the seris, the sun and slugs: cultural and natural history of

Transcripción

Thalassas, 27 (2): 9-21
An International Journal of Marine Sciences
THE SERIS, THE SUN AND SLUGS:
CULTURAL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF BERTHELLINA
ILISIMA AND OTHER OPISTHOBRANCHIA
IN THE CENTRAL SEA OF CORTEZ
Hans Bertsch(1) & Cathy Moser Marlett(1)
Key words: Bulla gouldiana, Doriopsilla albopunctata, Cochimí, Bahía de los Ángeles
ABSTRACT
The Seris of northwest Sonora have a profound
cultural tradition of molluscan interaction, applying
common indigenous names to over 150 species of
molluscs. The Seris used the shelled cephalaspidean
Bulla gouldiana for pendant jewelry, and called
the animal cacaapxom (‘what fattens [something]’).
The common tropical eastern Pacific Nudipleura
opisthobranch Berthellina ilisima, although apparently
not used, was given the common name xepenozaah
(‘sun in the sea’).
(1) Instituto de Investigaciones Oceanológicas,
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California,
Ensenada, BC, México
[email protected]
During a 25-year study at Bahía de los Ángeles,
Baja California, Berthellina ilisima was the third most
common opisthobranch encountered. It exhibited
an annual life cycle, with reproductive activity
occurring from May to July. In contrast, the more
northerly common Californian species Doriopsilla
albopunctata had a seasonally earlier annual life
cycle, from July to June, with reproductive behavior
observed during January to April. Berthellina ilisima
feeds on Demospongiae poriferans.
THE SERIS
The Seris, or the Comcaac, as the people call
themselves, have lived for centuries along the eastern
coast of the central Sea of Cortez (Figure 1) and in
the desert and mountain regions of northwest Sonora,
Mexico (between approximately 28º-31º N; 111º-113º
W). Although there has been significant interchange
with neighboring Yaqui (south) and Piman (north and
east) peoples, as nomadic hunter-gatherers the Seris
are unique among the southwest North American
9
Hans Bertsch & Cathy Moser Marlett
Figure 1: Map of the central Sea of Cortez. Cartography by Cathy Marlett.
original desert settlers. Their extensive use of marine
resources especially sets them apart. However,
these cultural behaviors were shared with the Baja
California peninsular and now-extinct Cochimí
peoples, with whom the Seris most likely had contact
in their forays across the Gulf of California on reed
balsas. Little is known of these travels aside from
sketchy accounts in Seri oral history.
The Seri origins remain unclear, and it is not
known how long they have inhabited the Gulf
region. Published archaeological evidence (based on
radiocarbon assays) is inaccurate. “Estimated dates
were never calibrated nor corrected for reservoir
effect. The only reliable date for the antiquity of
the Seris in their present location is Nicolás de
10
Cardona’s 1615 visit to Isla Tiburón. While he was
there others came over from the mainland” (Thomas
Bowen, pers. comm.). Linguistic analysis yields
fewer clues (see Hale & Harris, 1979: 173). Their
language is clearly not part of the Uto-Aztecan
family of the neighboring Pimas and Yaquis, and
a suggested Hokan relationship, including either
peninsular Yuman or California coastal Salinan, has
not been clearly established to date (Campbell, 1997;
S. Marlett, 2007 & 2008).
MOLLUSCS
Archaeological, linguistic and ethnographic
studies reveal a profound cultural nexus between the
Seris and molluscs. Large middens containing bivalve
CULTURAL AND NATURAL HISTORY OF Berthellina Ilisina AND OTHER OPISTHOBRANCHIA IN THE CENTRAL SEA OF CORTEZ
Figure 2: Midden shell deposits on the eastern shore of Isla Tiburón, 29 March 2009. Photo by Cathy Marlett.
and gastropod marine shell deposits of human origin
are common throughout the ancestral Seri territories
(Figures 2 and 3).
More than 150 mollusc species with over 250
molluscan Seri names are identified by the Seris, with
significant ethnographic information (C. Marlett,
work in preparation). Although today the primary use
is as food and stringing of shells for the tourist market
or personal adornment, in the past molluscs played
an important role in the Seri culture. Easily gathered
in the extensive intertidal area, molluscs figured
prominently in the Seri diet. Their shells were heavily
used as eating utensils, vessels and storage containers.
Shells were used to butcher meat, as scrapers and
digging tools, and to make pottery and shape clay
figures (Fig. 4). Others were used in such varied ways
as medicine or as pipes for smoking tobacco. Shells
were fashioned into toys or used in games. A child’s
doll uses the byssal fibers of the bivalve Pinna rugosa
as hair (Fig. 5).
