 b y 3 . 5 m to 7 . 5
by 10 m . Hearths w e r e present i n a l l rooms near t h e center o f t h e south wa l l .
Post holes were r andom . The floors were f i n i shed with hard-packed clay over
ster i l e soil and were often replastered . No evi dence of doorways was found .
Some of the smaller post holes in the floors may be sockets for ladders
associated with roof entrys .
The McGregor Site
The McGregor Site i s located on Ft . Bliss northeast of El Pas o . Excavations
conducted i n 1 9 6 4 ( 14 ) revealed a sma l l , three-room site ( see fig . 7 ) .
�
foundation trench was present 30 cm below floo r leve l . The wall stubs showed
vert ical and hor i zontal crack i ng . Wal l thickness averaged 20 cm .
Cal iche
( poreous calcium carbonate ) was used t o plaster the wal l s , which were then
painted ; they were replastered and pa inted as necessary .
Puddled earth/mud
steps were present a long the interior of the south wall in two rooms . The
floors were built by cove r i ng native soil with puddled earth/mud , fol lowed by a
caliche-based plaster . Repa ir patches were ev ident . Two major post holes for
roof support posts were placed just off center on the west and east walls .
No
These probably supported a central beam , which supported smaller l imbs .
evidence of roof mater ials was foun d . Hearths were located about 1 m o f f the
south wall and equi d i stant from the west and east walls . The room block , which
probably housed a sma l l fami l y , was constr ucted as a s ing le un it with the
southern wall ( o r iented east-west ) laid f i r s t and the rema in ing walls abutt ing
against i t .
Anasazi Earthen Archi tecture
The preh i s tor ic Anasazi occupied the Four Corners a r ea of the southwestern
United States ( the shared state corners of New Me xico, Colorado , � r i zona , and
Utah ) , extending eastward to the Rio Grande region of cent ral New Mexico .
Anasazi arch itecture is typically masonry with mud morta r , the best known
examples are the pueblo ruins at Mesa Verde and Chaco Canyon. In some areas of
northern New Mexico, earth was used if s u itable rock was not avai l able .
Puddled-mud pueblos have been recorded in the Chama Val ley ( 1 5 ) , the Taos area
( 16 ) , and the Santa Fe area ( 17 ) .
Pindi Pueblo
Pindi Puebl o , located south of Santa Fe on the banks of the Santa Fe Rive r , is
Pindi Pueblo was e xcavated in
one of these prehistor i c puddled mud ruins .
1 9 3 2- 1 93 3 .
The pueblo was occupied i n the � . D . l 2 0 0 s . The construction
started by digg ing foundat ion t renches a few cent imeters to 60 cm deep and
sl ightly wider than the average wall thickness of 22 cm . Onl y 10 of the 2 0 0
rooms h a d stones i n t h e t renches . �dobe mud was gathered from mi x i ng pits
located outs i de the puebl o , as well as some that were insi de rooms. Late r ,
these interior pits were f i l led i n , and floors were b u i l t .
The mud courses
showed impress ions of hands and fingers a long the walls and on the tops of
courses . Impressions o f grass and brush are also preserved .
No evidence of
forms, such as parallel l ines in the dr ied mud o f the wal l s , were found dur ing
the e xcavat ions or dur ing the analys is of construction techniques .
Hori zontal
and vert ical cracks were common , suggesting short segments of adobe were laid,
but it appear s that each course was as long as the wal l .
The individual
courses
averaged
4 9 - 5 9 cm h ig h , a l though some were only a few centimeters and
others were near l y a meter t h i c k .
Room-b lock const r uct i on was i r r egula r ;
necessa r y .
seve r a l
rooms
were
appa re n t ly
added
as
A lo n g w a l l w a s often b u i l t and numerous w a l l s a b u t t e d i t to c r eate
smaller rooms , which were then enclosed w i th one long or seve r a l short
wa l l s .
The h i ghest e xcavated walls were 2 . 2 m t a l l ;
sock ets ,
these
lacked
indicat ing the w a l l s were probably t a l l e r than 2 . 4 m.
roof
beam
The pueblo may
have been two o r three stor ies h i g h , based on the numbers o f
collapsed
floors
found
in
the
s t r a t i f i e d depo s i t s i n seve r a l o f the room s . One sec t i on of the
pueblo may have been four s t o r i e s h i g h .
The rectang u l a r rooms
averaged
2
by
2.7
m, with prepared floors 3 cm t h i ck over nat ive soil and , r a r e l y , over flat
r i ver rock s .
Hearths were shallow, plaste red basins i n the center o f the
room
or
against
a wa l l .
E v i dence o f roof cons t r u c t i on methods is lack ing .
Stubbs
and S t a l l ings ( 1 9 ) suggest the roof con s t r uc t i on was s i m i l a r to that at P i c u r i s
A center post supported a pr imary center
beam
Pueb lo, n e a r Taos , N e w M e x i co .
across
w h i ch
secondary beams or v igas were l a i d and were covered with sma l l e r
mat e r i a l s and s o i l
Figure 8 . Room de t a i l s ( a fter
Wetherington 1968 : f i g . 1 6 )
( see f i g .
8) .
Pot Creek Pueblo
The ruins of t h i s large pueblo lie on the banks
( see f i g .
9 ) o f Pot Creek about
2 2 . 5 m i les south o f Taos ( 2 0 ) . E xcava t i on s began in 1 9 5 7 and
con t i n ue
to
the
present .
The
s i t e was f i r s t occupied ca . A . D . 1 0 0 0 by t h e Anasa z i , who bui l t
shal low square p i thouse w i t h w a l l s made o f coursed m u d a n d
mud.
Later
sur face e a r then rooms date into the A . D .
floors
1300s .
con s t r uc t i on of mu l t i r oom and m u l t i st o ry cou rsed mud room
of
puddled
About A . D .
blocks
descr ibed a r c h i t e c t u r a l deta i l s are from rooms bui l t between A . D .
1200 ,
bega n .
The
1 2 5 0 and A . D .
1 3 5 0 , which a r e very s i m i l a r t o those a t Pindi Pueb l o .
Foundation
t renches
were d u g at varying depths b u t n o t deeper than about
3 0 cm.
These were the same w i d t h a s or s l ightly wider
than
the
coursed
mud
No r e in f o r c ing stones w e r e found i n t h e trenches .
wa l l s .
The courses were 2 7
t o 40 c m thick , 45 to 5 5 c m h igh , a n d o f
unspec i f ie d
le ngth ,
presumably
the
length
of
the
room .
F i n g e r - and handp rin t s were common , and no e v i dence of
molds
was
foun d .
Some
walls
cons is ted
of
two
individual
courses
that
supposedly supported t h e weight o f uppe r - s tory rooms .
Rema ins
of
center
support
posts
were
found
in
the
ma j o r i t y of the
In
ground-floor rooms .
The posts were placed i n holes dug into nat ive
soi l .
the
post
h o l e w a s d u g to t h e old f loor , and a stone was
t r ash- f i l led
room s ,
The
beam
suppo r t ed
a
often placed a t the bottom pr ior to sett ing the pos t .
Figure 9 .
Pot Creek Pueb l o
( a fter Crown 1990 : f i g . 3 [ 2 3 )
m a i n r a f te r , whic h supported secondary vigas
and
t h i rd-story
systems
JL" �
.:..;.
":�:,..,
.;&',;"
''!
",.,;'
�
., ",..'." "" �"
( see f i g .
8).
At Pot Creek and
P ic u r i s
Rema ins o f second
10 ) .
Pueblo
cen t r a l post support
( 21 )
c i r c u la r
f loor
basins
were
placed a r ound t h e center support pos t , a t r a i t unique to the Taos
r e g i on .
Hearths were placed between the post and the w a l l .
..
Room f l oo r s were bui l t over nat ive soi l or
prev ious
occupa t i on s .
Puddled
mud
was
in leveled
t r ash
depo si t s
of
p o u re d o v e r the s o il or a foundation
Ent ryways ( open and s e a le d )
were
found
layer of sandstone slabs and cobb le s .
the
door bases b e i ng the tops of the f i r s t course o f
in
ground-f loor
rooms ,
puddled mud .
Doo rs were 3 0 to 6 0 c m w i de , b u t t h e i r h e ight is unknown ,
as
no
�
�
" Ir� ',�
l in t e ls
or
complete
ent ryways
we r e foun d .
Entry t o most rooms was probably
t h r ough roof hatchways .
Adobe A r c h i tecture of Paqu ime,
�
Grandes , M e x i co
The preh istor i c pueblo of Paquime , Casas
Figure 1 0 . Central post support
system ( a f t e r Wetherington
1968 : £ 1 g . 1 6 )
( see f i g .
floors prov i de d e v i dence o f uppe r- leve l ,
Grandes ,
Mexico,
is
about
320
km
southwest of El Paso, Texas . Di Peso ( 2 2 ) has provided an e xc e l lent , d e f i n i t ive
study o f
Paquime and i t s people s . The earthen a r c h i te c t u r e o f paquime d i f f e r s
f r om t h a t of the Mogollon and the Rio Grande Ana saz i , because forms
were
used
t o conta i n the puddled mud for each course added to the wa l l .
The use o f forms
i n d i cates
a
greater
labor
comm i tment--procur ing
mat e r ia ls to create forms,
us i ng and ma i nt a i n i ng the form s , and replac i ng the wornout
to
the auxi l Ia r y mat e r ia ls , such as ropes , hamme r s ,
a n d associated labor costs f o r these .
Wa l l cons t ru c t ion started w i t h
the
rang ing 1 5 - 4 7 cm deep ( average 18 c m ) .
t rench
floor
had
c lean
g r avel
and
forms - - i n
add i t i on
cutt i ng and shaping too l s ,
e xcavat ion
of
founda t ion
t renches ,
Trenches were as w id e as the w a l l .
a red c lay l a i d for the w a l l base .
puddled mud w a l l s o f Paquime were
formed by
supported
by s t a ke s and b r aces ( see f i g . 1 1 ) .
The
The
pour ing
mud
i nto
plank
forms
After each course o f mud d r i e d ,
t h e f o r m w a s removed a n d ad j usted for t h e n e x t pou r .
The use
of
the
dropped
Evidence
key
technique
plus roughened contact j O in t s str engthened the wa l l s .
o f forms i n c l ude adobe walls with cast impre s s ion s , evi dence o f s l i pped
forms ,
and
preplanned ,
squared space ( rather than c u r v i l inear space ) for v igas
beams ) . Also, postholes for b r a c i ng stakes rema i n pa r a l l e l to the
walls .
use
Figure 1 1 . Form detai l s ( a fter
Di Pe s o 1974 : fi g . 149-4)
of
forms
story rooms
cons t r u c t i on
a l lowed
and
77
to
techniques
walls
92
were
( r oof
The
to be t h i c k e r , ave r a g i ng 52 to 74 cm for s i ngle
cm
for
s im i l a r
add i t i o na l ,
to
load-bear ing
Mogollon
Pr imary beams supported secondary beams , w h ic h
were
and
wa l l s .
Roof
Ana s a z i technique s .
cove red
with
brush
and
Adobe 90
grass and were sealed with a poured puddled mud floor . In gene r a l , the
a r ch i tectural features of paquime was more complex than those of the Mogol lon
and Anasazi pueblos .
Discussion
Prehistoric earthen a rch i tecture has a long tradit ion i n a r i d areas of the
Mogol lon and a short tradition i n the temperate areas o f the Anasa z i .
I n the
Mogollon region , puddled mud s tructures were typically small , s ingle story , and
spatially disper sed across the landscape .
Th i s r eflects low population
density. The larger , mult istory pueblos a r e situated in better-watered areas
with access to upland t imber resource s . Studies o f wa l l and roof const r uct ion
techniques are h indered by the poor preservat i on caused by seve r e wind and
water erosion .
Studies of earthen construction mater ia l is needed to help
understand different i a l preservation between Mogollon and Anasazi ruins .
In
the upland Anasazi a r e a s , some of the ruins are better preserve d , with taller
walls rema l n lng . All that remains of Mogollon structures after 600 yea r s i s
short w a l l stubs a n d floo r s , which have been protected by accumulated soi l . In
areas of severe e r o s i o n , only foundat ion r ocks or c imientos rema i n . An
occasional mound may indicate an unexcavated , multistory struct u r e .
I n both
areas , adobe walls were built by hand wi thout the use of forms. The walls
average 20-30 cm thick , with ground-floor wall thickness l im i t i ng
the
construct ion of uppe r -story rooms . The use of forms at Paquime al lowed puddled
mud walls to be built up to 1 m thick for load-bear i ng walls . Th i s resulted in
construct ion of an e xtensive , yet compact pueblo . In a l l three region s , adobe
arch i tecture was s uccessfully used by prehistor ic peoples to const r uct shelters
i n areas lacking sui table t imber and masonry const ruct i on mat e r ials .
The ma i n goal of the ma jor ity of e xcavation pro jects is to st udy
preh istoric l i f eways , not to excavate and develop a r u i n into a pub l ic park
that wou l d require conservation management . The conservation of these earthen
ruins i s very l imited , with the except ion of Paquime , where a ma jor e f fort is
ongoing to preserve and protect the ruin for visitor s . Dur i ng e xcavat i o n ,
r a p i d deter iorat ion of the Mogollon earthen structures probably accounts for
very poor l y preserved wa l l s and floor s .
The e xcavat i on of these ruins or
por t ions of the r u i n i s usually done in a few weeks so that the wall stubs and
floors are e xposed a short t ime . Large tarps are used to protect the features
dur ing rain storms . After excavat ion , the ruins are cove red with d i r t .
The
e xcavt ion of Anasaz i s i tes are conducted in a similar manner , with the wa l l and
floor remains protected by tarps dur ing storms . Overhead shelters a r e not used
dur i ng the excavat i ons of Mogol lo n and Anasa z i s i t e s , pr imar i l y because the
short-term expos ure of the ruins .
REFERENCES
1 . Thomas C . O ' Laugh l i n , The Keystone Dam Site and Other Archaic and Formative
S i te s in Northwest El paso:-Texas , publ i cations--rn
h ropology�o . 8 ( E l
Pas o : University ofT
, 1 9 80 ) .
�
exas
2.
Ibid . , 144 .
3 . Donald J . Lehme r , The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon , Soc i a l Science
Bullet i n No . 17 ( T ucson : -university of Ar i zona�1948T.
4.
Ibid. , 7 6 .
5.
O ' Laughl i n , · The Keystone Dam Site , · 1 4 6 .
6 . Michael E . Whal e n , Special Studies i n the Archaeology of the Hueco Bolson ,
publ icat ions in Anthropology No . 9 , Thel:entennial Museum TEl-pas �
n iversity
of Texas , 1 9 80 ) , 5 4 .
7. M.E.
Wha l e n ,
·Cultur al-Ecolog ical Aspects of the pithouse-to-Pueblo
Tran s i t i on in a Portion of the southwest , · Ame r ican Antiqu i t y , 4 6 , no . l
( 19 8 1 ) : 75-9 2 .
�,
8 . Hi roshi Dai fuku, Jeddito
Archaeology and Ethnolog y , 3 1 , no .
9.
Papers o f the Peabody Museum o f Amer ican
1 , ( Camb r i dge : Harvard Univers ity , 1 9 6 1 ) .
Lehme r , · The Jornada Branch of the Mogollon , · 38-4 6 .
10 .
Ibid . , 54-57 .
11.
Ibid. , 57-58 .
1 2 . Laurens C . Hammack , M i s s i l e Range Archaeology, Laboratory of
Note 1 ( Santa F e : Museum of New Mexico , 1 9 6 2 ) .
Anthropology
1 3 . H . C . Morrow , · Condron Field s i t e Salvage Excavat i ons on White Sands
M iss i le Rang e : A Prel iminary Repor t , · ( Unpubl ished manus c r i pt on f i l e at El
Paso Centenni a l Museum, University o f Texas at El Pas o , E l Paso, Texa s ,
September 3 0 , 1 9 70 ) .
91
1 4 . V . R . Brook , " The McGregor Site ( 32 : 1 06 : 1 6 : 4 ; E . P . A . S . 4 ) , " The Arti fact 4 ,
no . 4 ( 19 66 ) : 1-2 1 .
1 5 . Jean A . Jeancon , Excavat i ons i n the Chama Val ley, New Mexico, Bulletin No .
81 (Wash ington, D . C . : Bureau of Amer ican Ethnolog y , 1923).
-----1 6 . Ronald
Wether ington , Excavat i ons at Pot Creek Pueblo , Publ ication
6, ( Taos : Fort Burgwin Research Cente r , 196�
----- ------
K.
No.
17 . Stanley A . Stubbs and W . S . Stalling s , Jr . , The Excava t ion of Pindi Pueblo ,
New Mexico , Monographs of the School of Ame r ican Research No:-l
anta Fe :
School of Ame r ican Research , 1 9 53 ) .
�
18.
Ibi d . , 25-28 .
19 .
Ibid. , 2 8 .
20 .
Wether ington , " Excavat ions a t Pot Creek Pueblo , " 19-3 6 .
21.
Ibid . , 30-3 2 .
2 2 . Char les C . D i Pes o , Medio Per iod Architectu r e , Casas Grandes , Vol . 4 , No.
9 o f the Amer ind Foundation,
er ies (Dragoon : Ame r ind Founda t i o n , Inc. ,
1 9 7 4 ) , pp . 2 1 1-22 1 .
�
2 3 . Pat r icia Crown , " The Chronology o f the Taos Area Anasaz i , " Clues t o the
Pas t ; Pape r s i n Honor of Will iam M. Sundt , edited by Meliha S. Duran and Davi d
�
i r k pat r ick�papers No . 1 6 ( The-Ar chaeolog ical Society of New Mexico , 1 9 9 0 ) ,
pp . 63-74 .
92
Adobe 90
The vernacular mud mor tar ,
and
timber mu l t i - story
Kashmi r ,
not
India
only
con s truc ti.on .
The
and
held
wa l l s
are
f l oo r
windows
l evel
wi t h
t im b e r
in
of
the i r
b u t also because o f
s e i sm i c a l l y
each
houses
i n t e r e s t i ng
because
archi te c t u r e ,
their
are
brick
r e s i s t i ve
masonry p i e r s
together
and
of
d i r ec t l y
A s s i s tant Professor
Department of Architecture
University of C a l i forn i a ,
Berkeley,
Berkeley
94720
C a l i forn i a ,
at
above
l ay e r s
laid
THERandolphEARTHQULangenbach
AKE RESISTANT MUD AND BRICK ARCHITECTURE OF KASHMIR
the
h e a vy
in
the
wal l s .
There
are
known
two
hor i zontal
second
a
as
timbers
with
Tg
v a r i a tj.on s ,
locally
onl y ,
ver t i c a l
Dilajji- Dwari.
ho r i z o n t a l
as
one
w i t h
and
the
well
as
known
t im b e r s ,
as
Al though o f w e a k
c on s tr u c t i o n .
these
b u i l d i ng s
have res i s ted earthquakes because
of
their
f l ex ib i l i ty .
Ka s h m i r
has
i n s u l ated
the
b een
f rom
reI a ti vely
the West
defusion of
modern
and
from
construc
tion
technology and ways of
life,
and
thus
thi s
has
building
p r e s erved
t r adi t i o n
recen t l y .
Now ,
b rough t
until
wi th
the
v e ry
money
to u r i sm ,
by
r e i n f o r c ed
con c r e t e
r ap i d l y
r ep l a c i ng
n e w
hou s e s
are
t h e s e
traditional mud houses .
KEYWORDS
Dilajji-Dwari, Taq.
E a r t hquake
tion ,
Mud
r e s i s tant
mo r ta r ,
cons t r u c
c o n s t r u c t i on ,
Mud - b r i c k
H i s to r i c
P r eserva
tion ,
I nd i a ,
K a s hm i r ,
During recent mon t h s
con f l i c t s
of
the
the news
i n Kashmi r .
timber
and
brick
Greec e .
be
easily
resolved
the
a c i v i l war .
once
It
is
a
depends
and
most
popula t ion ,
and
has
for
In
thi s paper
of
I
take
mosques ,
of
life.
a
Entering
Srinaga r ,
It
was
in
principal
these
thoroughfares .
l a n es
demol ishing
are
the
being
Now many of
widened
b u i l dings
along
by
one
side .
Upper right:
Th e
Rainawa ri
Can a l ,
Cana l boa ts used t o b e the
main means
of
the
Now one
city.
canal
transporta tion
is
short
rem i n i s c en t
ancient
denses t
filled
in
canal
s e c t ion
of
once penetrated
of
Srinagar
during the 1970 ' s
a
indu s t r ie s ,
such
the
almost
1964:
town ,
of
b e au ty . . . a
mixed
b r i ng
very
sod ,
opportun i ty
vernacul a r
also
are
and
(more
to
study
des ign ,
land
in
where
tradi tional
hardship
in
thus
to
the
is
one
what
the planet .
make
but
in
life,
tourism and
renewed
b u i ldings which
of
f ra g i l e
a
farmi n g ,
s e t t l ements l e f t on
the
way
resources ,
cannot
outcome,
up
the
this
recen t l y )
the
and
c i ty -
ordinary houses
ga lvanized
l inkage
a
b e tween
t r ad i t ional
signi f i cant because
way
they have an
as
l ike going back
carpet
and
town
c i ty
The
rema rkable
if
they
were
p i c t u r e sque
of
narrow
full
of
with
weaving
thi s
in
time .
much evidence of wear and
Th e
hou ses
V.
tear .
S.
and i t might have been medieval Europe .
tog e t h e r
for
which
c u l ture ,
sub s i s tence
will
brick ,
bodi e s
canvas o f Bruega l .
as
pageant
at
an
is
with
development and teeming activity
f rom
the
C i ty
densely packed
are
of
are
the
is
hou ses
and
the
themselves
d e l i b era tely b u i l t
only
a
a
and
choked
the
manu fac turing
view
of
this
dense
the pages o f Dickens or
r i ckety
as
was
t o wn . . . o f
olde s t portions
are wh a t
appear
It
a
shops
smal l
The
scene out of
They
dark
even
metalworking .
l ike a
scene .
and
In
hous es .
shop s
and
l anes
cos tumes . . . ;
appear
Naipaul
form
and
s tage
the
es sential
i n s u b s tan t i a l ,
set
for
the
human
takes place around them.
through
s tretch
of
the
magical scene �ich used to exi s t where
an
is
backdrop
Srinagar.
this
S r i nagar
res i d e n c e s
such con f l ic t s
life
few
recall
ethnic con f l i c t
d e s troying many bui ldings
technology,
Kashmi r ,
smell s :
[1 ]
of
the
to earthquakes .
a medieval
of
courtyards
c i ty ' s
look
provide
timel e s s ,
d i s regarded
Srinagar
of
t i mber ,
s t raw ,
made the observation i n
town
that
p a l a c e s or other monumen t s -
- Medieval -
to be ancient and
ways
on
Th i s
not magic a l ,
closer
construction
a
j eep s ,
regar d l e s s
tradi tional
the
survival
These p a r t i c u l a r buildings
S r inagar ,
and
A protrac ted con f l i c t w i l l wipe out
if
b u i ld i n g s
inherent resi s tance
the
basic
temp l e s ,
mud ,
These
tradi tional
in
is
and
the
and
tanks
breathtaking beauty but
the poten t i a l
the most interes ting ,
the
of
hand i c ra f t s .
of
s t ee l .
of
s tar ted .
a r c h i t ec ture
tou r i sm .
for
con s tr u c ted
la.ne
by
reports o f
s tanding i n' fron t
another religious and
The problem
are
r u i n a tion
land o f
marke t
not
one
they
the
t radi t i on a l
economy
the
na rrow
yet
the h i s toric b u i l t environmen t .
the fabric of
the
also
is,
and
hand i c ra f ts .
is
sur rounded
it
f i l l ed wi th
trad i t ional dress
lies
Kashmi r .
wh ich
increasingly
their w a k e o f ten
Both
Above: A
hous es ,
Here
p i c t u r e s o f Afghani s tan .
which m i g h t t u r n i n t o
Yugosl avi a ,
h a s been
The images of men in
the
un t i l
(see p5 . )
All photos C Randolph Langenbach, 1990.
A
s i ng l e
l iving
house
c l u s tered
into
t h e fami l i e s o f
and
[2]
Hindu
c lose .
schoo l ,
is
together
the
occupied
f am i l i e s
s m a l l pi s t ri c t s ,
each
f am i l i es
Of ten
and a
u su a l ly
w i th
a
mohalla
who ,
few shop s ,
a
eac h
known
formed
rega'rd l e s s
temp l e ,
by
of
as
a
a
form p a r t of
of
their
mohal l a s .
wi t h
son s .
Un t i l
the
The
grandparents
hou s e s
t h e present
were
s tr i f e ,
tightly k n i t neighborhood o f b o t h Muslim
of
mosques ,
j oint· f am i l y ,
the i r
r e l igious
madrassa (a
the mohal l a .
d i f f erenc e s ,
mu s l i m
religious
were
very
school ) ,
a
93
T h e entrance to the typical h o u s e would b e through a door in a w a l l separating
a
small
paved
private
from the hou s e ,
and
cou r t
s e t in
usually con s i s t s of
a
f rom
the
s tree t .
the corner o f
small room next
w.e.
The
the front
is
cou r t ,
usually detached
while
the ba throom
to the hot water tap behind
the ki tchen
s tove .
The
hou s e s
densest
but
are
mostly
areas ,
rarely
square
the houses
did
they
in
plan,
are
a t t ached
up
in
l in e
even
outside w i th
jalli
a
.
an open
onto
jalli
the
shutters
The
f i l igree
to
on
all
sides .
In
the
windows
are
tradi tionally
the inside set being of solid wood ,
recently come into general use in Kashmi r .
glued
windows
their neighbors wi th common wal l s ,
row s .
closed only with two sets of shutters ,
the
w i th
to
of
carved wood .
Glass
and
h a s only
Traditionally oiled newspaper was
admi t
light
into
the
houses
during
the
winter .
The living room and the ki tchen were always loca ted on
the bedrooms
located
on
the
second
room with many windows .
tradi tionally
s
umm
e r in order
The
to
family
take advantage of
gatherings and social even t s .
Before
Jalli
s h u t ters
showing,
on
the
the rema ins of the paper a t tached
for win ter pro tection .
roof s
the
recent
of
the
were
and wil d f lowers .
the roo f s of
of
In
the
moved
to
breeze
This room was
corrugated
mos t
f loor ,
level
this
and
wi th
of
the
room during
also.
also used
spring ,
the dense mass of
galvanized
f r eq u e n t l y
In the spring
underlayment o f bark .
top
in moi s t
at
times
for
In winter i t was u s ed mostly for storage .
introdu c t i on
houses
The
It was usually one single large
the cool
t o move away f rom the mosqui tos .
the ground
floor s .
timber .
area s ,
Th e
third
house was usually enclosed only w i th
the
left,
and
the
covered
soil
s teel
w i th
shee ting ,
mud
laid
the
on
an
roof became covered with grasses
the blos soming o f
the
houses in Srinagar was
tulips
and
l i l i es
famous until most of
on
the
mud roof s had d i s appeared in f avor of the corrugated steel .
The
A s e i smic
Ear thquakes
the
A t t r ibu tes
in
Kashmiri
i n t e r l acing
masonry
of
system ,
reflect
heavy
timber
[3]
simply too precious
Srinagar
In
can
be
referred
together wi th
houses
two
to
the
f l oors .
were
almost
heavy
stone
the
exterior walls
s tone
set
i n to
a
thick
bed
mud
The
mud ,
b r i ck
p l a s ter on
Th e
en trl!nce
tradi tional
l obby
house
of
showing
and mud int erior · finishes .
lobby,
house,
loca ted
at
the
tI
typ i c tl l
the
timber
Th is fron t
center
of
the
is
considered to be the safest
place t o go to during an earth q u ak e .
(Running
ou t
dangerous . )
of
the
house
is
b r i ck s ,
straw,
and
timber
the exterior .
a
coat o f
every
a
thin
mixture
two week s ,
dryed ,
the
a
walls
and
the
of
the
nail s
are
so
traditional buildings
construction .
system,
a
p l in th
of
The
load · b e a r i ng
in
first
ma sonry
Dhajj i ' Dewari [ 5 ]
known a s
made
one meter
of
of
s tone
heigh t .
a m i x t u r e of
masonry
Above
brick
and
this
rub b l e
timber
small ,
Thi s
up
in
( Taq) , o r wi th a single layer o f
( Dhajj i · Dewari ) .
The Tag houses
mortar
very hard .
give
cons truc t ion
the
was
hand made clinker brick s ,
h ou s e s
u s u a l ly
layer
of
their
left
with
d i s t i n c t i ve
uncovered
by
a mixture of
mud p l a s ter provided
any
clay,
i n S U l a tion
internal p l a s te r was renewed by the appl i c a tion of
of
clay
p ro c e s s
undulating
of
The interior was p l a s tered
The
exterior
wood
and
t h rough
absolutely necessary ,
the
con s i s ts
least
which
and other ingredien t s .
in summer and winter .
is
centur i es ,
a t each floor l evel used to tie the
constructed
were usually faced with a layer of
Mah araj i
appearance . [6 ]
the
threat
coun t r i e s ,
s y s t ems
on
at
s i z e brick su rrounded b y heavy
as
the
Kashmir
timber frame with masonry in f i l l .
r a i s ed
of
of
Most of
" runner s "
timbers measuring
were
this
than what
The second
always
to
p l ane
" Taq. [ 4 ] "
as
in
regularity over
i n mo s t
basic
con s i s t s o f a braced
with
known
the
as
for more
with wood
la ced
modern
wi t h i n
into
Con s t ruction
adap t a t i o n
Kashmi r .
to be u sed
divided
sometimes
cons truction .
