Case Study 2: Dender River Basin

Transcripción

euwareness belgium
David Aubin and Frédéric Varone
David Aubin
Frédéric Varone
April 2002
Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL)
Unité de Sciences politiques et Relations internationales (SPRI)
Association universitaire de Recherche sur l'Action publique (AURAP)
Place Montesquieu, 1 boîte 7
1348 Louvain-la-Neuve
Belgium
Tel: + 32.10.47.2018
Fax: + 32.10.47.4603
Website: www.aurap.ucl.ac.be
Email: [email protected]; [email protected];
EUWARENESS is a research project on European Water Regimes and the Notion of a Sustainable Status. Research institutes
from six European countries (Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland) have been cooperating in this two year
project (2000-2002). More information is available on www.euwareness.nl. The project is supported by the European Commission
th
under the 5 Framework Programme, and co-ordinated by the University of Twente in the Netherlands.
EUWARENESS Case Study Report 2: Dender river basin
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Table of contents:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
General description of the Dender river basin
History of water management in the basin (1980-2001)
Development of uses
Identifying attempts towards integration: intra-cases
Considerations on coordination and sustainability of the basin management
D. AUBIN - F. VARONE - EUWARENESS
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Introduction
Our selection of the case study is established with a series of parameters:
- Number and types of uses (rivalries)
- Documented case (wide set of available data)
- Scale compatible with the requirements of the EUWARENESS project
- On-going basin committee (non-binding form of local concertation)
- An intermediary basin (in contrast with the Vesdre Basin)
→Allows a later comparison with the Vesdre basin, based on multiple grounds
The Dender basin is a tributary basin of the international Schelde (Escaut) basin, located in
Flanders. Its superficies is of 1384 km², but the official basin, as designed by the Flemish
authorities is of 708 km² (Vesdre, 710 km²). The river Dender flows South to North. The
upstream part of the basin is located in Wallonia, at the South of the Dender basin. The
Dender basin is located precisely at the West of Brussels, at a mead distance between Brussels
and Ghent. The basin is densely populated. The main town, located downstream, is Aalst (or
Alost). The rivers’flow is conditioned by rainfalls. A wide set of water uses is embraced
inside the basin. Agriculture and breeding are well developed upstream and industry
downstream, along the navigable part of the Dender. Population is spread on all the territory,
especially concentrated upstream. Even if natural places are protected, the basin has no
initially preserved and wild areas, the same as most parts of Flanders. Tourism is not well
developed even if present. No drinking water is produced locally. Another characteristic of
the Dender river is that it is a former tidal river, now cut from the Schelde by a lock gate
(sluis).
Map 1: The basin of the Dender and its tributary basins
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Source: VMM
The present case study is based on an hydrographic basin as defined by the Flemish
administration. It represents no particular cultural identity, the region where it stands (Flemish
Brabant and Eastern Flanders) neither. The Dender basin belongs to the broad Escaut basin.
The tributary basin level ought to become in the coming years the relevant level of water
management. Administrative works that prepare the transposition of the European water
framework directive support this option.
As a comparison with the case study of the Vesdre river basin, the most striking difference is
the degree of dependence from the outside. While the Vesdre basin is fully autonomous, the
Dender basin is strongly dependant from upstream, i.e. the Walloon part of the basin. The
discussions on the imputability of liabilities in case of pollution or rivalries will obviously
differ from one case study to the other. In the Vesdre basin, liability is always localised inside
the basin, as the Vesdre river takes its source at the upstream of the basin and collects every
tributary rivers. In the case of the Dender basin, the situation is rather different, as Flemish
people cannot overpass principles of physics. In fact, the Dender takes its source outside the
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officially designed basin, i.e. at the upstream in the Walloon Region. Some problems of
pollution, overflow or scarcity can then be imputed to exogenous factors. It is the same with
drinking water. The whole water consumed in the Vesdre basin is produced locally. Drinking
water is provided in the Dender basin from outside springs and plants. So liability in terms of
drinking water is also potentially imputable to exogenous factors. Thus the only common
points between the two selected basins is that they will certainly be retained as management
units in the upcoming integrated water management, as stressed in the water framework
directive. As the problematic of drinking water is considered outside from the basin, many
potential rivalries with a dominant use, highly demanding in water quality, are evacuated.
However the selection of the case study is due to a wide representation of uses and also to the
fact that it has been selected as a pilot-basin by the regional administration.
In contrast with the more legal and functional regime approach done in the country screening,
the present case study takes a user approach. We start from a local identification of the
different water uses (bottom-up approach) and try to see how these uses are regulated,
according to the regional legislation or on a more informal basis. We select some particular
rivalrous uses that led to conflicts now overcome. Then we replace the resulting intra-cases in
the broader analysis of the regime and its institutional arrangement at local scale.
I.
General description of the water basin
We stress the particularities of the Dender river basin. We present elements of geography and
hydrology, including the pollution problem.
1.1
1.1.1
Geographical aspects1
Human geography
Localisation
The Dender bassin is located entirely on the Belgian territory. Its superficies is 1384 km² of
which 708 km² is in Flanders. The basin of the Dender is located at the South center part of
Flanders. It is a sub-basin of the Schelde. The basin is part of both provinces of Vlaams
Brabant (1/3) and Oost Vlaanderen (2/3). A part of the Dender basin is also located in
Wallonia. The Dender basin is bordered South by the bassins of the Haine, East by the Dijle
and Zenne basin, West by the Upper-Schelde basin and North by the Lower-Schelde basin.
All these are tributary basins of the Schelde.
The Dender is formed in Ath (Wallonia) from the meeting of the Eastern Dender (Dendre
orientale or Dendre), the Western Dender (Dendre occidentale or Petite Dendre) and the
Ath-Blaton canal at a height of 40m beyond the sea level. The Dender issues in the Schelde
65 km after in Dendermonde at a height of 4 m beyond the sea level. The (Eastern) Dender
takes its source in the province of Hainaut, Wallonia, in Erbfait at the north of Mons
(Bergen), at a height of 100 m. The Western Dender, that comes from the West, springs in
Leuze-en-Hainaut, at an height of 70 m.
1
The first informations collected upon the Dender are picked up from : AMINAL, Afdeling Water, 2000, Op
weg naar integraal waterbeheer : het watersysteem in het bekken van de Dender, Ministerie van de Vlaamse
Gemeenschap
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Definition of the river basin
We use the definition and the geographical borders as designated by the Flemish Region to
delineate the basin in which the study takes place2. Flanders is divided in 11 sub-basins. The
region is crossed by 3 basins (Maas, Schelde, Ijzer). In the context of the EU water
framework directive, the Flemish Region has chosen the basin of the Schelde as the water
district (stroomgebieddistrict). The Dender basin was granted of a consultative structure, the
basin committee since 18 February 1991.
Population
The total number of inhabitants is 349485. In the Flemish Brabant, the basin includes the
towns of the arrondissements3 of Halle-Vilvoorde and in the Eastern Flanderes the
arrondissements of Aals, Dendermonde and Oudenaarde. 27 communes are included, 11
entirely and 16 partly. The most important towns (superficy and population) are all sirtuated
along the Dender: Aalst (50000-100000 inhabitants), Ninove (10000-50000 inhab.) and
Geraardsbergen (10000-50000 inhab.). During the period 1980-2001, the population remained
stable inside the basin, except in Aalst where the population slightly declined.
Spatial use & activities
Water uses in the Dender basins are manyfolds. They are induced by a why set of human
activities. In the regional land-use inventory, the Dender basin is classified as an open area
mainly composed of natural an agrarian spaces. Urban areas are also present. Only the city of
Aalst has a consequent size (gewestelijke gemeente).
Industry is concentrated mainly between the towns of Aalst and Dendermonde, but also in
Ninove and Geraardsbergen and along the motorway E40 that goes from Brussels to Ghent.
The industrial zones are the following4:
• Aalst - E40 Erembodegem (81 ha)
• Aalst - Gijzegem (11.48 ha)
• Aalst - Hofstade - Wijngaardveld - Lion d’Or (155 ha)
• Erpe Mere E40 (51 ha)
• Geraardsbergen -Schendelbeke - Ophasselt (76 ha)
• Ninove - Appelterre (12 ha)
• Ninove - Industriepark (121 ha)
• Ternat - Asse - Liedekerke E40
In the field of water quality, the total number of industries of which emissions are monitored
by the VMM is 49. This number encompasses all the priority companies (34 P-bedrijven) and
some smaller ones that are important emitters.
Concerning agriculture, 2079 farms are registered5. They are specialised in intensive breeding
and the production of cereals.
2
“Een bekkencomité is in wezen een ambtelijk overlegorgaan dat instaat voor het integraal waterbeheer binnen
zowel administratief als hydrographisch afgebakende grenzen. Het hoeft daarom niet dezelfde begrenzing te
hebben als een stroomgebied”, in VMM, 2000, AWP2 Dender, TW, p. 14
3
The division of the territory is manyfold. Division are functional. For the population, we have the region, the
provinces, the arrondissements and the communes. For rivers, we have the basins and the tributary basins
(VHA-zones) and for purification we find the purification districts that follow there own logic of division.
4
Localise the industries one by one with the table 27 (VMM, AWP2)
5
The register is managed by the Vlaamse Landmaatschappij (VLM).
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1.1.2
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Physical geography
Source of the river and flow, basins around, tributaries. The specificity of the Dender is the
large number of tributaries (bijrivieren).