OPISTHOBRANCHS
Because of their reduced or nonexistent shell,
opisthobranch molluscs have tended to be overlooked
or not used by indigenous cultures worldwide. This
is evidenced by the lack of common names in native
languages for these organisms. Along the Pacific coast
of the Americas, only three species of opisthobranchs
are known to have been given such a name by a prehistoric [pre-European] people. The scientific name
11
Figure 3:
A midden on the mainland shore of Sonora, bordering El Canal del Infiernillo, 17 February 2009. Photo by Cathy Marlett.
Figure 4:
The shell of a Simomactra dolabriformis clam being used to shape
clay figures. The Seri name for this bivalve is haxöl icaai,
‘clam shell for making pottery’. Photo by Cathy Marlett.
12
Figure 5:
Traditional Seri doll, made in the 1970s. It is somewhat unusual in
that it has hair made from the byssal fibers of Pinna rugosa.
Photo by Cathy Marlett.
Figure 6:
The first European drawing of the Seris, by Padre Adam Gilg,
S.J. (1692). From: Alegre, Burrus & Zubillaga, 1960: 144-145.
Original in the Central Jesuit Archives in Rome
(Archivum Romanum Societatis Jesu, Boh. 108)
Figure 7:
Shell of Bulla gouldiana. Drawings by Cathy Marlett.
for the nudibranch Tochuina tetraquetra (Pallas,
1788) is based on Tochni, its name among the people
of the Kuril Islands, who ate it raw or cooked (Bergh,
1879: 154, referencing Pallas’ original description).
We are aware that Doris amarilla Pöppig, 1829, was
described as a food item of the indigenous Chileans,
however no vernacular name is known to have
existed, and the species is regarded as a nomen nudum
(Schrödl, 1996).
se colocan una concha” (Montané Martí, 1996: 156).
Very possibly these shells are the bubble snail Bulla
gouldiana (Fig. 7). Ethnographic testimony supports
this interpretation, as a Seri woman recounted that
long ago the Seris would hang bulla shells from their
ears, where they would make a “pretty sound” as they
jangled together in the breeze. The Seri name for the
species is cacaapxom, ‘what fattens [something]’, a
name derived in Seri folklore.
We here report Seri names for two species:
Bulla gouldiana Pilsbry, 1895, and Berthellina ilisima
(Marcus & Marcus, 1967).
The Seris would have encountered the seasonally
abundant Bulla gouldiana during their searches of
sand flats at low tide or in beach drift.
The first European drawing of the Seris was made
by Padre Adam Gilg, S.J., in 1692 (Fig. 6). The lead
male depicted in the family procession is apparently
adorned with earrings. Although not obvious in the
drawing, Gilg specifically described the use of shell
earrings. He wrote that “En los lóbulos de las orejas
Berthellina ilisima is known by the recentlycoined common names orange blob (Behrens &
Hermosillo, 2005, and Kerstitch & Bertsch, 2007)
and babosa albaricoque or chabacano, the apricot
slug (Camacho-García, Gosliner & Valdés, 2005).
The Seris call this animal xepenozaah, ‘sun in
13
Figure 8:
Three individuals of Berthellina ilisima (48, 41 and 43 mm total
lengths), in situ underneath a rock, subtidal, 18 feet depth,
Punta la Gringa, BLA, 15 May 1992.
Photo by Hans Bertsch.
Figure 9:
Pair of Berthellina ilisima (35-40 mm in length), with egg mass,
in situ underneath a rock, subtidal, 10 feet depth,
Punta la Gringa, BLA, 27 February 1989.
the sea’, or ‘sol en el mar’. The conspicuous and
brilliant color of this common species (occurring
under rocks intertidally and subtidally) evokes the
fierce brightness of the Sonoran sun (Fig. 8).
disc-shaped shell shrivels uselessly on extraction.
Interestingly, when a Seri woman was shown a photo
of xepenozaah, she laughed and said that it reminded
her of preserved apricots, and made her hungry!
Xepenozaah was apparently not used by the
Seris; it was not eaten, and the delicate internal
There seems to be no religious nor mythical
significance attached to this slug nor to its solar
resemblance. The Seris’ traditional belief system that
included vision quests, shamanism, and placating
malevolent spirits (Bowen, 1983: 245), did not include
sun worship. So why did they have a common name
for such a non-used creature? It is a gorgeous and
curious marine animal, found frequently under rocks
in the central Sea of Cortez (Kerstitch & Bertsch,
2007). Such an obvious and oft-encountered beauty
demands a name.
