How the Brain Manages Multiliteracy Skills

How the Brain Manages Multiliteracy Skills

How the Brain Manages
Multiliteracy Skills
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
[email protected]
YouTube: Tokuhama+Multilingualism
March 2015
Background
•BA and BS from Boston University in International Relations
and Mass Communication (magna cum laude). Master’s
from Harvard University in International Education and
Development and doctorate (Ph.D.) from Capella University
(cross-disciplinary approach comparing findings in
neuroscience, psychology, pedagogy, cultural
anthropology and linguistics).
•Director of the Center for Applied Educational Research
Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, Ecuador.
•Author of Raising Multilingual Children (2001), The
Multilingual Mind (2003), and Living Languages (2008). New
book on neuroscience and language 2014.
•Teacher (pre-kindergarten through university) with 25 years
of comparative research based on family case studies
(Japan, Ecuador, USA, Canada, France, Switzerland,
Germany) and work in 25 different countries.
•Three children (raised in English, Spanish, German and
French).
Today
1.
Bilingualism: Brain Benefits
2.
How the brain learns
3.
Reading networks in the brain
◼ 16 networks related to pre-literacy skills needed for
children to read well
4.
How the bilingual brain differs from the monolingual
brain
Bilingual Benefits
(Neuro)linguistics:
Benefits of bilingualism
• Bilingual children have higher levels of abstraction at earlier ages
than monolinguals. (1)
• Bilinguals learn to manage language rules at an earlier age than
monolinguals. (2)
• Bilinguals learn to inhibit (ignore information calling for attention)
earlier and with faster speed that monolinguals, which directly
relates to executive functions (3).
• Bilinguals use more of their brains than monolinguals. (3).
1. Suzanne Flynn professor of linguistics and second-language acquisition at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Ellen
Bialystok, professor of psychology at York University in Toronto. 2. Adele Diamond, director of the Center for Developmental
Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Massachusetts Medical School in Waltham. 3. Patricia Kuhl of the University of
Washington .
No disadvantages…
◼ Our findings suggest that early bilingualism offers no
disadvantages; on the contrary, young bilinguals may be
afforded a linguistic and a cognitive advantage.
◼ Early dual language exposure is also key to skilled reading
acquisition.
◼ Moreover, learning to read in two languages may afford an
advantage to children from monolingual homes in key
phoneme awareness skills vital to reading success.
Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20
*VIDEO 2: Does learning language make kids smarter? http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=UfNXtUFUbxE (1:38 mins)
◼ Children who experience early, extensive, and systematic exposure to
both of their languages quickly grasp the fundamentals of both of their
languages and in a manner virtually identical to that of monolingual
language learners.
Petitto & Dunbar, MBE/Harvard, October 6-8, 2004; Page 7 of 20
*VIDEO 3: More Evidence Bilingualism Aids Thinking Skills http://www.everydayhealth.com/healthyliving/0501/more-evidence-bilingualism-aids-thinking-skills.aspx (4:03 mins)
Receommended video: Benefits of Bilingual Babies http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DyD15OxINTw (5:
01 mins)
Recommended video: Language and Learning http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hW_qpta6zb4 (28:01
mins)
One minute paper on
-“Languages”
-“Bilingual Education” “The Multilingual Brain”
(or any related title)
At least one thing you
know about
bilingualism/multilingua
lism and one thing you
would like to know.
How the Brain
Learns
Definitions
Neurogenesis
(the birth of neurons)
◼ Neurogenesis is the production of new cells in the nervous system
and glial cells in the brain. It is more notable in the neonatal stage but
it occurs throughout the lifespan.
◼ In humans, the generation of new neurons has been documented in
different areas, with most research in the olfactory bulb and
hippocampus.
Neurogenesis
◼ Neurogenesis in
mammals was
discovered in 1992
and in human in
1998.
Eriksson P.S., Perfilieva, E., Björk-Eriksson, T., et al. (November 1998). Neurogenesis in the adult
human hippocampus. Nature Medicine 4(11), 1313–1317.
Myth: Brain cells can’t be replaced (it
is not possible for new cells to be
born)
◼ Neurogenesis
disproves the idea
that new brain cells
can’t be replaced.
Synaptogenesis and Plasticity
◼ New synaptic connections is called
“synaptogenesis” and also known as
“plasticity”.