The
an
the primary building material
piers and infill wal l s .
wal l s
Trad i t ional
Kashmir have occur red w i th
houses
b u i ld i ng s .
masonry is
of
mud
and
wa ter
r e f erred
wal l s
to
were
over
in
left
the
with
an
Ii vun.
exi s ting
Kashmiri
as
surface
unb l emi shed
about
When
this
b e ig e
c l ay
surface .
more
The
Taq
masonry
wa l l s ,
the
timber
I n s tead ,
frames .
lapping over
wi th
The
Sys t em .
comp lete
w i th
f l oor
The wood
them.
f l oo r s .
the
The
beams
in
beams
serves
weigh t
of
" runners"
and
to
construc tion p r a c t i c e s
contras t
to
the
codes
used
and
for
i n t i l l wal l s and
the piers ,
(3)
roo f s .
It
i s j ust
b y A r thur N e v e , .
earthquake :
To
a
a
British
perpendicular ,
the
c i ty
of
freely u s e d ,
gives
in
and other s ,
ci ty
very
is
and
j oi n ted ;
sui table
whole
with
h o u s e , ' even
for
c lay
to
if
load bearing
cross
structure
" p res tress "
use o f
almo s t a
the
the
the
heavy
sod
century e a r l i e r
the
look s
houses
an
ear thquake
employed
1BB5
Kashmir
tumbledown
are
out
or
country;
i n s tead
which
f i l l ing i n .
four
old buildings
[8)
(1)
of
and
the
But the general construction in
three
some other massive
wa l l ,
stand in
include
If
of
wood
mor tar ,
are o f ten
is
and
arranged
well b u i l t in t h i s
s tories
high ,
whereas more heavy r i g i d buildings would sp l i t and
the Palace and
the
Kashmir which
today,
w i t n e s s ed
the brick s ,
was remarkabl e how few houses f e l l . . . .
walls
together
of any bonding b e tween
S r i n agar
of
is
thinner
the
(hi s to r i c a l )
who
of
many
the
to
in
observed
semi - ruinous .
Srinagar
wel l
were
the
for
the bond between the wythes of
f requent
to Kashmir
the
d eg r e e ;
square p i l l ar s ,
the
together ,
of
a
that
a somewh a t e l a s t i c bonding
thick
s ty l e
the
v i s i tor
t ravel e r ,
to
the l ack
the weakness o f
and
such buildings
European
d i l ap i d a t e d
(4)
(2)
along
[7]
accepted p r a c ti ces
s trength ,
the wal l s ,
serves
forces .
these build ings
commonly
negligible
in
rest
" runner s "
the wal l s of
the masonry
use of mortar o f
the masonry
the
tie
contributing to i t s resi s tance to l a teral
The
Taq b u i ldings do n o t con s t i tu te
the
l a rge timbers
sways
f a l l . . . Part
collapsed . . . [ b u t ]
it
Adobe 90
94
Above:
mbe
ti
A masonry pier resting on
r can ti lever bracket on a ca .
a
1 8 th
cen tury house.
The beams extend across
the
the
width
together,
of
wh i l e
house,
the
tying
weigh t
of
it
the
masonry holds
the wood in place in an
sys tem h o u s e
sh owing
runner
beams
and
between
the
earthquake.
Upper right: A
ca .
1 8 th cen tury Taq
the
windows .
the
hori zon t a l
masonry
No tice
p i ers
th a t
in
this unusual case the piers do not even
line up.
Prior to this earthquak e ,
Drew
noted
that
these
=.......�<'. _....""",... •.ni..."-
;a;:a�
another B ri t i sh traveler to the Kashmir ,
hou s e s
were
loca l l y
recogn i z ed
for
their
Frederick
a s ei smic
attribu tes , " the � e mi � ed modes o f construction are said to be better as against
earthquakes (wh�ch � n th�s coun t ry occur w i th sever i ty ) than more solid
masonry, which would crack . " [ 9 ]
More recently , two Indian engineer s , N . Gosain
and A. S . Arya
as cribed the damage f rom a 1 9 6 7 ear thquake to the dif feren t
types of traditional and modern construc tion in Kashmi r :
The timber runners . . . t i e the short wall t o the long wall and a l so bind
Perhaps the grea test advantage
the pier and the i n fill to some exten t .
gained from such runners is that they imp ar t du c ti l i ty to an otherwise
An increase in du c t i l i ty augments the energy
very b r i t t l e s truc ture .
absorbing capacity of the s tructure ,
thereby increa s ing i t s chances o f
s u rvival during t h e c o u r s e o f a n ear thquake shock .
This
was
sub s tantiated by the observation that " dhajj i - dwari s" [ sic] in which a
larger volume of timber was used were compara tively safer . [ 10 ]
Gosain and Ayra note that during the 1 9 6 7 Kashmir ear thquake buildings of three
According to Ary a , one of the
to five s tories survived relat ively undamaged .
most important reasons for this was the damping of the motion of the building
caused by the f ri ction induced in the masonry of the Taq wall s when it begins
to crack and move along the mortar j oi n t s .
In ternal damping " may be in the
order o f 2 0% , compared to 4% i n uncracked modern masonry (brick with Portland
cemen t mortar) and 6% - 7 % af ter the masonry has cracked . "
His explanation for
this i s that " there are many more p l anes of cracking in the Dhajj i · D e wari
comp ared to the modern masonry . "
I t i s this d i s tribu tion o f the forces
throughout a l arge area o f the wal l , preventing destruct ive c racking in one
area ,
that
l eads
95
to
a
much
otherwise b e possibl e .
causing
have
the wall
a
good
d i ap h r agms
hou s e
to
keep
of
the
break
holding
In
piers
simil a r
Turkey,
form
of
of
construction
cont e x t
Greece
the buildings
use
horizon tal
less
use
in
in
c r ed i ted
w ith
be
it
found
ties
is
a r ea s ,
earthquake
whi ch
would
cause
carries
the
a l so
thus
a l so
exi s t s
have
in
the
potential
for
the
[12 )
to
the
Nepal .
Houses f ound
wood member s ,
f ar more mas s i ve .
areas
of
claim that
adobe
The
Turkey,
with
they w e r e
in
w al l s ,
typ e ,
in
in
Yugo s l avi a ,
[1 1)
[1 3 )
Ta q
the
not
The bond beams
b r i c k - nogged
wi th
but
i n c lude
horizontal
sei smic
supporting
duc t i l i ty
s id e - by - s id e
to
the wal l s are
common
The hal f · timb e r ,
The Dhaj j i - Dewari .
to
f l oo r
construction used
Afghanistan
e x tends
the O ttoman Emp i r e .
re s i s tanc e .
" incorpor a t i n g
in
developed
seen by t h i s author ,
wood
for
can
which
increasing their earthquake r e s i s tant qua l i ties . "
D e wa r i ,
and
f l exib i l i ty was essential .
a l l once p a r t o f
nonseismic
del i b e r a tely
beams
t h e s tronger i t m u s t b e i n order t o
a f fec ted by earthquakes
but in
of
is,
would
runner
sep a r a t i ng ,
r i g id i ty
than
extremely wea k ,
the masonry continues
timber
Because t h e primitive materials and means of
Iran and Iraq ,
in p a r t s
di s s ipa tion
the mortar i s
load ,
The
from
T h e more rigid a building
cul t u r a l
energy
sma l l er
Kashmi r ,
in Kashmir did not p rovide s trength ,
The
of
though
together .
individual
apart .
avoid fractur e .
A
l evel
even
to yield under a much
chance
destruc tion .
greater
A s a r e su l t ,
used
Turkey a r e
sub s ta n t i a l l y
known
as
Kashmi r .
Dhajj i
the
Half
t imbe r e d
construction continues t o provide an e f f ic i e n t a n d economical u s e o f material s .
The u s e of wood ,
whi l e kept
wal l s
ou t - of - pl a ne
to
res i s t
to a minimum ,
none theless enables
c o l l ap s e ,
whi l e
also
the
res t r a i ning
thin masonry
the
i n - p l ane
movement of the masonry .
Many of
the houses in
Srinagar rema in
radically askew from weak soil and past
earthquakes .
Dhajj i - Dewari comes f rom Persian and l i terally means " p a tch qui l t wal l . "
method of
Ttlq
the
230mm)
construction appears
system
standard large
[ 14 )
during
size
set
by
the
late
availab l e .
timber
thi s
It
the
such
as
is
its
is
was
of
the
f rom
in
tha t
logical
i n s tab i l i ty
far
use
however ,
a
b ri c k s
of
a
of
more
( 6 5 mm X 1 1 5mm X
s i z e brick
the
construction
of
one - wythe
the
in
both
the
V a r i a t ions
on
gave
country,
solely
to
the
where
root
to
not
b ri c k s
use
it
of
a
is
not
system
to
ear thquakes .
timber restraint
earthquakes
have
of
possible
of
e i ther
of
number
S i n ce much of
S t a te s .
incidence
i n c idence
this
in many areas
Europ e ,
the U n i ted
almo s t universal
to
and
It even extended i n to North
t r a d i ti o n
earthquake
Kashmir
response
soi l s .
England
to w a t t l e and daub .
with masonry i n f i l l
conti nued
clear,
sys tem
when
common h i s torically
medieval
Fach work
German
buildings
con s tr u c t ion
a s c ri b e
l a rger
enabled
the b r i c k - nogged type were
e a r thquakes ,
where
vernacul a r
Thi s
f r ame
cen tury
especially in t h e villages .
provided an alternative i n f i l l
Ame r i c a ,
n i n e teenth
This
common usage alongside
Dhajj i - Dewari buildings con s tructed with u n f i red mud b r i c k s
also w e r e common ,
a f f ec ted
became
into
thick brick wal l .
Variations of
the
to have emerged into
proved
and
the
especi a l l y
s u i t a b l e i n seismically ac tive regions s u c h a s Yugo s l avi a , Greece , and Turkey,
and it i s p robably f rom thi s region that the Kpshmiri system developed .
In a
su rvey of
London
the
eng i n e e r ,
damage caused by
N.N.
Amb r a s ey s ,
p a r ti cu l a r l y
those w i th
timber
but
f ar
than
behaved
con c r e t e
with
b e t ter
b ri c k
conc rete bui lding s ,
bracing,
the
in f i l l )
Skopj e ,
that
3
from
whi l e the less
con s truc tion ,
the
of
s tories
adobe
shock wi th
or
Many
6
E a r thquake,
" old
the
brick
to
Yugoslavi a ,
the
res i s ted
[modern)
con s tr u c t ion . "
which ranged
damaged or destroyed ,
19 6 3
the
reports
the
in
some
hyb r i d
damag e ,
[ re i n f o r c ed
modern
height ,
a
reinforced
were
seriously
[15)
substantial adobe buildings survived .
Taq and the Dhajj i
Dhajj i - Dewari i s
frequently found used for the party w a l l s between building s , whereas the Taq i s
used f o r t h e f ront wall s .
In princip l e , the Dhajji Dwari i s l ighter i n weigh t ,
In Kashmir there are many examples of houses where both the
Dewari a r e used side by side in
An
examp l e
construc tion .
of
Dha j j i Dewari
al lowing
for
its
b r i c k - nogged
u s e on w a l l s
type
sometimes used
for
stable because o f
of
the
of
above .
type has
s tructures ,
some of
masonry
by
the
formed the basis
P r e s en t - day
local
in
the
the
conc rete .
reinf orced
con c r e te
concrete
o r s teel
much of
The
s t reet .
where
it
where masonry would b e
is
less
f l oo r s
the
top
of
the
houses
were
probably for the same reason .
shown enough resi s tance to earthquakes when
whether
of
f i red
codes .
b r i ck
[16)
last
twenty year s ,
Kashmir
or
Brick
floor
is
still
slabs .
construc tion ,
adobe
compared
block ,
tha t
in
engineered
of
S.
Arya
reports
tha t
#4 3 2 6 . 1 7
it
has
if
u s ed ,
is
of
not
the
have
changed
new b u i ld i ng s
for
infill
wor l d - wide
surpri sing .
the nature and
practices
the
b u t only
Considering
this
shi f t in
not
It
treated a s
is
n e c e s s a ry .
for ear thquake
its
most
In
wall s
trend
Kashm i r ,
are
of
be tween
towards
however ,
the cost of construction .
In
the buil ding which i s done in reinfor ced concrete i s neither
is
control .
re tempered
A.
cons truc tion
Now,
Vall ey .
engi neered nor carefully construc ted .
the Third Wor l d ,
most
the
Greece ,
force provided b y t h e weight
b u i lding
i t does represent a major
addi tion ,
for
the houses -
over
in
C on s t ruc tion
reinforced
qua l i ty
found
for the current Indian S t andard Building Code
the course o f
drama t i c a l l y
well
is
these areas where ear then o r brick buildings continue t o b e bui l t i t i s
encouraged
Over
can t i l evered
Kashmi r ,
timber ,
to
are
The
s truc t ur e .
t h e precomp ressive
In
Thi s construction
same
a l so
the upper p a r t o f
f requen tly made only of
plain
which
c o n s t r u c t io n
the lack of
building
the
l a teral
mixed
In
a
by
hand ,
addi tion ,
forc e s .
streng t h .
Concrete i n
Kashmi r , �s
sop h i s t ic a ted material
I n s tead ,
The
dumped
much
it
timber
of
must
by
the
the
rely on
careful
baske t - fu l l ,
con s t ru c t ion
runner b e ams
frames have been abandoned as unwanted vestiges of
i n most of
requiring
the
and
is
and
not
i n f i l l masonry
Dhaj j i - Dewari
the p r e - modern way of
life.
Adobe 90
This author did come across one proj e c t involving the recon s truction of a house
in
S r i n agar
particular
infill
brick
thi s
where
mor t ar
cement
and
wa s
laid
wi th
his
was
the
b r i ck
sys t em
was
wa s
f ee t .
Next
to
the
to
whi l e
tha t
with
this
inquiry
the same proj ec t ,
infill ,
still
observed
from mud mixed
response
for mortar on
for
it
made
bare
In
sand .
being u s ed
wa s u s ed
Dhajj i - Dewari
the
c o n s t ruc tion proj e c t
s traw .
pile
as
could
not
the
It
A
cement
Dhajji
Dewa r i
materi a l s ,
using
house
the
being
tradi tional
incl uding mud mortar.
the
exterior
reco n s t ru c t ed
wa l l s
wh i l e
the
All
w e r e
fami l y
con tinued to live in the house.
organic
cement
mortar
not
balance
thi s
in
conti nued
the
changed,
case
all
of
to
rule
i n troduction of
not
the
live
use of
was
the
than
the
the
locally
available
the
i n ternal
were
as
core
being
his
ra zor
honored
tradition .
on
in
Kashmi r ,
technology .
to
the
his
When
son ,
in
The
s imp ly
t imeless
quality
of
the
or
deteriorat ion
fact
exp l � i n s why the
scene
tha t
travel
they
and
because
of
the
have
diaries
it
its
materia l s .
done .
un t i l
tha t
of
rebu i l t
over
f a l l i ng down
recent
the
was
the
story
p recious
H i s point
erase
the
century
time
f ab r i c had
embodiment
of
a
undoubtedlY a
is
f ragmen t s
house s ,
the
the same as
the physical
whenever
This
gener a t ions .
from the nineteenth
rickety
it
not
S r i nagar
in
many
was
the
houses are
rep r e s e n t
in
the
Such
This barber went on
did
whether
they
house
but
t h e a g e of
the handle . "
use
Kashmiri
buildings
it
to
change .
exi s ti n g
asked
saying
replaced
" the
been
required
to be one o f
I
regardl ess
time ,
changed
and
course o f
the a r t i f ac t ,
product
Srinagar
in
They are ancien t ,
r e p l a c ed
an
the work wa s being
exception
the b l a d e ,
made
s i gn i f icance of
tha t razor . "
been
replaced
a
wi thou t
earthquake engineer Anand Arya responded by telling
changes
for
because
f r ame
natural
of
"My f a ther
these
used
recon s t ruc ted ,
to
that
being
timber
" i t had been i n the family for three generation s . "
say,
the mud
used
surround s .
system necessarily must
wa l l s
house
of
was
because
was
tha t
of
were
Dhajj i - Dwari system is an almost
the
the whole
exterior
in
rather
barber who p a s s ed
up
the cement contributed
Mud
movemen t
systems ,
only
the
expens iv e .
Western - s tyle b u i l d i n g
Kashmiri hou s e s .
a
more
w i th s tood
is
made
b e i ng
timber
that the higher cost of
even
the economical
it
while
p robably
of
is
have
p a r t i cu l a r
conserved
family
wood
was
the
mixing
mater i a l s
the mason pointed out
the
wa s
the u s e of cemen t for the i n f i l l bricks would
Like many traditional
Once one part of
In
that
is possible
but
would
cracking .
recon s tr u c ted
of
dec i s ion ,
both
this
which
fully exp l ai n in Eng l i s h why i t was done this way,
was clear that he unders tood
be a m i s t ake .
in
another
why
In
used .
A man
was
to
brick wall behind the s tructure which did not have the
While the mason
being
the mortar
needs
probably
describe
a
which look
typ ical
every b i t
the same a s their late twentieth Century counterpart s .
The
-Moder n i z a tion -
On every leve l ,
and
1
lI..IIi
...·•.•• •___ ••
regional
d i s a s te r .
one
of
it
b e au ty
most
"modern i z e "
The
least
that
is
cities
that
rep l a c emen t
of
who
have
these
had
in
a
clash
be tween
old
and new in
like the on e on the righ t ,
coheren ce,
the
BUildings,
threa ten the
scale and chara c t er of
the
his toric cen ter of Srinagar .
and
the
new
con s t r u c t ion
The
region ' s
important
similar
s t ru c tures
way .
is
in
An
emb l em a t i c
of
houses
the
many
in
wi th
of
is
and
form
a
a
are
d e s i re
a
i n order
narrow
along
one
s tream of buses ,
not
replace
th e
budget cu t ,
used
to
canal
was
Th e
del e t ed
in
to
a
so now the sewerage wh ich
flow ou t
of
the
city
through
the canal now backs up into Dal Lake.
It
be
is
one
a
also
hundred
and
is
current
human
this
same
ef forts
to
of
a
i n to
new
the
makes
and
S r inagar
and
concrete
the hands of
hands
of
the
spec i a l i s t s
appearance
tradi tional
comp a t i b l e
Total
rein forced
its
of
aesthetic
of
b u i I d i ng s .
is taken out of
thus
and
tremendous
rebuilding
on
the
vernacu l a r
i n troduc tion
to
be
The
modern ,
the
carry
first
of
some
lanes
side
trucks ,
con s t ruc ted ,
had
had
shi f t
conc r e te
when
be
gradu a l ,
and
truck
widened
tra f fi c .
his
most
Planner ,
i n to
demo l i shed
In
maj or
and
the
M.L.
Chaku
smal l
shops
together
wi th
bunke r s ,
and
f a c i ng
I t w a s clear
the
d i rec tly
wi th
in
shop s .
f ew o f
The
main
these new shops
that
the
before
that h i s
the
new
lanes ,
s tr e e t
appear
in
19 8 9 ,
ways .
The
a
continuous
with horns b l a s ting .
to
Rarely were
they
has
the
the
support
had
built
c i ty
the
" li fe "
t h e m u l e c ar t s ,
r e s i d en c e s
shops
the
they
run over
conception of
and
Now
s treet .
l i f e of t h e walking p a c e ,
on to
cu l ture
eigh t years
traf f i c
replaced
people have always walked
dead . "
the
recen t v i s i t
exp l a i n ed
Town
" the center was
is
is
i s being rapidly
The
Chief
towards
house
mod e rn i z a t io n
Srinagar i tself
and
and motor rickshaws ,
as
the
a
to moderni z e the c i ty by widening the
and
1981
been
been
would
Howeve r ,
in
of
have
I f i t were only people wishing t o renew
auto
vi s i t
fault
to
espec i a l l y
change
scheme designed
to
the
desire
and residents f r equently get
the
s upposed
the
the
the
put
en ti rely
w a s incompatible w i t h t h e traditional
was
For
must comp e t e with the motor tra f f i c ,
roads
wh ich
to
natural
" export . "
comb i na t i o n
mod e s t
new mater i a l ,
author ' s
the
sidewalks
line
threa tens
world .
in
buildings
it
con s t r u c t ion .
town planning
th i s
buildings
sewerage
C i ty
frag i l e place
vernacul ar
The work
life would remain intac t .
s treet s
b e tween
penetrate the heart of Srinaga r .
the
i s sue i s
accompany
alien
with
Kashmir
conc r e t e
eroded by a
the
this
S r i naga r ' s
primary
p r e - modern
done
needed
techniques
p robl ems
narrow
during
in
of
destruction
that con t i n u i ty .
rei n f orced
and way of
con s tru c t ed
Old
modern materials and technology .
their
1970 ' s wh ich replaced the p i c t u resque
'
1 4 th cen t u ry Mar Can a l which u s ed to
the
moderni ty
because
p l aces
actually confu sed with Westerniza tion .
Th e n e w road
for
character
w i th
tradi tionally
What
l an d s c ap e .
Th e
beau t i ful
beauty
been
reach
inevitably would
technology des troys
his toric part o f Srinagar .
of
it.
tha t
t r a i n ed
D e s t r u c t ion
the greate r ,
t h r e a tened
loss
peop l e
and
the
has
all
recogni z ed b u t most
c u l tu ral
other
Kashmi r ' s
is
unique
been
tha t
The
f rom the scale of the individual dwelling to the scale of urban
tragedy
has
environment
S ri n ag a r :
p lanning ,
The
the
years ,
of
l i n ed
kind o f
m i xed
up
like
activities
a n d industries a s t h e o l d e r ones .
The
local
desire
for
mod e r n i z a tion
recommend a
main tenance o f
p i c t uresque
is
unsupportab l e .
broadened understanding of
and qua l i ty of
these hou s e s ,
life of
al though
p r e s en t s
the old houses
Reasons
for
how the buildings
real
soc i a l
p reservation mus t
d i l emma .
be
i n execution ,
they
founded
can continue to support
the people i n the future .
traditional
a
and n a rrow s t ree t s because
To
are
in
a
the health
Ironically the technology of
is
s ti l l
" modern"
i n concep t .
Above:
mbe A
Above right: A
house
ti
in
ruins
shows
97
the
rs imbedded at each floor level in
the Taq Sys tem masonry wal l .
undermined
by
Taq
the
sys t em
river
house
shows
the
remarkable flexibi l i ty a n d s trength o f
th i s
t i mber/masonry
system
(and
the
fearlessness of the workers . )
Modernity should not only con s t ructed on a Western model , and in thi s case
bl ind pursu i t of the Western model portends d i s a s ter .
I t i s a d i s a s ter not
only because
of
the maj or
environment would
c au s e ,
cul tural
but
loss
a l so
comfort and quality o f l i fe o f
that
becaus e ,
the
destruc tion
except
for
the
of
the
mos t
hi storic
wea l t hy ,
the
the people will mo s t likely be diminished by the
changes .
For
examp le ,
f a i l i ng
to
control
in
dangerous
in
abandoning
the
the
ear thquakes
concrete ,
Armen i a ,
a
sof t
s t rong
the cons truction ,
in
reinforced
seen
by
provide
the
than
res t r a i n ts
r e s train t s
of
the
good
tradi tional
neces sarily
are
timber
life
timber
s a f e ty
and
masonry
f a r more
one s .
can be promi s ed ,
by
whi l e
qu a l i ty
potentially
and
Perhap s
d e l ivered .
beam s ,
engineering
new concrete houses
the
greater degree of
not
of
Wi th
bu t ,
forge t t i ng
as
the
unwri t ten knowledge o f p a s t gene r a t i on s ,
i n p r e f erence
for
the
seeming
certainty of an imported indu s tr i a l i z ed al ternative, a greater risk may resul t .
KEmb
men
roidery crafts
in
of a Taq Sys tem house.
a shmiri
tabl es .
house h a s no
the l i ving room
The tradit ional
Another
chairs
concrete
and
few
Th e Kashmiris are accus tomed
to s i t ting on the floor.
shor tcoming
hous es .
exi s t s
These
in
the
houses
ove r a l l
u s u a l ly
heating i s prac tically nonex i s tant
thermal
have
many
in Kashmi r ,
and most
a b l e t o a f ford t h e f u e l i t would require anyway .
that
t h e concrete h a s
timb e r ,
and
b r i ck
Some
s tove s .
a
much
making
of
the
con s t ruc ted with
the
g a s ses
hot
that
to
heat
Even
the
the
sanitary
local
toi l e t s ,
toi l e t s
public
the
only
f loor .
ar rangements
The
its
to
of
the
new
government
serve
the
Kashm i r i s would not b e
condu ctivity
homes
to
even
than
heat
had
above a wood
When
by
central
A n additional d i s advantage i s
impos s ible
s l ab s
but
does
w it h
a
the mud ,
p r i m i t i ve
room ,
c a l l ed
f i re box which
i n terviewed
in
1989 ,
a
a l lowed
many
people
hamam .
the
spending
footpath !
floor
p r ovided
windows ,
the newer houses were much colder even than those mud
cond i ti on s .
but
S rinaga r ,
thermal
houses
tradi tional
its
the
in winter
houses which lacked
new
b e t ter
" hamam " ,
commented
greater
the
com f o r t
large
new houses
hou s e s
has
yet
to
on
n ew
roads
money
transport
In t h e pas t ,
its
in
usually
install
the
have
a
modern
i n s tead .
contents
to a
old
c i ty
fail
b a throoms
As
sewerage
a
d i tch
fit
flush
sy s t em
resu l t ,
in
to
with
the
in
flush
t h e midd l e o f
the
t h e " night soi l " h a d been gathered by workers on
a daily basis and taken to the f ield s , but a s of 1 9 8 9 , there were no provi sions
'
for the removal o f ei ther l iquid or solid w a s te ,
other than a l l owing it to
migrate slowly to the river in the open gutters .
In
other
word s ,
The home
to
be
a c c u mu l a ted ,
devas t a ting ,
which
moderni z a tion
appliances
b e fore
f rom
the
come
to
trappings
Kashmir
of
a
i n f r a s tructure
f rom
consumer
is
in
the
wrong
society
p l ac e .
end
are
The
f ir s t .
beginning
resul ts
are
and these changes have substantially eroded the ecological balance
tradi t i onally
peop le
wel l ,
has
and v i s i b l e
some
of
ex i s ted
the
in
the
older
val le y .
In
ne ighborhoods
addi tion ,
has
up s e t
the
the
removal
human
of
the
ecology
as
because Muslims and the Hindus have moved to separate areas in the new
colonies
which
the
commun i t ie s .
two
observed ,
in
tends
the
to aggravate
As
older
one
the
member
neighborhoods
sense of
of
the
the
d i f f erence and di s tance between
Leg i s l ative
two
groups
Counc i l ,
had
S adiq
trad i tionally
Ali .
l i ved
close together in harmony .
What
is
improve
ironic
the
is
that
qua l i ty
of
all
of
life
this
of
damage t h a t h a s a lready occurred .
Fi r s t
World
indu s t r i al i z ed
p l anning
the
people
e f fo r t begins
and
to
T h e problem i s
solutions
just
will
with
rep a i r
un l e s s
the
local
commun i ty
has
the
money
the
desire
to
envi ronmen t a l
that in a n a r e a like Kashmi r ,
not
wor k .
facil i ties such a s water treatment p l a n t s c a n be constructed ,
work
the
and
Wi th
foreign
aid,
but they will not
technoloqi c a l
know- how
to
Adobe 90
operate
in
[ 18 ]
them .
economy of
balance
w i th
tradi tion s .
and
mud
Solutions must be
the region .
nature,
hou s e s
intrinsic
but
not
into
the
first
wea l t h
in
to
as
lot
must
to
redi scover
return
the
the
to
e s s en t i a l
in
the exi s ting
the
the
value
about
of
advantages o f
past
s tep
form of
society and
to teach the world
t o redi scover
an
the people
have a
it
is
order
f u tu r e
in sympathy with
could
T h e p l ace t o begin
technology
closeness ,
Kashmir
in
but
the
to
b r i ng
this
to
return
comfor t ,
family
and social compatibi l i t y .