Geological aspects and landscape in the basin
The structure of the valley is asymetrical. The East part is flat (plate) and the West part is
composed of hills, a place called the “Wall of Geraarsbergen” (de ‘Muur van
Geraarsbergen”). The main part of the basin (Flanders) is located in a argillaceous, clayey
area (Leemstreek) (zone argileuse). The north part is the Zandleemstreek (sandclay?). A tiny
part at the Southwest is in Heuveland, Flemish Ardennes (ground also composed of clay)
Landscape
In the north part of the basin, the relief in the Zandleemstreek is not specific (flat, niet
opvallend, pas remarquable). In the Leemstreek, the landscape ondulates with small enclaved
brookbeds (lits de ruisseaux, beekdalen). This is more and more obvious as one goes South,
from the Zandleemstreek to the Heuvelland.
The rivers of the basin are bordered with sites of high natural value: grazing areas, brushwood
(ruigten) and woods. We find along the Dender some paludous biotopes (wetlands). In
general, natural areas are disseminated in small fragments. And their biological interests
diminishes as they are transformed in poplar plantings (plantations de peupliers).
Sites of biological interest are6:
• downstream, Wellemeersen-Kapellemeersen (Welle-Denderleeuw): labelled natural
reserve (ER, erkende natuurreservaten) / protected landscape (beschermd landschap)
• Nuchten (Idegem), de Kwaadbroeken (Pollare), het Moenebroek (Schendelbeke), de
Molenmeersen and de Pollaremeersen (between Pollare and Ninove)
• Along the low course of the Mark, one finds flowered meadows (prairies de fauche), for
instance in the natural reserves ‘De Rietbeemd’ (De Wielewaal vzw, in Geraardsbergen)
and ‘De Markvallei’ (ER/N, in Galmaarden).
• the valley of the Molenbeek in Honegem: an old peat-bog moved in a plantation of rushes
• the East side of the Dender with woods and springs (bronbosjes): het Raspaillebos (De
Wielewaal vzw, in Geraardsbergen)and het Moerbekebos at the East of Geraarsbergen
• In the South, de Terkleppebeek (Everbeek-Brakel).
6
The complete list is available in VMM, 2000, AWP2 Dender, TW, p. 22-23.
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1.2
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Hydrological aspects
Here we present some characteristics of the water cycle in the basin and hydrogeological data.
We also give an interest to hydrological characteristics of the main streams of the Vesdre
basin.
1.2.1
Water cycle
Climate and pluviometric
The climate of the Dender basin is a temperate oceanic climate with a yearly surplus of
rainfalls. This quantity of rainfalls is available to feed the aquifers and the streams. During the
period 1990-1997, the average rainfalls is 780.1 mm/year. (between 750 mm and 1400 mm in
the Vesdre basin).
Hydrogeology
The major part of the Dender basin is located on clayey sediments (lemige sedimenten,
sédiments argileux), called the Leemstreek. In the Northern part, one finds the
Zandleemstreek, localised sand layers full of water. A small part in the South West, called the
Heuvelland belongs to the Flemish Ardennen.
From the layers of the Zandleemstreek emerge springs. In dry periods, the flow of the springs
diminishes widely until it stops. To go further in details, the aquifers of the Pleistocene is
important for the production of water. This type of aquifer is very fragile if not protected by
an upper layer. The formations of sand of Lede, Wemmel/Vlierzele en Knesselare are of
second importance for the production of water (waterwithdrawing). The sands of Egem are
also interesting in the North East and North West if protected by upper layers of clay. In some
other places (socles Landénien, Crétacé et paléozoïque), the quality of is not of prime interest,
but groundwater can be of some use for the industry. In the North and North West areas of the
Dender basin (above a line Everbeek - Denderleeuw - Sint-Martens-Bodegem), one finds
areas of infiltration due to formings of the Eocene period. Under the same line, often near
from the surface, stand mainly isolated Eocene sand formations. The dominant profile here is
the little permeable layer of clay of Ieper. Infiltrations are important around Herne (socle
Paléozoïque).
1.2.2
The river Dender and its tributaries
Hydrology
The total lenght of the Dender river is 51 km and the total lenght of all watercourses in the
basin is 868 km.
The flow of the river is highly irregular. It depends on rainfalls. The Dender is submitted to a
regime of rainfalls (neerslagrivier): 91.5% of the flow of surface water in the basin depends
on rainwater, while 8.5% of water comes from springs. Thus, the flow is very low without
rain. The variation of the flow is high with rainfalls, fluctuating from 0.5 m³/s to 100 m³/s. In
1996, the lowest debit of the Dender was 7.26 m³/s and the highest 63.20 m³/s. Such a regime
leads to high flows (piekdebieten) and flowdings (overstromingen). In the dry periods, the
level and flow of the Dender are very low. In that case the wastewater that flows without
purification into the river is not diluted enough. This causes fish diseases and bad smells.
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Most watercourses in the Dender basin are deeply enclaved and have a low water level. On
the basis of the breadth, the height and the deepness of the banks. We identify four types of
watercourses in the Dender basin:
• The upper courses: they are characterised by a low flow of springs that dry up (se tarir)
each year. They are also colonised by paludous plants (végétation palustre)
• The larger courses: these are rarely dryed up. The fauna bordering the courses are more
typical of rivers (sterrekroos and waterpest)
• Some larger tributaries of the river Dender: they are characterised by deeper water and a
low flow.
• The Dender: the river is broader and deeper than other courses in the basin. Its course has
been modified by numerous human works that allow navigation. Its looking is typical of a
canal. The vegetation was suppressed from the banks.
The main tributaries of the river Dender are the following (from the begin to the end of its
course in the Flemish area:
• The Mark (right bank): with a sub basin of 175 m², the Mark is the most important
triburary. It issues in the Dender in Wallonia, above (upstream) Geraarsbergen, but its
main course is localised in Flanders. The upstream part (Viane - Moerbeke) is rectifyed
(modified).
• The Molenbeek - Terkleppebeek (left bank): issues in the Dender in Zandbergen
(Geraarsbergen) and keeps a good quality and a natural aspect.
• The Molenbeek - Pachtbosbeek (left bank)
• The molenbeek - Wolfputbeek (right bank)
• The Bellebeek (right bank) has a sub-basin of 100 km² a half of which is more than 50 m
above the sea level.
• The Molenbeek - Erpe Mere: flows into the Dender in Hofstade (Aalst). It has a small
sub-basin but stretched along the West border of the Dender basin.
• The Vondelbeek: This river belongs naturally to the Dender basin but now flows out in
the Zeeschelde via a reduction (gearing down, reduced diameter of the pipe) under
Dendermonde and a pump.
Classification of streams (NR & NNR categories according to the law of 1967)
According to the law of 1967 about the management of non-navigable watercourses, the
rivers are classified in categories. They authority that manages them depends on the
classification. Navigable rivers are defined as such on a list. Non-navigable rivers of first
category have a basin >5000 ha. They are administered by the Region. Rivers of second
category have a basin 5000 ha < x > 100 ha and are administered by the Provinces. Rivers of
third category have a basin < 100 ha and are administered by the communes. Non-classified
non-navigable rivers are the tiniest streams. They are privately owned and managed by the
riparian landowners. An exception remains. On the territory of the polders and the
wateringues, the rivers of the second and third category are administered by these authorities.
In the Dender basin, rivers are divided as follow. The Dender is a navigable river (bevaarbare
waterloop) in the whole basin. It is highly canalised. The management authority is the AWZ.
The non-navigable rivers of the first category are the Mark in its entirety, the low parts of the
Molenbeek, the Bellebeek, the Molenbeek and the Vondelbeek. The manager is Aminal,
afdeling Water. The watercourses of the second category of NNR are too numerous to be
cited. They are administered by the provinces (Provincie Oost-Vlaanderen and Provincie
Vlaams-Brabant). The watercourses of the third category are administered by the
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municipalities, and the non-classified watercourses by the landowners under the supervision
of the municipality.
1.3
Pollution problems
Quality aspects are worrying, due to an important pollution. The river Mark must be
particularly protected, as is it a reserve for potential drinking water Measures of quality are
realised by the VMM in every part of the basin with 129 points of measures for the quality of
water and 18 points of measures for the quality of sludges (waterbodems), i.e the soil of
riverbeds.
Physical-chemical quality
It is measured with the Prati Index (zuurstof-Prati-Index, PIo). It is measured on the basis of
the percentage of dissolved oxygen. A Prati Index under 4 indicate a medium to good
biological water quality, but no norm has been determined for it in Flanders. In the Dender
basin, the average value of the Prati-Index is 4.7, i.e. slighly above the indicative value. For
58% of the points of measures, the water quality is not good enough:
• None are very severely polluted
• 7% are strongly polluted
• 51% are polluted
• 40% are moderately polluted (matig verontreinigd)
• 2% are acceptable
• None are not polluted
According to the regional average, almost all physico-chemical parameters measured are
negative (COB, COD, oxygen, ammonium) regarding the standards defined in Vlarem 2,
except for nitrates (NO3). Over the period 1990-1997, some improvements are noticed for all
the parameters. Only the concentration of nitrates raised, which is explained by a higher
presence of oxygen.
Biological quality
The biological quality of the watercourses in the Dender basin is measured according to the
Belgische Biotische Index (or indice biotique belge)7. The BBI is based on the presence of
invertebrates in water. The BBI has a scale from 0 to 10 as 10 is the highest quality. The
Vlarem II norm is met when the BBI is above 7. In 1997 in the Dender basin, 98.5% of the
points of measures don’t meet the norm BBI:
• 1.5% have an extremely bad quality
• 42% have a very bad quality
• 25% have a bad quality
• 30% have a medium (matig) quality
• 1.5% have a quality respecting the norm (above 7)
• None has an excellent quality
Over the period 1989-1997, water quality remained unchanged for 52.5%. It has deteriorated
for 17.5% of the points and bettered for 23.3%. The remarkable improvements are observable
in the tributary basins of the Molenbeek-Pachtbosbeek and the Dender around Geraarsbergen.