◼ All of your thoughts, memories, values and
knowledge are the result of plasticity.
◼ “The average human brain has about 100
billion neurons (or nerve cells) and many
more neuroglia (or glial cells) which serve to
support and protect the neurons (although
see the end of this page for more
information on glial cells). Each neuron may
be connected to up to 10,000 other neurons,
passing signals to each other via as many
as 1,000 trillion synaptic connections…”
The Human Memory (2014). http://www.human-memory.net/brain_neurons.html
1. Human brain (model)
2. Real brain
3. Neurons in the bran (real)
4. Synapses between neurons (model)
1.
2.
4.
3.
http://www.willamette.edu/~gorr/classes/cs449/figs/brain2.jpg; http://www.alzheimers-brace.
org/images/brain_images.jpg
“Hebbian synapse”*
◼ “Use it or lose it”
*Donald Hebb, 1949
(Neuro) plasticity
◼ The ability of the
brain to rewire itself
using. This can be
achieved through
“rgular” or typical
neuropathways, or
to new pathways
forged to replaced
damaged circuits.
(Neuro) plasticity
Plasticidad: cambio de
paradigma sobre las divisiones
del cerebro
◼ ANTES se creía en el “localizacionismo”, que
ahora sabemos es equivocado:
Plasticity
We now know…
◼ “…that children are not always stuck
with the mental abilities they are
born with; that the damaged brain
can often reorganize itself so that
when one part fails, another can
often substitute; that is brain cells
die, they can at times be replaced;
that many ‘circuits’ and even basic
reflexes that we think are hardwired
are not” Doidge (2007, p. xv).
www.news.wisc.edu5837&usg=__XYx4tgNJXg9NvcAHxr0OmrdUqwg=&h=250&w=167&sz=8&hl=es&start=3&um=1&tbnid=r3Ws_J8O4rxOM:&tbnh=111&tbnw=74&prev=/images%3Fq%3DPaul%2BBach-y-Rita%26hl%3Des%26sa%3DG%26um%3D1
Mito: La plasticidad neural se
debe a la buena pedagogía.
◼ Esto es un mito porque
la plasticidad neural se
basa en la estructura
neuroanatómica
natural del cerebro, y
ocurre con o sin buena
pedagogía, (aunque es
probable que se
optimice por la
estimulación).
¿Qué es “aprendizaje”?
RESPUESTA CORTA:
◼ Si el estímulo
sensorial resulta en
nuevas sinapsis =
aprendizaje.
◼ ¿Cómo conocemos el
mundo?
◼ A través de los
sentidos.
◼ “El cerebro no aprende de
manera lineal, estructurada y
predecible. Esto implica que se
necesitan utilizar varios canales
sensoriales a la vez, incluyendo
audiovisuales, lecturas, trabajo
en grupo, reflexión y actividades
novedosas.”
Atención + Memoria = Aprendizaje
◼ “La adquisición de conocimiento
declarativo depende tanto de la memoria
como de la atención.”
◼ Existen muchos impedimentos a la
memoria y la atención en un ambiente de
aula de clases. Es imposible que los
alumnos no presten atención cuando
ellos son los protagonistas de la actividad
de aprendizaje. Sin embargo, es muy fácil
que se distraigan cuando la actividad
está enfocada en otros.
No se establece como hecho aún, puesto que aunque existen varios estudios sobre la atención y varios
sobre la memoria, hay menos estudios acerca de memoria + atención, y muchos menos aún en el
contexto del aula.
Memoria
Bien establecido: El cerebro
cambia constantemente con la
experiencia
◼ “El cerebro es un sistema complejo, dinámico e integrado, el cual
está cambiando constantemente con la experiencia, aunque la
mayoría de estos cambios solo se evidencian a nivel microscópico.”
◼ Al ir a dormir en la noche, tendrán un cerebro diferente al que tenían
cuando se despertaron en la mañana. Cada olor, vista, sabor,
sonido, tacto que experimenten, y cada sentimiento que tengan
puede alterar la forma física de su cerebro. La naturaleza compleja y
dinámica del cerebro recuerda a los profesores que, aun cuando
piensen que no están llegando a los alumnos, bien podrían estar
cambiándolos poco a poco.