T h e p o s s ib i l i ty
that
this
approach might b e v i ab l e was made poignantly
in a tradi tional mud and b ri ck house ,
c lear
when the head o f one family l i ving
Bha t ,
reported
in
" to build a new
his
an
i n terview
he
in terested
rea l i z ed
tha t ,
in
hou s e "
years
he b e l i eved
l i ke that of
his
when h e
from explorat ion ,
that
neighbors ,
He said
Fayaz
he would have
to replace
that when h e was
he met an English coupl e and was struck by how they
the
old
things .
re turned
his grandf a ther ' s house . " As T .
cease
for
constructed by his grandfathe r .
traveling in central India ,
always
that
[modern concrete]
house originally
were
own
t h e timber
e f fo r t
a f fordab i l i ty ,
life
i ts
and
He
said
Kashmi r ,
that
he
it wa s
" did
only
then
that
not have to
tear
down
" We shall not
E l io t said in L i t t l e Gidding :
S.
the
to
end of
all
our
exploration
will
be
to
a r r ive
where we s tar ted and know the place for the f i r s t time . "
These o l d
design
-
s tructures
the
possess
v i s ib l e
a l ready belong to
the peop l e .
family
in
fran t
of
their
They a r e
archi tec t
Most
of
their hous e s ,
can p u t
alL
i n to
these
a
new
s t ruc tures
their busine s s e s ,
their
They carry the unspoken h i s tory of generation s .
They are not j u s t good design ;
they a r e an
inextricable p a r t o f a
and thus diminish
a source of Kashmi r ' s p r id e .
It
is
way o f l i fe
Their destruction w i l l do no less
the character of Kashmir .
destroy this relationship ,
Dhaj j i Dewari home .
no
time.
of
parents and ances tor ' s houses .
which defines
A Kashmiri
something which
mani f e s ta tion
the cultural heri tage which
than
can be
a loss which no amount of money or material
goods can recoup , and it is not the tourists who w i l l s u f f er most when the loss
takes p l a c e .
It w i l l b e the Kashm i r i s themselves .
IV.
An
S . Naipau l ,
inspired conflicAryts , most of the Kashmiri Hindus have been
Area of Darknes s ,
2With the recent f undamen t a l i s t ·
London ,
1964 , p 1 2 3 .
forced to leave Kashmir .
3 Seismicity of 8 - 9 on the Modif ied Mercalli scale
4 This
system,
sometimes
(
a,
incorrectly ident i f ied a s
interview)
-Dhaj j i - Dewari , -
name in Kashmiri to identify the construc tion method .
exper ts to describe i t is
bays ,
ie:
the bays
a 5 taq house is
-Taq-
- Taq . -
actually has
5 bays wide .
no spec i f ic
The closes t name iden t if ied by local
refers to the modular layout o f
The piers are almost a lways
1 1 /2
the piers and window
-2
feet
square ,
and
are approxima tely 3 1 / 2 f e e t in width .
This traditional system with the piers and
horizontal
en runner beams was in co mmo
n usage before the Dhaj j i - Dewari came into u s e .
The
bricks
wood
common l y u s ed
· Mahara j i Bricks . -
were
sma l l
The reason
size ,
rough
surfaced,
for the name is unknown .
the Mogul Period buildings as early as the
the 18th and 19th centuries .
5
Dhajj i - Dewari comes f rom Persion and
16th Cen tury ,
and
hard
Bricks of
f ired .
l i terally means
late n i n e t eenth century when bricks of
larger s i z e brick
( 2 1 / 2 ·x41/2 "x9 " )
common ,
-patchquilt wall . "
a more s t andard
especially in the villages .
s i z e became available .
The brick- nogged type of construction is co
This
inc ludinq some of
mmo
n throughou t
the h a l f t imber cons truc t ion in
Examples originat ing f rom these traditions can be found
Since mo s t of
in the United States .
these areas were f a r from earthquake country,
it is
not poss ible t o ascribe its continued use i n Kashmir fully t o the incidence of earthquakes .
It
response
to
is , however ,
when interviewed in 1 989.
large
This method o f
the Taq system during the
set into the timber frame enabled the construction of one
England and the Fa chwerk in Germany.
Fayaz Bha t ,
as
Dh4jji ·De�4ri buildings construc ted with sun-dried mud bricks were also
many parts of Europe f rom the middle aqes ,
also
known
but the houses which survive date f rom
construction appears t o have emerged into cornmon usage a longside of
wyth - thick brick wa l l .
They are
this type can be found in
clear that the a l mo s t universal use of either timber restraint system is a loo ical
to
both
the
incidence
of
earthquake s ,
and
the
exis tence
d i f feren tial settlemen t .
6
A s f o l k lore h a s i t , th e hard · f i red brick technoloqy was
Maharaj a .
The date for this i s uncerta in .
of the
&
Ary
7 Gosain ,
N.
and A . S .
Bul letin
8Arthur Neve ,
9
1 9 67 .
Thirty Years in Kashmir. London ,
Arya ,
mmoo
The Ju
logy.
p.
29
sub j ec t
#
February
3 , September ,
20,
1 9 67 . " ,
1967 .
1 9 1 3 , p38
and Kashmir Territories ,
"Anantnag , "
Vo l 4 ,
s o i l ",
imported t o t h e val ley b y the
" A Report on Anantnag Ear thquake of
Indian Society of Earthquake Techno
Frederick Drew,
l 0Gosain
Arya ,
of
Edward S tanford , London ,
In
( i talics added) .
this
1 87 5 , p184 .
case the authors are referring
the Taq sYBtem.
( The English spelling of Dhajji ·Dewari " varies . )
l 1A . S .
a , interview, Augus t , 1 9 8 8 .
1 2 . Gurpinar , e t a I , - S i t ing and Structural Aspects of Adobe Buildings
to
in Seismic Areas , ·
International Workshop on Earthen Building s , Un iv . of New Mexico , 1 9 8 1 , p 1 4 5 .
1 3Alkut Aytun , - Earthen Buildings in Seismic Areas o f Turkey , " International Workshop on
Earthen Buildinas , Univ . of New Mexico,
1421/Z"X 41/2"x 9"
Amb
1
5
raseys ,
N.N. ,
26 , 1963 .
1 6 For
example see :
1965.
An
1 98 1 . p 3 52 .
opj
Earthquake Enqineering Vie wp
oint of the S k
Panayo t i s
Caryd i s ,
" Th e Extent o f
Greece , · International Wo rkshop on Earthen Building s ,
buildings construc ted
-have withstood the various
the
Univ.
Problem o f
e Ear thquake ,
Earthen
of New Mexico,
earthquakes quite well . - )
1 98 1 ,
Buildings
p
12 0 .
used
the comparison here is with
in
Ind ia .
Neither
this
other forma of masonry construction which are s t i l l co
nor
the Dhaj j i · Owari
are
as
re s i s t ive
to
s e i smic
properly constructed steel and reinforced concrete buildinqs .
l8 For
example , when the new touri s t and convention hote l , the Centaur Hotel ,
Ame rican
and
an
Indian
sewerage treatment plant .
years .
architec t ,
was
It i s reported
app roved ,
that
it
was
promised
this plant has broken ,
The hotel is right on the edge of Dal Lake ,
to
in
( The
Also Arya reports
that India encourages the use of this system.
1 7 Arya , interview, Augu s t , 1 9 8 8 .
(Arya participated in the preparation of this code . )
that
July
have
a
Note
mmo
nly
forces
as
des igned by an
soph i s t ica ted
and has not operated for
into which its sewerage now f lows .
99
In the southern part s of Mor o o o o
earth, u se d i n t h e f o r m of' " p i s e "
andsun-dried briok � h a s b e en f o r
many oenturi e s t h e main building
mat erial and has produoed under
the guidanoe of traditi onal mas
t er-masons innumerable settle
ment s and imp r e s sive fortr e s se s
( )
k asbas
( )
MUD CASTLES
ABSTRACT
•
AASBAS
J ean-Louis Miohon,
30 ,
Dr.
1292
arohit eot ,
- "WILL
?
( ERKA
U.S.
THEY 3JRVIVE
in I slamio studi e s
P ari s ,
UN DP/ Une s o o Consultant for proj eot C
ohemin d e s Cornillons -
Mor o o o o
Chamb e sy - Swit zerland
The ma i n j u st ifioation f o r p r e s enting a paper o n t h e above
ado b e oonstruotions found in thi s Southwest
sub j eot
stems
region of the
-
the
so-oal l e d "pueblo area" where the p r e s ent Conferenoe is t aking p l a o e .
My
strong feeling i s that aotive links and fruitful exohange s of informat ion
and experienoe may b e e st ab l i shed between all those who ,
the Atl ant io Ooean,
arohiteotural heritage has under
gone a marked deterioration dur
for i t s t eohnio al ,
the last deoad e s .
)
Sorbonne ,
S,
f r o m the affinity exist ing betw e en South Moro o o an earth buildings and the
Due to h i st or i o o ir oumst ano e s
and s o o i o - e o onomio ohange s , thi s
ing
O�' SOU TH MOROCC O
are int er e st e d
of earthen aroh i t e otur e ,
on both
for it s hi storioal and oultural value
e oonomioal ,
sides of
in the o onservation and perpetuati on
as well as
sooial and eool ogi o al potent i ali t i e s .
!��_��_£�_��!�_�£�£��£_�_!lE��_��_��!��!��_:_!��_£��g��
e
I n an ef1 0rt t o save a t l east a
In Ara b i o ,
part of thi s patr imony,
the
Mor o o o an government has
set up ,
"fortre s s " and general l y
like in many part s of North Afr i o a and through
out North Moro o o o
app l i e s t o purely milit ary work s , either guarding
tha word "gasa a" ,
)
with help from UNDP and Une s o o ,
a " C enter f o r the R e st oration
t ial invader s .
and reuse,
broader meaning,
bas"
of the Southern Kas
( ) (
)
CERKAS
whioh is based in
usually
transliterated
as "kasba� means
stratagio r out e s and reb e l l i ou s areas or protect ing c it i e s
In South Mor o c c o ,
however,
against
p ot en
t h e t erm "kasba" has t ak e n a
b e ing u se d t o d e signat e the half-defensive and half
r e s i dent ial mansions built by the feudal ohieftai n s ,
the " l or d s of the
a r e st or e d s e o t i on of the �i sto
ri
tCasba of Taourirt
Ouarza
Atlas" and their l i eut enant s who s e p ower was exer o i s e d over vast terri
zate .
app l i e d t o a variety of singJe family, patriar ohal dwe l l ings b e l onging to
l ocal l andlords and
emb o d ying some element s of military archit e cture, in
part ioular t o the very typioal oastellat ed hou s e , with i t s four t o\'ler s
0
The first proj eot t o be
ment e d by C E
imp l e e
RKA
S w i l l b e the
r ehabil itation of tCsar Ait Ben
Haddou,
a Berber fortified
village o f great arohite otural
value and int erest to t our i st s
whioh has already been insoribed
on the "Li st
of �orld Heritage " .
t or i e s in the Atl a s i o and sub-Atl a s i c regions.
at the oorners and oentral pat i o ,
name meaning " small citadel " .
l ocal l y cal l e d the t ighr emt ,
a Berber
T o the same family b e l ong the agadir s ,
i . e .,
the c o l l e ct ive granar i e s where the vil lage dwell er s u s ed t o k e ep their
provisions
(
o f grain,
barley,
onions, e t c .
)
and where they could seek a
r efuge behind high wal l s in case of an attack by enemi e s .
village built upon
form a rampart
a
r o ck y eminenc e ,
Final l y ,
a who l e
with it s hou s e s t ight l y packed t o
dominat ing a plain or valle y , may al so b e cal l e d "kasba" b y
way of simplifioat i on ,
KEYWORDS
The t erm even came t o be
whi l e t h e r e a l word t o b e u se d t o de signate a
p lur. k s our .
fort ified village shoul d be "k sar"
Con servat ion - Mor o o o o - Kasba -
( )
K s ar - Rammed earth - P i se Re-use - Rehab i l it at i on
/v1E:PI,E R.R'"S ..NAgA '"
f�zg!�_l.
fSQU�Qeill//I!.
Mor o o o o - Range of �d
arohiteoture
rammed earth buildings
mount ains
A.
1973;
:
� i j st
et al . , Living
the e dge of the S�ar a , The
Hagu e ,
p.5.
on
"
' --' - ....- ." /
'\ "
Adobe 90
roo
tnb, U.bya)
The ka sbs,s built with ramme d earth or p i se (Arab i c :
mainly t o b e found in what the ]'rench h i st or i an Henri Terras s e.
are
�he first t o devote a wel l - do cument e d and b e autifuliy i l l u st r at e d mor.ograph
t o this
architecture)
has c a l l e d the " ext erior Mor o c c o " .
This
area l o ok s beyond the .At l a s range ea stw/i,rd and s outhward towards the
Sahara, and we stward to the .Atlant i c
Mor o c c o " ,
north of the .At l a s ,
Medit erranean c o ast s ) ( se e fi g .
( in contrast with the "int erior
which i s c l o se d in by the .At l ant ic and
1)
str et ching along the val l ey s of' the
•
river s which spring from the At l a s :
t h e kasbas
the Zi z ,
c l imb up to vel'y high altitudes
to te
where rain and snow are abundant and
would appear
Ghe r i s ,
Dr�a,
TodghEt ,
Dede s ,
and even reach plateaus
stone - st ill u s e d in many part s
a more appropriate material .
lo r om h i st o r ical eviden c e ,
it
thu s appears that the art of buil ding with earth had b e en f i r st prac t i c e d
b y o a s e s dwe l l e r s and ha d spread northward l i t t l e b y l it t l e , notably
under the influence of the several dynast i e s orieinat ing from the Sahar a .
The very origin , of t h e sQ>uthern k a s b a s neverthe l e s s remains a fascinat ing
and largely unelucidat e d problem.
(1)
Terra s se H . ,
K a s b a s ber
ber e s d e l ' At l a s et
Paris
(2)
1938 ;
des o a s i s
p . 70 e t aeq.
J ac que s-Meunie D . ,
Architeo.
tu r e s at habitat s du Dade s ,
P ar i s ,
(3)
1962 ;
�,
p.
oJ . ,
Mazel,
Pari s
102 .
du
Eni�mes
p . 132-133 .
1971 j
(:bJ( ,
Henri
Terr a s s e himself,
in tb e above-
d o e s not exclude the p o s sibility of
an Egypt i an fil iat ion
s lanting wal l s , pyramidal tower s ) ar..d insi s t s on
of the t i ghr emt , k sar
the Roman influence ( impluvium house as prototyp e
d t o the
with it s r e gular plane derived from the c astrum and submi t t e
.J ac que s-Meunie , who is an authority on South
law of the cardo ) . Mr s . Dj
mentioned monograph
•
•
Moroc can h i st ory, put s forward an hypothe s i s according to which k R sbas
and k sour of' Mor o c c an oase s mi eht b e l at e de sc endant s of a very o l d art
favours the theory of
from Persia and Me sop o t amia (� ) . J e an Mazel
an
imp ortat i on from Y emen and Hadramawt via the J ew s and Hymiari t e s sev
centur i e s b efore the
Only
advent
of I slam in the region
(2) .
E!'8l
syst emat i c r e search b a s e d on c omparative data drawn f'rom archaeol ogy,
ethnography ,
t i ons)
l ingui sti c s
( t erms and songs u s e d b y crlll'tsmen,
and hist ory will be able to
oral t r adi
she d l i ght on the r e sp e c t ive contri
butions brought from the various sour c e s .
It might b e ene of the t a sk s
Relse of Southern
of the newly-creat e d " Center f o r t h e Re st oration and
Msbas" ( CE
RKA
Sj
see b e l ow)
to pr omot e and organi z e exchange of information
b etween sp eciali st s of archit ecture s in vari ou s part s of the I slamic worl d
in order t o solve thi s probl em.
Functional role
of
the kasbas
Apart from their defensive role
has l o st it s signification
age inst p ot ent ial aggr e s so r s -a role which
since the Prench "pac ifi ed" the r e gion some
sixty years ago and the more s o sin c e Moro c c o regained it s indep endance
in
1956-
the ka sbas
and k sour of South Mcroc c o are d e signed to prot e ct
their o c cupant s against
several c l imat i c constraint s ,
- The extreme va,riations in t emr erature,
namely :
both da i l y and sea sonal ,
which the thick mud wal l s offer a very efl i c i ent insulation . !'he
pre senc e of a pat i o ,
against
the p o s it i oning of small op enings in the external
wal l s and the very he ight of the hou s e s create an effect of draught with
natural c ondit i oning act ion.
- Th e sand storms which are buffer e d : against the wal l s and
of the k s ar or against the blind fa� ades o f the hou s e s .
angled
alleys
- T h e b l azing l i ght of t h e sun which i s subdu e d b y t h e shade of t h e p at i o s
and narrow alleys and b y t h e u s e O f w o o d latt i c e s ( machrab iya j fig. 2)
•
.eleing situat ed in are a s of e s s en t ially agraril'..Il e c onomy , inhab it e d by
p opUlat ions of various ethnic and t r ibal origin s , who however are a l l
of Mu sl i m r e l igion,
southern architectures have
t o r e spond t o a number
of c o l l ect ive and individual n e e d s . They are meant ,
- T o grour p e o p l e acc ording to their ethni c ,
( p easant s ,
craftsmen,
trade smen ,
int er a.lia :
t r ib a l or profe ss ional
r e l igious t e acher s and stUdent s ) ,
in
�,
affniti£s
which
i s always transl at e d , in space , int o very compact structur e s .
- T o mark a c l e ar delineation betwe en "public" spac e s ,
t h e k sa.r a s well
a s in the family hOll fl e ,
and private quart e r s.
- T o guara..Y!t e e f'or each f'amil y ,
domain of t h e worre n
the privacy of it s
•
the prot e c t e d
- T o al low for a r e a s onable quant ity of f o o d and fodder to
the house at all t ime s ,
she ep ,
dat e s and cereal s being the
goat s and o c c a s i onal ly a cow may b e
house or on the ground f l o or
- F inally,
(�1B�! _E. A
� erber maohrabi y a
� asba of T oundout e , st t h e
foot o f High Atlas range j
phot ogr .
.I:laa.mri,
Mini stry
1 97 5 )
of
Culturel
t o fac il itate
even the greater kasba s ,
for }'riday prayer .
ha s
kept within
sh el t ered in a p en out s ide the
surrounding the pat io.
r e ligious prac t i c e .
its
be
stfl.p l e f o o d s while
Thu s ,
own mosque where
e a.ch v i l l age ,
and
the c om:llunity gathers
nriefly out lined , such are some af the main fact o r s which have contribut e d
t o shap e the various t yp e s of bui l d ings and settl ement s c ommonl y group e d
under the d enominat ion " Southern kasbas" ,
specimens are
and of which a few repr e s entativE
shown on the following p i ctur e s .
E��r�_2.
( ) 2,0
(
)
Building a kasba.
The master mason and
his assistant are pounding earth,
wooden
l ightly moistened J in
shuttering lawh about
m
long and 0, 9 m high. Average
thickne ss of the wall is 50 cm.
Six such lawhs are mounted in a
daytime . -Ksar Tirsal, Dj ebel Rat , High
Central Atlas ; photogr . by
author, sept . 1 97 6
---'-...
� 8��_1. ( )
(() ( )
(
) g!
A chieftain ' s kasba :
Tifoultoute n ear Ouarzazat e .
It comprises an old t ighremt
on right and a more recent
one l eft , with a large en
trance c ourtyard front and
numerous dependanc ies.
s ketch by author, aft er an air
photograph Ministry of Housin
Papini, mid-1960ies
�!B� �_2.
( )
Kasba Ait Souss,
Skoura
The oasis of Skoura, east of
Ouarzazate, c ontains a number
of beautifully decorated kasbas
the wal ls and t ower s of which
are made alive with crude briok
reliefs and aroades .
Photogr . Ministry o f Culturel
Baamri , 1975
101
Adobe 90
102
! �!.!_�_�_I·
i Interior
i supported
�oating N.E.
Two tighremt s ( one-family dwellings) on the Atlas foothills.
Right : lmin Ouarguifrane ( after photograph
Verit e , 1976)
Left : Ait Ais sa,
Taghrar, M' goun (photogr. by author, may 1977)
DOU
J.
F gure 8 .
.� a kasba. showing
the ooastruotion of the patio and gall e
es ,
by mud-brick pillars ;
palm-trunk s and reed-stems support the
layers o� pounded earth and waterproof
of lime and ailt ef the terrae
••
(Igherm .lmallal,
of' Ouarzazat e ;
photogr . Mini stry of Culture/Baamri,
1 975 )
� �� _�.
main
The village of Ait Ham�ou ou Sa ' 1d, neRr Agdz, co�prises all the
element s of the " Southern kasba s" architecture, i . e . : the village -k sar
it self ( left ) surrounded by wRll s ; the towered dwelling -tighremt- of
notable ( c enter) ; and the stately fortre s s
dominating oued
Draa and the palm groves (right ) . (Phot ogr . by author , may 1977) .
a
-�-
103
Problems of conservation
From the above descriptions and picture s , it may be real i z e d that a number
of danger s threaten the very existence of many of the se buildings and set
tlement s .
The main cause of decay o f earth buil dings , apart from the o c currence of
natural disasters like earthquakes and fl oods, is always t o , b e ascribed to
human fact ors, i . e . , t o neglect in maintainance on the part of the oc cupant s
o r , wor se , t o the partial or c omplet e abandonment of a ksar or kasba. In
the case of larger kasbas , for instanoe , those whioh had ono. belonged t o
hist orical and politioal ciroumstances acc ompanying the
the 'i.ords
in 1956) have br ought with, them the
r eturn of Morooco to Independance
"fall" of these l o c al ohieftains whQ , having l o st their wealth and power ,
of the Atlas",
(
moved out of their field re sideno e s . Thus many' an impo sing kasba has
looal " o annibali sm" and, b ereft of all it s door s ,
b e o ome
a prey for
windows and raft er s , has quickly b een dilapidat ed t o a p o int of no return.
El sewhere , particularly in rural communit i e s , e conomio and soc ial ohanges
have attraoted at l east a part of the p opulat ion t o the oitie s , or have
prompt e d the young generat ion to separate from the patriaroh,al family unit ,
creating new housing t yp e s
mostly oopied from urban mo del s and using indu s
t r ialized material s . The c onsequenoe has b e en either the juxtap o sition of
two heterogenous st y l e s of buil ding o r , even wor s e , the di sruption of the
previous archite ctural unity of a ksar and shocking intrusion of cement
b l o cks andaggr e s sive forms, ooatings and materials
c orrugat e d or plated
iron doors replacing the oarved and often delioately p aint e d wooden do or s ,
e t o . . More over, in a cont ext o f impoverished rural ec onomy, even a land
l ord oannot afford to maintain hi s kasba or t ighremt properly, as he used
(
)
to do it in the past : he must be content t o periodically renew the coat ing
of it s terraoes but will omit the repair
of the eav e s prot ecting the top
of the wal l s , so that water will penetrate into the p i se , weaken it s
strength and eventually oause ent ire seotions of the higher floor s and
t owers to collap s e .
•
of .f
The oauses
disuse and deoay of loam oonstruotions being manifold,
variety of remedi e s have to b e a��lied. A first att empt to enc ourage
�
a
the inhabitant s
the k sour to r enovate and mod.rnize their villages
and
w ellings themse�ve, using traditional methods
was
made during the years 1968-1974 by the Mini stri e s of Int erior and
Housing, with
participat ion from the World Food Programme of FAO
the
!i'ood and Agrioulture Organisation of the Unit e d Nations . The latter insti
tution has dLslrHutai supplementary food rations to those villagers who volun
t e ered to work for the rec oating of the k sar wal l s , the installation of
drainage and water supply systems, the oonstruction of pit latrines and
animal stalls out side the village. About fifteen villages , mo stly situat e d
i n the Drl ' a valley, benefitted from this programme , whioh proved quit e
suc c e s sful and met with great enthusiasm on the part of the populat ion. Though
logistioal
difficult i e s led to it s discont inuat ion, it neverthel e s s
brought
man
y le ssons whioh will no doubt be useful f o r t h e broad programme
present ly envisaged for the rehab ilitation of Southern archite ctural heri�
tage .
)
(
Between 1972 and 1977 , the Moroooan Mini stry of Culture has undertaken,
with t echnical help from UNDP and Une s c o , to establish a full system of
invent ory of the national heritage , including monument s and sit e s , museum
property and folk art s and tradit ions. Since the rioh patrimony of southern
archite otur e s had hithert o b e en utterly ignored and negl eot ed by the higher
l evels of authority, a special effort was made to bring it to light and
draw offic ial attention to the dangers whioh oonfront ed it s survival . A
"pre-survey" was then made of some 300 kasbas and ksour of parti oular value .
r e sulting d.oumentat ion , in the form of identity oards and photo
The
graphs has formed the basi s of a programme of o onservat ion and r ehab ilitat ion to be carried out in o o operat i on with all government al department s .
!��! _!Q.
end( ERAA ) and (
£asba
Ouar zazat e ,
Taourirt ,
viewed from South.
Thi s part i s now occupied by
the Center for the R e storation
R....
of Southern Kasbas
C
S
it s r e st oration
has just start e d p hotogr . Mi
nis try of Culture/Baamr i, 1975 )
.
Adobe 90
The Center for the oonservation and re-use of Southern Kasbas (C
ERKA
S)
present status and per spectives
After a decade during which no prot ective action was taken on any of the
surveyed monument s , the Mini stry of Culture decided to creat e , with support
from UNDP and Unesco, an organ with the specific task of safeguarding and
revitalizing the arohitectural patrimony of the South Region, using it as
a vital component of the general development of this relatively unprivileg
ed part of the national t erritory.
ERK4
The Cent er for the Conservation and He-use of Southern �asbas ( C
S)
s et up in 1987 now exists and funotions , although still with a rather
l imit ed staff ( one director, two archit ect s , some draught smen, clerical
staff and t eams of masons and unskilled workers) . It s headqua.rters are loca
ted in Kasba Taourirt , Ouarzazat e , a former seat of power of the Glawa
q� t ids, a section of whioh has been r estored to house the Cent er. Thi s ope
ration in it self has b e en a very succes sful experience and has aroused con
fidence even in tho se who did not believe that a badly damaged earth buil
ding could be rehabilitat ed at a very reasonable cost (less than half the
prioe of a new oonstruction) and provide comfortable and ae sthet ic premises
for all kinds of use s : as office s , meeting rooms, workshop s as well as
housing quart er s . Of the spacious area which the Municipality of Ouarzazate
put at the dispo sal of the Center ( about 3 , 200
on the ground) , more than
half has to the pre sent been rehab ilitat ed and work i s being pur sued to
restore and r�use the remaining part s ( see fig. 10) .
m2
T25Ite 1\-1
�!B�!�_ l! . The ksar Ait Ben
Haddou
krll
from Ouarzazat e) is threatened with de s
t ruotion.
rehab ilitat ion is
now being planned under the
leader ship of
(Fhotogr .
Ministry of' Culture/baa:nri , 1975 )
CEHAAS
The first proj ect to be tackled b y CERKAS -apart from the rest oration of
it s own precinct s- concerns the rehabilitation of Ksar Ait Ben Haddou, an
ancient village formed by a number of t ighremt ascending a hill at the foot
of which flows a mountain river while its summit is
by an antique
citadel ( se e fig. 11) . Considered as a unique spec imen of the southern tra
dition of earth archit ecture, and as a model of harmony between natural and
man-made environment , thi s ksar has been clas sified as a monument having
"out standing universal value" and included in the World Heritage List . De
serted by the majority ef it s popUlation who have resettled
the oppo sit e b ank of the river (where they have found more amenit ies and
facility of co
ication with nearby Ouarzazate) , the ksar i s now on the
verge of ut ter ruin and a request is being pre sent ed for it s inclusion in
the "List of World Heritage in Danger" according to article 11 , 4 of the
World Heritage Convent ion o:t' 197 2 .
opowned
mmun
in my
in
my01 of
oi
US ICOMOS
Apart from the refereno
appea
ring
the present artiole, a
guidanoe to bibliography has
De.n given in
artiole publi
shed
ICOMOS Information N °4 ,
2
1986, pp . -14 .
See al.o
paper on "Earth
Arohiteoture
South -Morooco :
Problems
Conservation" ,
�rooeeQing8
the 8th General.
Assembly of ICOMOS, National
Committe, Washington
D. C . 1987, Vol . II , pp . 961-968 .
••
in ;
The master-plan currently being e stablished to
safeguard the
k sar is based on the asumpt ion -confirmed by oral evidence obtained from
the inhabitant s themselves- that most k sourians will come back to live in
their original home s provided they are given basic facilit ies and opportu
nit ies to maintain, and even rai se , their present standard of life. The
main component s of the proj ect are: provision of safe tap-water, electri
city (possibly from solar energy) , drainage and sewage syst ems , security
against floods and landslides as well as various e quipment s : post and
t eleco
ications, Quranic and primary school s , health center, sport and
recreational installations, local museum and handicraft workshop s , the
whole process of rehabilit ation being conducted in the spirit of authenti
city, according to the principle s of the Charter of Venice and other int er
national standards and recommendat ion s , due account being taken of' local
specificit ies. It i s hoped that this proj ect , which receives full ooopera
tion from all Provincial authorities and services, will be actively suppor
ted by the international co
ity and will serve to demonstrat e how tradi
t ion and modernism may be associated and oontribute together to creating a
better and more dignified way of living for rural popUlations in arid or
semi-arid areas of the Third World.
mmun
mmun
ABSTRACT
The a im of thi s paper is to
present an account of the
earthen
architectura l
traditions of Sri Lanka ,
and the techniques f o l l owed
through severa l periods of
as
time ,
in
seen
archaeological evidence and
in the practices of present
day bui lding construction .