Bacteriological analyses are also realised by the VMM where it exists recreative water uses.
7
The use of such an index allows a comparison with the Vesdre basin.
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Over the period 1989-1997, the biological quality remains unchanged for 52.5% of the points
of measure. It worsened in 17.5% of the cases and improved in 30% of the cases. Globally,
the water quality of the basin is thus slightly improving.
Chemicals
The presence of hazardous substances is also measured in the basin, particularly heavy metals
and pesticides. The norms of basic quality8 are respected for seven heavy metals (arsenic,
cadmium, nickel, chrome, lead, copper and zinc) while they are exceeded in several places.
Over the period 1990-1997, the concentrations of heavy metals is declining, particularly for
arsenic, chrome and zinc since 1994.
Pesticides are well present in the waters (lindane, atrazine, simazine, diuron and isoproturon).
It doesn’t exist quality standards for each substance in Flanders. In 1997, in the Dender basin,
the maximum concentrations were :
Lindane 48 ng/l (Dutch standard : 920 ng/l),
Endosulfane 11 ng/l (Dutch standard : 20 ng/l),
Tetrachloronitrobenzene 24 ng/l,
Isodrin 55 ng (Vlarem 2 :5 ng/l),
Atrazine 2.72 µg/l (Dutch standard : 2.9 µg/l),
Simazine 0.25 µg/l (Dutch standard : 0.14 µg/l),
Diuron 1.23 µg/l (Dutch standard : 0.43 µg/l),
Isoproturon 2.4 µg/l (Dutch standard0.32 µg/l).
Riverbeds
Concerning the soil of the riverbeds, pollution is also well present. The VMM measures its
quality on 18 points in the basin. Soils are classified by the degree of quality (triadebenadering). In the Dender basin, there are no strongly polluted riverbeds (5th class), but 22%
are very polluted (4th class), 61% polluted, 17% moderately polluted and no clean riverbeds.
All in all, the quality of the surface water in the Dender basin is worrying. However, it is far
from the worst situation observed in Flanders. The quality problem is global. It is noticeable
that the quality of surface water at the entry of the basin is improving. Traditionally incoming
water from Wallonia was of a very bad quality. Since the last years, the development of
purification in the Walloon region explains this improvement.
II.
History of water management in the basin (1980-2001)
After a description of the evolution of the water regimes in Flanders over the covered period,
we detail the current insitutional arrangement at the scale of the Dender basin.
2.1
Evolution of the Flemish regimes
In the contemporary period, the evolution of the Belgian water regimes is characterised by the
emergence of regional water institutions, for considerations that are external to the water
8
see Vlarem II. Besluit van 1 juni 1995 van de Vlaamse regering houdende algemene en sectorale bepalingen
inzake milieuhygiëne (B.S., 31.07.95).
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sector. Initially, the laws of 1971 are very progressive. They set legal dispositions to protect
aquifers and to manage surface water at a river basin scale. The regime change is then led by a
strong pressure on the resource due to the pollution. It gives birth to a completely new
institutional arrangement programming the creation of three basin companies. This
arrangement follows the French model of the basin agencies stressed in the 1964 law. We
divide our analysis of Flemish water regimes in three periods, the first before the
regionalisation, and the third being an attempt towards more integration that began at the
beginning of the nineties.
Table 1: Phasing out of the Flemish institutional water regimes from 1804 to 2001
Phases
Property rights
Policy design
Institutional
regime
3. 1945-1980:
Policy focused
Towards
a
First attempts to fight against Limitations in disposition rights of Protection of surface and groundwater, complex regime
the pollution
riparian landowners
but lack in implementation
Medium scope
Presumption of public property of Cleaning out of rivers at the expense of Low coherence
non-navigable riverbeds
public authorities
4. 1980-1990:
An effective regime to Transfer of the public domain to the
protect water at the regional Regions. Capacity of expropriation
level
Prior authorisation for withdrawing
groundwater
Policy focused
5. 1990-: Attempts towards Property right focused
integration
Expropriation for the management of
dams and dikes associated with natural
and recreation objectives
Expropriation for the purpose of
nature conservation
Policy focused
Complex regime
Transfer
of
most
environmental Medium scope
competences to the Region
Medium coherence
Policy of hydrous independence
Global environmental permission
Towards
Quality of surface water assured by a integration
public/private
partnership
(VMM, Wide scope
Aquafin). Taxation of emissions
High coherence
Regulation of the spreading of manure in
fields
Informal attempt to co-ordinate different
water uses at a tributary basin scale
Basin committees
2.1.1 First attempts to fight against pollution (before 1980)
At the end of the Second World War, the emerging Welfare State reinforces the public
management of water in Belgium. The acknowledgement of persistent pollution problems in
rivers and the chronic floodings give rise to a regime of punctual water protection (19451980). The main idea is to limit emissions and to accelerate the flow of water in order to
throw pollution out to the sea. The law recognises a presumption of public property in nonnavigable riverbeds. Disposition rights are limited for polders and wateringues. Their
competence in the cleaning out and works in rivers is limited and the State controls the
maintenance of their installations. By the way, such dispositions facilitate State intervention.
The policy design gives the full charge of cleaning out the rivers to the public authorities and
puts a prior authorisation on works along rivers. Furthermore, surface water is protected with
the building of collective purification plants for urban wastewater and groundwater protected
with the setting of protection perimeters around wells. Industrial emissions are limited. The
policy model is: If we protect springs and wells and we purify wastewater, then we will secure
water supply and strengthen public health. The model is translated in the legislation with the
law of 1967 on the regulation of non-navigable rivers and the laws of 1971 on the protection
of surface and groundwater. The Central State reinforces its competence to the detriment of
the municipalities. The Minister of Public Health promotes the creation of three public
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companies of purification responsible of the collective systems of purification and with a
power of advice on industrial discharges in surface water. The territory of the companies
corresponds to three water basins (the Coast, river Meuse and river Escaut), and not to the
three Belgian regions (Flanders, Wallonia and Brussels). The protection of groundwater is
programmed at a central level with the advice of water distribution companies. The main
instruments are a general prohibition of pollution linked with prior authorisations for
discharges, fees and subsidies. They target more precise groups of users, i.e. water companies,
petrol companies, farmers, industries and entrepreneurs of works. However such uses as
living environment and recreation are still not considered. The main weakness of this design
is that it didn’t anticipate broader institutional changes in Belgium, i.e. the federalisation
process launched in 1970. The law on groundwater has not been implemented and the
purification companies have never been settled properly. Since 1974, water competences enter
progressively in the competence of the Regions. Then each Region reconsiders the current
water framework according to its own interests and culture. Flanders partially implements the
law on surface water. The Waterzuivering Maatschappij van het Kustbekken9 (VZK), is
created in 1975 for the coast territory and an Escaut/Meuse purification company, the
Vlaamse Waterzuiveringsmaat-schappij10 (VWZ) in 1981. The municipalities are
expropriated of their purification plants at the benefit of these two authorities.
2.1.2 An effective regime to protect water at regional level (1980-1990)
The Belgian process of decentralisation conducts to regional water regimes. Following the
special law of institutional reform of 1980, autonomous regional administrations are put in
place and, consequently, water regional policies are deepened. The public domain is
transferred to the Regions as most environmental competencies. Flanders enters in a policy of
water independence. The regional orientations are guided by a relative water scarcity and the
strategic interest that water represents in negotiation about federalisation with Wallonia. At
that time Flanders is dependant at 60% from Wallonia for its drinking water provision.
Concerning the property rights, Flanders introduces a prior authorisation to withdraw
groundwater. Concerning the policy design, it decides to implement the laws of 1971 on the
protection of surface and groundwater and adopts an environmental permission for the
industrial discharges. The Region develops a policy of hydrous independence as Wallonia
enacts a new legislation on the protection of surface water that would be financed by water
exports in the other regions11. The Flemish policy design systematises water protection. It is
based on the assumption that: If we protect wells from (diffuse) pollution and we regulate
discharges through global permissions, then we will develop our own capacities to product
drinking water. The law of 1971 on the protection of surface water is maintained and
completed with decrees on the protection of groundwater and on environmental permission.
Households become target groups and, concerning the instruments, a prohibition of spreading
manure from abroad and the environmental permission, twinned with the planning
permission, are introduced. Then every hazardous activity needs a prior authorisation. The
Region levies fees on industrial emissions and taxes on households in order to finance water
purification. It confirms its leading role in water policy with a complete review of the former
institutional arrangement, creating regional water companies. First, the Vlaamse Maatschappij
voor Watervoorziening (VMW), i.e. the Flemish water distribution company is created in
9
Water Treatment Company of the Coastal Basin.
Flemish Water Treatment Company.
11
A disposition cancelled by the constitutional court (Arbitragehof)
10
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BELGIUM
1983, resulting from a split of the Société nationale des Distributions d’Eau12. The main goal
of the VMW is to enhance the inland water production. Second, purification activities arte
merged at the regional level. A single company, the , the ‘Vlaams Maatschappij voor
Waterzuivering’ (VMZ), controls and operates the purification activities for the whole region
and also gives advises about the environmental permissions on industrial emissions. The
decentralisation of the competence doesn’t lead to more integration. The leading role of the
Flemish Region doesn’t reform the sectorial organisation of the administration13. The policy
design remains partial, while resource protection is still not really taken into consideration.