Bien establecido: la influencia del
conocimiento previo
▪
“Conectar nueva información
a los conocimientos previos
facilita el aprendizaje.”
▪
Aprendemos mejor y más
rápido cuando relacionamos
nueva información a lo que ya
sabíamos.
Especulación inteligente: sistemas
de memoria
◼ “Los diferentes sistemas de la memoria (ej., corto
plazo, largo plazo, de trabajo, espacial, motora, las
diferentes modalidades, específicas, automáticas,
etc.) reciben y procesan información de diferentes
maneras y la recuperan a través de vías neurales
distintas, y a veces, superpuestas.”
◼ La memoria humana es un sistema complejo y es de
vital importancia para el aprendizaje. La información
se almacena y se recupera de varias maneras,
implicando que los educadores deberían variar sus
métodos de enseñanza para crear una variedad de
vías a través de las cuales se puede recuperar
información, facilitando así el proceso de recordar
(ej., instrucción basada en la teoría de las
inteligencias múltiples).
No está bien establecido porque la documentación en el contexto del aula utilizando criterios de la
neurociencia es escasa.
Especulación inteligente:
conocimiento previo
◼ “El aprendizaje humano es un proceso
constructivo en el cual se edifica significado
a partir de estructuras de conocimiento
existentes. Las estructuras de
conocimiento existentes son
individualmente definidas.”
◼ Las personas toman experiencias pasadas
y las utilizan para construir bloques de
conceptos, sobre los cuales se desarrolla el
nuevo conocimiento. La metáfora de la
construcción es la base para la filosofía
educativa del constructivismo.
No está bien establecido debido a que es escasa la documentación en el contexto
del aula utilizando criterios de la neurociencia.
Mito: La memoria es como un registro
objetivo de una situación, y la realidad
existe en una forma que todos perciben
de igual manera.
◼ Esto es un mito de la neurociencia
porque las memorias individuales
humanas no se registran como si
fueran guardadas en un disco duro.
Más bien, son influenciadas por las
experiencias de la persona.
◼ Los filtros a través de los cuales se
recuerdan eventos hacen que las
memorias estén sujetas a la mala
interpretación o a recuerdos falsos.
Mito: El cerebro recuerda todo lo que ha
experimentado durante su vida; olvidar
es simplemente una ausencia de la
habilidad de recuperar el recuerdo.
◼ Mientras que olvidar sí es una
ausencia de la habilidad de
recuperar el recuerdo, el cerebro no
recuerda necesariamente todo lo
que ha experimentado.
◼ Solamente la información que se ha
transferido de la memoria de
trabajo a la memoria de largo plazo
(en sus formas variadas) se puede
recuperar y recordar.
Siete “pecados de la memoria” :
Tres pecados de “omisión” (falta de
habilidad para recordar).
1.
Transience (tiempo)
2.
Absent-mindedness (distracción)
3.
Blocking (bloqueo)
Cuatro pecados de “acción” (existe una
memoria, pero no es fiel).
4.
Misattribution (falsa attribución)
5.
Suggestibility (sugestionabilidad)
6.
Bias (sesgo)
7.
Persistence (persistencia).
Daniel Schacter, 2002
Memoria
◼ Hay varios tipos de memoria, entre ellos:
◼ Memoria de largo plazo
◼ Declarativo (declarativo)
◼ De procedimiento (procedimental)
◼ Memoria de trabajo
◼ Memoria de corto plazo
◼ Memoria emocional
◼ Memoria episódica
Requisitos para la
memoria de largo plazo
◼ Para que la información llegue
a la memoria de largo plazo,
debe cumplir por lo menos uno
de los siguientes requisitos:
1. Tener valor de supervivencia;
2. Ser fácil de relacionar con
conocimientos previos;
3. Tener un valor personal (o
emocional).
Piensa en….
Tres (3) cosas que recuerdas
fácilmente.
Tres (3) cosas que son difíciles de
recordar.
Probablemente cierto: dormir y
la memoria
◼ “Dormir es importante para la consolidación de la
memoria declarativa (pero otros tipos de memoria,
por ejemplo, la memoria emocional, se puede
consolidar sin dormir).
◼ La falta de sueño tiene un impacto negativo sobre
la memoria, perjudica la habilidad de prestar
atención y organizar la actividad mental de manera
eficiente y eficaz.