Figure 10:
Copulating pair of Doriopsilla albopunctata (32 and 28 mm long)
with egg mass, in situ on top of rock, subtidal, ~12 feet depth,
Punta la Gringa, BLA, 26 June 1998.
14
In an anecdote from Seri oral history, long ago
a group of hungry Seris traded for food from a boat
passing through the Gulf. The boat carried food
that the Seris had never seen. There were sacks of
white things, which they referred to as potaat cmis
‘[things] like maggots’ (most likely rice), and other
things referred to as xepenozaah cmis ‘[things] like
a xepenozaah’. It is tempting to posit that these were
oranges, a non-native fruit.
Tables 1-3, Bertsch & Marlett:
Table 1:
Table
1. Totalofnumbers
the fiveopisthobranchs
most abundant
opisthobranchs
at Bahía
de los
Total numbers
specimensofofspecimens
the five mostofabundant
at Bahía
de los Ángeles,
1984-2010,
Ángeles, 1984-2010,
with numbers
and percentages
found
at three
different
collecting localities:
with numbers
and percentages
found at three
different
collecting
localities:
la Gringa, Cuevitas and the Islands
Punta la Gringa, Cuevitas andPunta
the Islands.
Total
P. la Gringa
Cuevitas
Islands
Elysia diomedea
2795
2519 (90.1%)
246 (8.9%)
30 (1.2%)
Doriopsilla gemela
1502
449 (29.9%)
1053 (70.1%)
Berthellina ilisima
617
428 (69.4%)
46 (7.5%)
143 (23.2%)
Doriopsilla albopunctata
513
424 (82.7%)
87 (17%)
2 (0.2%)
Aeolidiella chromosoma
426
389 (91.3%)
15 (3.5%)
22 (5.2%)
—
The Seri word for oranges is sahmees, a word with
unclear etymology. An interesting possibility is that
through time, a shortened version of the xepenozaah
cmis might have been zaah cmis, ‘what is like the
sun’, from which it is no great leap to arrive at the
word sahmees. One Seri family still pronounces the
name for orange as zahmees. Of course, there is the
possibility that oranges were first called zaah cmis,
and the slug’s name is not involved.
totaling 479.5 hours of search time. During each
scientific dive, all opisthobranch specimens found
were counted, identified and measured. Density of
specimens and species was measured by unit of search
time, the best method for comparing opisthobranch
densities between different sites (Nybakken, 1978). A
total of 95 opisthobranch species, distributed among
9820 specimens, was recorded (Bertsch, 2010a, and
pers. obser.)
NATURAL HISTORY: BERTHELLINA ILISIMA
AT BAHÍA DE LOS ÁNGELES
Of the five most common species encountered
(Table 1), Elysia diomedea (Bergh, 1894) and
Berthellina ilisima are common in the southern
Mexican and Panamic provinces (sensu Briggs, 1995),
but Doriopsilla gemela Gosliner, Schaefer & Miller,
1999, Doriopsilla albopunctata (Cooper, 1863) and
Aeolidiella chromosoma (Cockerell, in Cockerell &
Eliot, 1905) range northward to central and northern
California. They demonstrate both the temperate
and tropical provincial-level affinities of BLA
opisthobranchs (Bertsch, 2010b), a phenomenon first
reported by Steinbeck & Ricketts (1941: 227): “This
was a strange collecting place. The water was quite
cold, and many of the members of both the northern
and southern fauna occurred here.”
Bahía de los Ángeles (BLA), Baja California,
México, is in the central Sea of Cortez, due west of
the Seri ancestral lands. Evidence from radioactive
carbon dating indicates that members of the Comondú
Culture and their historical Cochimí descendants
have inhabited this region for almost 6,000 years
(Bowen, Ritter & Bendímez-Patterson, 2008), taking
advantage of the year-round water spring at the base
of the mountain enclosing the bay.