Coordination is high, but limited to purification. Flanders pursues a regional approach. It
abandons the river basin approach, as it merges a basin company in a single regional company
in 1989. At that time, the regime remains oriented towards the production of drinking water.
2.1.3 Attempts towards integration (1990-onwards)
Flanders knows a transition towards integration in the early 1990s. The regime is consolidated
in favour of water protection. The property right system is solicited. The focus is put on the
control of formal ownership rights. Expropriation has been understood as an effective
regulation tool. Since 1996, the Flemish Region can expropriate riparian landowners either for
the management of dams and dikes or for complementary ecotechnical works or recreation
projects on riverbanks. Also, expropriation can be conducted to set up the natural reserves
foreseen in environmental protection plans. So the Flemish executive is entitled to expropriate
with an aim of nature protection or public safety. Concerning the policy design, Flanders
focuses its intervention on purification. As a reaction to the persistent pollution of rivers and
to European obligations, it privatises partly its purification activities and extends the
regulation of discharges to new users. The new causal hypothesis is that if we intensify water
purification, regulate discharges through global permission, limit manure spreading and
define absolute protection zones, then we will improve our reserves of potential drinking
water and preserve ecosystems and bio-diversity. The list of target groups is particularly
extended to farmers. Almost all potential water users are designated and a mix of policy
instruments is used, e.g. inventories, taxation, limitation of practice and designation of
protected areas. The spreading of manure in fields is severely regulated and regulations on
nature protection and industrial emissions are reinforced. Nevertheless the main change in the
period consists in a complete restructuring of the implementation structure of the policy. The
tandem VMM/Aquafin integrates the whole policy of surface water quality. The Vlaams
Milieumaatschappij (VMM), a 100% public company, created in 1990, monitors the quality
of surface water, gives advises on environmental permissions and elaborates the investments
plans for purification. These plans are implemented by Aquafin NV, a public-private
partnership14, which builds and operates the collective purification plants. Nowadays, the
policy design is strong. The scope of the regime is enlarging to living environment and
recreation. The coordination is reinforced. VMM controls the water policy. However the
coherence is not reached with the other water uses. A law about an integrated water policy,
under preparation, could lead to a complete redistribution of competence in the field of water
management, formalising the experience of the ‘bekkencomités’ (11 basin committees today),
12
The Walloon counterpart is the Société wallonne de Distribution d’Eau (SWDE), created in 1986. It deserves
approximately 1,750,000 customers and the VMW 2,380,000.
13
Initially, the competent administration in the field of water is the Administratie voor Ruimtelijke Ordening and
Leefmilieu. It becomes AMINAL (Administratie Milieu-, Natuur-, Land- and Waterbeheer) in 1990. All the
water competence is grouped in the same department (Leefmilieu en Infrastructuur) of the same ministry.
14
Aquafin NV is hold at 51% by the ‘Vlaams Milieuholding’ (Flemish Region), Severn Trent (20%) and
institutional investors (29%).
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BELGIUM
a forum of discussion set up by the administration at a tributary basin scale. There are no
strong links between these two attempts of co-ordination. More, the Flemish regime is the
first to limit economic activities in favour of water protection. Even if a logic of production,
i.e. the capacity to produce drinking water, is the leading concern, the situation reflects the
awareness of the regional authorities about the need to manage water sustainably in order to
secure water provision. Nowadays, the administration now recognises delimited tributary
basins and tries to co-ordinate its activities at this scale in the basin committees. But the basin
committee doesn’t encompass the whole water sector. The management of the quality of
surface water is given to the VMM which acts at a regional scale. However the VMM now
realises its water quality plans at the tributary basin scale. The present regime is property
right-driven. Measures taken in each category follow their own logic at the difference of
earlier regimes where property right changes were coming in support to the policy design
changes. Here changes in property rights produce their own effects in favour of the
environment. Both sets of intervention tend to more water protection. Change is paradigmatic.
Interventions on property rights face a renewed interest, as the limits of interventions of
public policies on diffuse pollution seem to be reached. Now the Flemish Region has the
capacity to expropriate at the benefit of nature conservation.
The remaining problem with the basin approach in Belgium is that river basins cross the
regions. As the Regions decided to manage economic and environmental matters on their own
with the federalisation, it was not expectable to create true basin authorities. But an interregional cooperation is expectable with the international river management approach applied
to the Escaut and the Meuse. River basin management is on the way but it remains an
arrangement to set up.
2.2
Identification of actors in the Dender basin
The transition from a complex to an integrated regime led to more co-ordination. The task to
conceive and implement the water management is the competence of the regional
administration. Though this administration was discharged of a part of the water management,
especially the quality of surface water. Integration is attempted by several structures in the
limits of their competencies and it remains partial. In Flanders, the partial integration is
realised on the quality of surface water. Industrial and domestic discharges, measure of the
quality of the rivers and programming of investments in collective purification plants are all at
charge of the VMM. There the vision of coordination reflects a high degree of centralisation.
In fact, it consists in establishing environmental plans. The task is generally given to the
administration.
Natural water cycle
The natural water cycle encompasses all aspects of the circulation of water from the rain to
the flow in the sea, including direct withdrawing. The organisation and authorities responsible
of the water distribution are described later when we consider the anthropogenic water cycle.
The water mangement results of a wide set of authorities (see figure 1). As we have seen
earlier, the management of the rivers depends on their classification. The river management
consists in regulating the flow (water quantity), determining the access to rivers, cleaing out
the riverbeds and managing the banks. In the Dender basin, the navigable rivers are managed
by the Administratie Waterwegen en Zeewezen (AWZ, Administration of Waterways and
Seamanship). The non-navigable rivers of first category are managed by the Administratie
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BELGIUM
Milieu-, Natuur, Land- en Waterbeheer (AMINAL, Administration of the Environmental,
Nature, Land and Water Management), more precisely by its Water Division (afdeling Water)
and a service deconcentrated by province. The responsible service is located in Ghent and is
responsible of the whole Eastern Flanders. AMINAL and AWZ both belong to the same
department, i.e. the Departement Leefmilieu en Infrastructuur (LIN, Department of Living
Environement and Infrastructure), itself belonging to the Ministry of the Flemish Community
(Ministerie van de Vlaamse Maatschappij). This ministry represents one third of the regional
administration. Water courses of the second category are administered by the Provinces
Eastern Flanders and Flemish Brabant. Watercourses of the third category are managed by the
communes where they flow, i.e. the various communes of the basin. The tiniest watercourses
remain under the liability of the riparian landowners. An exception is made with the rivers of
2nd and 3rd category located on the territory of the polders and the wateringues that are
managed by these organisations, under the supervision of AMINAL however.
Figure 1 : Presentation of the competencies in water management in Flanders, 2001
Natural Water Cycle
Cycle :: Competencies
Competencies in
in Flanders
Flanders
Province*
Province* aatt..
cc
22nndd
R
R
NN
Water
Water quality
quality
VMM
VMM
dd
NRR 33rr
N
NN
Commune*
Commune*
Landowner
Landowner
NNon
on-c
-clalass
ssififieieddNNNNR
R
Pumping
Pumpingpermission
permission
Region,
region, province
province
NN
R
1
AMINAL st c
at.
Navigable river
ccaat.t.
AMINAL
AMINAL
Supervision
Supervisionofof
polder
polder&&wateringues
wateringues
AMINAL
AMINAL
Disposal
Disposal(within
(withinenvironmental
environmentalpermission)
permission)
Region
Regionfor
forpublic
publicsettings
settings(incl.
(incl.RWZIs)
RWZIs)
province
provincefor
for1st
1stcl.
cl.(big
(bigindustries)
industries)
commune
communefor
for2nd
2nd&&3rd
3rdcl.
cl.settings
Settings(SMIs)
(SMIs)
AWZ
AWZ
Groundwater
Groundwater
Quality
Quality AMINAL
AMINAL
&
& OVAM
OVAM
Quantity
Quantity AMINAL
AMINAL
Pumping
Pumpingpermission
permission
Province,
Province,commune,
commune,
AMINAL
AMINALififdrinking
drinkingwater
water
** except
except in
in polder
polder and
and wateringue
wateringue zone
zone
Other aspects of water management are considered. First nature protection is put under the
competence of AMINAL, Nature Division. Some protected areas belong to private
associations, i.e. De Wielewaal vzw or Natuurreservaten vzw. Second the section of water
quality is managed by the Vlaamse Mileumaatschappij (VMM, Flemish Environmental
Company), which is a regional public body (Vlaamse Openbare instelling). The VMM
measures the quality of the surface water, makes reports on the environment, gives advice in
the procedure of the environmental permission and prepares the investment plan dedicated to
the building and operation of purification plants. Pumping permissions are delivered by the
provinces in general and the AWZ for navigable rivers. Discharges are authorised regulated
by the environmental permission. The VMM gives a technical advice on behalf of the Flemish
Region, but permissions are delivered by the Flemish executive for public settings, e.g.
hospitals and purification plants, the province for big polluting industries (1st class), and the
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16
BELGIUM
communes for SMIs and small activities (2nd and 3rd class). Groundwater is entirely
managed by AMINAL Water Division, i.e. quality and quantity aspects, but pumping
permissions are also delivered by the Province (or by the Region in case of potential drinking
water ?)15. So a wide set of actors are involved in water management even if most part of
them belong to the Flemish regional administration. Coordination at the level of river basins
is them hard to organise.