The author
w i l l expla i n
d i f ferent
building
f ive
techniques and other uses
of mud for bui lding work .
These bui lding techniques
s imple
from
the
vary
methods of construction of
wal l s , with
or
without
t imber
skeletons ,
to
of
methods
advanced
construction us ing adobe or
rubble , and the u se of mud
for f looring . Aspects of
maintenance of mud houses
tropical-monsoonal
under
w i l l a l so be
condi t i ons
dea lt with .
KEYWORDS
Earthen
architecture ,
and daub ,
t imber
wattle
skeleton , mud
tempering ,
sunmud ,
rammed
dried brick s ,
tropicalmonsoonal effects
TRADITIONS AND TECHNIQUES OF EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE OF SRI LANKA
B . D . Nandadeva
Department of Fine Arts
University of Kelaniya
Kelaniya
Sri Lanka
Introduction
Earth must have been the only building material known in ancient
Sri Lanka unt i l knowledge of f ired brick and stone masonry was
introduced from India around the third century B . C . ;
thi s date
coincides with the beginning o f the h i s toric period of the
country . However , the use of these more durable mater i a l s seems
to have been conf ined to re l i g i ous and other public bui ldings a s
we l l a s buildings exclus ive t o the royalty ;
the houses o f
commoner s
were
constructed
of
eart h .
Excavations
by
archaeologi sts in ancient sett lements belonging to the Proto or
Early Hi storic periods have yielded only foundations of such
building s .
Earth i s the most popular building material , even today
among the l ow-income populations of Sri Lanka . Earth is used for
the constructi on of foundations , wal l s with or without timber
frame s ,
f loors of bui ldings and as a bonding medium in
constructions where non-earthen mater i a l s are used . Even among
the more a f f luent classes and even the moderate- level income
groups , who tend to have their dwel l ing houses built of permanent
materia l , earthen constructions s t i l l play an important role .
Whi le the main house i s cons tructed of brick and cement , one or
two other peripheral building s , detached from the main house ,
such a s the open-hearth ki tchen ,
shed for bric-a -brac and a pit
toi let are constructed of earth .
Technica l Aspects
Knowledge of such a spects of bui lding construction is acquired
through experience .
In the construction of s imple dwe l l ing
houses , the owner does everything himself , with the help of
fri ends or family members . Sometimes , advice is sought from an
e lder in the v i l lage . Experience and common sense help to s olve
s imple technica l problems as they emerge . The body of knowledge
involved in the construction of mud bui lding s is a rather s imple
one , i l lustrated in the f o l l owing four main point s .
1.
S ite selection : A mound o r h igh ground ,
pos s ib i l ity of water- logging , i s cons idered as the
earthen building s .
free o f the
best s i te for
2.
Preparation of earth : Much care i s taken in the qual ity of
earth used f or construction purposes . Humus-free soil of a
s ticky qual i ty i s cons idered a s the best materia l . By adding
water and trampl ing under foot , the s o i l is transformed into a
mud of a soft consistency . " Often , earth from anthi l l s i s mixed in
order to increase the cohesivene s s . The mud i s then pi led-up
into a dome shape and covered with banana leaves or s imilar kind
of leaf or j ute bags to conserve heat l os s , and left for a period
of three to four days . Hydration , hydroly s i s and microbial
action within the mud now generate heat which tempers the mud .
Thi s tempered mud has a high degree of adehe s ion and is suitable
for a l l types of building construction work . Any fai lure in any
of these s teps may result in poor bonding qual i ty or subsequent
cracking or loss of mud from the wa l l .
3.
Obtaining correct � i ght-angles at corner s : There i s an oral
tradi tion of spec i f ications of lengths and breadths of bui lding s .
These are adhered to very closel y . Tradi t iona l bui lders f i nd i t
sufficient to have corners at approximate right angles . The r i ght
angle is marked by the s imple expedient of comparing the
diagona l s .
4.
Obtaining the plumb o f the wa l l : Thi s is cons idered as a
cruc ial factor . A s imple weighted rope i s u sed to obtain the
perpendicular ity of the wa l l .
Type s of Earthen Constructions
The author has identi f i ed s i x d i fferent methods of appl ication of
mud to bui lding s .
106
Adobe 90
Figure 1 . Wattle and daub house under construction , showing the
roof tatched with woven coconut branches and the timber skeleton ,
partly f i l led-in with mud .
F igure 2 . A part of the
timber skeleton of a wattle
and daub house showing a
column supporting the roof ,
vertica l ' core columns ' and
hor i z ontal bamboo splinters .
Wattle and daub houses ( where wa l l s are cons tructed us ing a
1 .
t imber skeleton ) : Thi s i s the most popular and widespread method
of earthen cons truction in Sri Lanka . The archaeological evidence
from anc ient settlements indicates that the bui lders of the pa st
had taken an enormous ef fort to use a ra i sed , damp-res i s tant
podium , made of rubble pres sed into soft mud , in order to protect
As an
the timber framework from r i s ing damp and termite attacks .
added precaution , dressed s tone s labs , cut to take the timber
columns , were placed on thi s podium .
bui lders show no serious
The present day wattle and daub
concern about having a rai sed platform or sometimes even a
indicates a maj or
f oundation . Not having a s o l id foundation ,
deviation from tradi tion .
Construction work takes place in thi s order ; the f loor i s
laid , the t imber columns of the wal l s are f ixed , the timber-work
of the roof comes next , followed by thatching with cadj an ( woven
coconut branches ) or straw. The earth-work of the wal l s is then
taken up under the protective roo f . This order of work a l l ows
protection for the workers from the heat of the tropical sun ,
prevents washing away of partly constructed wal l s , g ives a
s torage place for the tempering mud mixture and prevents the
wal l s from too rapid drying .
Narrow trenches are cut demarcating the pos ition of the
wal l s . The trenches are s ometimes f i l led in with rubble pres sed
into soft mud to act as a foundation . Sometimes no foundation i s
is erected
In either case , the timber frame of the wa l l
used .
a long these trenches .
Figure 3 . B a l l s of mud
placed inside the ' pockets '
of the timber frame of a
watt le and daub wal l ; new
work with wet mud is seen
at the top of the picture .
The timber frame or the skeleton of the wa l l i s constructed
by f irst putting in a row of core columns , between the columns
that support the roof , at an interval of 4 0 - 5 0cm . The materia l
i s invariably of cheap and low qua l i ty . Trees or branches o f
about 1 5cm in diameter a r e s p l i t into two , t o form the upright
columns . Then splintered bamboo shafts about S cm are f ixed
horizonta l l y at an interval of about 2 0cm onto these core
columns on the ins ide and outs ide of the building s o that they
' pocket '
in which
thus forming a
run para l l e l to each other ,
bal l s of clay i s placed ( see f i gs 1 , 2 ) . The wood work is bound by
coir rope or green vine s . Spaces are left for doors and windows
when the t imber frame is bui l t .
After completion of the frame , the actual mud-bu i lding work
now begins . Tempered mud , formed into bal l s of about 1 2 to 1 5 cm
in diameter , are placed ins ide the pockets of the timber frame .
As the soft wet mud cannot bear much l oad , the construction work
has to be done in stages to a l low sufficient time for drying and
( see f i g . 3 ) . At thi s
hardening of the previous l y placed mud
the wal l i s leve l l ed by s9raping out the mud with the
stage ,
107
Figure 4 . A comp leted wattle and daub house , after a f inal
coating of soft kao l in . The rai sed pl inth provides a place for
relaxing or storing things .
f i ngers and splashing it back to cover any exposed part of the
frame . Finger marks are left on the wal l s so as to produce a
' katu mati
rough texture . The wal l at this stage i s cal led the
' Oemati
bittiya ' ,
l i tera l ly
the
rough-textured
mud wal l .
qahanava ' , l i terally applying the mud for the s econd time i s done
after the f irst coating is adequately dried . Thi s time too ,
splashing the mud and scraping are done by hand . I f the owner s o
desire s , a coating o f l ime , kaoline or cow-dung i s p u t on to
obtain a better f inish ( see f i g . 4 ) . Sometime s , mot i f s of Folk
Art are drawn on the wal l , not only for decorative purpo s e s but
a l so to serve magical functi ons of warding o f f evi l and inviting
prosperity .
The wattle and damb technique i s a l s o u s ed for a special
type of bui lding known a s the ' tampita vihara ' , that s tands on
s tone p i l lars , exc lus ively u sed as image houses in places of
Buddhist worship . Here , a wooden platform is erected on top of
short vertical s tone p i l lars that serve to prevent dampness
s eeping through the wal l s . The timber framework for the wa l l i s
then s e t o n the wooden platform . The main columns which support
the roof are f ixed outs ide the timber frame . Only the wa l l s are
of earthen work ; the f loor i s made of timbe r . Thes e wal l s act
only a s an enclosure and a canvas for rel igious paint ings and
other decorative art . The wal l s do not take the l oad of the
weight of the roof .
appa
'T
2.
b i tt i '
or rammed earth-wa l l s : This i s a method of
erecting a solid mud wa l l with no t imber ske leton with i n . P lanks
of t imbe r , about 20 to 2 5 cm wide , are set on the ' rubble in mud '
foundation about 2 5 cm apart a long the entire l ength of the
exterior and interior l ines of the wal l to be bui l t . They form a
mould into which mud can be rammed . The planks are removed only
after the mud i s adequately hardened and able to s tand without
sagging . This method does not a l low building more than 20 to 2 5cm
of wal l-he ight at one time . This process is repeated over and
over again unt i l the required height of the wa l l is achieved . The
most important point he�e is to bui ld a l l the wa l l s of the entire
house s imultaneuo s ly . All the door and window frames have to be
f ixed whi l e the wa l l i s be ing constructed . A temporary canopy of
a thatched roof i s made in order to protect the wal l s from rain
and exces s ive solar radiation . Once the construction of the wal l s
i s completed , a tradit ional thatched roof or , a s i s done today a
roof of corrugated galvan i z ed iron sheets i s placed u s ing a
timber s tructure set on the wal l s so that the load of the roof i s
transfered through the wal l s .
The wal l s constructed i n thi s manner are some t imes plastered
using a mixture of c lay and sand and then l ime-washed . Rammed
earth wal l s are cons idered much more durable than the wattle and
daub one s .
108
F igure 5 . A house with rammed earth-wa l l s , under construction ;
note the temporary roof standing on timber supports .
There i s another technique of constructing wal l s that i s
c a l l e d ' tappa bitti ' but d i f fers from the method expla ined above .
Thi s probably evolved from a method used to construct boundary
around private properties mainly in the
( known a s
wal l s
c oastal region during the Late Historic Period ( c . 1 6 to 1 7th
centurie s ) .
Thi s
method
has now gained popularity as a
house-bu i lding technique e specially in areas where timber i s
scarce .
�
Here , the method of construction i s very s impl e . Once the
' rubble- in-mud ' foundation i s done , mud ba l l s are placed on top
of each other , in two or three rows , to build the wa l l . The width
of the wa l l varies depending on the l oad i t has to rece ive from
It i s poss ible to bui ld a height of about 5 0 cm at one
top .
time giving an interval of about three to f ive days f or that
section to dry before the work on the next section
s tarts
( see f i gs . 5 , 6 ) . This wa l l may be coated with mud or plastered
with a mud and sand mixture and then l ime-washed if desired
( se e f i g . 7 ) .
I t must be noted that no supporting timber frame
is u s ed .
F i gure 6 . A sect ion of
f i g . 5 ; the new work with
wet mud looking darker than
the rest of the wal l , i s
not iciable .
F i gure 7 . A completed hous e with rammed earth-wa l l s and a t i le
roof with the front wal l plastered and white-washed ; the side
wal l shows how the work progres sed .
109
Figure 8 .
3.
A hous e constructed with sun-dried bricks ( adobe ) .
' Moda gadol bitti ' or wa l l s with sun-dried bricks ( adobe ) : The
use of sun-dried bricks , made by us ing a wooden mould , is sti l l a
It i s the only
popular building construction method ( see f i g . 8 ) .
true adobe construction method in Sri Lanka . Dimens ions of thes e
bricks are genera lly much larger than that of f i re-baked bricks .
The method of
Wal l s are bui l t on a ' rubble-in-mud ' foundation.
construction is the same a s in f i red-clay brick cons truction , but
here wet mud mixed with sand is u s ed as the bonding medium
These bui ldings are sometimes plastered with a
( se e f i g . 9 ) .
mixture of mud and sand and then l ime-washed .
4.
'kabok'
Wal l s built with
In the
or b locks of lateri te :
southern and western coa stal belt of the i s land , laterite i s
The s e blocks are u sed in the construction o f
quarried in blocks .
wal l s using a mixture of tempered mud and sand a s the bonding
can be plastered and
wa l l s
thes e
desired ,
If
medium .
whi te -wa shed .
' Sakka bammi '
as a
Mud is u s ed
or stone-and-mud-wa l l :
5.
bonding medium when wal l s are constructed of rubble made up of
( see f i g
stones of varying sizes
In this case , some soft
sand i s mixed into the tempered mud . Wa l l s constructed in this
I f desired , the wa l l
cm .
manner can have a width of about
mixture of mud and sand , and
can be plastered with the same
in the
also
i s u sed
Thi s technique
white-washed ove r .
construction of ' Tampi ta vihara ' , a type of r e l i gious building
that s tands on s tone p i l lars ( mentioned above ) .
10).
30-40
Figure 9 . Bonding of sun
dried br ick work .
F looring : Tradi tiona l ly the mud bu i lding s have earthen
6.
f loors . Moi s tened earth is spread-out over the f loor area and
The
rammed manual ly with the u s e of a s impl e wooden rammer .
f irmly rammed f loor is coated with moi s tened mud . A s econd
coating is done with a mixture of anthi l l c lay and fresh
cow-dung . The third or the f ina l coating i s a layer of fresh
cow-dung and water . A f loor made in thi s manner i s very c lean
and insect-re s i s tant . Another advantage of thi s f loor is that it
absorbs instantly any spi l lage .
Maintenance
The maintenance of a mud-built house in Sri Lanka genera l ly means
the replacement of the tatch roof and the repa ire of the cow-dung
coated f loor . When the f loor has to be repaired , it is mere ly
dampended and a coat of anth i l l clay and cow-ding i s appl i ed ,
f o l l owed by a coat o f moist cow-dung . This adds another few
Thi s i s done
f loor .
m i l imeters of new material to the
customarily a s preparations for the annual Sinhala and Hindu
New Year celebrations around early Apri l . After many years o f
It is ,
the f loor level r i s e s substantially .
such repair ,
therefore , a practice to remove a few centimeters of old layers ,
probably once in ten years before applying a new coa t .
10.
A wal l made of
Figure
rubble bonded with mud .
During heavy monsoonal rains , r i s ing dampness i s a problem .
The only known remedy i s to drain the water from the compound to
help to keep the site dry . Once a building gets dampened in thi s
way , it takes a fairly long time to dry a s the se houses have very
f ew openings and air circulation · ins ide the house is restricted .
no
is
a pp l i ed to maintain the
No comp l i cated technology
wal l s . The main causes of wa l l decay are termi tes who distroy
the t imber frame and build nests within the wal l , and rats who
burrow into the founda t i on . Cracking of the wal l can be seen a s
a result of t i l t ing or settl ing . Also , the process of expans ion
and contraction caused by
rapid changes i n humidity
and
temperature i n the a tmosphere result i n the cracking o f the
mud coa t i ng of the wal l and
eventual ly
f a l l ing o f f . U s e of
insuf f i c i ently
tempered mud too contributes
to the same
result
( se e figs .
When
cracks become very apparent ,
they are s impl y f i l l ed in with mud rather than treating the cause
of decay .
1 -1 3 ) .
Summary
1.
Figure
The cracked
kaol i ng coating f a l l ing o f f
a mud wal l .
In rura l Sri Lanka where the socio-economic base i s predominantly
agricultural , the earthen bui lding trad i t i ons described above are
the most popular
methods of hou s i ng construction . As the
mate r i a l s are freely ava i lable i n abundanc e , and the technology
involved is s imple , and common knowledge , and the maintenance
does not pres ent s er i ous problems , the rural house owners prefer
to go for earthen hous e s , despite thei r impermanancy . However ,
due to the economic development
exper ienced by the rural
agricultural s ector i n recent time s , together with the government
s upport for better hous ing , a new trend is emerging in favour of
permanant non-earthen mate r i a l such as f ired-bri ck and cement .
( The author acknowleges the grant support given by
the Getty Conservation Inst itute to parti c i pate i n
thi s conference to present thi s pape r . )
12.
F igure
The exposed
t imber ske leton , of a
watt le and daub wal l , after
the loss of the second
coating of mud .
13.
F igure
Decay of timber
work after the l o s s of the
mud-coat of a wattle and
daub house .
II
A BSTRA C T
REVALOR IZAC ION DEL MATERIAL T IERRA EN
T h e use of earth for bu i l
d ing i n Chile is as anc ient
as the c oun try , be ing a syn�
the s is of Ind ian and Euro
p ean t e c hniques brought over
Spain . For over four c entur
ies earth was the most impor
tant mat erial for bui l d ing
espec ially in rural areas ,
where agriculture deve loped
a s the most important e c ono
mic ac tiv ity . T oday , Knowledg e
of earth bu ild ing is i n d e
c l ine , ev entually to be ID st
entirely .
The pre s ent s tudy attempts
to recall the cultural fac
t ors inv olved with earth
bu i ld ing . There is
great h er
itage of d ifferent ty pe s of
c onstruc t ion with h i storical
and cultural values influen
c ing , that ne ed h e lp to be
restore d .
The fac tors that c ause dam
age and d e s truc t ion to the s e
c ons truc t ion are earthquakes
and inundat ions . A s ec ond aim
of th is study is to inv e s t i
gate t h e use of earth bu il
d ing te chnique s for l ow - c o s t
h ous ing i n pre sent day in
Chile .
a
KEY WORDS
Palacras c lave s :
-ADOBE
-TA P IA L , Tamped earth ( p ise )
-QU INCHA , Earth on t imbe r
frames .
-Hac ienda , Farm
hous e s
-Earthen C ons truc t i on t echn i que s .
vaciado
pozo
LA
ARQUITECTURA CHILENA
G.#
Hugo pere ira
Arquite � t o
C entro d e Es tud i o s de l a T ie rra
Car l o s Antun e z
2467 Sant iago -Ch i le .
'De f in i c ion d e l area d e e stud io :
Se d e f ine la s iguiente area g e o graf ica que pre s enta c on s truc c i one s
en bas e
tiersa . Es la c ompre sd ida aproximadamente entre los para
l e l o s 20- y 40- Lat . Sur y 7 5 - y
merid iano . Dentro de e sta a
rea , en la que s e observan c onstruc c i one s en t ierra existe una
sub-area que c oncentra e l may or de sarro llo d e e stas tecnicas
que
c o inc ide c on e l ambito en que se c onsolido la cultura chilena y
que c ontiene la may or densidad poblaC i onal d e l pais .
e s ta ultima
se la c onoc e c omo val le central teniendo c omo l i mite norte e l va
l l e d e l rio A c oncagua y c omo l imite sur el val le d e l r i o Maul e .
E l regimen d e l luv ias d e e s ta sub-z ona e s d e entre 5 00-1000
w i l ime tros anuale s .
8
85�
y
A
C l ima : la z ona de l val le c entral t iene un c l ima templado medite
rrane o c on tres e s taciones s e cas y una l luv iosa . El norte grande
se caracteriza por la aus enc ia de l luv ias y su c ondic i on d e s ertica.
la que es suavi zada por l o s efec t o s de enfriam iento de la c orrien
t e marit ima de Humboldt que asc iende desde la Antart i da a
largo
d e l Ii toral .
10
T ipo logia e d i f i catoria de C onstruc c ion c on t i erra :
10
0
Los princ ipales s i st emas c onstruc t ivos en base a t ierra usa
d o s en Ch�le a
largo de su his tor ia son :
ADOBE : A lbafi i l e ria d e pri smas de t i e rra-pa j a , e j ecutados in s itu ,
os al s o l . Usualmente m iden 1 0 'x3 0x 60 c ms , s e usa generalmen
te pa ja de trigo , e sporad i c amente pa ja de c ebada , amb o s c ereal e s
abundantes en l a agricultura c h ilena . La revoltura s e h a c e en pozos
d onde s e d e j a impre gnar de agua la pa j a , durante 1 d ia a
menos .
revuelto a p i e
c on animal e s , dependienmo d e l v o lumen de mezc la a
preparar ( graf . 1 )
secad
10
4
GO>I
�
�»�
:>�as
.:>
. H 0'
IZH
H M�
.
- 0
�0 �as
» ��
+' M.<:.
.<: .::0 0
:E.� .bD.�
'0.sQ) .s
� Q)
<:.+'Q) .s M.<:
. w '0Q)
M.:> :> .
'"
.:
....
..;
$
...
"
�
'8 secadl' al
..
s o l apoyado de c anto
.,
...
....
3
relleno
molde
I
I!
'3
'"
""
""
..:
d esmoldaje
'"
..:
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..:
=-
6
...
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;; A-i�.: �
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'-'
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II2
Adobe 90
�APIAL
: C on s i s t e en la confec c i on d e b l o ques d e me zc la de t i e rra
pa J a In-s itu m e d iante la c o rnpactac i on en moldes de madera de gran
d e s proporc ione s , s ie nd o la mas u sual
cms ( Graf . 2 ) E s te
s is t ema fue muy u t i l i zado durante e l p e r l o d o c o l onial .
501501 10
�
M o lde
Faena
A p i s onado
Muro
Graf . 2
0
QD
INCHA : ( e nquinchado
encufi izado ) C ons iste en la confe c c i on d e
un e ntramado de ramas ind e pendiente a l cual s e le adhe riere por im
pac t a una m e z c la de t ie rra-pa j a en e s tado plast ico . Es ta t e c n i ca t ie n e una arnplia gama de a l t e rnat ivas dependiend o d e l lugar e sp e c l
fic o e n que s e ewplea y de l a s d i s p o n i b i l idad e s d e l lugar . ( G raf . 3)
Durant e la c o l on ia al entramado de cafia reve s t id o
barro s e l e
c on o c la c omo " baharequ e " .
en
Es truc tura
Embarrad o
Graf . 3
10 X 60
ADOB ILJ O : C on s i s t e en la c o locac ion en p o s i c ion de c cmto de ad ole
c ms . suj e t o s por m e d i o d e una e s tru� tura d e madera
de
* 30
y v ar ias c orridas de alambre f i j o a la e s truc tura cada
ems .
aprox . ( graf . 4 )
20
Graf . 4
II 3
eOl;o.UO
"X 1",
�LILLAJE : C on s i s te en la proy e c c i on de una me z c la t ierra -pa j a en
pro.s t ic o , s obre un entramado d e madera de 1
separa
do 1 " , afianzando a una e s truc tura d e madera . ( Graf . 5 )
�, I
1·
1"
Graf . 5
Ant e c e dentes h i s toric o s :
Las c onstruc c i on e s en bas e a t ierra , hechas
por los c onqu is tadores e spanoles oon las primeras de las que tene
mos regis tro s . La casa de Don pedro de � aldivia en Qu il lota ( 1 5 4 2 )
probablemente fue c onstru ida en t ierra dadas las de s c ripc iones de
mac is e z que de ella s e t i enen . El mismo Pedro de Valdiv ia utiliz�
la t e cnica de l adobe en la c ons truc c ion de la muralla defens iva de
la c iudad de La Sere na lue go de su des truuc ion por parte de l o s a
bor igene s , te s t imonio que enc ontram o s en una carta que e l c onqu i s ta
dor envio al rey C arlos V en 15 41 ; en e s ta explica que c ort6 2 00. 00TI
ad obes para su c ons trucc ion y que e s to s med ian 1 vara de largo por
palmo de alt o . ( 1 )
En e l norte grande e l uso de lu t ierra se asoc ia c on la te cni
c a de alban i leria de p iedra , usandose como argamasa de pega ;
en
c i erros ext eriores s e u t i l i zaba la t e c nica del tap ial . Ia cub ierta
de e stas c ons truc c ione s es mas liv iana que la cubierta de te j a d e l
va l le c entral , u t i lizandose � a j a gruesa aLundante en l a S praderas
pre -alt iplanicas ( c ana brava ) . E s tas c ons trucc ione s son mas ant i gUas que las d e l valle c en tral yo. que s e encuentran emplazadas
la
ruta de la c onqu i sta de C h i l e desde e l Peru , a trave s d e l l lamado
c am in o de l Inca" el que rec orr ia toda la zona norte a trav e s de la
prec ord i l l era . (Graf . 6 )
1
5"
53'
en
ElEVA(ION to1TE
ilustl ' .
Caserios
N�
1
ELEVAOON 9.Jl
J.y B a i ,R.
e
n
v de s
.6
y Urbanismo1·97lJ.cl.e8Cli89le.
Edit.Universitaria
Graf
M arquez de la plata , L . Rodriguez , A rgu i t e ctura del
villorrioB ariqueiios Stgo . C h i l e , Fac. d e
Al t ipl u n o
..
Arq\l 1.ec tura
)
E . Greve , H i s t or ia de la In�enieria en Ch ile Tom . 1 Santiago , C h i l e
Imp . Universltar la
1938.
II4
Adobe 90
Ex i s t en t e s t imon i o s ac erca de la u t i l i zac i on de la tierra en
las
c ons trucc iones agric o la , c omo l o s d e l natura l i s ta franc � s av e c ln
dado en Chile C laud i o Gay , qu i �n describe de ta l ladamente la v id a
de l pa i s durant e e l s ig l o
A l r e s p e c t o e s c r ibe Gay , qu e
se
" c ortaban" adobe s y que c on e l lo s s e hac ian tap i a s e n l o s c ampos
a
XVIII.
l a s que s e rv ian de c ie r r o s ( c e rc o s ) para las cuadras ( un i dade s d e
m e d i d a de l o s c ampo s ) . Es t o s s e hac ian c on pa j a revu e lt a c on t i erra
c o n la ayuda d e animale s . S e re f i e r e tamb i e n el aut or a la s e l e c c i
o n d e los sue l o s , d e b i e n d o rec hazar s e l o s aren o s o s y u t i l i z ar s e l o s
arc i l lo s o s ; s e r e f i e re tamb i e n a l t i empo d e dura c i on d e las t a p i a s ,
e s tablec i e n d o l o entre
y
an o s , y e s t o a c au s a de la c on s tante
u t i l i z ac i on que hac e n los an irrJa l e s de los muro s , para frotar s e .
La �r im i t iv a " ruca" , v iv i enda de la tr ibu de l o s mapuche s , pue
b l o ab o r lg e n de la z ona sur de C h i l e ( mapu= t i erra , c h e=h ombre ) , e s ta
ba c on s truida �rinc ipalmente de
entramado de t r on c os y rama j e s
de arbo l e s " .
( ve r graf .
30 40
7)
(2)
un
��:� , �.' � /.�
i'
l
�\\
,
c u� l
"
�
la c on s tru c c i on aborigen s o l o l e s pudo o f re c e r 10. " ruca ' , d e la
tomaron l o s s i s temas de traba z o n e s de l o s mat e r i a l e s de c o l i
gue ; la" 'f&mada " , d e r ivac i o n c r i o lle. d e l e:. ante r i or
1 & " p i rca" s e::
para t o rla de l o s campo s de cult ivo que pare c e tamb i e n de origen
pre c o l o mbin o " .
En C h i l e ,
ra i z de una c r o n i c a e s cas e z d e recurs o s
t e cn i c o s y de mana de obra c a l i f ic ada , s e d e sarrol l o una A rqu i t e c
tura carac t e r izada por J a au s t er idad y s enc i l le z , obra d e las man o s
d e arte s&n o s - c ampe s in o s . E s t a c arac ter i s t i c a au s te ra e s c on s e c ue n
c i a tamb i e n d e l o s c ont inuos t e rrem o t o s que s e enc argan d e
e l im i
nar d e l o s e d i f ic i o s t o d o
superflu o .
El
d e May o d e
un
v i o l e n t o t e rremo t o d e s t ruy e gran parte de
d i f ic u l tuo same n t e e di
f i c ad o a la f e c h a .