◼ La consolidación de la memoria depende del sueño
MOR (movimiento ocular rápido).
◼ La memoria se perjudica cuando no se duerme lo
suficiente.
Dado que solamente se han hecho algunos estudios en la población de edad escolar,
no se ha establecido como un hecho aún.
Estrategias para recordar
información a largo plazo
◼ ….?
◼ Repetición simple
◼ Repetición acumulativa
◼ Parafraseo
◼ Selección y toma de notas
◼ Predicción
◼ Elaboración de preguntas
◼ Resúmenes
◼ Elaboración
◼ Asociación
◼ Variedad de vías sensoriales
◼ Variación de tiempo entre el ensayo (intento)
inicial y secundario
¿Es cierto que practicando se logra la
perfección?
◼¿O solo lo hace “permanente”?
¿Qué impacto tienen otros tipos de
memoria…?
◼¿Memoria emocional?
Aspectos biofisiológicos en el
aprendizaje
◼ ¿Impacto de la falta de dormir? (almacenar
información)
◼ ¿Impactos de dieta?
◼ ¿Impacto de la hora del día de la clase (ritmos
circadianos)?
La Pirámide de Maslow: Teorías de
la motivación
La experiencia da forma al
cerebro
Uno se va a dormir todas las
noches con un cerebro distinto con
el que amaneció. ¿Por qué?
Experiencia.
La experiencia cambia la
estructura física del cerebro
diariamente (estudio con ratas,
malabares, dedo índice derecho y
actividad de la corteza motora
correspondiente).
Greenspan & Shanker 2004
Emociones y aprendizaje
▪ “Cuando un concepto
lucha con una
emoción, la emoción
casi siempre gana.”
(Sousa, 2000, p.53)
▪ “No hay decisiones sin
emoción.” (Damasio,
2004)
Probablemente cierto: impacto
de la novedad en la memoria
◼ “El cerebro humano busca -y con
frecuencia detecta- novedad (la cual
se define individualmente).”
◼ Reconocemos rápidamente lo que
está fuera de lugar o diferente, e
inconscientemente buscamos cosas
que no encajan.
◼ (ej., “2+3=5” y “5-3=2”)
Todavía no está establecido como hecho porque la definición de “novedad”
es individual, lo cual complica la realización de estudios.
Probablemente cierto: La
búsqueda de patrones y su
influencia en la memoria
◼ “El cerebro humano busca patrones a través
de los cuales puede predecir resultados.
Además, los sistemas neurales forman
respuestas a patrones que se activan con
frecuencia (la definición de ‘patrón’ la hace
cada individuo).”
◼ Categorizamos el mundo de la forma que nos
ayuda a entender la información. Una manera
en que lo hacemos es diseñando patrones de
lo que encontramos. Estos patrones son como
mapas que nos señalan hacia donde ir. Un
mapa es un sistema neural para un cierto
grupo de experiencias similares (por ejemplo,
matemáticas,
escritura,
interacciones
Aunque sí esta comprobado en
la neurociencia
y en la psicología,
todavíasociales,
no está
etc.)
establecido como hecho por el número limitado de estudios realizados en las aulas.
Probablemente cierto: práctica
y repetición
◼ “La repetición de pistas de recuperación
ayuda a los procesos de la memoria
declarativa.”
◼ Mientras que las memorias pueden ser
creadas por experiencias emocionales
intensivas, la memoria declarativa
(asociada con el aprendizaje escolar) se
mejora a través de la práctica. Es por esta
razón que el uso de actividades
mnemotécnicas (incluyendo repetición y
práctica) optimizan nuestra habilidad para
recuperar información (por ejemplo,
Debido a que no existe un consenso
todavía
qué tipo de práctica ayuda
deberes
biensobre
estructurados,
más a la memoria, no se ha establecido como un hecho.
mnemotécnicas explícitas, etc.)
Probablemente cierto:
elaboración
◼ “La elaboración (enseñanza
explícita) de conceptos claves
facilita el nuevo aprendizaje.”
◼ Los profesores obtienen mejores
resultados si dan explicaciones
explícitas de los conceptos clave.
Por ejemplo, priming: el uso de
conceptos, evaluación del
conocimiento de conceptos y
reforzar conceptos son tipos de
elaboración.