The main mechanism of coordination at this scale is the basin committees. In the Dender it
has been set up since 1991 by the administration in an informal way. Organised on a tributary
basin scale, they allow civil servants to be informed of what their colleagues do and, in an
extended composition, to inform water users and collect reactions. The plenary session is
organised each year in September. Small groups of discussion meet several times a year. The
committee is divided in 12 groups: purification, drinking water, industry, etc. The
administration of the Environment has been at source of the bekkencomités ten years ago. The
process is agreed by the Minister but a legal act never emerged from it. The process remains
an ad hoc process.
Anthropogenic water cycle
With the concept of anthropogenic water cycle, we intend the cycle of water that is withdrawn
with the single purpose to be distributed as drinking water. This water is Withdranw,
eventually treated, distributed to end-users by a distribution network, then used and
discharged in sewing system, and in most cases purified before being discharged in surface
water.
First water is pumped by the water producer. The producers needs a prior authorisation
delivered by the Region (or the Province ?). Water is distributedto the final users. In many
case the distribution is the fact of intercommales (Tussengemeentelijke Maatschappij der
Vlaanderen voor Watervoorziening, TMVW, or Bedrijf voor Waterbedeling Aalst in the
Dender basin), where the communes are involved at the highest level. In other cases water is
distributed by the Vlaamse Maatschappij voor Watervoorziening (VMW), a public company
which is the Flemish part of the former National Company of Water Distribution. It has a
status similar to the one of the VMM (Vlaamse Openbare Instelling).
Once consumed water is discharged in sewers built and belonging to the communes. They are
connected to main sewers which are financed, build and operated by the NV Aquafin. The
main sewers conduct water to purification plants (RWZI’s) that are build, owned and operated
by the NV Aquafin. Created in 1991, Aquafin is a public-private partnership between the
Flemish Region and Severn Trent Ltd., a British private operator. Aquafin is financed by the
Region to put Flanders in conformity with the requirements of the 1991 directive of urban
wastewater. Works are programmed by an Investment plan of five years, elaborated by the
VMM and adopted by the Flemish executive. Works on sewers and purification plants are
financed by the MINA-Fonds, partly fed by a a tax on water discharges. Regulation,
permission and control in the water cycle is managed by AMINAL.
15
Grondwaterdecreet (B.S., 05.06.1984 en B. Vl. R. 17.12.1985)
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BELGIUM
Figure 2 : Structuration of water actors in Flanders
Flemish executive
AMINAL
Regulation
Permissions
Controls
Permission for
withdrawing
Investment
program
for 5 years
NV Aquafin
VMM
Execution of the
investment
program
building and operation
of purification plants
Elaboration of general sewing programs
Management of networks of measures
Water
producers
Sewing
Distributors
Communes
Tax collection
Monitoring of industrial
and agricultural
wastewater
Consumers
Financial flow
The evolution of the Flemish water regimes attests of a will to improve the environment. The
institutional arrangement concerning the anthropogenic water cycle is focused on purification,
and also a reduction of water consumption16. In the Dender basin, the policy of purification is
largely producing effects. Purification remain the central water use in the basin.
III. Development of uses
Our intention in this part is to identify the different uses according to the EUWARENESS
classification of goods and services. With the uses we observe in a second part conflictual
uses that gave rise to rivalries or even conflicts throughout the period. Most of them seem
now to be overcome, but new ones could appear in a present future. From uses we describe
the different users, stress the rivalries and particularly examine four intra-cases. Finally, we
present an aggregate view of the uses in the basin.
2.1
Water uses involved
In the first part we present the different uses of water inside the Dender river basin. We
describe the use, users and actors for each good and service involved.
16
For instance, since 2000, it is compulsory to build rainwater collectors and reservoirs with new buildings.
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2.1.1
BELGIUM
Living environment
Final users of this good & service are fauna and flora. No data are available about their water
consumption of this kind of users. However the function of living environment is interesting
indirect human users, who make pressure for a greater concern of the problem. They are
fishers and professional of the tourist sector. This service (G&S) is taken into account by the
Flemish regime. In the Dender basin it is reflected in protection of natural zones or
waterbodies.
First, natural areas are protected17. They are registered under different label, be it publicly or
privately owned. Some natural areas are determined by the Flemish Region. They are natural
areas (N), Flemish natural reserves (VR) and approved natural reserves (ER). In the basin,
these natural areas are valleys with streams, woods and wetlands. Some reserves are owned
by associations of nature conservation (De Wielewaal vzw, Natuurreservaten vzw). they are
dispersed and of small superficies18. For instance the Natuurreservaten vzw generally own
fields of 2-3 ha that are quite dispersed, except with the Bronbossen in the South-East of the
basin, in Everbeek). About the corridors of nature, a planned measure of nature conservation,
a map has been prepared by the Flemish administration, but effective measures are still
awaited.
In regards of the European and international legislation, we find no protected areas, be it
under the Wild Birds and Habitats (Natura 2000 network) directives or under the Ramsar
convention.
The vulnerability of aquifers is also registered by the Flemish Region19. There are four levels
of vulnerability. These fragile aquifers are found in the Dender valley between
Geraardsbergen and Ninove and between Ninove and Denderleeuw, in the Pajottenland
(south-east and north of Aalst) and in the basin of the Mark.
The service living environment has developed during the studied period. It is of common
occurrence to declare that nothing occured in favour of nature protected, at least concerning
effective measures, before the regionalisation.
2.1.2
Consumption
Withdrawals
Neither groundwater nor surface water are withdrawn in the Dender basin for purposes of
water consumption. Water is imported from several parts of Belgium. First, for Dilbeek, water
comes from the network of the Brussels’ Compagnie intercommunale de Distribution d’eau.
Second Water is sold by Walloon water companies or the CIBE to the VMW and the TMVW
or directly produced by them in Wallonia. Third water comes from Antwerp, produced from
surface water by the Antwerpse waterweken (AWW) and sold to the VMW and the TMVW.
Even if there is no production in the Dender basin, the whole basin of the Mark is classified as
a protected area dedicated to the production of drinking water (160 km of water streams). This
17
Savoir quand les zones sont introduites, ainsi que les corridors (non mis en œuvre pour le moment). Plus de
détail sur la politique d’achat et d’expropriation.
18
VMM, 2000, AWP2 Dender, TN, p. 32-33
19
VMM, 2000, AWP2 Dender, TN, p. 33
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BELGIUM
classification went on in the mid 1980s, when Flanders enacted a policy of hydrous
independence20. The plan of the production plant exist, but the project was abandoned for
financial reasons. The price of water produced in Wallonia and sold to the VMW doesn’t
justify such an investment. The project consists in building a pre-treatment plant and two big
reservoirs (of the size of a village) at the downstream of the Mark.. The project could appear
again in coming years. If the Mark would effectively become a water reserve, agricultural
practises should be modified. In fact, the nitrate concentration in surface water of the basin of
the Mark far exceeds the standards defined for such use. A rivalry between agriculture
(production) and drinking water could emerge in the future if the project would be carried on.
Producers and providers
The major part of the basin is provided by the Vlaamse Maatschappij voor Watervoorziening
(15 communes). The division is not communal anymore. With the merger of the communes in
the 1970s, some communes are partly provided by one distributor and partly by another. It is
the case for Aalst, Herzele and Lierde. The second water distributor is the
Tussengemeentelijke Maatschappij der Vlaanderen voor Watervoorziening. Two communes
have another distribution system. A part of the commune of Aalst, the town center, is
provided by the Bedrijf voor Waterbedeling Aalst, belonging to the municipality. also,
Dilbeek is connected to another network, the one of the Intercommunale voor Waterbeleiding
in Vlaams-Brabant (IWVB), a mixed intercommunale. The company Aquinter SA (belonging
Suez) participates.
Consumption
In Flanders, the average consumption of drinking water is 120 litres per day and per person.
The consumption of drinking water knows a slight decline over the period, as measures of
economy are strong in the region.
2.1.3
Production
Three sub-categories are comprised in this good & service: industrial water, production of
mineral water and agricultural uses. Production of mineral water doesn’t exist in the Dender
basin.
Industrial water
Water withdrawing of the industry are both realised from groundwater and surface water.
Industries are mainly located along the Dender and a certain number of them withdraw water
from the river. This water is used both in the production process and for cooling. Water
withdrawings corresponds to 29049 m³/day21.
In 2000, 400 points of discharges are authorised along the Dender. The main industries
located along the Dender withdrew a total of 11394656 m³ in 1999.
20
This policy is not totally abandoned as an adduction is quite achieved. It will link Antwerp to Ghent, Brugge
and Oostende. The TMVW ought to diminish its imports from Wallonia once the adduction is operational.
21
This number corresponds to the total of industrial discharges in the Dender basin
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Table 2: Main water withdrawings in the Dender (1999)
Company
Place
Withdraws in m³ (1999)
Unalit
Overboelare
291’319
Fabelta
Ninove
794’758
C.C.B.
Liedekerke
Rendac
Denderleeuw
Schotte
Erembodegem
Electrabel
Aalst
984
Amylum
Aalst
8'905’787
V.P.K.
Oudegem
1’044’325
2’195
355’288
0
11’394’656
Total
Source: AWZ ,Afdeling Bovenschelde, 2000
Agricultural drainage
The main direct water use in agriculture is the drainage. The drainage consists in digging little
canals in order to allow the flow of water from the fields to the river. Drainage sometimes
also needs some dikes, mainly in polder areas. In the Dender basin, along the Dender,
drainage has been organised by communities of farmers. The Dender basin accounts one
polder near the mouth of the Dender and nine wateringues. All the wateringues are small
territories (a few km²) located along the Dender. The polder occupies all the banks of the
Dender between Aalst and Dendermonde (along +- 10 km).