No ex i s t e n dat os c i en t i f i c o s prec i s o s al r e s pe c t o , p e r o
c ierto
e s que e s t e h e c h o marc ara u n h i t o e n l a h i s to r i a d e la Arqu i t e c tu
r a c h i le na y a que o b l ig o & nu e s tr o s an t e pasad o s
r e p lan tear s e. l o s
princ i p i o s c on s truc t i v o s que habian apJ i c ad o has ta e n t onc e s . c o m i e n
za a d e sarro llar s e e n t o n c e s u n a A r qu i t e c tura d i s t inta , l o s muro s e m
p i e zan a eng�os&r s e , llegand o a s o brepasar 1 , 00 m t . d e e sp e s o r , d i�
m inuy e n l o s van o s y las gr�nd e s luc e s ; las a l turas de las c on s tru�
c i o� e s se r e s t r inge n , e l iminand o s e t o rres y t o d o e l e me n t o agregado
a 10. e s truc tura que pud i e ra s i gn i f i car un r i e sgo de d e sprend i m i e£
to .
l,as reperc u s i o n e s d e l s i s:"o afec taron tamb i e n 10. c on f i gurac i o n
d e la c a s a ch i l e na d e l s iglo
adoptando s i stema s c on s truc t iv o s
tal e s c o mo la " qu incha" origin& l d e la . c iudo.d d e Lima , p e rd , t e c n i c a
m ixta de t i erra y madera d i s tanc iada c-ada 9 0 c ms - 1 2 0 c m s
l i s to
n e s h o r i z ontale s en l o s que s e t e j e 10. cafia , s o porte d e l barro ( 4)
En o t r o s e s c r i t o s d e l p e r i o d o c o l o n ia l e nc ontramo s t e s t imon i o s
s o bre l a import&nc ia de l adobe e n l a c on s truc c i on o t o rgdnd o s e l e e x
c e le L t e s c&rac t e r i s t i c a s de c o mportam i e n t o an t i s is m i c o , i n c luso c o m
paran d o l o c o � e d i f i c a c i o n e s de p i e d ra y ladr i l l o .
Las hac i enda s , c on s t i tu io.n las gran d e s unid a d e s de prod ucc ion
del
campo c h i leno d e l p e r i o d o c o l onial , c on s t ituy endo c e n t r � s d e
gran
ac t i v idad y c on c e n t ra c i o n poblac i onal y e x pre sand o arqu i t e c t on ic a
m e n t e a l g o prop i o , h e c h o q u e s e fundamentaba e n
ut i l i za c i o n .
y
a
10
10 13
110 647 ,
a
(3 )
XVII
y
10.
2.-
3.-
y
S o c ia l de
B . V icufia-r'Jo.c kenna , H i s t o r i a C r i t i c a
dia
s:
San t i a o d e s d e su fundac i6n ha sta nue s tr o s
stgo ,
hlle Edltor laI
a
1869.
10. 1 54 1 -'18b
C iudad d e
8
4 . - E . p e re ira , H i s t o ria d e l Arte en e l re ino de C h i l e . Buenos A i re s
Argentlna . Im pre s oro.s � rgentlnas
1965, 5 0
II5
H i storicament e , en un periodo de tre s s iglos y med i o , la Arqui
tec tura c h i lena u t i l i z � mas ivamente e l adobe , c omo material c onstrue
t iv o . Esto e s posible c ons tatar en c onstru c c i ones de d iverso tipo�
religiosa, Hatitac ional e t c , tanto en el ambito rural c omo urbano .
A ra i z d e l proc e s o de Independenc ia Nac ional , se produ j o un c orte his
torico c o n la cu ltura d e l periodo c o lonial , y e s asi que a partir se manifiesta fue rtemente una te ndenc ia a la adop d e l siglo
arquetipos extranos al periodo anter ior ; fen6meno
c i on de mode los
que s e agud izaria a fines del s .
Las nuevas estet icas ser ian
aband onadas c on la m i sma irresponsab i lidad c on que eran adoptadas .
Un e c l e c t ic ismo desenfrenado se apoderaria de la arqui t e c tura nacio
nal . C omenzo un pro c e s o de de s truc c ion de los t e s t imon i o s e d i l ic i Ds
del pasad o c o l onial , entre los cuales abundaban e d i fic ios c onstrui
dos en base a t i erra; c on e l c ons iguiente empobrec imiento d e l p atr
-i
mon io arqu i tec tonic o .
XIX, y
XIX.
A partir de la decada de los 4 0 , a rai z de la indus tria
li zac ion d e l pa i s y e l aparec imiento d e nuev os materiales de c ons=
truc c ion , en el mercado , y a c ausa de las d e s trucc iones ocas ionadas
por el terremoto de 1 93 9 , disminuye notoriament e el empleo de las
tecnicas de c onstruc c ion c on t i erra , espec ialmente la d e l adobe .
Lo que ocurri o fue que se d e s truyo una gra� cantidad d e c asas
c o n � tru idas c on adobe , pero no se inv e s t igo e l porq ue . E l d ram� t i
c iudad de C h i l lan , que c obro mi
(C o cas o de las d e s truc c i one s d e
le5 de v idas humanas e s e j emplar . Al respec t o el profe sor E . Guzman
que las fal ] as en las e s tructuras se d e b i o a una grave mod ificac ion
d e l model o estruc tural primitivo .
1a
li Se trata de viv iendas antiguas de ad obe , c on alero a la calle ,
que fueron en algun momento" modern i zadas " , suprimiendo e l alero par
te sal iente de la techumbre y prolongando hac ia el muro de la calle
has ta ocultar e l t e cho . A l c ortar e l extremo d e l t i j eral , se s o s t i e
ne e l par c on un so porte vertical , probablemente d o s tablas latera=
les en c e p o ( graf . 8C ) m ientras s e c ons truy e el muro , para apoy arlo
a l I i en definitiva . C on este cambi o se c on s i � ue transformar e l tri
angulo perfe c tamente indeformable (graf . 8d ) , en
e lemento de C li§:
tro lad o s , que no s o lo es d e f ormable , s ino que da or igen a una
fuerza inc l inada que empu j a al pequen o muro an t e techo ; c on gran
parte d e l p e s o de la c ubi erta de t e j a , tratando de v o lcarl o . ( grat
8E ) . Despue s de una transformac ion c omo e s ta , resulta ex trafio que
el muro ante tec h o no caiga de inmediat o . En t od o caso , la techum
bre de la la v ivienda que da transformada en una trampa , que c ae ra s2
bre sus morad ore s jus tament.e en el momento en que salgan a la ca lIe por efe c to d e l s ismo . " ( 5 )
0
un
De f ic i t habitaci onal
rra
G raf . 8
Y-.
pr oye c c ion e s d e l u s a de l mater ial t i e
Chile tiene un defic i t hab i tac ional de aproximadamente 1
mi llon de v iv iendas . De acuerd o a los porcenta j e s de inc idencia de
las partidas en el c os to t o tal d e una vivie nda , podemos d e s cubrir
que la inc idenc ia de los muro s so bre el c o s t o total aumenta mien
tra s mas e c onomica e s la viv ienda , y v ic e versa , pud iendo l legar a
c ons iderando que el rna
inc idir . hasta e l 5 0% de l c o s t o total
terial t i erra prac ticamente s e encuen tra a muy ba j o c o s t o en gran
parte d e l area d e l valle centra l de Chile , e s que e s posible asegu
rar que s in duda es un mater ial alternat iv o que brinda ex c e lentes
p o s i b i l idades de aplicac i on en v iv iendas de ba j o c o s t o . Las rec i en
e s tan demos tran
t e s experienc ias de c onstruc c i on c on t i erra a s i
d O j e l periodo 1 983 - 1 987 , se d ie ron c erc a de 1 8 . 000 s o luc ione s habT
tac i onales que u t i l i zaban la t i erra c omo material de mur o s y aisla
c ion termica sobre e l enc ie lad o . Muchas de e s tas experi enc ias han
que ha c ontri
emplead o e l s i st ema de autoc ons truc c ion d irigida ,
bu ido a abaratar los c o s to s . Lo s princ ipales motivos que han ll eva
do a e l e gir e s t o s s i s temas mixt os de c ons truc c ion en base a tierra
son los s iguiente s :
(6 ) ,
10
10
1 ) Seguridad ant i s ismica
2 ) Buena respuesta a cond i c i onantes f i s i c o-ambl
ental e s
3 ) Rapidez d e e j e cuc i on
4 ) Pos ibi l idade s de rec ic lar materiales en d e s�
so
5 ) Fac il idad para implementar auto c on s truc c ion
La mayor parte de e stas v iv iendas han surgido 'a causa d e l d e
f ic i t producto d e l terremoto de 1 985 , que d e s truy o una gran c ant i
d a d d e v iv i endas , e sp e c ialmente localizadas e n areas rurale s .
e s tud i
E l d e sarrol l o embrionar i o de e s ta t e c no logia obliga
a r c on mayor profund idad las cond i c iones f i s i c o -qu imicas de la t i e
rra , y a q u e hasta e l momento s e h a traba jado utili zando c omo base de
dato s la s imple exper ienc ia de obra , s in la asi stenc ia de un e s tu
dio t e c n i c o riguro so .
a
n6
Adobe 90
En alguna nle dida las c on s truc c i ones r e a l i zadas pre s entan d e f�
c i enc ia s produ c to de d e sconoc imiento de l material t i e rra ' o i o que
l leva muchas v e c e s a pres ent9r un �unorama c qnfu s o en re lac lon a la
real p o s i b i li dad de a pl icac i o n de e s te mater lal .
,
Un c as o intere sante de v iv ienda ec onomica c ons tru�da e n
b a s e a u n s i s tema m i x t o de tabiqueria d e mad era y t i erra ( palilla
j e ) y mal la me talic a , e s el e j emplo de l G :af . 9 , e j e c u a do en 1 986
en una r. omuna d e ex trema pobr e z a de Santlag o , C h lo l e , e J e e u tado p or
auto c ons truc c i on c on aS i s te nc ia tecnica d e prof e s i onale s . ( taller
N orte , Arqto s . J . M . r. or t ine z , R. J imene z ) .
i
�
ELEV-'<CION FACHADAS 2 CASAS TIPO
r--
I t.
�_�L ----!.J.1� 0""�:\ "' .��":--_""'90
AO__
�'�"_ I ___
--_._- -- -"- - --.----!��--- . ____ ____-+-'"
_ ___�..�
�._� )91�.= =�=-·��-=-_j.9' .� .� '�!-=� =-J�'I- =- _�.� ._�-�� .
___
.
.j
__ ..��_
G raf . 9
C onc lus i one s :
La tecnologia d e c ons tru c ci 6n en base a t ierra ,
.
t i ene una gran proy e c c i on a futuro , y a que
habiendo s i d o aband o
nada rec ient emen te ( d e co.da 1 940-5 0 ) , s e hac e n e c e saria en v i s
t a a la manu,tenc i on , re parac i on y modif icac i on d e u n legad o patri
mon ial d e gran v alor arqu i te c t on i c o que abarc a c erca d e tre s s i
gl o s d e hi s toria . E s importante ret omar c ientificamen te e l e s tu
dio del ma terial de tal f orma d e poder inc mrporarl o
reperto
r i o de materiale s " se guro s " . Es po.rtic ularmente �ti l , poder
promover e l uso d€ t e c n i c as mixtas d e c o n s truc c i on c on t ierra ,
dado que por una p arte se e l im in a la v ar i able d e " ri e s g o s ismi
co" , y por o trs s e aprovecharia un abundante recurs o material
en nue s tro pais , c om o es la mad era . Se g�n proy e c c i ones re a l i zadas
durante 1 985 , en C h i l e s e habrian c on s truid o gran c antidad de v i
v iendas d e baj o c o s t o en base a e s te u l t imo t i p o de t e c n ic a s ,
c on d iv e r s o s inc onveniente s de orden norma t i v o
s oc i o -cul tura
l e s , he c h o que avala c omo c ierta la opc i on de d e sarrol l ar la in
ve s t igac i on c ientifi c a en e s t a are a y que tendria sub s id iaramen
te o tr o efe c t o muy p o s i t iv o , c ual e s , e l de recuperar un a s p e c t o
perd i d o d e nues tra identidad c u l tural .
0.1
y
5
6
Cap
-J
SERRANO
"
TO EDUARDO TORROJA, MJtDRID ESPANA (1987): '7'1 - 82
- E . GUZ�'lAN ° Curso de e d i f icac i on
IV San t iago C h i l e
E d i t . Univers i tbr ia 1 97 1 , 2 05
. Sa LA S
Aspe c t o b Ec ono/n i c o s de las C ons truc c iones
c on tierra " M ONOGRA F IA No 38) - 386 I N ST ITU
ABSTRACT
The use of unfired earthen
mixtures for the wal l
construction of load-bearing
masonry structures has
generally been regarded as
unsuited to the harsh
climate of the northeastern
United States . In fact , at
least twenty-four mid
nineteenth century earthen
walled buildings exist in
New York State today ,
attesting to the potential
for exceptional longevity of
earthen construction in this
unlikely c l imate .
Unburnt brick construction
in New York State was
inf luenced by reports
documenting earthen walled
construction in Canada and
England in the 1 8 3 0 ' s . Mud
brick construction was
championed at the same time
in the United States by U . S .
Commi ss ioner of Patents
Henry Leavitt Ellsworth .
Ellsworth ' s patent reports
reprinted excerpts of
British and Canadian
j ournals , and documented
Ellsworth ' s own experiments.
with mud brick construction .
By the mid-nineteenth
century over forty mud brick
s tructures dotted a nine
county area spanning half
the state . Buildings ref lect
then current Greek Revival ,
Gothic Revival , and
Italianate styles , and were
erected by members of
various socioeconomic
groups .
KEYWORDS
Adobe , Cob , Pise , New York
State , His tory
II 7
EARTHEN ARCHITECTURE OF NEW YORK STATE : ADOBE CONSTRUCTION IN A
NONARI D CLIMATE
&
Richard Pieper , Director of Preservation
Jan Hird Pokorny , Architects
Planners
3 0 6 East 5 1 st Street , New York , NY 1 0 0 2 2
�
n the United States , the use of earth for building construction
1S most frequently associated with the adobe s tructures of the
southwestern states or the sod houses of the untimbered s tretches
of America ' s northern plains .
In the northeast infrequently
appli �d techni �ues su<;:h as "wattle and daub" an "mud nogging"
explo1ted the 1nsulat1ve properties of earth used as inf i l l in
wood frame buildings . The use of unfired earthen mixtures for the
wall construction of load-bearing masonry structures has generally
been regarded as unsuited to the harsh climate of the northeastern
U� ited States , however .
In fact , at least twenty- four mid
n1neteenth century earthen-walled buildings exist in New York
State today , attesting to the potential for exceptional longevity
of earthen construction in this unlikely c l imate .
d
The early popular i z ation of earthen construction in
nineteenth-century United States may be traced to the seminal
writings of Francois Cointeraux , French agriculturalist and
architect , whose pUblication of a series of cahiers on pise or
rammed earth , construction in 1 7 9 1 started a chain of trans a tions
and adaptations that reached the United States in the nineteenth
century .
Cointeraux was not the first Frenchman to report on
rammed earth construction , which had been chronicled by others
reporting on pise construction then common in the areas around
Lyons :
coin e raux ' s reports were backed by considerable personal
exper1mentat10n , however , and he pursued the dissemination of his
techniques with a proselytic zeal that soon attracted the
attention of like-minded architects in Great Britai n .
l
�
B y 1 7 9 7 Cointeraux ' s first and second cahiers o n pise
cons r uction were translated into English by noted English
arch1tect Henry Holland , and published with new i l lustrative
pl � te � in the Communications of the Board of Agriculture of Great
Br1t�l n .
Holland ' s translation was reworked and plagiari z ed in
Amer1 <;: a . by Stephen . W . John� o � , who published Rural Economy:
Conta1n1ng a Treat1se on P1se Construction in 1 8 0 6 in New
Brunswick , NJ .
Johnson ' s book was i l lustrated with plates
resembling Cointeraux ' s original engravings , and inc luded sections
on such disparate topics as road building and viticulture . Most
signif c �ntly , Joh� son inc luded a chapter on " cob" or mud walling ,
a trad1t10nal Engl1sh technique of monol ithic earthen wall
construction , which , unlike pise , used a mixture of moistened
earth and straw .
Johnson ' s book , and Holland ' s translation which
was republished in the agricultural j ournal The American Fa m er in
1 8 2 1 , sparked a series of experiments in pise construction in the
Mid-Atlantic and southeastern United States that were chronicled
in agricultural j ournals in the first four decades of the
nineteenth century .
Curiously , no s imilar experimentation in true
pise construction appears to have taken place in New York State .
�
�
;
New York ' s earliest documented extant earthen s tructures are
two cob walled res idences .
The Lawrence Johnston House ( 1 8 3 2 or
1 8 3 3 ) and the Wi lliam Gorse House ( 1 8 3 6 ) are located a few miles
apart in Penf ield , Monroe County , near Rochester . While the
J�h � ston House ' s wall construction is now obscured by clapboard
s ld1ng , several exposed areas in the interior show that the
mixture of mud and s traw was placed within wooden wall forms in
layers about 15 cm ( 6 " ) deep .
An account of the construction of
the Gorse House republi shed in Penfield ' s Pas t : 1 8 1 0 - 1 9 6 0 by
Katherine Wilcox Thompson s tates :
"A pen was built on the ground and clay drawn f rom a
nearby creek bed spread over the ground to a depth of
about a foot .
On thi s , cut straw was spread to a
depth of three to four inches .
Oxen were driven
around and around inside the pen to thoroughly mix the
ingredients .
Plank forms about a foot high were set
up on the wal l foundations and f i l led with the c lay
mixture .
As soon as the c lay and s traw had dried
suffic iently to be self- supporting , the forms were
Floor j oists were
raised and another course poured .
laid across the walls and another layer poured on top ,
thus embedding the j oists in the wal l . When completed
a year later , the house was given a thin plaster coat
of c lay and the interior walls were plastered and kept
white-washed . "
u8
Adobe 9 0
About the same time that Gorse and Johnston were
experimenting with cob wall construction outside of Rochester ,
English architect and horticulturist John C laudius Loudon was
publishing his inf luential Encyclopedia of Cottage, Farm, and
Villa Architecture ( 1 8 3 3 ) , a compendium of designs and
prescriptions for construction that contained no fewer than
twenty-nine i l lustrations for cottages that Loudon proposed were
appropriate for earthen construction .
Loudon noted Cointeraux ' s
pise experiments but also quoted the report of fellow Englishman
John Denson whose Peasant ' s Voice reported on the use of " c lay
lump s " or unburnt brick , for the construction of cottages in
Cambridgeshire .
Whether prompted by Loudon ' s encyc lopedia or simply
immigrant English technique , buildings were being constructed of
unf ired mud brick near Toronto , Canada as early as 1 8 3 6 . By
September 1 8 4 2 the Canadian pUblication The Church was reporting
of the new Hurontario Church , " the new church is to be bui lt of
mud ( or unburnt ) brick , which in the opinion of the best informed
architects , is the material of all others the fittest for the
building with in thi s province . " In February 1 8 4 3 The Briti sh
American Cultivator ,
Toronto agricultural j ournal , reported that
" houses , properly constructed ( of unburnt brick ) are warmer , more
durable , and also cheaper than frame , and are destined to take the
place of the log shanty , as wel l as the more expensive wooden
walls . "
a
Unburnt brick construction was being championed at the same
time in the United States by U . S . Commi ss ioner of Patents Henry
Son of U . S . Supreme Court Chief Justice Oliver
Leavitt Ellsworth .
Ellsworth , and brother of Connecticut Governor Wi lliam Ellsworth ,
H . L . Ellsworth chronicled advances in agricultural science in his
patent office reports of the 1 8 3 0 s and 1 8 4 0 s .
E l lsworth ' s reports
of 1 8 4 2 , 1 8 4 3 , and 1 8 4 4 reprinted excerpts about unfired brick
from Loudon ' s encyclopedia and The British-American Cultivator ,
and reported on Ellsworth ' s own successful experiments with mud
brick construction in Washington , D . C . and Grand Prairie , Indiana
that had begun in 1 8 4 2 .
Ellsworth ' s inf luential reports were
widely excerpted and reprinted in agricultural j ournals such as
The Cultivator ( Albany , N . Y . ) and The Genesee Farmer ( Rochester ,
N.Y. ) .
The New York Tribune , which published an excerpt about
unburnt brick construction soon after the first report ' s
publication in February 1 8 4 3 , separately reprinted a s i z able
portion of the report in pamphlet form under the title Useful
Works for the People No . I I .
Ellsworth ' s motivation to experiment with this novel form of
construction was apparent .
Already a landowner in the Wabash
Valley of I ndiana , El lsworth was to become an agent for Federal
lands in the area following his departure from the Patent Bureau
An i l lustration of Ellsworth ' s proposed " prairie
in 1 8 4 5 .
cottage" in the 1 8 4 4 report leaves no doubt that , in spite of his
rather large ( 5 . 5 m x 1 6 . 5 m, or 1 8 ' x 5 4 ' ) experimental brick
structure in Washington , D . C . , Ellsworth was proposing that
unburnt brick would we ll serve those of modest means settling on
the prairies of the then far wes t .
Ellsworth ' s intentions notwithstanding , at mid-century over
forty mud brick structures , most not nearly so s imple as
El lsworth ' s prairie cottage , dotted a nine county area in New York
Ontario County was quite certainly
that spanned half the state .
the center of this mud brick vogue ; census records indicate that
at least twenty-two mud brick structures had been built in the
county by 1 8 5 5 , far more than in any other .
At least fourteen mud
brick bui ldings were constructed in the vil lage of Geneva alone .
One contemporary account reveals that the initial use of
unburnt brick in Geneva antedated Ellsworth ' s first published
report , however , and the discrepancy between the brick sizes
recommended by Ellsworth ( 3 0 . 5 cm x 1 7 . 8 cm x 1 2 . 7 cm , or 12" x 7 "
x 5 " , and 3 0 . 5 cm x 1 5 . 2 cm x 1 5 . 2 cm , o r 1 2 " x 6 " x 6 " ) and that
of the ma j ority of mud brick buildings in Geneva ( 3 8 . 1 cm x 3 0 . 5
cm x 1 5 . 2 cm , or 1 5 " x 1 2 " x 6 " ) suggests that English or Canadian
practice may have served as a model for the earliest Geneva
construction .
In September 1 8 4 4 , The Home Miss ionary , j ournal of the
Presbyterian and Congregationalist American Home Missionary
Society , published a lengthy article entitled " Churches of Unburnt
Brick" featuring an analys is of " several houses of unburnt brick"
in Geneva and proposing that " houses of worship of unburnt brick
are desirable for congregations of the ordinary size . . . " The
president of the A . H . M . S . , Henry Dwight , was a Geneva resident ,
II9
and Geneva was the s ite of the society ' s western New York off ice .
Although the article obviously intended that the use of mud brick
construction be adopted by impecunious congregations , much of the
domestic earthen architecture that sprang up in Geneva following
The Home Mi s s ionary report was anything but modest .
By 1 8 5 0 one
mud brick Gothic Revival style res idence had been constructed for
Miles P . Squier , former regional secretary for the A . H . M . S . and
the niece of Henry Dwight ' s wife , Sarah Bradford , lived in another
prominent earthen structure on Geneva ' s fashionable South Main
Street .
Still another adobe was constructed on a nearby lot
belonging to Charles Cooper , the namesake of Bradford ' s e ldest
son .
Of the fi fteen mud brick residences eventually constructed
in the Geneva area , e leven are extant today .
Five of the Geneva
adobes exhibit striking decorative s imilarities , and no doubt the
apparent popularity of mud brick here was due in part to the
presence of a body of builders willing to work with this unusual
material .
It is apparent also that Geneva mud brick construction
inf luenced others wishing to experiment with the method that
Ellsworth and others were espousing ; the 3 8 . 1 cm x 3 0 . 5 cm x 1 5 . 2
cm
x 1 2 " x 6 " ) brick s i z e can be found in buildings in Bath ,
By 1 8 5 5 earthen
Steuben County , and Interlaken , Seneca County .
buildings had been constructed in Erie , Monroe , Steuben , Ontario ,
Yates , Seneca , Tompkins , Oswego , and Otsego counties .
(IS"
Although the architectural treatises of the period were not
s i lent on the subj ect of unburnt brick , few dealt with the mode at
length or in adequate detail to assist a would-be builder .
One
notable exception was The Architect ( 1 8 4 9 ) , a j ournal published by
the New York City architect Wi lliam Ranlett .
Ranlett ' s book may
have been the first eastern publication to use the Spanish term
" adobe" for the construction technique that previously had been
identi fied as " unburnt brick , " " s undried brick , " "mud brick" or
even " Egyptian brick . " While Ranlett devoted only two pages and
three designs to adobe construction , he gave detai led
prescriptions for construction and undoubtedly his copiously
i l lustrated pattern book lent a certain cachet to the novel
building mode that had prompted so much publicity in the previous
f ive year s .
I t appears that Ranlett ' s work inspired the
construction of what is by far New York ' s largest documented
earthen building , the Judge Samuel Ludlow Res idence in Oswego .
Under construction in 1 8 5 1 , the Ludlow res idence when complete had
a maj or facade seventy feet long , two 2 - 1 / 2 story hip-roofed ells
forty- f ive feet long , and an adobe tower with a wood frame top
Today clad with fired brick , Ludlow ' s
that rose forty feet .
res idence serves as a convent for a neighboring Catholic high
school .
By the early 1 8 5 0 ' s , however , the mud brick vogue was
s lowing cons iderably , no doubt prompted in part by the diff iculty
of preventing exterior stucco f inishes from fai l ing . The stucco
problem had been mentioned frequently in early accounts , and
prompted at least two New York State builders to inc lude
horizontal wooden members within the walls between alternate
layers of brick so that the completed masonry building could be
sided with wood .
Despite the generally glowing tone of the early pres s , not
a l l later publications treated the topic so favorably .
In his
1 8 5 2 book Rural Architecture , Lewis F . Allen indicated "we are
aware that unburnt bricks have been strongly recommended for house
building in America ; but f rom observation we are fully persuaded
that they are worthles s for any permanent structure , and if used ,
wi l l in the end prove a dead loss in their app lication . " The
Cultivator , which in March 1 8 4 7 had published an article about mud
brick construction entitled " The Cheapest and Best Mode of
Building " , was by February 1 8 5 5 stating " . . . this mode of building
is falling into disuse , doubt less for some substantial reasons ,
among which is probably the diff iculty of having every part done
wel l , and espec ially the great diff iculty of securing good cement ,
so es sential to success . " Some innovative builders , inspired by
Orson Fowler ' s The Octagon House, A Home for All turned instead to
what was to become the next heralded replacement for fired brick
masonry - -the gravel wall .
As early as February 1 8 4 6 one
correspondent to The Cultivator offered a comparison of the two
technologies :
" I read in E llsworth ' s report of last winter , the
manner of building cheap houses of unburnt brick ; but
I think they have an improvement in Wisconsin over all
others .
The material cons ists of gravel and lime -
one -eighth part lime , and the balance of coarse sand
120
Adobe 90
and any kind of gravel or small stones , mixed so as to
make a mortar that wi ll " se t " so hard as to stand
we l l . "
All but three or four of New York ' s adobe structures can be
confirmed through census research to antedate 1 8 5 5 , although one
Few
Geneva building is known to have been constructed after 1 8 7 0 .
stylistic generali z ations can be made , even in Ontario County ,
where the disparate buildings ref lect then current Greek Revival ,
Simi larly , the buildings
Gothic Revival , and Italianate styles .
cannot be said to have been favored by one socioeconomic group ;
the 1 8 5 5 census records values for the buildings ranging from $ 1 0 0
to $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 , stretching the limit o f what might be cons idered
vernacular architecture .
Today most remaining examples are in
sound condition and all are occupied . Many retain their original
exterior stucco f inishes , although some have long been res ided
with wood clapboard , aluminum , or brick , and hide their identity
Quite certainly others remain to be
from the casual observer .
found , unlikely relics of an innovative era in American masonry
construction , conf irming the c laims of adobe ' s nineteenth century
proponents about the durability of earthen construction in New
York ' s harsh climate .
(
Mud brick from 2 4 7 Washington Street , Geneva , New York .
Brick s i z e is approximately 3 8 cm x 3 0 cm x 1 5 cm
15" x 12" x
6 " ) and is typical of adobe buildings in New York State .
Samuel S i l l res idence , circa 1 8 4 5 , 2 4 7 Washington Street , Geneva ,
New York .
12I
John and Sarah Bradford res idence , c irca 1 8 4 5 , 6 2 9 South Main
Street , Geneva , New York . Gothic Revival des ign was u t i l i zed for a
number of adobe res idences in Geneva .
1 4 West Morris Street , Bath , New York . Thi s Greek Revival style
residence i s covered with a natural cement stucco which was scored
to resemble a shlar .
Theodore I rving res idence , c irca 1 8 4 5 , 7 3 1 South Main Street ,
Geneva , New York . Several of Geneva ' s adobes retain their origina l
exterior natural cement s tucco .
122
Adobe 90
ABSTRACT
RETENT I ON OF THE TRAD I T I ONAL VALUES OF AFRI CAN EARTH ARCH ITECTURE
The cri ti ca l s ho rtage of hous i ng
i s probabl y the s i ng l e g reates t
pro b l em fac i n g deve l op i n g
countri e s i n Afri ca today .
Davi d Sma i l , Arc h i tect
P O Bo x 240305
Ndol a , Zamb i a
Severe e conom i c res tra i nts ,
coup l e d wi th uni magi nati ve and
i l l -di rected pol i ci e s by deve l
opers have c reated hectares of
s teri l e conc rete block un i ts
unaffordab l e to the average wo rke r .