Aunque sí está comprobado en la psicología, todavía no está establecido como hecho por el
número limitado de estudios elaborados en las aulas.
Atención
Atención
◼ ¿Cuán largo es el período de atención de un niño
de 7 años? ¿De 15 años? ¿De un adulto?
Bien establecido: atención
Límite de atención de los alumnos
◼ Reconozca que los estudiantes
pueden enfocar su atención por
más o menos 10-20 minutos.
En la práctica:
◼ Esto significa que los profesores deben
cambiar el enfoque de persona, tópico o
espacio físico cada 10-20 minutos.
Bien establecido: “PrimacyRecency”
El Efecto Primacía:
◼ Las personas recuerdan mejor
lo que sucede primero, y
también recuerdan bien lo que
sucede al último, pero
recuerdan menos lo que
sucede en la mitad de una
clase.
En la práctica:
◼ Esto significa que los profesores
deben aprovechar los mejores
momentos de atención al
principio de la clase dando
información importante
(conceptos básicos de la clase),
y no desperdiciar el tiempo con
cosas como tomar lista o
problemas en los deberes de un
individuo.
◼ (Revisión de material de la clase
previa)
En la práctica:
◼ Esto implica que los
momentos en la
mitad de la clase
deben ser utilizados
en actividades
enfocadas en los
alumnos para que se
mantengan atentos.
En la práctica:
◼ La última parte de la
clase debe ser utilizada
para un resumen de los
conceptos más
importantes y una
explicación de lo que se
hará en la próxima clase.
Language and the Brain
◼ There are at least 12 neural circuits in the brain related to
reading skills and four more related to socio-emotional
interactions in teaching and learning.
Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2011), pp.182-183; Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. & Rivera, M. (2013)
1. Ability to See (vision)
◼ The ability to see
(near, far) influences
the ability to read.
p.182 Tokuhama-Espinosa
2. Ability to
pay attention:
◼ Alerting
◼ Executive Functions
◼ Sustaining
p.182 Tokuhama-Espinosa
3. Symbolic representations
◼ The ability to express
different concepts in
symbols.
p.182 Tokuhama-Espinosa
4. Phonological loop
◼ “Hearing” written words
(mentally sound-out words;
verbal coding)
5. Change phonemes
into words
6. Semantic memory
(word retrieval)
7. Semantic understanding
8. Syntactic understanding
9. Context and intonation
10. Coherent sentence
structure
11. Conceptual
organization
12. Working memory
14-16. Socio-emotional
motivational factors
13.
How a person feels during learning moments
(self-esteem, self-efficacy)
14.
How learning influences the learner’s social
status in the group (social cognition)
15.
The teacher-student relation
16.
Other motivational factors
Tokuhama-Espinosa (2011, p.183)
Reading in the
Brain
How the Bilingual
Brain Learns
True or False?
7. When a child
learns his languages
from birth he is
effectively learning
them as two first
languages.
Where are languages in the bilingual
brain?
•L1
•L2
1.
2.
3.
Languages are separate and don’t overlap (“firewall
model”).
The second language is learned “on top of” the first.
The two languages are separate but overlap in some
areas (“overlap hypothesis”).
Two languages in one brain:
•Brain scans show that people brought
up bilingual from birth have languages in
the same area of the brain as
monolinguals.
•People who learn languages after the
first seven months or so actually use
different areas for processing sounds, or
simply do not perceive sounds, which
are not representative in their native
language at all.
Kovelman, Baker, and Petitto, 2008; Fennell, Byers-Heinlein & Werker , 2006.
Antonio RodriguezFornells, Michael
Rotte, Hans-Jochen
Heinze, Tömme
Nösselt and Thomas
F. Münte (28
February 2002).
Brain potential and
functional MRI
evidence for how to
handle two
languages with one
brain. Nature 415,
1026-1029doi:
10.1038/4151026a
◼ “Humans have a unique ability to learn more than
one language-a skill that is thought to be
mediated by functional (rather than structural)
plastic changes in the brain.”
Mechelli, A. and J. T. Crinion and U. Noppeney and J. Ashburner and R. S. Frackowiak and C. J. Price
(2004).
True or False?
8. All people have
the same area of
their brain to speak
different
languages.