We have no data of the drained volume, but indication about the quality of the drained water.
The emissions of nitrates are very high with drained water. They represents 63% of the total
discharge in the Dender basin (1352 kg/d for 2130 kg/d). The flow of drained water is the
more important in the sub-basin of the Bellebeek (VHA zone 422), where no wateringue
stands. On the other hand, the drained water do not bring much phosphor (4.7% of the total
discharge). It seems that phosphor is much less mobile than nitrate.
2.1.4
Energy
No identified hydropower production in the Dender basin.
2.1.5
Transport and absorption
The Dender basin is highly polluted by water discharges. If it has not so bad results compared
with other basins in Flanders, the situation of the basin is quite worrying in the absolute. The
responsibility of manure spreading from agriculture is here not central. The pressure of the
problem it is mainly due to a high population density on every part of the basin, linked with
the presence of industries. The pollution pressure by the households in the Dender basin is
more important in the tributary basins of the Bellebeek and the Molenbeek-Graadbeek. The
true pollution of industry is particularly important at the downstream of the Dender basin
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BELGIUM
(Molenbeek-Erpe-Mere). The impact of agriculture is more important in the tributary basin of
the Mark22 and at the upstream of the Dender (inclusing the Molenbeek-Pachtbosbeek).
Rejections
Households have the highest share in the production of DOB, DOC, particles and zinc. The
charge in nutrients is mainly due to agriculture. Discharges of households and industry can
either be : collected and treated, collected but not treated or self-purified and directly
discharged in surface water.
Table 3: Emissions of pollutants per sector in the Dender basin (1997)
Households Industry
Agriculture Total
Debit (m³/d)
DOB (kg/d)
DOC (kg/d)
Particles
(MES) (kg/d)
N (kg/d)
P (kg/d)
Zinc (kg/d)
Immissions
39485
15719
32765
19283
17740
3144
9124
1015
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
57225
18493
41889
20298
n.d.
12097
31764
16256
Daily charge in
the river
n.d.
n.d.
43358
n.d.
3495
629
10.6
380
177
3.9
15668
2570
n.d.
19543
3376
14.5
5640
835
n.d.
14414
1166
-
Now we consider immissions, i.e. the part of the emissions of pollutants that is effectively
found in the surface water at the end of the process. The daily charge in the Dender is 43358
kg DOC, 14414 kg N and 1166 kg P. We observe that, compared with the figures of table 2
that at least 27% of immissions of DOC, 61% of N and 28% of P cannot be attributed to
particular groups of users. The impact of diffuse pollution cannot be calculated and other
related effects are difficult to consider (degree of dilution, process of decomposition,
evaporation, sedimentation and air). Households are responsible of the main part of
immissions: 71% of the discharged volume of wastewater (ag. 29% for the industry), but 59%
of the total DOC (industry 14%), 22% of the total azote (industry 3% and agriculture 14%)
and 47% of the total phosphorus (industry 16% and agriculture 9%). The average levels of
pollution in the basin are all above the norms of environment quality defined in Vlarem 2
(37046 kg/day of DOC against a standard of 29706 kg/day).
Sewage and purification
At the regional level, strong efforts were made to purify water in the last ten years, with the
creation of VMM and Aquafin NV. Infrastructure of public purification tends to be developed
with well-funded five-year investment programs. In 2000, 50% of wastewater are purified
before being discharged in surface water. Until 2010, 210 bio BEF are affected for the whole
Flanders to build new sewers, collectors and purification plants that enable to purify all the
housings’wastewater. The UE points out the weaknesses of Flanders in terms of purification.
22
However the impact of agriculture in terms of N and P emissions is five less in the Dender basin than in the
IJper basin.
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Table 4: Relative part of polluting charge that is purified, 1997 (%)
Immissions (%)
Not connected to a purification plant
Connected to a purification Total
plant
Households Industry
Agriculture
Households Industry
Wastewater debit 29
16
55
100
DOC
64
10
18
8
100
N
40
4
36
17
3
100
P
46
17
13
20
4
100
The development of purification in the Dender basin depends on the investment program
determined at the regional level. It constitutes a priority for the Flemish Region. Planned
projects for the basin have been of 261 since 1991. They consist in building and renovating
both purification plants and main sewers. 56 works were executed while 205 are under work
or still planned. The rate of connection of households to sewing systems should reach 95% in
2005 against the 85% in 1997 (if the communes invest in sewers). The rate of purification is
more modest. It should grow to 85% against 60% in 1997 (if the communes invest in small
purification plants). Over the period (1991-2005), 233 mio EUR are invested in the basin.
60.8 mio EUR have already been spent. From the remaining 172.2 mio EUR, 37,8 mio EUR
are dedicated to the building up and renewing of purification plants. The average cost of the
program is around 1,000 EUR per inhabitant. The main part of the investment is oriented
towards sewing. Individual purification will remain the solution for a remaining part of
66,800 inhab. in the basin.
In the Dender basin, purification is made with 5 purification plants (RWZI’s): Geraarsbergen,
renewed in 1999, Galmaarden, Ninove, Aalst and Liedekerke. Except Ninove, they, are all
equipped with a tertiary treatment, i.e. for nutrient. The annual rate of return (rendement)
varies from 80% (Ninove) to 91% (Aalst) for DOC, From 37% (Ninove) to 68% (Aalst) for N
and from 34% (Galmaarden) to 67% (Aalst) for P. On the basis of an analysis made by the
operator23, we can conclude that none of them really functions. Some are overcharged (Aalst,
Ninove), some are undercharged (Galmaarden, Geraarsbergen). In the case of Liedekerke, too
few discharges are connected as sewers and collectors are still under work. The purification
plants of the Dender basin produced 2159 t of dry sludge in 1997 that are compacted at 43%
and burnt at 32%. 7 other purification plants are programmed. No small collective purification
system (KWZI’s) already work, but 2 are planned. Also 4 communal KWZI’s are programmed.
The objectives of the 1991 European directive on urban waste water have to be met by 5 over
14 build-up areas in the basin since the end of 1998. Concerning the wastewater treatment, the
requirements are satisfied only in Galmaarden24.
Households
Over the 349485 inhabitants, in 1997, the wastewater of only 322996 are discharged inside
the basin. the flux equivalent to 26489 inhab. flows in a neighbouring basin. Households are
responsible of the main part of DOB and DOC, particles and zinc. Their part is far more
important than the one of the industry. For N and P, their part is still more important than
industry, but less than agriculture. 32% of domestic emissions are sewed and purified, but still
the major part (49%) are sewed and discharged without a prior treatment. In this case the
building of a purification plan is programmed. 9% are sewed without any project of a
23
Aquafin, 1998, Jaarverslagen 1997 exploitatie van de RWZI’s Aalst, Galmaarden, Geraardsbergen en Ninove.
Mentioned in VMM, 2000, Algemeen Waterkwaliteitsplan Dender.
24
AWP 2 Dender of the VMM, p. 37.
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BELGIUM
centralised purification and 13% are directly discharged in surface water without treatment
(see picture 1). The rate of purification should be 77% in 2005 (without considering the
possible intervention of the communes in small scale purification plants).
Table 5: Types of collect of households’ emissions in the Dender basin (1997)
Households
Sewing and Only sewing, Only sewing, direct
purification purification no
discharge
expected
purification
DOC
N
P
10391
1105
199
16020
1704
299
2049
227
42
4306
458
88
Total
32766
3494
628
Industries
The sources of industrial emissions are not known in all details. The control of emissions is
made only for major polluters. Industrial emissions are calculated by the Flemish authority
(VMM) on the basis of the industries that have an environmental permit, i.e. the most
polluting ones (P-bedrijven and smaller polluting industries). The sampling is composed of 49
industries and the total discharge represents 47759 m³/d in 1997. The emission standards are
determined by Vlarem I and II. In Flanders, industries can be connected via the sewing
system to public purification plants. The industries that are not connected are supposed to
purify their wastewater themselves. It is the case for 19 over 49 authorised industries.
Especially the biggest pollutants are encouraged to purify themselves. In the last years, the
tendency is to progressively disconnect these industries from the public purification network,
for technical facilities. In 1997, an important part of industrial emissions flow into a public
purification plant.
Agriculture
The concern with agriculture is mainly related to diffuse pollution, thus hard to assess. The
production of mest (lisier) by the animals is added up to the spreading of chemical fertilisers.
The total production of mest in the basin is estimated to 15668 kg/day of N and 2570 kg of P,
but the total amount of nutrients spread on the land is 27960 kg N and 7338 kg P. According
to the Mestactieplan, mest is imported in the Dender basin from other parts of the Flemish
region. The share of agriculture in the total emissions represents 80% for the total N and 76%
for the total P. However this amount of nutrient is not directly found in water, be it surface or
groundwater. A model (SENTWA) states that the return of the spread of nutrients is around
81% for the DOC, 53% for N and 54% for P.
Table 6: Rate of return of nutrient spreading in agriculture (1997)
Influent (kg/day) Effluent (kg/day) Return (%)
DOC
43836
8170
81
N
2310
1083
53
P
427
197
54
Source: VMM
All in all significant efforts have still to be done in the field of purification. All major sources
of pollution, including diffuse pollution due to intensive agricultural practises, are currently
identified and measured. The relatively low efficacy of the new purification plants on the
global quality of the rivers put the model of the water policy into question. For the different
uses, a diminution of discharges is demanded by the VMM. The effects would result from
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BELGIUM
political action. The importance of this good and service is undoubtedly growing through the
period, particularly since 1990.