Acro s s Afri ca examp l e s of
fi ne vernacu l ar a rc h i tecture
c reated by s e l f- re l i an t devel
opers a re e vi dent .
These non
pedi g reed archi tects u sed the
ea rth , thei r own u n s k i l l ed l abour ,
and thei r concerned mi n d s to
create archi tecture w i t h q u a l
i ti e s of commun a l awarenes s ,
securi ty , s eren i ty , and aesth
eti cs .
Unfo rtunate l y , these
have been neg l ected by h i s to r i a n s .
Retention of these val ues
wi l l educate con s u l tants and
authori t i e s o n the meri ts of
tradi ti onal des i gn and use of
materi a l s and pos s i bl y u n l e a sh
the ene rgy to m a k e u s e of the
abundant s u pp l i es of l an d ,
l abou r , l ove , economy , a n d earth
to s o l ve the hous i n g pro b l em .
One o f the g reate s t pro b l ems faci ng p racti cal l y a l l co unti es i n Afri ca today
i s p rovi d i n g sati s factory s h e l ter fo r the i r b u rgeoni ng u rban popu l ati o n s .
The mus h ro omi n g o f the towns and c i ti es h a s been a feature o f both the
co l on i a l and post-i n dependence peri od s i nce the end of the Second Worl d War
wi t h the consequent i nc rease of satel l i te town s h i p s and s hanty dwe l l i ng s
s u rroundi n g t h e o l d town centres hou s i ng those i n s ea rc h of a p o t of g ol d .
The response o f mos t governments has been d i rected t h rough thei r quas i
gove rnmental h ou s i ng authori ti e s .
Many agenc i es wi th deep soc i al commi t
ments tri ed to h e l p by bu i l di n g new hou s i ng estates i n modern renewa l projects .
The exi sti ng s hanti es were regarded as s l ums - c haoti c and "bad " ; the pl anners
and so c i o l og i sts fai l e d to understand o r appreci ate the s oc i a l o rgan i sati on s ,
the del i cate expres s i on s of nei ghbourl i ne s s and terri tory found i n them .
New
" good" h ou s i ng was pro v i ded on the g ri d , l ac k i n g heart , i n d i vi dual i ty ,
p ri vacy , and securi ty .
Soon , d i scomfort became ten s i on a n d devel oped i n to
vanda l i sm and thuggery , s i mi l a r to what happened i n the verti cal devel opments
e rected i n the Fi rst Worl d by s i mi l a r wel l -mea n i n g deve l opers .
Compar i n g a
typ i cal s cheme i n Zamb i a ( Fi g u re
w i t h an o l der devel opment i n Ma l i ( F i g ure
2 ) one can o n l y be s addened by the res ul t s of p ro g re ss .
The town p l an o f
Mopti i n Mal i i s ful l of del i gh t , s u rpri s e , i ntere s t , drama , and vari ety , as
o rgani c a s a c ro s s s ecti o n th ro ug h the g u t o f a c h i c ken , compared to the
i nh uman prec i se g ri d now uni versa l l y common a s the a ccepted answer to modern
h o u s i ng deve l o pments .
1)
KEYWORDS
T RAD I T I ONAL VALU E S , ADOB E ,
DECORAT I O N , MODERN U RBAN BL IGHT
Fi gure 1 Modern Hou s i ng pl an
Fi gure 2 Mopti in Ma l i
Those respons i b l e on the town counci l s , a i d agenc i es , archi tects , p l anners ,
and contractor s congratu l a ted thems e l ves on the i r s uccess wi th typi cal
pronouncements , a s one made by the L usa ka C i ty Counc i l o n one such s cheme :
" the l oc a l authori ty l ow c o st house has w i t h i n 20 years , deve l oped from the
trad i ti o n a l hut bui l t of s un dri ed bri ck to a modern s t ructure o f p l aste red
b l o c kwo rk and a s bestos cement s heeti ng that wi l l s tand compari so n wi th pu b l i c
hous i n g a l l over the worl dOl .
( Reference 1 ) .
That these uni ts were s teri l e and c o stly mattered l i ttl e to the deve l opers ;
cement or burnt bri ck are mandatory , b i g wi ndows l ooki ng a c ro s s s ma l l p l ots
on to the heat of the road are the norm , c orrugated i ro n o r a s besto s roofi n g
Aes theti cs a re regarded a s a fri v o l i ty and therefore
s heets are a mus t .
tota l l y expendabl e .
The very rea l cost i n forei gn exchange expen d i t u re ,
defore s ta t i o n thro ug h b urn i ng bri cks , and l ack o f comfort i n sma l l hot houses
wi th curta i n s i nevi tab l y drawn i n a va i n s ea rch for coo l nes s , pri vacy and
secu ri ty a re a l l accepted a s part o f the modern i s a t i o n process .
T radi ti o na l
hou s i n g v a l ues have been d i smi s sed a s u n s u i tabl e for the contemporary s cene .
One of the early voi ce s rai sed to protest the trend was that of founder
P re s i dent of Tanzani a , J u l i us Nyerere , who s a i d , " the wi des pread addi cti on to
cement and ti n roofs i s a k i n d of mental para l ys i s " .
( Reference 2 ) .
I t i s i mportant to app reci ate the very e l ementary l evel at wh i ch a
s o l uti on to thi s probl em must be fo und .
Even one of the s tandard l ocal
a uthori ty-type houses costs the eq ui val ent of about 30 years of earn i n g s for
an a verage worker and i s consequently unattai nab l e .
Modern ho us i ng can o n l y
Many count r i e s i n
rea l l y be afforded by compa n i e s f o r thei r empl oyees .
Afri ca have to i mport many of thei r bui l d i n g materi a l s for the most bas i c
house and due to the cri pp l i ng fore i gn exchange p rob l ems these c o sts a re
enormo u s .
Materi a l s s uc h as cement , g l a s s , t i n roofi ng , p l a s t i c fl oor ti l es
o r p i p i n g cannot be used i n l ow c o st h ou s i ng .
E nv i ronmental res tra i nts
exc l ude others l i ke t i mber , a s the defore s ta t i o n o f areat a reas o f the
conti nent rul e s out wood for e i ther b urn i ng bri c k s o r fo r s tructura l p u rposes .
123
T h i s l eaves earth and , to a l esser degre e , gras s , ree d , l i me , and some
smal l t i mber secti ons as the avai l ab l e construct i o n materi al s .
Attempts to b u i l d a tru ly appropri ate s tructure u s i n g only l ocal materi al s
have been scorned by authori ti es , cons u l tants , and contractors al i ke .
The
probl em of overcomi ng the "mi n i ma l " connotat i o n of u s i ng earth s tructures i s
very rea l i ndee d .
The authori t i e s i nvari abl y regard these proposa l s as
condescendi ng :
Does n ' t i ndependent Afri ca dese rve at l east the same modern
bui l di ng ma teri a l s as the deve l oped worl d?
Conservati ve contractors prefer
Al s o , the true savi ngs i n
usi ng tri e d and tested ma teri a l s wi thout ri s k .
u s i n g earth a s a medi um are negated by i nfl ated costs or i n s urance added by
the bui l der.
Tradi ti onal crafts , rare l y used , have tended to d i e o u t .
Consul tants prefer t o concentrate on l a rger more pres t i g i ous jobs and s o very
l i tt l e constructi ve th i nk i ng has gone i nto l ow-cost hous i ng des i gn .
Land i s readi l y avai l ab l e , a s i s earth a s a b u i l di ng materi a l , and there
i s p l enty of l abour due to h i gh unempl oyment and the popul ati on exp l os i o n .
The s e are the seeds o f a sol uti on , provi ded that the prej udi ce agai nst mud
can be overcome .
The way through thi s di l emma can be seen i n severa l examp l es
from across the cont i nent , where for centuri es l aymen have bui l t
sens i ti vely p l anned houses out o f bas i c materi a l s and c reated true exampl es
o f q ua l i ty vernacul ar archi tecture ; a tradi t i o n that must be conserved .
Three s c hemes typi cal of many throughout Afri ca are the Hausa compounds
i n Ni geri a , the Tswana hous i ng i n Botswana , and the Ndbel a dwe l l i ng s i n
South Afri ca , have the fol l owi ng s i m i l a ri ti es o f ; a)
They are sel f-de s i gned and s e l f-bui l t , non-pedi greed arch i tecture ;
b)
They have a b i l ob i a l pl an wi th i ts hei rarchy o f spaces , from publ i c
to pri vate , g i v i ng a sense o f pri vacy , terri tory , and
n e i g hbourl i ne s s ; ( Fi gure
3)
Fi gure 3
Bi l ob i a l P l an
c)
T h ey are economi cal s i nce they u s e readi l y avai l ab l e earth a s the
maj o r b u i l di ng materi al ;
d)
T h e decorat i o n of the earth structures decl ares the author ' s pri de
i n h i s or her creat i o n
T h e most i nteres t i n g of t h e H a u s a peopl e ' s mud- b u i l t archi tecture i s
s i tuated at Zari a i n the Northern Savannah regi on o f Ni geri a .
As i n the
Mal i an town o f Mopti , the Hausa houses or compounds c l uster a l ong busy foot
Qaths around the town ' s two ma i n focal poi nts ; the mosque or oal ace and the
soci a l economi c centre , the market p l ace .
The compound pl ans genera l l y fol l ow the des i gn of two courtyards w i t h
the i r characteri sti c hei rarchy o f spaces l eadi ng from pub l i c to semi - pub l i c ,
to semi - p ri vate , and pri vate areas .
( Fi g u re 4 ) .
The entrance i s norma l ly
crowned wi th an i mpress i ve thatched roof under which the head o f the house
hol d practi ces h i s trade o r craft and meets the pas s i ng worl d .
The fi rst
court i s a trans i ti onal semi - p ub l i c space wi th severa l rooms for servants ,
guests , adol escent boys , and someti mes a horse or cow .
The q uarters for the
head of the househ o l d open o ff the fi rst court and have a mee t i n g a rea for
i mportant guests , whi l e the i nner courtyard houses the wi ves , gi rl s , boys
bel ow the age of puberty , chi cken s , k i tchens , and granneri es .
The pri vacy
and tranq u i l i ty of the cou rtyards form a haven from the bustl i ng roads , a
serene open-ai red space , pri vate and secure .
The earth - bu i l t wa l l i ng
p rovi des a uni fyi ng e l ement to the compound that i s del i ghtfu l l y decorated
w i th s c u l ptu red rabbi t ears , bas-re l i ef , mura l s , and vari ous roof forms .
Al l
i n al l a publ i c demonstrati on o f the owne r ' s pri vate p l eas ure i n h i s
archi tecturp
( Fi gures 5 and 6 ) .
Fi (jure 4
Hausa HOllse P l an
F i gure 5
Hausa arc h i tectural e l ements
Adobe 90
124
T h e earth wa l l s a re bui l t from egg-shaped bri cks the s i ze of a me l on that
are made a t borrow pi ts from earth that i s trampl ed wi th water to form a
workab l e mi x before bei ng rou g h l y mou l ded and l eft to dry for at l ea s t two
wee k s .
Mortar of a s i mi l a r mi x i s used for l ayi ng the bri cks di rectly on a
450 mm deep foundati on trenc h .
No more than three courses a re l a i d each day ,
but the wal l s are pl a s tered aga i n wi th the same mortar both i nterna l l y and
external l y .
Both s traw/thatch a n d mud a re used for roofi ng , the l atter bei ng a pp l i ed
i n two l ayers 50 mm and 75 mm th i ck s upported on s p l i t pol es wh i ch a re t i e d
i nto t h e mud wal l s .
Fi g u re; 6 ( l eft )
Typi cal hausa mura l
Further south i n Botswana the Tswana peopl e have for centuri es been
b u i l di ng b i l ob i a l dwe l l i ng s s i mi l ar to those of the Hausa usi ng s i mi l a r earth
materi a l s , yet wi th more s ubdued but eq ua l l y hea rtfe l t decorati on .
( Fi gure 7 )
They col l ect the materi a l ,
Women do a l l the b u i l di ng and c ra fti ng i n m u d .
mou l d the b l ocks , erect the wal l s , and they do the pl a steri ng and co l ouri n g .
T h e wal l i s b ui l t from a mi xture o f sand or c l ay a n d wate r , a l though cow
dung i s often a dded to the m i x .
The soi l i s ca rri ed i n bas kets on the i r
heads to the b u i l d i ng s i te .
Foundati on trenches 1 00
deep a re d u g , l evel l ed ,
and l i gh t l y compacted .
mm
Two types o f b r i c k s o r b l ocks a re u s e d for the wal l ; wet ( tradi ti onal ) o r
d ri e d .
Wet bri cks a re mou l ded b y h a n d about 300 m m x 50 m m i n s i ze a n d l a i d
o n top o f e a c h other wh i l e s ti l l damp , p l a s te red and a l l owed t o dry - th ree
courses at a t i me .
&ntronce.
Fi g u re 7 Typi ca 1 Tswana House Pl an
Bri cks may a l so b e s haped i n a s i mp l e mou l d o f wood .
Water i s not
pressed out as th i s wou l d reduce the s trength of the bri cks .
The bri cks are
dri ed i n the s un then l a i d i n a mo rta r o f the s ame mi xture as the bri ck .
There i s very l i ttl e di fference i n s trength between the wet o r s un-dri ed
bri c k , a l though some i n veterate i mprovers s ay it is eas i e r to cut out and
re- use the s un-dri ed type .
The wa l l i s a l ways covered wi t h two or th ree l ayers o f p l aste r , both
T h e pl aster i s put on b y h a n d and a fi n i s h i ng c o a t of sand ,
i ns i de and o u t .
water , and cow dung i s used , wh i ch covers any cracks or c ra z i ng and g i ves the
house a smooth l ook .
Women wi l l go to great l enghts to decorate thei r wa l l s ,
and compl ete rede s i gns wi l l be done for spec i a l occas i o ns such a s b i rths ,
i ni t i a t i o n ceremoni es , graduati ons , weddi ngs , funera l s , or e ven at the s ta rt
of the p l anti ng season .
Thi s concern wi th beauty i s i l l us trated by the descri pti on by an o l d
woman who tol d how she col l ected the mud when col ouri ng her house and the
other houses i n the yard . " The brown mud I col l ected i n Sekwane ( about 35
km away ) and the pa l e brown from Muchudi ( about 30 km away ) .
The bl a c k mud
I co l l ected from South Afri ca where I went to s tay wi th my mothe r ' s s i s te r .
The other type , t h e yel l ow-ochre , w a s col l ected from a boreho l e no rth of th i s
vi l l age .
We went there to col l ect mud , but we a re not a l l owed to by the
owner of the boreho l e .
The i vory whi te was col l ected from a stream
whi c h passes through my fi e l ds at the l ands "
( Reference 3 ) .
F i g u re 8
Fl oo r Pattern
The tree of l i fe g rows from man ' s
heart
Roofs a re thatched a n d h a ve b i g o verhangs to th row the rai nwater from
hea vy storms we 1 1 c 1 ea r of the base of the wal L
The fl oors of the houses
a re rammed soi l , f i n i shed w i th a mi xture o f cow d u ng and water s pread w i th the
hand in bea uti f u l patterns gi vi ng a h a rd , odourl e s s , dus t-free s u rface that does
not attract fl i e s
( Fi gure 8 ) .
F i g ure 9
Typi ca l Tswana House
125
The Ndebe l e peop l e of the Northern Transvaal of South Afri ca have
deve l oped the bi l ob i a l theme i nto a very soph i sti cated and refi ned a rt form.
A seri es of terri tori a l s ta teme lts i s made defi ni ng the hei rarcy of s paces
that form the i r dwe l l i ngs
( Fi gure 1 0 ) .
GIRLS
COURTYARD.
KIT.
KIT.
CHICKENS
AND
GOATS.
CATTLE.
BOYS
COURT
COURT
SOC IAL AREA.
COMMUNAL
-- ------- Fi gure 1 0
AREA.
�
--------- -
ENTRANCE.
'��
.�
---- -- ----- ------- ---
P l an of Ndebe l e Dwe l l i ng
The p ub l i c area i s a hand-crafted l ow p l atform that i nd i cates the house
is being approached ; a second a rea i s entered through g ate posts and has a l ow
wal l .
Thi s i s where the women of the househo l d do thei r chore s , s uperv i s e the
chi l dre n , and soci a l i se wi th the settl ement.
Further zones wi th h i gher and
hi gher wa l l s l ead to the front court wi th the dwel l i ng s b u i l d i ngs formi ng one
s i de of the court .
A seri es of rear o r s i de courts rad i ate from the mai n
dwel l i n g , each hous i ng a k i tchen , a dwe l l i ng for the e l de s t daughter o r g rand
pare n t , o r l i vestock compound.
Thi s bui l di ng type res ponds to envi ronmental
condi t i on s to a remarka b l e degree and the exhuberant decorati on i l l us trates the
de l i ght of the Ndebe l e peopl e fo r thei r creati o n .
D r Hassan , the g reat Egypti an arch i te c t , has s hown h i s b ri l l i an t
i deas f o r bui l di ng i n earth and taught the construc t i on of an earth vaul t
wi thout usi ng any t i mber formwork .
Several attempts at bui l d i ng earth domes
and vau l ts i n a reas wi th heavy ra i n fa l l have fai l ed and the d i s covery of a
cove ri ng that uses nei ther cement or t i mber ( fo r burni ng ti l e s ) wi l l open up
the whol e fi e l d of bui l di ng l ow-cost houses .
Experi ments wi th s i s a l fi bre ,
l i me , or pozzal ano cement , where avai l ab l e , have made some progres s ; ti l es
burnt wi th heat generated from a methane bi ogas d i gester have been manufactured
but a re not
yet sati s factory .
nS
Hi s tory has been i ndi fferent to i ndi genous hous i ng devel opments wi th very
1 i tt 1 e recorded materi a 1 , preferri ng to concentrate on the " nob l e " a rc h i tecture .
Th i s i s perhaps the reason for the current negl ect of earth as a val uabl e
constructi on mater i a l i n the Thi rd Worl d .
I t i s i roni c that mud i s compl etely
accepted by the hotel i ndustry for thei r l uxury hote l s serv i n g Fi rs t Wor l d
touri sts and a l so by c i ty dwe l l ers for thei r country retreats where , des p i te
the l ac k of hi gh-tech l uxu ri es i n thei r s p l endi d apa rtments , the envi ronment of
the structure enab l es them to rel a x in serene s u rround i ng s .
Reten t i on o f the qual i ti es o f earth a s a n acceptab l e constructi on materi a l
i s a neces s i ty .
Conservati on of the trad i ti on of bui l di ng i n ea rth whi ch i s
freel y avai l ab l e , pl asti c , easi l y worked , economi c and beauti ful i s a nec
es s i ty not for the sake of quai ntness but the retenti on of a s pontaneous
a rchi tecture .
As Dr Fathy has s ai d , the cost of bui l di ng the p resent ug l y
town devel opments wi l l dri v� us to bui l d more beauti ful homes i n mud a s thi s
wi l l be a l l we can afford.
NOTES - REFERENCE
1.
Gardens and Outdoor Li vi ng , Nati onal Hous i ng Authori ty , Zambi a , 1 972
2.
D . Greenwoo d , Arch i te c t , Hausa Compounds Zan i a
I n- S i tu Journa l , Zamb i a I nsti tute o f Arch i tects , 1 979
3.
An i ta and V i e ra La rsson , Tradi tional Tswana Hous i ng
Swedi sh Counci l for Bu i l d i n g Research , 1 984
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
1.
En i d Cameron-Smi th , Mi s undu Mud P i ts , Zambi a
2.
Sandy Grant , Much ude Museum , Botswana
Fi gure 1 1 ( l eft )
Ndebe l e Mural
126
ABSTRACT
THE LES SONS OF DAR AL I SLAM
The Dar al I s l am community ,
located near Abiquiu , New
Mexico , w a s f i r s t conce ived
by Abdul lah Nuridin Durkee
and S ahl Kabbani in 1 9 7 9 and
implemented through grants
from many individua l s and
The
I s lamic foundation s .
founders commis s ioned the
we l l -known Egyptian archi
tect H a s s an F a thy to de s ign
the pro j ec t , and he v i s ited
the s ite in 1 9 8 0 with two
Nubian masons to present h i s
p l a n s a n d demo n strate h i s
techniques o f building i n
mud brick .
A f t e r a prom i s
i n g s tart a n d t h e cons truc
tion o f the mosque , which
was to be the focal point of
the community , problems in
building procedure began to
emerge , greatly increas ing
cons truction time and c o s t
o f what was intended t o be a
low- co s t , s e l f -help v i l l age .
The source of these problems
i s indicative o f the obsta
c l e s f ac ing tho s e who
contemplate s imilar pro j e c t s
in t h e southwes tern United
State s .
James McLeod S teele Jr .
Texas Tech Unive r s i ty
C o l l ege of Architecture
Lubbock , Texas
79409 U . S .A.
KEYWORDS
Dar al I s l am , H a s s an F athy ,
Adobe .
The idea behind Dar a l I s lam was f i r s t conce ived b y Abdul lah
Nuridin Durkee , after a chance meeting with Saudi busines sman
Sahl Kabanni in Makkah in 1 9 7 9 .
Both men then d i s cu s sed the
pos s ib i l ity of a seed community for American Mus l ims who had
previous ly been f ragmented and s e eming ly cut o f f f rom the main
s tream traditions of thei r religion .
I n i t i a l ly visuali zed a s
both a rel igious and educational a s we l l a s a r e s identi a l center ,
the community began to emerge a s one that would provide a cul
tural focus for more than one hundred Mus l im f ami l i e s and would
be a model for others of kind throughout the United State s .
After a great deal of e f fort , the search for a suitable s i te for
such a pro j e c t led i t s founders to s e l e c t 1 , 2 0 0 acres o f l and in
the Chama River Val leY near Abiquiu , New Mexico , f i f ty m i l e s
north o f S anta F e , which was purchased w i th funds made avai lable
by Kabban i , a s we l l a s the Prince s s e s Mothie ,nd Johara , who are
the daughters o f the l ate King Khal i d ibn Abuul A z i z o f Saudi
Arab i a .
Because of its r e lative s e c lu s ion and the s imi larity of
its terrain to other I s lamic count r i e s such as Tuni s a , Algeria ,
Morocco , Syr i a , I raq , Iran , Afghani s tan , and parts of P a k i s tan ,
thi s s ite s eemed ideal to a l l concerned .
As Durkee himse l f has
said :
In addition to i t s phy s i c a l a s s et s , that i s , the
nece s s ary land , wate r , and s o i l for cultivation ,
construction and hab itation , the Abiquiu s i te has
geograph i c , c l imat ic , and cultural characteri st i c s
that make it ide a l f o r an I s lamic Center .
Located
at the s ame l a titude a s many o f the maj or I s l amic
regions o f the wor l d , i t a l s o shares a s imilar
topography , c l imate , and long h i s tory o f mud brick
architecture . ( 1 )
Even before an architect for the comp lex was chosen , the
heart of the new commun ity was intended to be a rro sque , a s we l l
a s a madre s s a , or rel ig ious schoo l , and a r iwaq , or l iving quar
ters for the s tudents and teachers us ing t
chool .
In addi
t i o n to the s e rel igious and educational institution s , an admi n i s
trat ive center t o inc lude an I n s t i tute o f Advanced I s lamic
S tud i e s , a s we l l a s hou s e s , shop s , a women ' s center , l ibrary , and
c l inic were a l s o cons idered e s sential to the e stab l i s hment of the
new vil lage .
Because of h i s venerable reputation a s the leading
architect in the I s l amic world at that t ime , a s we l l a s his long
exper ience in u s ing mud brick construction , H a s s an Fathy was
unanimous l y cons idered to be the mos t logical choice a s the
de s igner of Dar al I s l am , and after having been introduced to
Abdul lah Nuridin Durkee by j ournal i s t Abdullah S c h l e i f e r in Cairo
in 1 9 8 0 , F a thy enthus i a s t i c a l ly agreed to do s o w i thout a fee ,
because of h i s deep b e l i e f in the ide a l s involved in the pro j e c t .
Soon afterward , in June 1 9 8 0 , Fathy v i s i ted Abiquiu and pre sented
h i s propo s a l s to the prospective r e s idents there , whi l e a l s o
showing t h e construct ion methods to b e u s ed .
These were demon
s trated by two Nubian masons (Mua l l ims ) who accompanied him and
were based on a sy stem that ha s been u s ed in Egypt s ince 3 0 0 0
B.C.
In this s y stem , which i s e loquently de s c r ibed in Fathy ' s
book Archi tecture for the Poor , a s u s ed in h i s vil lage o f New
Gourna on the we s t bank of Luxor , a vaul t s e rve s a s the b a s e
uni t , and the cons truction o f thi s vault beg ins w i t h t h e erection
of a " kick-wa l l " built up to the des ired he ight of the space to
be constructed .
Once this kick-wa l l is comp lete , the masons ,
usually working in pair s , do a free- form out l ine of the parabol ic
vault in mud on the wa l l as a guide .
Although thi s may sound
s imple , the proper shape of the curve is cruc i a l for s tructural
succe s s and learn ing how to lay it out without surveying too l s of
any k ind requires long hours o f pract i c e , usually received in a
f ather- to- son apprenticeship arrangement .
�
1.
V i l l age p l an a s revi sed ,
provided by the Dar a l I s l am
Foundation .
After this mud guide l ine has partially dried the mua l l ims
dres s the rough edg e s with sharp adze before applying the f i r s t
cours e o f mud b r i c k s t o i t .
T h e brick s o f this f i r s t cour s e , and
of each s uc c e s s ive cours e of the vau l t , d i f fer from those used in
the cons truction of the wa l l s in that they have a higher propor
tion of straw to mud , which mak e s them much l ighter , and each
brick is s cored with two f inger groove s by the mua l l ims , whi le
still wet , to g ive more fricti o n and adherence to the mud mortar .
I27
A s tarter brick is then laid stra ight up at the b a s e of the
vau l t l ine on both s ide s , and mud mortar is pacyed on it to form
a wedge that is thinner at the top of the bricks and wider at the
This s e t s the angle for each of the vaul t cour s e s to
bottom .
f o l low , ensuring that they inc l ine toward the kick-wa l l in com
pre s s ion , rather than remaining perpendicular to the ground ,
which would make them c o l l ap s e .
As each cours e of bricks is added , the mual l ims gradu a l l y
make t h e mortar t h i c k e r at t h e b a s e o f t h e arch than at the peak
to make sure the entire a s s embly i s leaning on the end wa l l , as
we l l a s s t agger ing the j oint l in e s between each row of bricks to
a s s i s t bending .
This c alculated inc l ine of the vaul t as i t is
put into p l ace accounts for the characte r i s t i c mas s ive vertical
end w a l l and s loped front edge o f the vaul t s that are usually
found in the mud-brick building s around Aboul-Riche and Gharb
Aswan in Upper Egypt . ( 2 )
The presentation o f this technique was made to more than 3 0 0
people who inc luded architects and adobe builde r s from a l l over
the United S tates and Mexico as we l l as government o f f i c i a l s
intere s ted in t h e economic potentital o f the s y s tem and , o f
cour s e , the intended r e s idents and board o f directors o f the
community .
The presentation a l s o began to evolve from a cons truc
t i on workshop into a teaching s e s s ion , in which F athy gave a
s e r i e s of lecture s that compre s sed a h a l f century o f hard-won
exper ience into a s tream- o f - consciousne s s s ummation of the archi
tect ' s mos t personal b e l i e f s .
Perhaps s e eming somewhat d i s
j ointed and irre levant t o many o f thos e i n attendanc e , who had
l ittle or no knowledge of the remarkab le background of the speak
er , the s e lectures nonethe l e s s went to the heart of many of the
que s tions that were later to emerge a s prob lematic i s sue s for the
community .
One man in the audienc e , for examp l e , made the obser
vat ion that the mosque be ing proposed by Fathy was the result of
thous ands o f years o f evolution in a certain environment and
culture , and had its own j u s t i f i cation a s a spir itual and cere
mon i a l bui lding , but that " mo s t o f us here are not concerned w i th
c e remonial buildings but with the places people l ive in , a s we l l
a s the who le question o f s o lving the problem o f re-deve loping the
v i l l age economy as wel l as i t s architecture . " ( 3 )
Whi l e not
directly r e sponding to this s t atement , Fathy answered that
. the solution to any problem requires time and
e f fort and cannot be achieved overnight , espec ia l ly
when we have had two-hundred years o f cultural a l iena
t ion .
I personally cannot s olve i t , because i t has
gained a great deal o f momentum , like a steamrol l e r
pre s s ing a n entire culture in front o f it .
People
make excus e s today by saying that everybody i s now
the s ame , but I say , no s i r , this is e scapism and we
mus t not avo id our respon s ib i l itie s .
We should never
be chauvin i s t i c or exc lus ive , but have to be open
minded about tradition .