True or False?
10. The general research
findings examining
trilinguals brains to date
point to no pattern for
multilingualism.
Nitsch, Franceschini, Lüdi, Radü, n/d
True or False?
11. Multilinguals are
shown to be faster
at working memory
tasks than
monolinguals.
Baddeley, 2001
True or False?
12. Bilingual students
achieve higher results
on English-language
proficiency tests than
their Anglophone,
monolingual peers.
Cenoz & Lindsay, 1994
The Facts and StudiesThe Benefits of Multilingualism
Bilingual students achieve higher
results on English-language
proficiency tests than their
Anglophone, monolingual peers_:
◼Significant effects of bilingualism
were found on four of five measures, i.
e., listening, speaking, writing, &
vocabulary/grammar. No significant
effect on reading ability was
observed.
True or False?
13. A nine-year-old has the same
size brain as an adult; therefore
they learn foreign languages in the
same way.
Suddath, Christison, Torrey, Casanova & Weinberger, 1990.
Metacognition:
The Multilingual Mind
◼ The manner in which word forms are connected to the other words
in the multilingual minds: is this connection is mediated by the first
language or not. It has been found that first languages do not
necessarily play a privileged role in the acquisition of subsequent
languages. The reaction times measured showed that despite the
claims in the literature, first language does not seem to have a
determining role in the development of a third language.
◼ Findings suggest that both L1 and L2 have a role: L1 is the default
supplier during transfer lapses and L2 during interactional
strategies.
Metacognition:
The Multilingual Mind
◼ Parasitism as a default mechanism in L3 vocabulary
acquisition (Christopher J. Hall and Peter Ecke)
presupposes that new words are integrated into
existing lexical network with least possible redundancy
and as rapidly as possible in order to become
accessible for communication. The authors propose
that the multilingual lexicon admits cross-linguistic
transfer (CLI) from all possible source languages and at
all representational levels.
The Mother Tongue Dilemma
The questions:
◆ Can a child develop strong
second language skills if they
have a weak mother tongue (as
in when they come from poorer
backgrounds and have not
been properly schooled in the
home language)?
◆ “Amount of exposure has a
strong effect on the likelihood
of both positive and negative
language transfer…”1
Part of the answer:
◼ [Language] learners who
have highly developed
language skills (such as
reading, writing and
richness of vocabulary) in
their native language will
most likely find that these
skills facilitate second
language acquisition…”2
1. Dewaele, J. (2001). “Activation or inhibition? The interaction of L1, L2 and L3 on the language mode
continuum”;
2. Odlin, T. (1989). Language transfer. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. .
The Facts and Studies-The
Mother Tongue Dilemma
1.
There is a direct link between academic
results and the time spent learning in the
mother tongue_.
2.
A child’s proficiency level in the native
language relates to the speed and extent
to which the second language develops_.
The Facts and Studies
◼ 4. The more languages you know, the easier it gets to learn
an additional one_.
◼ 5. Third-language learners are highly successful; they
learn more language faster than second language learners
of the same target language; and (2) their behaviours are
those of the self-directed learner_.
◼ 6. Semilingualism is a relatively rare phenomenon and is
defined by a lack of dominance in any of the languages one
is acquainted with_.
The Facts and Studies
7. In 2000, more than a third of the
population of Western Europe
under 35 was of immigrant origin,
according to a recent UNESCO
report on linguistic diversity in
Europe.
8. A study done in The Hague in 1999
showed that in a sample of 41,600
children aged between 4 and 17,
about 49% of primary and 42% of
secondary school pupils use a
language other than Dutch at
home, such as Turkish, Hindi, Berber
or Arabic.
◼ One-half to two-thirds of the
world is bilingual or
multilingual.
Questions?
Thank you for coming!
Based on:
◼ Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2000). Raising multilingual
children: Foreign language acquisition and children.
Westport, CT: Praeger.
◼ Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2003). The multilingual mind:
Questions by, for, and about people living with many
languages. Westport, CT: Praeger.
◼ Tokuhama-Espinosa, T. (2008). Living languages:
Multilingualism throughout the lifespan. Westport, CT:
Praeger.
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For more information:
Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa, Ph.D.
[email protected]
www.educacionparatodos.com
www.traceytokuhama.com