2.1.6
Support
Three kind of uses are locally linked with this good & service: navigation, gravel extraction
and fishing. Gravel extraction is not present in the Dender basin.
Navigation
Navigation encompasses inland navigation and pleasure boating (recreation). The Dender is a
navigable river all along its course, at least in the Flemish part. In the past, the connection
linked Aalst to the Walloon Canal du Centre and the mine basin around Mons (Bergen),
through the Canal Ath-Blaton. Nowodays inland navigation on the Dender sharply declined.
In past times navigation was used by the local industries, particularly the mills located in
Geraardsbergen and in Wallonia. These activities stopped.
Table 7: Carried freight on the Dender, gate of Dendermonde, 1970-1999 (in tons)
Year
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
1999
Incoming
699’172
549’009
491’178
403’572
318’020
490’965
457’059
Leaving
174’726
72’971
52’156
46’284
73’851
27’520
24’208
Total
873’898
621’980
543’334
449’856
391’871
518’485
481’267
Source: AWZ, Afdeling Bovenschelde, 2000
Table 8: Carried freight on the Dender, gate of Geraardsbergen, 1970-1999 (in tons)
Year
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
1999
Incoming
0
9933
5628
500
250
0
0
Leaving
0
87792
16876
7752
8302
3844
0
Total
0
97725
22504
8252
8552
3844
0
The Dender is classified, according to the European standards, in class IV (boats of 1350 t)
from the schelde to the gate of Denderbelle (four km from the Schelde), in class II (boats of
600 t) until Aalst and the remaining part in class I (boats of 300 t). Nowadays, the main inland
navigation occurs until Aalst. Above it, the river has not even more been cleaned out for ten
years. It is commonly used by pleasure boats, an activity that is developing.
At the same time, leisure navigation has developed. Motorboats regularly use the eight gates
of the Flemish part of the Dender in summertime. The Dender, with its beautiful landscapes,
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BELGIUM
presents a real tourist interest. The presence of 25 gates and bridge until Blaton could
discourage some boatmen. We notice the navigation of yachts and leisure boats that bring
tourists on the river for a one-day trip. This is a new use of the river, that involves not many
investments in the infrastructure. The increasing leisure navigation is due to the running of the
gates and bridges on week ends. Before Belgium allowed no navigation on Sundays. The
change has occurred in Flanders and Wallonia for ten years. Now the gates work on Sunday
from 1st May to 30th September. The traffic growth is justified by the fact that more people
own a boat and mainly by an crowd of boats from Holland. These people come for holidays
and go sometimes to France. The interest for Belgium is rising through Dutch navigators and
local boat rentals. However navigation rose more on the Dender than on the other Flemish
navigable rivers. On the Dender, pleasure navigation rose four times between 1997 and 2001.
Table 9: Leisure navigation on the Dender, 1997-1999 (number of boats)
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
Geraardsbergen
164
411
358
529
% rise
(2000-2001)
611
+15.5
Aalst
227
315
379
473
759
+60.4
Dendermonde
292
453
410
493
735
+49.1
Total per year
683
1179
1147
1495
2105
+40.8
Fishing
There are no aquaculture and professional fishing in the Dender basin. Fishing activities in the
Dender basin are only recreational ones. They are located along the Mark, the Oude Dender
(Geraardsbergen), the Molenbeek Erpe-Mere (zone 432) and the Dender. It is a renewal of
fishing activities along the rivers, as the water quality is improving.
Before 1950, the Dender and its tributaries hosted an abundant population of fishes. Species
were numerous and the natural banks constituted zones of spawning (zones de frai). After
1960, water quality knew a sharp decline. The number of species diminished (blankvoorn,
karper, snoek, zeelt and brasem). After 1979, fish had totally disappeared. For some years
now, fish population are reappearing. Fishing activities are now mostly concentrated along the
banks of the Dender between Aalst and Geraardsbergen.
The recovery of fishing activities could generate conflicts with the other recreation activities
in a near future. This type of conflict could particularly emerge on towpaths (walking and
cycling) build on the banks of the Dender.
2.1.7
Recreation
Recreation is not originally not the central water function in the Dender basin, but it is
developing in the last years. Except fishing, other recreation activities are developing. In
2001, it exist 47.5 km of asphalted towpaths (chemins de halage) dedicated to walking and
cycling. Activities of green tourism should develop thanks to this development of
infrastructure.
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Leisure navigation also tends to develop (for data on motor navigation, see 2.1.6). Four local
yachtclubs are active in the basin (Geraardsbergen, Ninove, Onkerzele and Aalst). Pontoons
are installed in Ninove (Vlaamse Vereniging van Waterspoort). A marina also exists in
Onkerzele (‘t Schipken). Except classic yachting, no other water sport is allowed in the basin,
be it canoeing, waterskiing or even swimming.
In the basin, it exists also centres of leisure where ponds allow swimming and water activities:
the swimming pool Olympos in Dendermonde and ‘De Gavers’ in Geraarsbergen.
Recreation is yet expected to develop in the basin.
2.1.8
Medical uses
No medical uses are identified in the basin.
2.1.9
Protection
The water regime of the basin (rainfall regime) coupled with specific demands of uses in past
(agriculture and navigation) led to severe fittings not only of the river Dender (rectifications),
but of the whole basin (drainage canals). Nowadays the fight against flooding is much
worrying, in the conditions of climate change. In Belgium rainfalls tend to become more
violent, even is less frequent. Such conditions provoke quick rises in the water debit.
Geomorphologic changes
Geomorphologic changes are in general the witnesses of past water policy. In the Dender
basin they consisted both to develop the intensiveness of agriculture and trade navigation.
First, the development of agriculture needed dry fields. This led to the digging of tiny and
deep canals along the fields that are able to drain water from the surface of the field. This
water is discharged in rivers. The capacity of retention of the land is limited as such. Works of
drainage along the Dender were conducted by the wateringues at a time when the Dender was
a tidal river, i.e. before the building of the gate of Dendermonde. Second, navigation led to
severe rectifications (rechttrekken) of the river Dender, cutting each meander. Concrete banks
were build more or less all along the Dender between the 1950s and the early 1980s. The
main argument that justified these public works was navigation, but it was not the single goal.
In fact, the banks of non-navigable rivers were also put into concrete. The objective in such
occurence was to accelerate the flow of drainage, in the period of the regrouping of fields
(landinrichtingen). Navigation also commanded the building of gates. We find eight gates all
along to Flemish part of the Dender, the biggest one being in Dendermonde, that cut the
Dender flow from the tidal Scheldt. The cleaning out of the river coupled with works of
rectification accelerates the river flow and leads to flooding downstream.
The rectification of the rivers seems now to be outdated. The last event of this kind occurred
at the end of the 1970s, with the concreting of the last four kilometer of the Mark. Concerning
the cleaning out, as there no more needs in navigation, the pressure is falling. Authorities tend
to avoid to clean out. As the mud is contaminated with heavy metals and chemicals, it is
costly to retreat it (to burn it). The mud extracted from the Dender is commonly classified as
hazardous waste of the 1st or 2nd category. Thus they need a special treatment25.
25
E.g. a rate of 2% of cadmium has been measured as the standard defined in Vlarem 2 is 0.01%.
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Water Floods
Water flood is certainly one of the main concerns of the Flemish administration and of local
representatives. The phenomenon is not only due to artificial factors. The rainfall regime of
the Dender is worsened by natural conditions. The Dender is enclosed in steep basins. In
parallel to the specific needs of agriculture and navigation (concreting of the banks and
cleaning out) are added to the fact that with the urbanisation and industrialisation more and
more surface is waterproof, a situation that prevent a retention of water in excess.
Furthermore, when the tide of the Schelde is high, water in excess in the Dender cannot
evacuate.
Floods generally occur in the same place and on a frequent way over the last ten years. Floods
are observed in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998 and 1999.
In the frame of the Flemish Environmental Plan 1997-2001 (Vlaams Milieubeleidsplan),
AMINAL and the KUL made a map of areas of flooding in Flanders26. The relevant areas are
divided in four types, according to the causes of flooding:
• flooding from the watercourse: alluvium
• streaming (running) down from upper lands: colluvium
• combined forms: alluvium + colluvium
• Built areas for which no groundmapping is available
Thus the zones of flooding are identified. Floods are concerning quite every part of the basin:
the centre of Galmaarden, Zandbergen, Ternat, Gijzegem, Lebbeke, St-Gillis-Dendermonde,
and Denderbelle. In December 1999, quite all the communes located along the Dender were
affected, and since then the upper communes of the basin (Geraardsbergen). Six areas play the
role of buffer zones. The polder located at the downstream of the basin receives water
(artificial basin that protects Dendermonde) when the flow of the Dender is at a peak.
Experiments of retention zones upstream are also conducted: Bellebeek, MolenbeekTerkleppebeek, Molenbeek-Erpe Mere.
The sensitive areas in the Dender basin are known and identified. Numerous measures have
already been taken. In some areas, along the Dender, the AWZ builds or reinforces some
dikes in order to protect houses and to canalise the flow of water to the fields.
2.1.10
Strategic reserves
We can considerate the tributary basin of the Mark as a strategic reserves. In the coming years
the Mark could become a centre of drinking water production, if the Flemish Region pursues
its policy of water independence from Wallonia.
26
The definitive version was edited in the end of 2000.