I f something doe s n ' t work
we mus t wipe it out with the conf idence that i t i s
n o t worthwh i l e keeping . ( 4 )
Both theme s , o f a concern for comfortab l e hab itat on the one hand
and the appropriatene s s of cul tural traditions on the othe r ,
cont inue t o reappear throughout the b r i e f h i s tory o f Dar a l I s l am
and o ff e r an important key to unde r s tanding the l e s sons that it
provide s .
2.
Mosque E l evation and
Section .
Cour t e s y H a s s an
Fathy and the Aga Khan Award
for Architecture .
I n addition to the inspiration provided by thes e lectures
and the f e e l ing o f high expectation and cooperation that the
workshop provided , the immediate tangible legacy o f thi s o f f i c i a l
2
inauguration o f the community was t h e e legant 2 2 0 m Mas j id , or
Mosque , that still remains the spiritual heart o f the complex ,
s tand ing a s a graphic reminder of the s tructural and spatial
po s s ib i l i t i e s that once exi sted .
I ngenious ly de s igned to achieve
the separation of the sexes required in a l l re l igious and secular
pub l i c bui ldings in the I s lamic wor ld , the Mosque i s dominated by
a l arge dome which i s built over i t s main prayer area .
As in the
cons truc tion of a maj or ity of his dome s , Fathy u s e s the S a s s anid
method here , s o that the corne r s where the arches meet to form
the springing of the dome are f i r s t leve led off and then br idged
with hal f domes to form s quinche s .
These squinches then in turn
c reate an octagon a l base on which the s tructure s i t s . ( 5 )
Regard
l e s s of the deceptively s imple suc c e s s of the vault and dome
cons truction of the Mosque , however , the American masons were
unabl e to continue the examp le o f the i r Nub ian i n s t ructo r s , and
structural revi s io n i sm s l owly began to creep into the construc
t i on proce s s .
Expensive plywood temp l a te s , which s t i l l l i tter
the s ite , were soon sub s t i tuted for the parabo l i c curve s that the
3 . P lywood forms for arche s .
Jame s Stee l e .
Photo :
Nubians produced , and had to be used to form a l l future arches
Smal l det a i l s that went unob served
and springing lines o f vaults .
during the Nubian demon s tration a l s o soon began to have unexpected
and drastic consequences on cons t ruction progre s s .
S core mark s
have a lways proved e s sential for the adhesion of one brick course
to the next in vau l t s and dome s in the past ; they have been
etched on the f ace o f mud bricks by Egypt i an , Nubian , and Hebrew
ma sons in Egypt for 5 , 0 0 0 years and can s t i l l be seen in the
remains of the storehouses of the mortuary complex of Pharaoh
Ramses II in Luxor , bui l t between 1 2 9 0 and 1 2 2 5 B . C . but at Dar
Mortar ,
a l I s l am they were e l iminated with d i s a s trous results . ( 6 )
on the other hand , whi l e es sent i a l on the brick faces of these
same vaul t s and dome s , proved dangerous when applied to the end s ,
because i t s inevitable shrinkage caused l o s s of contact and
S igni f i c ant changes in the compos ition of the
ultimate f a i lure .
mud brick itse l f , such as the expens ive addi t ion of l ime stone
aggregate suspended in a lactic acid emu l s ion with long c e l lulose
f ibers added to cope with thermal expans ion , were made to o f f set
The final result of the
the poor adhe s ion o f the local s o i l .
initial f a i lures that occurred seems to have been a b a s i c di strust
o f the traditional system proposed by H a s s an Fathy and succe s s
This
f u l l y used b y h i m in numerous ma j or pro j ec t s in Fgypt .
d i s trust i s e spec i a l ly evident today in the full l in ing o f l ami
nated plywood used as shuttering to permanently support the long
barrel vaults covering the kitchen and dining area at the end o f
the v i l lage center , as we l l a s in the s t e e l reinforcing b a r s that
pro j e c t out of unfini shed adobe wal l s , and in the concrete s l ab s ,
corner columns , and l inte l beams that reduce the final high tech
mud brick i n f i l l to a symbol i c remnant o f its former s e l f .
The per s i s tent concerns voiced about comfort leve l s i n the
cold n ights and winters of New Mexico , which were raised during
the opening ceremonies for the center , have a l s o been put to rest
by the instal lation o f costly , e l e c t r i c a l ly heated radiant mesh
Commerc i a l ly produced , f ired
embedded in a l l concrete s labs .
c l ay bricks that are now in evidence in the uncoated domes of the
arts and c r a f t s center next to the ma in dining room a l s o g ive
clear testimony to the ultimate extent o f the builde r s ' d i s trust
o f mud brick , and the conceptual d i s tance that has been trave led
between the architec t ' s original intentions and the r e a l i t i e s
T o be
perceived b y dec i s ion makers at D a r al I s l am later on .
f a i r , many o f the a l terat ions made , such as concrete f loor s l ab s ,
corner posts , and ring beams , were required by New Mexico ' s
building code , whi ch , whi le permitting adobe cons truct i on , con
verts it into something quite d i f ferent from its traditional
counterpart .
Perhaps nothing procl aims thi s convers ion more unmis takably
than the regula t ions r e lated to coatings , and it i s the se that
have had the mos t d i s a s trous consequenc e s on the ove r a l l phy s ical
appearance o f a l l the buildings o f Dar a l I s l am , making what
should be a s o f t and natural earth p l a s te r surface look l ike
Whi l e making a token gesure at acceptance o f
pre s s ed p l a s t i c .
adope a s a building mater ia l , thi s code , espec i a l ly in i t s atti
tude toward coatings , betrays a pre j udice that is unfortunately
pervas ive among all highly indus t r i a l i zed societies in the deve l
I n the southwe s tern United S tate s , that pre j udice i s
oped wor ld .
usually ration a l i z ed b y bui lding authorities b y reference to
s tudi e s that track in great deta i l the deterioration of a s ingle
As Jean-Lou i s Bourgeo i s has noted
mud brick submerged in water .
in his exce l lent a s s e s sment o f the inherent f a l lacy behind the
use o f such evidence as proof o f the supposed weakn e s s o f adobe
and the unsuitab i l ity of natural mud p l a s ter as moi sture protec
tion in temperate c l imate s , d i s s o lving a s ingle brick by cons tant
immers ion in water i s an unfair way to evaluate the s tabil ity of
As
an entire wal l sys tem intermi ttently dampened by rain .
Bourgeois has said :
4.
Barrel vaults .
James Steele .
Photo :
They are j u s t irre levant .
The tests are accurate .
such behavior has l i ttle to do with the performance o f
an adobe wal l .
No brick that supports any weight in
How a s ingle
a s l anting wal l ever gets that wet .
adobe brick r e s i s t s water attacking from s ix s ides
has l i ttle to do with how a mas s ive adobe wall res i s t s
rain from o n e s ide . . . . Adobe bricks function as a
. traditional adobe is not j ust a mater i a l .
s tructure .
I t is a system . ( 7 ) .
The consequence of the acceptance of such t e s t s by those
enforc ing building codes has been the requirement that cement
p l a s ter be used as a coating for . adobe rather than the more
natural and h i s to r i c a l ly proven f i n i s h of mud plaster that a l lows
the adobe wal l to breathe and dry out normal ly through evaporation
129
a f ter being wet by rain .
Because it is a l s o thermal ly incompat
ible w i th the mud brick that i t is supposed to protec t , cement
plaster frequently cracks , a l l owing water into the wal l that
cannot then e s c ape .
Such cracks are a l ready in evidence in many
of the wal l s now coated w i th cement p l a s ter at Dar al I s lam .
In
severe c a s e s , thi s trapped water causes the adobe to d i s integrate
and c o l l ap s e .
5.
Buttres s wall and
concrete lintel beam .
James Steele .
Photo :
As a result of the comb ined e f fects o f d i s i l lusionment with
.the lack of progr e s s on the cons truction , as we l l as the a larming
cost overruns caused by building code restriction s , the backers
o f the pro j ec t began to have second thoughts .
The s e doub t s were
not he lped by l i fe- style d i f ferences o f the woulu-be res idents in
compari son with the people in the country for wh ich such s e l f
h e l p mud b r i c k architecture w a s originally intended , a n d the
distrust o f adobe that seems inherent in contemporary society in
the western hemisphere , wh ich did not impre s s f inanc i a l support
ers who are accus tomed to see ing concrete , g l a s s , and s t e e l
In
construction f i n i shed with g r e a t speed in the ir own country .
the s ix years fol lowing the comp l e t ion o f the Mosque i n 1 9 8 1 ,
only h a l f o f the v i l l age center had been comp le ted at great cos t ,
with an e s timated $ 6 3 0 , 0 0 0 in 1 9 8 7 dol la r s then being required to
As these second
f in i s h the remaining part of the core area . ( 8 )
thoughts began to turn into intractable doubts about the future
o f the pro j e c t and tempers f lared , founder Nuridin Durkee s aw no
alternative but to res ign from the Board of Directors of Dar a l
I s lam i n 1 9 8 9 , preferring the peace and quiet o f r e s earch and
s tudy in Cairo to further frustration and d i s appo intment in
Abiquiu .
In recently reviewing the b a s i c d i f ferences between
us ing mud brick in the way proposed by Has s an Fathy and that
required in New Mexico , Durkee echoed mos t o f the reasons a lready
l i sted here and proposed that l o c a l ly produced pumice , or tufa ,
brick which is cons idered by building authorities to be more
impervious to water damage than adobe , be seriously cons idered as
an a l ternative material in the future . ( 9 )
Durkee ' s res ignat ion ,
as we l l as this final pos ition on the u s e of mud brick in Dar a l
I s lam i s a s ad commentary o n a vis ion that once h e l d so much
promise and a mate r i a l that has come to symb o l i z e the southwe s t
e rn United S tates in t h e mind o f t h e general pub l i c .
Conc lus ion
The l e s sons provided by Dar al I s l am , then , to those contemplat ing
the use o f adobe cons truct ion in this reg ion of Ame r i c a , and
particularly those enamored with the s e l f-help techniques as soc
iated w i th the work o f H a s s an Fathy , are certainly harsh .
Wh i l e
i t would seem to be easy t o f a u l t t h e b u i l d e r s o f the community
i t s e l f for the i r f ai lure to carry on with the original intentions
o f the architect and his gift o f an inexpens ive s tructural sys tem
that had taken him an entire l i fetime to perfec t , th i s would be
too s imp l i stic .
Also faulting the restrictive building codes of
the area , which are admi ttedly d i s re spect ful o f a material that
they proudly c l a im to " improve , " i s a l s o unreal i s t i c .
The funda
mental f l aw beh ind the fai lure o f Dar al I s l am certainly inc ludes
both o f the se factors but f i na l ly goes beyond them to the b a s i c
que st ions o f t h e appropriatene s s o f u s ing Has san F athy , a long
with his methods and style , in the pro j e c t at the outse t .
By
choo s ing thi s undeniably remarkab le architect , the founders o f
the pro j e c t were choos ing t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e prospective r e s i
dents o f D a r al I s lam would a l s o embrace his ide a s o f s e l f-help
hous ing bu i l t with natural , ava i l ab l e mater ia l s , as we l l as the
Spartan l i fe s ty l e of the Egyptian peasant .
As Abdul lah S c h l e i f e r ,
who introduced Nuridin Durkee to Has s an Fathy in the f i r s t place ,
has so perceptive l y noted , cons truc tion at Dar al I s l am is not
proceeding in accord with
the mutual aid cooperat ive sys tem outl ined Ly F a thy
in h i s writings .
�hi s sytem requires pre-ex i s ting
communal t i e s and traditional social s tructure , a
ne ighboring parent v i l l age for sate l l i te settlement ,
tribal or c lan re l ationships and a sub s i s tence e conomy
that provide s .
. the t ime and the ava ilable w i l l ing
l abor for cooperative work .
The Abiquiu proj e c t
u n f o l d s in a soc i a l void . ( 1 0 )
A s F athy hims e l f said i n h i s l ectures that inaugurated the pro j e c t ,
such a void cannot be fi lled overnight .
6.
Cement p l aster coating .
James Steele .
Photo :
In a deeper sense , F athy was obvious ly chosen as the archi
tect o f Dar a l I s l am not only because o f the economic appeal o f
the s tructural system t h a t he h a d resurrected , but a l s o because
he had then come to be recogni zed as " the F a ther o f Contemporary
I s l amic Architecture " for his Herculean e f forts in encouraging
13 0
Adobe 90
a l l o f the count r i e s in the Mus l im wor ld to s e arch for an expre s
s ion o f the ir unique architectural identity . ( 1 1 )
T h e s e e f forts
have not only made him a role model for count l e s s number s of
young architect s throughout the deve loping wor ld , but have a l s o
made h i m an enduring symbol o f high achievement to Mus l ims every
where .
In h i s lecture s at Dar al I s lam , Fathy a l s o stres sed that
the plans for the vi llage he had de s igned stood for far more than
j u s t a construction pro j e c t , but a l s o represented "a m i s s i o n " for
all concerned . ( 1 2 )
Whi le the f a i lure o f that mi s s ion s t i l l may
not be con s idered a foregone conc lus ion , its comple t ion really
doe s now appear to be a l l but impo s s ible .
The current s tate o f
a f f a i r s at Rio Chama mus t be d i s appo inting f o r the intended
r e s iden t s of Dar a l I s l am , but i f this vil lage is l e f t unfini shed
it will mos t certainly repre sent the final frus tration in the
career of H a s s an F athy and s tand as one more haunted community
left needles s ly abandoned in the wilderne s s .
Notes
1.
A. N. Durkee , " Ha s san Fathy in New Mexico , " The Bui ldinL
of Architecture ( Pennsylvan i a :
The Graduate School o f Fine
Arts o f the Univer s i ty o f Pennsylvan i a , 1 9 8 4 ) : 5 9 .
2.
J . M . S teele Jr . , H a s san�athy ( London : Academy Editions
Monograph Serie s , 1 9 8 8 ) : 5 2 - 5 3 .
3.
H . Fathy , Lectures at Dar al I s lam ( Geneva , Swit z e r l and : Aga
Khan Award for Architecture , 1 9 8 0 ) , tape tran s c r ipt s .
4.
Ibid .
5.
D . Di l lon , "A Mosque for Abiquiu , "
( June 1 9 8 3 ) : 9 0 .
6.
G . W . Van Beek , " Arches and Vaul t s in the Ancient Near
E a st , " Scient i f i c Ame r i can 2 5 7 , no . 1 ( July 1 9 8 7 ) : 9 6 .
7.
J . L . Bourgeo i s , S�ctacula�Vernacular :
(Apeture Books , 19 8 9 ) : 1 6 7 - 1 6 9 .
8.
Dar a l I s l am News Bulletin (Abiquiu , New Mexico :
I s l arnFoundation-;-1 9 8 6-:- -
9.
Personal interview with author at the Amer ican Unive r s ity in
Cairo , October 1 8 , 1 9 8 9 .
progre s s iv�Architecture
The--Adobe
Tradition
- Dar a l
10 .
S . A . Schlei fer , " H a s s an Fathy ' s Abiquiu , An Experimental
I s lamic education center in rural New Mexico , " E k i s t i c s 3 0 4
( Jan/Feb 1 9 8 4 ) : 5 9 .
11 .
H . Sugich , The�rab New�, Jeddah , S audi Arab i a , Sept . 2 6 ,
1985 : 3 .
12 .
F a thy , Lec ture s .
ABSTRACT
TRAD I T I ONAL SUN-BAKED ( ADOBE ) BRICK STRUCTURES IN
MACEDONIA , YUGOSLAVIA
The obj ecti ve of thi s work i s
the profe s s ional and sc ien
t i f i c community with the
characte r i s t i c s of exi st i ng
traditional cons truction
which i s part o f the cultu
ral heri tage in the territo
ry o f the Soc i a l i s t Republ i c
o f Macedon i a . Thi s tradition
i s d i s tingui shed by certain
architectural , s t ructur a l ,
cultur a l , and h i s torical va
lue s . Sun-baked ( adobe ) c l ay
is the main cons truction
mater i a l .
L a z ar Sumanov
Grad . eng . Arch itect - Senior Conservator
Republic I n s t i tute for Protect ion o f Cultural
Monuments ( RZ Z S K )
P . O . Box 2 2 5
9 1 0 0 0 - Skop j e
YUGOSLAVIA
An initial inventory o f
t h i s cultural her itage
showed us that earth as a
main building material i s
u s ed i n various forms a s
adobe b r i c k for the constru
c t ion of bearing wal l s , pa
rtition wal l s , for i n f i l l
in timber-framed s t ructure s ,
and a s a main material for
mortar and p l a s ter . The
inventory a l s o shows that
such s tructure s have s ig
ni ficant archi tectural ,
s tructura l , phy s i cochemi c a l
character i s t ic s .
Located in Macedonia ( a
region prone to earthquakes
rang i ng from 6 to 10 degre e s
o f MMS intens i ty ) , the s e
bui ldings have some traditi
onal a s e i smic e l emen t s and
systems which have al lowed
them to survive many earth
quak e s such a s the recent
Skop j e earthquake in 1 9 6 3 .
For this reason , our future
task is to obtain in forma
tion through s c ient i f ic re
search about the characte
r i s t i c s o f the s e s t ructures
to better unde r s tand ,
prote c t , and conserve them
as valuable traditional
anti s e i smic e l ements and
sys tems .
KEYWORDS
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
TYPE OF STRUCTURE
EARTH USE
GOODNE S S AND WEAKNESS
ASE I SM I C TRADITIONAL
ELEMENTS
CONCLUS IONS
131
Introduct ion
The territory o f Soc i a l i s t Repub l i c of Macedon i a , Yugos l avia bear s
material witne s s to architectural achievements from the ancient
times to the present . I t ' s mos t famous for i t s rich archaeological
s i te s , the extraordinary medieval churches and monaste r ie s , fre s
coe s and icon s , urban and rural architecture o f the n i neteenth and
early twentieth centur i e s . However , there is no explanation why
adequate attention has not been paid to sun-baked ( adobe ) s truc
t u r e s in our Repub l i c .
Earth mixed with water and various additives has been used a s
a bui lding material f o r more than 10 , 0 0 0 years and i s s t i l l i n
us e . More than one-third o f the world ' s popu lat ion i s s t i l l l iving
i n adobe and s imilar s t ructure s . The systematic inventory which
has been carried out s ince 1 9 8 7 has proved that on this very ground ,
throughout a lmos t the who le t e r r i tory , there are individual
examp l e s and even whole v i l l ag e s ( the v i l l age o f Konj ar i near Ue
bar ) , which con s i s t o f adobe s tructure s of not only hi storic and
cultural but a l s o architectural s t ructura l value s worthy to be
further inve s t igated and protected by law .
Functiona l , architectural and s t ructural characte r i s t i c s
Sun-baked b r i c k s are mo s t frequently u s ed a s a b a s i c mate r i a l f o r
the cons truction o f s imp le or very complex ground f loor or mul t i
storey s tructure s , which are mos t l y rec tangular a n d a r e s ituated
e i ther individua l ly or in row s . The ground f loor and basement are
almo s t a lways used for household production activities or a s a
ware hous e or pantry , whi le the porch s e rves for tool s torage . The
kitchen is mos t frequent l y located on ground f loor , too . The upper
f loors are usua l ly uti l i z ed as a l iving room , dormitory , or summer
res idenc e .
There are examp l e s of s tructures with bay windows , typical for
the r e s ident i a l building s o f the urban and the rural architecture
of timber-frame s tructures of sma l l e r proportions . The se windows
are made s k i l l fully and incorporate we l l into the total out line of
the s tructure . We often encounter buildings con s i s ting of a ground
floor and two stor i e s , for instance . A bui lding in the v i l l age Cu
cer near Skop j e ( see f i g . 1) which is more than eighty - f ive years
old and has a basement , a ground f loor and two s torie s , di splays
impre s s ive architectonic characte r i s t i c s o f mas s and perforation
di stribution , a s we l l a s other extraordinary value s . Thi s i s the
tal l e s t building of this type that has ever been observed in the
Macedonia region .
Although the whole territory of Macedoni a , especi a l l y the area
surrounding Skop j e , is s e i smic a l l y ac tive with high magnitude
earthquakes ( 9 Merc a l l i degrees ) , the Cucer s tructure s u f fered no
damage dur ing the 1 9 6 3 earthquake . Scienti fic inve s tigation was
initiated to analyse the building ' s s tructure characte r i s t ic s .
Sun-baked bricks have a l s o been used for the cons truction o f
the secondary s tructure s , mos t frequently in combination with
timber s t ructura l systems ( see f i g s . 2 - 4 ) .
The openings o f the r e s ident i a l buildings are of sma l l e r pro
portions ( narrower and lowe r ) ( see f i g s . 1 - 3 ) than the common one s ,
whi l e the height o f the prem i s e s i s the s ame ( be ing 1 . 9 - 2 . 2 m . for
the ground f loor premi s e s and 2 . 1 - 2 . 4 m. for the upper f loor pre
mi s e s ) . As a rule , the r e s identi a l buildings are characte r i z ed by
a hipped or complex roo f ; only rarely was s addle roof with low
cable wal l s cons tructed . T i l e s or s tone plates are exclus ive ly
used for roo f cover ing . Most frequently , the facade , timber s truc
tural e lements o f the door s , wi ndows , and fence carpentry were not
coloured or p l a stered ( see f i g s . 1- 4 ) .
I t has to be noted that a l l s tructure s , e i ther r e s idential or
s econdary , are proportioned in comp l i ance with human proportions ,
which i s one o f the main characte r i s t i c s o f the architectural tra
dit ional heritage in Macedoni a .
1 32
Adobe 90
Type
s of s tructural and nons truc tural e l ements
S ince the First I nternational Sympo s i um on Earth S tructure s i n
Yazd ( I ran , 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 6 ) , and third in Ankara ( Turkey , 1 9 8 0 ) and the
fourth in L ima and Cusco ( Peru , 1 9 8 3 ) , the foilowing c l a s s i f i c a
t i o n o f t h e d i f ferent types o f s tructural e lements was adopted :
1.0 1.1
1.2
2.0 2.1
2.2
2.3
3.0 3.1
3.2
4.0 -
Hand- formed in l ayer s
- s imple forming
- earth bal l s , thrown and molded
Sun-baked bricks ( adobe or b locks )
- cut from hardened s o i l
- formed i n mold
- molded and compacted
Tapi a l - r arnrned earth
- compacted by hand blows
- mechan i z ed. or vibrating compaction
Wood or c ane s t ructure , wood or cane me sh c l os ur e s
pl a s tered with mud or i n f i l led by sun-baked bricks
The results from the inventory o f Macedonia adobe s tructur e s
shows that the f o l l owing individual or combined s t ructural and
non structural e l emen t s are pre sent in Macedoni a : under c atego r i e s
2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 3.1, 4.0.
The proportions o f the bricks range from 8 / 2 0 / 8 to 1 4 / 3 0 / 1 2
cm , depending upon the mo lds used which may have one or even ten
ce l l s . The qua l i ty o f molding is a lway s higher when a mold with a
sma l l e r number o f c e l l s i s used .
The thickne s s o f the weight-bearing wal l s ranges between 6 0 ( see f i g s . 1 - 2 ) i n the lower bas ement premi s e s and 4 0 - 6 0
cm . i n the upper premi s e s , whi le the wal l thickne s s o f structures
under 4 . 0 o f the above c l a s s i f ic ation mea sures 1 5 - 3 0 cm . ( s ee
figs . 1 -4 ) .
1 2 0 cm .
The adobe structures are charac te r i z ed by sun-baked brick
weight-bearing wal l s lying on foundation wal l s of crushed s tones
in l ime mortar . The s e wal l s are 1 m. high which is approximately
the maximum level o f the c api l l ary mo i s ture in winter and spring
time . The base o f the b lock masonry i s protected against c a p i l l ary
moi sture , which is one of the mo s t dangerous e f fects on thi s e type
of structures ( see f i g s . 1 - 5 , 7 ) .
Timber bond s t ructur a l e l emen t s have been p l aced on almos t
a l l the bearing and non-bearing wal l s at a vertical di stance o f
1 - 1 , 2 m . ; t h i s proved t o b e quite succ e s s fu l in s trengthening and
providing stabil ity to these s tructur e s .
Other u s e of earth
Earth mixed up with water , s and , hay , anima l hai r , blood and urine
has been u sed a s a binding mate r i a l for the sun-baked brick wal l s
( see f i g s . 1 - 7 ) . I t h a s a l s o been used a s a p l aster ( see f i g s 1 2 ) and a s the i n f i l l ing o f the wood me shes ( wattle s ) ( see f i g . 5 ) .
I n urban area s , the facade s are o ften p l a s tered with l ime
mortar or l ime p l a ster so that sun-baked brick wal l s would be
better protected against the mechani c a l e f fect o f rain ( see f i g s .
1-2 ) .
Other characte r i s t i c s and weakne s s of adobe s tructures
The earthen s t ructur e s have some advantages and d i s advantage s .
F i r s t o f al l , they are good heat and sound insulators and are
eas i ly and cheap ly maintained , there are many sourc e s o f damages
which are mer c i l e s s i n a f fecting the s e s tructure s :
- water ( in the form o f rain , running water , capi l l ary
moi sture , or condensed wate r )
- sun ( indirect damage caused b y abrupt drying o f the damp
ened wal l s , cracks form after s everal c y c l e s o f moi stening
and drying and contr ibute to the severe damage o f the e l e
ments to t h e t o t a l s tructure )
- wind ( dr i fting hard s and and dust part i c l e s which damage
the surface of the wal l s mechan i c a l l y )
- solub l e s a l t s ( by means o f chemi c a l d i s integration )
- biodeterioration ( plants - in s e c t s - anima l s )
- inappropri ate maintenance
- f l oods and earthquakes
1 33
TRADITIONAL ELEMENTS OF ASEI SMIC RES I S TANCE OF
ADOBE STRUCTURES
E l ements which increase earthquake r e s i s tance of Macedonian earth
en adobe structure s :
- qual ity bui lding mate r ia l s , good knowledge , experience
and adequante u s e of additives ( organic and inorganic )
u s e o f high qua l ity wood , such as oak and pine
maximum e f fort to e l iminate capil lary moi sture in the
very f i r s t s tage construction
qua l ity of manu fac tured construct ion o f we ight-bearing
wal l s and s tructure s , timber - frame and a l l other hor i
zontal and vertical conne c tions
regular protection o f the adobe sur face against rain
damage
regular ( almo s t d a i l y ) maintenance
use of hor i z ontal wooden be l t s , wi thout exception , as
the highe s t a s e i smic resi stance e l ements
I n the f o l l owing text we w i l l be more fami liar with the
e lements mentioned above .
a ) As a principle , without exception s , molds for surface
sun-baked brick have one or two c e l l s . For other use bricks
for ins ide of wal l s are from mo lds with three and more c e l
l s . The l arge s t mo ld i s with ten c e l l s ( see figs . 1, 3, 4 - 7 ) .
b ) Mate r i a l s f o r brick o r mortar always incorporate c u t straw
or animal hair as reinforc ing e l ements .
c ) The foundation of a l l structure s are manu fac tured o f stone
in l ime mortar whose end is alway s 1 - 1 . 2 m . above the gro
und leve l . Thi s is higher than the maximum level o f ground
cap i l l ary moi s ture in winter and spring time , and the con
tact z ones of adobe wal l with foundation are a lways dry
and s a fe ( see f ig s . 1 - 5 , 7 ) .
d ) Brick wal l adobe s tructure i s o f h i gh qual ity . Regu larly
spaced bricks are inserted through all cross sec tion of
the wall in hor i z ontal and vertical section . The thickne s s
o f the mud mortars are o f the s ame s i z e and a r e o f good
qua l ity .
e ) Almo st wi thout exception , a l l wal l - bearing s tructure s , and
part ition wal l s of adobe brick structures have hor i z ontal
wooden be l t s 1 - 1 . 2 m. i n vertical d i s tance . A wooden grid
( named kushak ) con s i sts o f two par a l l e l longitudinal
be ams 8 / 8 , 8 / 1 0 , 1 0 / 1 0 cm . connected to each other with
sma l ler wooden e l ements 4 / 4 - 6 / 6 cm . spaced 6 0 - 7 0 cm . in
the rectangular direction . Thi s wooden belt i s in contact
with the f loor and roof construction . One wooden belt is
located on the same level through all structure ; this is
an extreme ly important ant i s e i smic traditional e l ement
( see f i g s . 1 - 5 , 7 ) .
f ) I n many c a s e s the surface s tructure i s p l a s te red with mud
plaster (with cut straw or animal hair as an add it ive ) and
a layer o f l ime plaster ( 0 . 3 - 0 . 7 cm . ) manu factured during
the wet s tage o f mud p l a s ter . As a tradition , e ach user
and owner o f adobe structure i n the spring time app l i e s
l ime w a s h t o a l l p lastered surface ; this ensures 1 year
protection against damaging c l imate factors .
g ) The final floors of the structure are bui l t with timber
framed constructions , with adobe brick or mud a s i n f i l l
e l ements a n d they have s igni f icantly sma l l e r thickne s s
( 1 5 - 3 0 cm) . They have a very l ight construction , which i s
a very logical and important principle i n earthquake -prone
region s : to have l ighter s tructure on the top than on
ground floor s .
i ) regular ongo i ng maintenance .