For over 25 years, the senior author has been
conducting a long term study (see Bertsch, 2008) of
the subtidal communities at BLA: two rocky shoreline
communities on the northwest side of the bay, at
Punta la Gringa and Cuevitas, and a third comprising
the islands and the southeastern outer side of BLA
(mapped in Bertsch, Miller & Grant, 1998). During
the period 1984-2010, 408 research dives were made,
Differences between the three BLA opisthobranch
communities (Bertsch, Miller & Grant, 1998; Bertsch
& Hermosillo, 2007) are shown by the occurrence
patterns of these five species. Over 80% of Elysia
diomedea, Doriopsilla albopunctata and Aeolidiella
15
Table 2a:
Average monthly lengths (in mm)
Table 2a. Average
monthly lengths (in mm)
of Berthellina ilisima,
of Berthellina Bahía
ilisima,
Bahía
de los Ángeles
de los
Ángeles
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
13.75
14.63
17.489
18.422
26.098
26.044
30.421
35.039
34.88
33.913
52.674
45.583
(N = 4)
(N = 27)
(N = 45)
(N = 116)
(N = 41)
(N = 68)
(N = 126)
(N = 51)
(N = 25)
(N = 23)
(N = 43)
(N = 12)
Table 2b:
monthly
lengthslengths
(in mm) (in mm)
Table 2b. Average
Average
monthly
of Doriopsilla
albopunctata,
of Doriopsilla
albopunctata,
Bahía de los Ángeles
Bahía de los Ángeles
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
10.667
8.0
12.0
12.615
18.846
33.563
35.986
44.578
42.356
48.759
40.708
35.421
(N = 3)
(N = 5)
(N = 11)
(N = 13)
(N = 26)
(N = 32)
(N = 71)
(N = 147)
(N = 87)
(N = 54)
(N = 24)
(N = 19)
chromosoma were found at Punta la Gringa. The
abundance of the other two species is spread between
two communities: 70% of Doriopsilla gemela
occurred at Cuevitas and 29.9% at Punta la Gringa,
whereas 82.7% of Berthellina ilisima occurred at
Punta la Gringa and 23.2% at the Islands (Table 1).
Berthellina ilisima (Fig. 9) was the third most
common species encountered. It is a subtropical
to tropical species, ranging throughout the Gulf of
California south to Ecuador, but has periodically been
reported from the more northerly warm temperate
waters of southern California, probably corresponding
to El Niño occurrences (Kerstitch & Bertsch, 2007).
In contrast, the fourth most abundant opisthobranch,
Doriopsilla albopunctata (Cooper, 1864), is more
northerly in distribution, ranging from Mendocino,
California, to Punta Eugenia, Baja California and in
the Sea of Cortez (Fig. 10).
Berthellina ilisima exhibited a distinct annual
cycle (Fig. 11) from August to July. Juveniles of the
new generation appeared in August (averaging 13.75
mm in length), reaching maximum average lengths
of 52.674 mm and 45.583 mm (Table 2a) in June and
July. Doriopsilla albopunctata also exhibited an
annual cycle, but it was staggered earlier seasonally
than B. ilisima, from July to June (Fig. 12). Average
monthly sizes ranged from 8 mm to 48.759 mm
(Table 2b).
Table 3:
Seasonal reproductive activity at Bahía de los Ángeles of Berthellina ilisima and Doriopsilla albopunctata
Table
3. Seasonal reproductive activity at Bahía de los Ángeles of Berthellina ilisima and
(records from 1984-2010). Numbers of egg masses and pairs engaged in copulatory behavior observed per month
Doriopsilla albopunctata (records
fromduring
1984-2010).
Numbers
of egg masses and pairs engaged
(none found
August through
December).
in copulatory behavior observed per month (none found during August through December).
Egg Masses
Berthellina Doriopsilla
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
16
—
4
—
1
2
7
2
1
9
7
1
1
1
—
Copulatory Behavior
Berthellina
Doriopsilla
—
—
—
—
1
9
—
6
14
11
5
1
1
—
Figure 11:
Annual life cycle of Berthellina ilisima, average lengths of individuals per month, BLA; data 1984-2010.
Regression line y = 8.146 + 3.22x; R = 0.953; significant at P = 0.007.
Both species also exhibited seasonally staggered
periods of reproductive activity (Fig. 13), a reflection
of their temperate or tropical water distributions.
Copulatory pairs of B. ilisima were found in May
and June, whereas most copulatory pairs of D.
albopunctata were seen from January to April (Table
3). Most egg masses of the “southern” Berthellina
ilisima were found mainly from May-July, whereas
egg masses of the “northern” Doriopsilla albopunctata
were primarily encountered in February-March.
At BLA the egg mass of Berthellina ilisima is
a small coiled, low yellow-orange ribbon (Fig. 9),
but Behrens & Hermosillo (2005: 40) illustrate a
curtain-like, high, fragile and white egg mass from
southern California specimens. These differences
require further study.