CONCLUS I ONS
Initial inventory and re search done 1 9 8 7 - 8 9 proved that in the
territory of Macedonia ( region prone to moderate and strong earth
quakes ) s igni ficant cultural heri tage exists . Earth i s the main
building mater i a l used in various forms as sun-baked bricks , mor
tar and plaster , a l l of which have certain valuable qual i t i e s which
are needed scienti f i c a l ly to be conf i rmed , a s a future task . This
data w i l l a l l ow for better unders tanding , protection and conser
vation of this cultural heritage . The app l icat ion o f these data on
bui ldings and structures with the s ame or s imilar characte r i s t i c s
as a cultural heri tage or s tandard modern adobe structures would
be a contribution of the past to the future .
1 34
F ig.
1 - Mos t s ign i f icant adobe structure in Macedoni a
v . C u c e r ( Skop j e region ) - Durakovci Hou se ,
mas s ive adobe weight-bearing s tructure in
combination with t imb e r - framed structure
( final floor ) . V i l l age Cucer i s located at
8 km d i s t ance from Skop j e 1 9 6 3 earthquake
epicente r . No v i s ib l e damage .
Fig. 2 -
Typ
i c a l tradi tional a s e i smic e lements
v. Cucer
( Skop j e region )
Fig.
3 - Mixed s tructures
v . Gorn j ani ( Skop j e region ) - Combination
o f mas s ive adobe weight-bear ing structures
and t imber-framed structure . Ground zone stone masonry in l ime mortar .
Fig.
4
- View to the valley
v . Kuceviste ( Skop j e region ) - Stone masonry
adobe wal l weight- bearing s tructure and cant i
lever ( erke r ) o f wooden s tructure with charac
teri stic diagonal wood e lements .
1 35
Adobe 90
Fig. 5 - High qua l i ty. o f
manufactured
e lements
v . Kuceviste
( Skop j e region )
F ig. 6
-
Typi
cal rain protection
v . Germj an ( Bitola region)
Fig . 7 - Modern rein forced concrete be lt
Struga ( South Macedoni a ) - App l icat ion of
reinforced concrete belts in adobe wal l
we ight-bearing s tructures a s a re flection
o f reinforcement new structures a fter Skop j e
1 9 6 3 E arthquake .
137
ABSTRACT
CONSTRUCCION TRAD I C I ONAL EN EL NORDESTE ARGENTINO
Anc i ent
bui ld ing
in
the
area
of
nor theas t e rn
employed
adobe
Argent i n a
Grac i e l a M a r i a Vinu a l e s
Bolivia 82
daub
and
wa t t l e
and
t e chnique s ,
o f whi ch
both
r u r a l and urban examp l e s o f
t h e e ighteenth , n i n e t e enth ,
twe n t i e t h
early
and
remain
c entur i e s
still
s t anding .
At
present ,
the
use
of
e ar then
mas onry
has
been
pr a c t i c a l l y
wh i l e
lost ,
wattle
and
daub
is
more
w i d e l y used and in a l arger
range o f v ar i e t i e s .
I n t e r n a l migr a t i on s in
the
e a s t e rn
humid zone produc e
constant
ada p t a t ions .
3 5 0 0 R e s i s ten c i a
ARGENTINA
T ( 54 )
( 7 2 2 ) 29294
P r e s en t a c i 6 n
Desde
for roof ing .
R e c ent
ec onom i c
changes
have
produ c e d
per iphe r a l
n e i ghborhoods
in
various
the
r e f l e c t i ng
cities ,
o r i g i n o f t h e i r dwe l l er s .
A w e l l -ordered r e g i s t e r
of
the
s i tu a t i o n a n d a s e t o f
f or
their
solid
bases
and
p r e s e rvation
m a i n t e n a n c e mus t a l s o
tak�
into
ac count
the
social ,
c u l tu r a l
e c onomic ,
and
m i l i eu to whi c h e a c h o n e o f
the examp l e s bel ongs .
epo c a s de
l a conqu i s t a
e sp a n o l a
regiones y 1 0 que e l med i o mi smo permi t i a ,
f orma
de
h a c e r arqui t e c tura en la que l a
se
s abe
que
en l a
l l eg6 a
tierra
conf ormar una
era
e l emento
fundamen t a l .
Where
a
dry
c l imate
preva i l s ,
such a s i n the we s t ,
there
are
whi c h
s e t t l ements
r em a i n
more s t ab l e b o t h i n
t ime
and type
of
d e s ign .
There
earth
i s used
also
las
zona
era
c o r r i en t e
el
uso
de
la
t i er r a
como
ma t e r i a l
de
cons truc c i 6 n .
Asimi smo , e s t e s e u n i a a o t r a s t r ad i c i on e s prop i a s
del aborigen como e l entr e t e j ido de r a m a s y troncos q u e h a c i a con
gran d e s t r e z a .
Los apo r t e s hechos por l o s hi s p a n i c o s d e divers as
Sin
embargo ,
fuera
de
algunas
pub l i c a c i ones
d i f u s i 6n y de a r t i c u l o s d i s eminados en revi s t a s ,
arqu i t e c tu r a
obj e to d e u n e s tudio s i s t emat i c o .
de
escasa
no ha s ido e s t a
Menos aun 1 0
ha
sido
una
propu e s t a
tecnica
de
me j o r amiento
y
conservac i6n .
I n t en t o s
parc i a l e s
d e s d e c entr�s de e s tudio 0 de
gobi erno
han
s i do e f imeros y muchas veces d i r e c t amente comba t i do s .
c l ima
La
zona
que nos ocupa - l a d e l
nord e s t e
argentinotropi c a l , con temper a turas que pueden p a s ar l o s 4 0 ° ,
es
de
aunque
0°.
con
p o s i b i l idades de tener a l gun d i a del ana unas hor a s con
Pero dentro de la z ona hay dos p a r t e s b a s t a n t e d i f e r e n t e s : l a d e l
este
con
c l ima
humedo ,
i n f luido p�r l a c u e n c a d e l R i o
de
la
P l a t a , y l a del o e s t e , c o n o c i d a como E l Impenetrabl e , en donde e l
c l ima e s s e c o .
Si b i en en ambas hay bosque ,
sus d i f erenc i a s s on
notabl e s .
En l a p a r t e humeda , cuando en invierno se superan l o s 3 5 ° e s
c a s i s eguro q u e sobr evenga u n a tormenta de 1 5 0 km/h con
intensas
l l u v i a s y con e l c o n s i g u i e n t e c ambi o dr a s t i c o de tempe r a tura .
En
la
p ar t e s e c a ,
e s to puede l l egar a o c u r r i r a l guna v e z ,
pero 1 0
normal e s q u e e l a g u a apar e z c a en e l v e r ano cuando l o s
deshielos
de l o s Andes l l enen nuevamente l o s c au c e s s e c o s de l o s r i o s . Debe
tenerse
en
cuenta adema s ,
que l o s r e g imenes de
l luvias
y
de
cauces no son regulare s , p�r 1 0 que no son raras las inund a c i on e s
KEYWOR D S
y
h i s tory , adapt a t i o n ,
pr e s e rv a t i o n , t e c hn i que s ,
arqu i t e c t6 n i c o s
t r a n s f e r e n c e s , mas onry ,
wattle
and
daub ,
1.
r ammed
Las cr6ni c a s y d i bu j o s c o l o n i a l e s nos mue s tran la hechura de
tapias
exp l i c andonos
todos
los
pormenores
de
su
e j e c u c i6n .
As imi smo ,
apar ecen
menciones en d i s t i ntos puntos de l a zona
de
earth
el
c a m b i o de c u e n c a s
Este
menor e s .
panorama geogr a f i c o
de
la
regi6n .
ayudara
a
P a s aremos
comprender
l o s problemas
ahora r evi s t a
a e l l os .
S i s t emas
f abr i c a c i6n
Debemos
de
decir
adobe s ,
que
la
e spanol e s
a finales
El
s i g l o s i gu i e n te .
palo
zona
a pique y
s e c a e s tuvo
dist intas
" enramadas " .
e s c a s amente
poblada
p�r
del XVI ,
s i endo abandon ada a p r i n c i p i o s d e l
extr emo e s t e ( humedo ) c o r r e spondi6 a l a zona
de
l a s M i s iones J e s u i t i c a s que s e d e s a r r o l 1 6 en f orma
aut6noma .
La p a r t e c e n t r a l ( t amb i e n hume d a ) es la que tuvo una i n t e n s a vida
hi spani c a y e s en l a c u a l nos quedan l o s pr i n c i p a l e s e j emp l o s
de
edi f i c a c i on e s a n t i gu a s .
No
todas
en l a r e g i 6 n .
l a s t e c n i c a s han podido a f i n c a r s e
d e f i n i t i vamente
F a c t o r e s d e urban i z a c i 6n ,
f a l t a d e mane de
obr a ,
e s t i mu l o
la
p�r
rapidez
y
l a moda ,
han
dado
lugar
a
un
nuevo
panorama .
La
obliga
zona humeda ,
a l pobl ador a
�on su camb i a n t e geogra f i a ,
emigrar y a r e h a c e r su c a s a
muc h a s
veces
peri6di c amente
adec uando s e
al
nuevo s i t i o .
La i n f luen c i a de las
g e n e r a c iones
j 6venes
hace
que
t a l e s c i c l o s d e t r a s l ado y
a c omodo
se
vean
a l t e r ad o s ,
con
10
que
tamb i e n s e tergiversen
las
f orma s
de
c o n s t r u c c i 6 n y mantenimiento .
En
la
idios incrasia
zona
l l eva
seca ,
en
c amb i o ,
a v i v iendas mas
el
de u s o e s t a c i o n a l ,
p r i n c i palmente para
l lu v i a s
0 de grandes hur ac anes permi te
aun s i n u s o cont inuado ,
c l ima
e s tabl e s ,
perduren var i o s
y
aunque
el
tipo
de
a v e c e s s e an
La f a l t a de
l o s hombr e s .
que
las
cons t ruc c iones ,
anos .
Adobe 90
1 . 1 . Tapi a s ,
adobes
Aparentemen te ,
y
terrones
tapias adobes
y
fueron d e u s o c o r r i ente
desde
f in a l e s d e l XVI . E l l ad r i l l 0 c o c ido s6lo s e u s a b a en o c a s i on e s , y
Los
su verdadera d i f u s i 6n se d i o h a c e aproximadamente un
s i gl o .
hornos
t r a taban d e r e s ervar s e para cocer t e j as y l a dr i l l on e s
de
Hoy
que dan en p i e e j emp l o s de c a s a s con g a l e r i a al f r ente
piso .
en varios s i t i o s de la c i udad d e C o r r i e n t e s
p o b l a d o s de e s a provinc i a .
Lo
mi smo podri amos d e c i r
de
S an t a Fe ,
y en d i v e r s o s
aunque
los
c en t r � s
e j emplos
son menor e s en numero , pero mayores en s u envergadur a . J u s � amen te
en
esta
c iudad
se
encuentra
la
iglesia
de
San
Franci s c o ,
l e vantada
a mediados d e l XVI I con el s i s tema de t a p i a s y que hoy
es
Monumento
Nac iona l .
Se
cont inuaba
aqui
con
el
t ipo
cons t r u c t i vo
que
habia
tenido toda la c i udad
en
su
anterior
emp l a z amiento de
1 57 3 .
Aparentemen t e ,
la
t a p i a f u e una t i p o l o g i a c o r r i e n t e
hasta
f i na l e s del XVI I I , p e r o m a s tarde s e f u e optando p�r e l adobe que
r e s u l taba mas f a c i l d e traba j ar . As i e s to s s i gu i e r on en uso h a s t a
nuestro siglo ,
y cuando s e comenz6 a repob l a r h a c i a l a z o n a
del
oeste ,
los
a d o b e s fueron tamb i en u s a do s .
S i n embargo ,
con
el
t i empo
-y
qui z a
p�r
una i m i t a c i6n
del
l ad r i l l o - en
a l gunos
l u g a r e s l a s dimen s i on e s de los mampu e s t o s se f ueron a c h i c ando
de
tal
modo ,
que hoy encontramos adobe s de medidas s imi lares a l a s
de aque l l o s .
terr6n,
Otro s i s tema de mampo s t e r i a u t i l i z ado ha s i d o el d e l
conocido
aqui
como
" champa " .
Fue de u s o comun
en
las
zonas
rur a l e s
y
hoy t o d a v i a s e 1 0 v e de vez en
cuando .
Su
di fus i6n
principal
se
encuentra
en la por c i 6n sur de
nue s t r a
area
de
e s tudio .
El
barre
tambien
aparece h a s t a
a s i en t o y de
revoque de
aspecto
o c a s i 6n .
hemos
10
l a ac tual idad como me z c l a de
Pero a
este
de l adr i l l o .
construcciones
d e j ado expr e s amente de
l ade
en
la
presente
torta
El
te cho
de
p e r t e n e c e igua lmente a l o s
s i s temas
de
e n t r amado . Se r e a l i z a con un enmaderado s i mi l ar al de un techo de
tejas ,
pero su cub i e r t a e s t a formada s 6 l o p�r t i e rr a ,
t r a b a j ada
en di f e r e n t e s c apa s .
L a torta es d e u s o c o r r i ente en e l noro e s t e
argentino
y p o c o a p o c o s e fue d i s eminando p � r e l extr emo
oeste
de nu e s t r a r e g i 6n ,
a p a r t i r de l a s repob l a c iones d e l f i na l e s del
Hoy es comun su u s o en toda
la
zona
XIX
y
p r i n c i p i o s d e l XX .
seca ,
pero
con una i n c l inac i 6n m i n ima y con un gran grosor
que
a t empe r a los c a l or e s .
1 . 3 . L a s a d e c u a c i o n e s urbanas a c t u a l e s
Los
problemas
econ6mi cos
q u e s e han
agud i z ado
en
estos
u l t imos
q u i n c e anos ,
han h e c h o l l egar a l a s c i udades pobl ador e s
rurales
que
han t r a t ado de conseguir pue s tos de traba j o
en
la
cons t r u c c i 6 n
e l gobierno .
de gr andes
conjuntos
P a rad6 j i c amente ,
hab i t a c i o n a l e s
impu l s ados
e s a mane de obra no c a l i f i c ada
p�r
fue
us ada
pero
s in
contemp l a r s e
sus
prop i a s
n e c e s i dades
de
habi t a c i 6 n .
E l l o s mi smos
entonc e s , l evantaron s u s b a r r i o s en la
pe r i f e r i a
de
las
c i udade s ,
u t i l i z ando
t e r r enos
f iscales
0
abandonado s ,
p e s a r de s e r
p � r s a c a r de
o e s tanteo .
a v e c e s inund a b l e s y con f a l t a de todo s e r vi c i o . Y a
s i t ios bajos ,
fueron aun d e s n i v e l ados muchas
veces
a l I i mi smo l a t i e r r a p a r a h a c e r s u s c a s a s de chor i z o
Las
tecnicas
que
cono c i an se
apl i c aban ,
pero
ahora
c on
materi a l e s
di f er e n t e s .
Si b i e n l a c i udad prove i a f ac i lmente
dE
a l ambr e s ,
que se conseguian por compra 0 p�r des e c ho en el lugar
de
traba j o ,
las
ramas ,
canas
y p a j a s y a no
e s t aban
en
las
p
c e r c a n i a s y debi an s e r
agadas 0 procuradas muy l e j o s .
El c e n t r e
u r b a n o a r r o j aba ,
en camb i o , o t r o s d e s e chos que pod i a n u t i l i z a r s e
y s e r a u n m e j o r e s y mas f a c i l e s de t r ab a j ar que l o s r u r a l e s , pero
s e n e c e s i t ab a de una adecua c i 6n de t e c n i c a s y de una
prepar a c i 6 n
d i f er e n t e .
P a r a e l l o l o s pobl adores tuvieron b a s t a n t e inven t i v a ,
aunque
no todo f u e c oronado
Hasta
hoy
se
donde tamb i en se
de
l a t6n
como
d e s armados
expue s t o s
y
a
uti l i z a e l
p�r
el
exi t o .
r e c i c l a j e de emba l a j e s
de madera ,
s a c an y ender e z an a l ambres y c l av o s .
los
de
aceites ,
combus t i b l e s
y
u t i l i z ados
para
pro t e c c i6n
agu a s y s o l e s ,
asi como para
de
L o s env a s e s
du l c e s
son
de
los
sitios
mas
c er r amientos ,
donde
igualmente
apare c e
la t e l a m e t a l i c a .
En l a s c e r c a n i a s
de
las
f abr i c a s de tanino s e ape l a a l a s a s t i l l a s de madera de quebr acho
para
impermeab i l i z a r los z 6 c a l o s .
Asimi smo s e
usan
di f er e n t e s
d e s e chos de o t r a s indu s t r i a s de l a r e g i 6n .
I3 9
Sin
embargo ,
estas
muchas
equivoc a c i on e s ,
e l egido ,
al
generalmente se
a d e c u a c i o n e s y trans f erenc i a s
a
veces
provo c ad a s
p�r
el
que
no
se
conoce
s u f i c i entemente
y
al
1 0 sobr e e s t i ma p�r ser " modern o " , o t r a s v e c e s
u t i l i z a r en una r e g i 6 n 1 0 que es
el
caso
mas d u r o h a s i d o e l de
seca
la
han
cons t rui do
zona humed a ,
1.2.
Tierra
La
dan p i e a
ma t e r i a l
con
con
t e chos
el
de
que
por
propio de o t r a .
E n e s t e s en t i d o
l o s q u e provini endo de
la
zona
torta
( aunque
al go
i n c l inado s )
en
cons i gui ent e d e s a s t r e p o s t e r i o r .
e n t r amado
f a c i l idad
de
a lgunos
abor i genes
n6mades
de
la
r e g i 6n
p a r a procur a r s e un re f ugi o rap ido f r e n t e a l a s tormen t a s h i c i eron
Con l a
l l egada
de
e l l o s d i e s tros trenz ador e s de r amas y hoj a s .
del e s paftol y la busqueda de e s t abl�c imientos m as
duradero s ,
se
conj ug6
tal
s abi du r i a
con e l u s o del b a r r e bl ando
para
darle
cerramiento y mayor f o r t a l e z a a l a s cons t r u c c i one s . En el c a s o de
los
guaran i e s , que ocupaban la p o r c i 6n o r i e n t a l y que si
tenian
v i v i endas
es tables ,
se
d i o un c a s o s imi l ar ,
pero
de
me j or e s
Por e l l o el s i s tema de t i er r a e n t r amado se popu l a r i z 6
c a l idades .
e n t o d a l a r e g i 6 n h a c e ya 4 0 0 aftos .
Con
el
ti empo ,
e s te
ha
side
el
t i po
u t i l i z ado
con
mas
a s i dui dad y con m as v a r i a c i o n e s .
A la c e l u l a uni t a r i a de
cuatro
h o r c on e s que s o s t i enen un t e cho , s e l a ha c errado de innumer a b l e s
maner a s . D e s c r ib i r c ad a u n a d e e l I a s s e r i a agobi ant e , b a s t e d e c i r
estanteo, estanteo
palo a pique chorizo.
que
los
t i pos
hace
El
con ramas
mas
us ados
y
supone
grue s a s a
s e d i v i d e n en t r e s
grandes
f ami l i a s :
l a organi z a c i6n de un entr amado
que
se
l a s que luego s e I e i nt erc al an o t r a s mas
f in a s .
La
forma
de t e j ido y e l t ipo de e l emento vege t a l
t i ene
l l egandos e a u s a r c a ft a s , p a j a s , c o r t e z a s ,
abunda n t e s v a r i edad e s ,
e t c . Lo s traba j o s mas cui dados o s p r e s e n t a n un dob l e e n t r amado que
luego
es
r e l l enado
con
barre
y
agregado s ,
h a c i endose
un
termi n a c i 6n
de
barre
mas f i no .
T i e n e mucho
parec ido
con
la
quincha , aunque e n g e n e r a l e s a l go m a s rudimen t a r i o . E s t a f ami l i a
d e e n t r amados n o 5 6 1 0 v a r i a e n s u compo s i c i 6n y d i s efto ,
s i n o que
en
la mi sma r e g i 6n adqu i e r e di f e r e n t e s denom i n a c i o n e s que a l uden
a a l guno de los e l ementos 0 de las t e c n i c a s u s ad a s .
palo a pique
El
nombre
de
cons t r u c c i 6 n
muy
d i f undida
en
la
proviene
c o l on i a
y
de
que
un
t ipo
suponia
de
una
construcc i6n de madera para c e r c a r un t e rreno . Con e l t i empo y el
d e t r imento
d e la c a l idad d e los p a l o s y de s u c o l o c a c i 6n se
vio
n e c e s ar i a l a compl eme n t a c i6n c on barr� . P a s 6 entonc e s a s e r u s ado
en
v i v i endas y f u e evoluc i onando h a s t a conv e r t i r s e en un t ipo de
pared
muy
" c ar anday " ,
d i f undido ,
de
gran
encuentra c o n embarrado
El
rapida ,
chorizo
no
s obre
todo c on
troncos
de
longi tud y s e c c i 6n cons t ant e .
en u n a 0 d o s de
sus
palma
t i po
Hoy
se
10
caras .
es l a f orma de c o n s t r u i r mas popu l ar de todas . E s
requiere mane de obra muy es pe c i a l y
puede
hacerse
c a s i c o n cua l qui er t i e r r a .
Por e s o ,
e s que s e l a u s a mucho para
cons trucc io nes
es tac ionales
0 de p a s o .
L a " m a l a c a l idad
de
la
tierra
s e suple con las p a j a s que s e Ie
agregan .
Antiguame n t e ,
s obre
la
base
de
los
c uat ro
horcones
se
t e n d i an
ramas
transver s a l e s
0
tiras
de
cuero
mo j ado
de
las
que
i r i an
co lgandose l os chor i z os de pa j a y b a r r � .
Hoy di a , e s a s t i r a s s on
Los chor i z os se f orman amas ando p a j a y
de
a l ambre b i e n t ens ado .
barre y se van c o lgando de aba j o hac i a a r r i b a , b i e n j un t o s uno
otro
hasta h a c e r e l c e rramiento . D e s pues s e r e v o c a con barr� .
al
perc no tanto
p�r
Dentro
de e s t a f ami l i a hay var i a c i one s ,
los
e l ementos
usados ,
sino
mas
b i en p�r
la
mayor
0
menor
pro l i j idad
de
e j e c u c i 6n ,
fundame n t a lmente en
el
r e t orc ido
y
cont iguidad
de l o s chori z o s .
E s t a t e c n i c a que c r e i amo s u n i c a de
nue s t r a regi6n l a hemos encontr ado en Chi na ,
en donde tamb i e n se
usan
2.
asi
chor i z o s
hor i z o n t a l e s
para
los
hastiale s .
S o l u c iones
Han
como
l l egado entonc e s
c o n s t r u c c i on e s
a nosotros edi f i c i o s de a n t i gu a
data ,
a c t u a l e s de t i er r a
de
muy
dis tintos
s i s t emas y c a l idade s .
En muchos c a s o s e l I a s son d e s c on o c i d a s p � r
En
e l hab i t ante d e l a s c i udades 0 son energ i c ament e
comba t id a s .
e s to
t i enen
i ngerenc i a
la indus t r i a d e
la
c ons t ruc c i 6n ,
los
pr o f e s i ona l e s ,
l o s gobiernos y l o s propios c en t r � s de e s t ud io . Y
aunque desde todas e s t as a r e a s hay qu i enes e s t en t r a b a j ando
para
optim i z a r
el
u s o de l a t i e r r a ,
s e h a c e muy
d i f icul toso
remar
contra
la
c o r r i ent e
gener a l .
Adobe 90
I40
Los
s e r i an :
p r i n c i pa l e s intentos f av o r a b l e s que hubo en
la
r e g i 6n
los
e n c a r ados por la provinc i a del Chaco h a c i a 1 9 6 9 con
l o s de l a
Un ivers idad
del
su
P l an de Me j oramiento de Rancho s ,
Nord e s t e
con e l d i s efio de v i v i endas de
los
que
a c t ualmente
encara
el
I n s t i tuto de T e c n o l o g i a
Agr a r i a
en
la
cementa
prov i n c i a
de
Corrientes
r e a l i z ad a s
y
chorizo mejorado suelo
a l gunas
en l a provi n c i a de
construcciones
de
S an t a Fe h a c e unos
afios .
20
Pero
n o s o t ro s ,
d e s d e nue s tro Depar tamento de
Conservac i6n
d e l P a t r imonio Arqu i t e c t6nico ( Univer s i dad Nacional del Norde s t e )
h a c e afios que venimos t r a b a j ando sobre el tema ,
s e a en el amp l i o
espectro
de
la
misma conservaci6n
de
edi f i c i o s
ant iguos
de
tierra ,
sea
en
e l r e s c a te de l a s t e c n i c a s como m e d i o
adecuado
para
construir
en
la
r e g i 6n .
Diversas
publ i c a c iones ,
c o n f e r enc i a s ,
expos i c iones
y reuniones se han l l evado
adel ante
con este f i n . S i n embargo e s mucho
que aun queda por h a c e r .
10
A
la
cue s t i6n t e c n i c a es n e c e s a r i o que se una
el
e s tudio
e c on6mi co
global
y par t i cu l ar de l o s grupos que cons truyen
con
tierra ,
la
v i s i 6n de
l as
tradic iones
y cos tumb r e s y un
correcto
encuadre
s o c i a l y c u l t u r a l d o n d e s e dan e s t a s t e c n i c a s .
No debe
d e j a r s e de l ade l a contemp l a c i 6n d e l t r a tamiento de l o s edi f i c i os
h i s t6 r i c o s , sean
no monumen t a l e s , y el conocimiento profundo de
aque l l a s
ocur r ido .
Gr a f i c o
:1. _ -'=, 4. _
MATERIALES
Arcilla
Agua
Arena
Limo
NO
TRILITICO
SI
ARCO
DlNTEL PLATA BANDA
51
iA
SOLO
UTOPORTANTi
AGENTES
PREVIO
NO
'APERTURAS
POSTERIORE5
SI
OTROS
AGREGAD05
POSTERIORES
NO
Cadenas
antlslsmicas
1N5TALAC�
EMBUTlDAS
51
HUMEDAD
51
VIENTOS
IN5ECTOS
SI
SISMOS
SI
HERRAMIENTAS
MODULO
a
molde
REVISO
J
3.
�
(0
�
(0
azada
pies,
caballos)
riba
FECHA
UBIC; EN·
TE
EDIFICIO
ella
ha
cuchara
manos)
II
F ECHA
PAIS
ARGEN T I N A
8
Nuros
Techos
B
Cal
Agua
N Q MIN.
COMPLEMENTA>lIAS
D E OBREROS
IMIENTO CUBIERTA INSTAL.
..J
ZNoo( uf..
o(
u::>'"
f..
0uZ'" ::>..J0(f..
.,. u0(
PIedra
B
PINTURAS
ENLUClDOS
DlSPOSICIONES
ABERTUR
l<ladera
Cuero
Paja
Tierra
Tejas
Cine
OTROS
PISOS
Terreno
natural
Ladrlllo
I·Iosalco
r·1a!igr!l
�
R U R AL
URBANA
TOTAL
TERREA
1
SI
51
20
50
UBICACIOI'!
EDlFICIO
LOCAL
A�
�
�
porque
Barra
Paja
Cal
Grasa
B itumen
SiHcato
de etllo
OTROS
OTROS
OBSERVAC.
REALIZO
ARTIFICIALES
RESPUESTA
ALMACENAM
PORTAN TE
OTROS
APROPIADOS
NATURALES
Grasa
Cal
Cemento
Jugos vegetales.
PERMITE
ESTRUCTURAL
y
'=AMILIA
MAMF'OSTERI A
CONSOLlDANTES
Barra
Paja
( s imilar
material
b�slco)
Paja
Virutas
Pelns
MONOLlTICO
han s i de abandonadas
1 . Cuadro b a s i co de inven t a r i o
)'IORTERO DE UNION
AGREGADOS
BASICOS
SISTEMA
NO
que
DENO!'1 I NAC ION
ADOBE
SI GLA
3 _
0
tecnicas
GEOGRAFICA
:
,
r
,
WJ �-->�N- �--�'-I
.
',"
,r
;
''
�
,
-
} -
-
TE Tratamlento Especial
R Regular
B Bueno
M Malo
C o n c l us i6n
Es
en
e s t e tema que
e s t amos
pr imer p a s o e s l a e l ab o r a c i 6 n de un
trabaj ando
a c t ualmen t e .
inve n t a r i o de l a s tecnicas
El
de
la regi6n a par t i r de un cuadro bas i c o .
Suger imos que t a l cuadro
sea
tornado como r e f er enc i a para los e s tudi os de arqu i t e c tura
de
tierra
en
otros lugar e s .
Por eso aprovechamos l a o c a s i 6n
para
presentarlo
a
consideraci6n
a
fin
de
hac erIe
los
ajustes
n e c e s a r i o s p a r a s u u s o i n t e r n a c i on a l .
( Ver G r a f .
1) .

6th International Conference on Earthen Architecture

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