The genus Berthellina Gardiner, 1936
(Nudipleura: Pleurobranchomorpha) comprises six
species. All exhibit a similar orange (varying from
yellow to red) coloration pattern, and a primarily
circumtropical distribution (Fig. 14). Most species
of Berthellina are known to feed on sponges (Willan,
1984), although Scott Johnson reported that B.
delicata (erroneously cited as B. citrina) feeds on
the stony corals Tubastrea coccinea, Leptastrea
purpurea and Porites lobata in Hawaii (Bertsch
& Johnson, 1981; Willan, 1984), and Frederick M.
Bayer has reported the Caribbean B. quadridens to
feed on sea anemones in aquaria (Marcus & Marcus,
1967: 44).
Based on the analysis of fecal and stomach
contents from BLA specimens, it can be reported for
the first time that B. ilisima feeds on Demospongiae
of the genera Sigmadocia and Oscarella (pers. comm.
Jeffrey Goddard). In situ observations both in Sonora
(Fig. 15) and BLA (Fig. 16) also show this species
associated with sponges.
17
Figure 12:
Annual life cycle of Doriopsilla albopunctata, average lengths of individuals per month, BLA; data 1984-2010.
Regression line y = 4.709 + 3.679x; R = 0.881; significant at P = <0.001.
Figure 13:
Frequency of egg masses observed per month, BLA; data 1984-2010. Open circles, Berthellina ilisima; dots, Doriopsilla albopunctata.
18
Figure 14:
Distributional map of species of Berthellina. Numbers refer to the six known species. 1. Berthellina quadridens (Mörch, 1863); west Atlantic: Mexico
to Brazil, and Caribbean Islands, Haiti to Trinidad and Tobago. 2. Berthellina edwardsi (Vayssiere, 1896); east Atlantic: southern England to Las
Islas Canarias, and the Mediterranean coast of France and Spain. 3. Berthellina citrina (Rüppell & Leuckart, 1828); Red Sea endemic.
4. Berthellina delicata (Pease, 1861); west Indian Ocean to central Pacific Ocean, including Hawai’i. 5. Berthellina sp.; South Africa and
Madagascar. 6. Berthellina ilisima (Marcus & Marcus, 1967); eastern Pacific. Distributional data from Valdés et al., 2006: 108-109 (1);
Cervera, 2000 (2); Gosliner, Behrens & Valdés, 2008: 97 (3-5).
Figure 15:
Berthellina ilisima under intertidal rock, on sponge; north of
Desemboque de los Seris, Sonora, 11 March 2008.
Photo by Cathy Marlett.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work is a portion of two independent long
term studies by the authors, conducted on opposite
shores of the Sea of Cortez: “A Seri Ethnography
of Molluscs” (CM) and “The Natural History,
Composition and Variation of the Opisthobranch
Figure 16:
Berthellina ilisima on sponge, subtidal in situ, 18 feet depth,
Punta la Gringa, BLA, 15 May 1992.
Communities at Bahía de los Ángeles” (HB). Various
aspects of this article have been presented at meetings
of scientific societies: The Pacific Conchological Club
(Los Angeles, California, October 2009), San Diego
Shell Club (San Diego, California, October 2009),
XII Congreso de la Asociación de los Investigadores
del Mar de Cortés (Guaymas, Sonora, México,
19
March 2010), Joint Meetings 43rd Western Society
of Malacologists and 76th American Malacological
Society (San Diego, California, July 2010), Third
International Workshop on Opisthobranchia (Vigo,
Spain, September 2010), and XVI Congreso Nacional
de Oceanografía (Ensenada, Baja California, México,
November 2010). We are grateful for discussions with
our colleagues at these sessions that helped shape this
final version.
Dr. Jeffrey H.R. Goddard kindly allowed us to use
his information on the stomach and fecal contents of
Berthellina ilisima.
During our investigations numerous people have
generously helped us. We are grateful to the many
Seris who have shared their intimate knowledge of
their sea world, especially Manuel Monroy, who
pointed out the slug and provided its name, and
Evangelina López, who described the past use of the
bubble shell by the Seris. We thank Steve Marlett
for his help with linguistic details of the Seri data
presented here, and Thomas Bowen for comments on
archaeological dating of the Seri origins.
We thank our diving and research colleagues
at Bahía de los Ángeles, including Ricardo Arce
Navarro, Rosa del Carmen Campay, Brian Coleman,
Jeff Goddard, Alan Grant, Christopher L. Kitting,
Michael D. Miller, Antonio Reséndiz and Tom Smith.
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the seris, the sun and slugs: cultural and natural history of

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