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2.2
BELGIUM
Synthesis of the uses in the Vesdre basin
Map 2: Synthesis of the spatial repartition of uses in the Dender basin
Source: VMM, AMINAL
The map present a synthesis of the different uses met in the basin. First we find the urban
areas, where the population density is the highest. We also identify industries and main
agricultural areas. The polder and wateringues are represented, as the main natural protected
areas. Finally, we represent the purification plants and the main sewers.
As a synthesis we stress an evolution of the various uses through the studied period. We also
localise the uses in order to assess the potential rivalries depicted from their spatial
repartition.
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Figure 3: Ponderation and evolution of local uses in the Dender basin (1980-2001)
Evolution of uses
G&S
Living environment
1980-2000
Coming years
Dominant use
Drinking water
Production
Dominant uses
Industry
Drainage
Energy
Absorption
Dominant use
Support
Recreation
Dominant use ?
Medical use
Protection
Dominant use
Strategic reserves
As we see in figure 3, the dominant uses are living environment, production, absorption and
protection. They cannot be considered on the same way as some are developing while some
others are declining. Fall apart, protection is a rising concern. As rainfalls are intensifying in
the Northwestern Europe and due to the characteristics of the basin, more and more water
flows into the Dender. Water floods concern every part of the basin and solutions are hard to
put in place.
The rising concerns in the basin correspond to a logic of economic development, linked with
land-use planning. A lot is done to develop a tourist interest for the Dender basin. Some
measures are taken that also benefit to the local population and to their quality of life. First, an
important purification program should improve the quality of surface water. Second, a policy
of land purchase develops the natural areas. Natural reserves are managed under the property
of associations of nature conservation (private actors). Third, infrastructures are developed in
favor of recreation activities (towpaths, pontoons, marinas, etc.). The coupling of
infrastructure with water quality would enhance the recognition of the beautiful landscape and
nature of the basin.
The absence of drinking water production is determinant in the assessment of water
management in the basin. In such a situation, the question of the quality of water is far less
important. Although we find a concern for a good water quality as in every place in Belgium,
no strong conflict around this topic can emerge. Also the pressure on purification and diffuse
pollution (e.g. manure disposal) are far less consequent. First, no one intends to produce
drinking water from groundwater, Second, the remaining project to produce drinking water
from the Mark river could have been delayed in favor of the two former water uses. Thus, the
decision to build a drinking water production plant may generate huge conflicts between the
heterogeneous groups of water users, be they farmers, nature lovers or emitters of wastewater.
However the function of production and support are not marginalised. These uses will
continue to be developed, but on a localised way. The logic of development of the basin
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divides it in two part, with an axis put on the town of Aalst. Downstream to Aalst, the river
Dender remains dedicated to industry and economic development. Commercial navigation is
encouraged. Downstream Aalst, where commercial boats can no longer penetrate, room is
given to recreation activities.
All these uses are not widespread on the basin. Some are very localised. If we have a look at
the map we observe that housing is mainly concentrated in the North part of the basin (at the
North of a line that crosses Denderleeuw). Except two zones in Ninove and Geraardsbergen,
industry is concentrated in the same area. By constrast, farming activities are localized in the
interspaces, so that mainly in the South part of the basin, and particularly in the tributary basin
of the Mark. Surprisingly, the purification plants are not concentrated in the more dense areas.
However, the two huge purification plants of Aalst and Denderleeuw are linked to very long
networks of main sewers. The majority of the planned purification plants are located around
the commune of Herzele, i.e. once again in areas with a low density of population. Finally, the
sites with the most interesting biological quality or potential are located all along the river
Dender from the linguistic border to Aalst. Excluding the woods of Brakel (Terkleppebeek)
and the valley of the Mark, the main interesting areas are located on territories placed under
the competence of wateringues (and two polders). Many places are some kind of wetlands
(waterrijkegebieden). Fields are purchased parcel after parcel by two kinds of actors, the
regional administration (AMINAL afdeling Natuur) on the one hand, and associations of
nature conservation (in most cases De Wielewaal and Natuurreservaten) with public
subsidies. Farmers are not explicitly engaged in nature development.
As the basin is divided in two parts for the development of activities, and as the activities that
require the best water quality are located upstream, there should be no strong conflicts
between heterogeneous users. Rivalries are then concentrated around agriculture. First, the
interests of the farmers should not correspond to those of nature conservators. Second, the
need to prevent water floods in towns could contradict the interests of the wateringues as
these organisations drain the fields. Third, the building of a drinking water purification plant
should enhance constraints on farmers in the Mark valley. Four, the presence of industry in
the middle of housings generate a strong pressure on water quality, a situation that could lead
to claims from the population. Finally, the collection of wastewater in the rural areas with
huge networks may lead to dissatisfactions.
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IV.
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Identifying attempts towards integration: intra-cases
During our study of the basin, we identified a series of rivalries between water uses. The
rivalries around the quality of water are lowered by the fact that no drinking water is made
inside the basin. All drinking water is imported, mainly from the wells of the Brussels’ water
company in Wallonia. The remaining part comes from ponds in the North of Flanders. The
four rivalries presented here are essentially concentrated on two rising uses: a rising concern
of a living environment on the one hand and an enhanced risk of water floods.
Figure 4: Cases of rivalries in the Dender basin over 1980-2001
Living
environment
Purification
policy
IC3
Expropriation
of fields
IC1
Absorption
Nitrates
IC4
Drinking water
Strategic
reserves
Production
(agriculture)
Recreation
Energy
4.1
Support
Protection
Buffer zones
for flooding
IC2
Agriculture v. natural reserves (IC1)
In the Dender basin, we assist to a modification of the structure of the economy. The relative
importance of economy and agriculture diminishes. The concern for tourism is increasing,
particularly between Aalst and the linguistic border.
The Flemish Region conducts a policy of modification of land use. Natural reserves substitute
to fields. This use is modified by changes in the ownership structure of land. The priority for
the acquisition is wetlands, because they have a high biological interest. Wetlands are mainly
located along the Dender, and traditionally drained lands.
Land ownership is acquired with regional subsidies, either by public administrations
(AMINAL afdeling Natuur) or by private environmental associations (e.g. Natuurreservaten
vzw).
Schedule:
1973. Law on the preservation of nature
1979. European directive on wild birds
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1992. Modification of the subsidies from the Region
1992. Habitats directive
1997. Regional decree about nature preservation
1999. New modification of the subsidies
Geographic localisation:
Every part of the basin, mainly the south-east area, where farming activities are concentrated.
Still a current concern, that began in the 1990s.
Origin of the problem:
Regional recognition of the necessity to protect certain natural areas. Possibility of
expropriation for the purpose of nature conservation. Political will to create corridors of
nature. The situation has not generated a high degree of conflict.
Characteristics of the Region. High density of the population and full use of the territory for
human activities. Absence of wild areas. Political will to create corridors of nature, in
particular for the preservation of migrant bird species. Answer to an European pressure and a
higher awareness of the population.
Modification of land use and of practises of land-use planning. The will to reconsider the
systematic drainage of wetlands enters in opposition with secular agricultural uses
(wateringues). The regional executive incites the modification of land ownership. The degree
of change grows in parallel with the amount of subsidies. In most cases, subsidies represents
60-85% of the value of exchange. The policy of acquisition of land is eased by classification
of the former fields as natural areas in the land-use plans.
Fear of the agricultural sector to loose its social importance. Limitation of manure spreading
in natural areas by the mestdecreet.
Actors involved :
- Flemish regional administration: AMINAL, afdeling Natuur supervises the policy. It is
also responsible of the classification of natural areas and conducts its own acquisition in
lands of particular interest.
- Environmentalists (De Wielewaal vzw, Natuurreservaten vzw). These private associations
are build on networks of voluntary people. The acquisitions are driven by the voluntaries
on a very local basis. They acts under the supervision of employees of the associations.
- Farmer associations. They traditionally oppose to this policy of acquisition, but their
influence on farmers, on this aspect, is contrasted. Individual farmers are keen on selling
parts of their land, the least profitable ones, to the associations.
- Polders and wateringues. Traditionally set up to drain water from the field, they seem to
progressively adapt to more ecological aspects, with some difficulties however.
Mechanism for problem solving :
Development of a change in uses more easy to realise in front of a declining agricultural
sector. Farming activities cease by themselves because of the ageing of the farmers.
Purchase of the land parcel after parcel. Conflict with farmers is avoided by an absence of
confrontation from the administration and by reasoned purchasing practises in the chief of the
associations. Purchase is directly arranged with individual people, the private landowners.
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The main difficulty in the purchase is when the use right on the land has been sold to a
farmer. Then the farmer has to give his consent to the sale.
The purchase is build on the existing classification of land made on the regional land-use
plan, developed in the 1970s. It developed in the 1990s under the pressure of the Habitats
directive. Associations put more pressure on the farmers in areas classified as natural areas
than in agricultural areas. They present their project to the regional administration that
approves them a priori. Purchase are planned on long term and systematised in areas of
biological interest.
Priority on the purchasing. When a farmer has a use right on the coveted land, he keeps the
priority for the purchase. The associations do not benefit of priority in the purchasing, except
for the land that they already rent and that is classified in natural areas. Only the regional
executive can have the priority in areas that are simultaneously classified in Habitats areas
and natural areas. In natural areas, if land is sold to a tier when the associations were
interested, the government can use its right of pre-emption. The association do not become
owner, but manages the field if this one is located in its area of influence. The motives is the
rationality of the management of the natural areas.
In most cases, the associations buy fields. Around the case of the reserve of Moenebroek
(south part of the basin), the volunteers of the Natuurreservaten have an agreement with the
farmers. The Natuurreservaten do not buy the parcel that interest the farmers the most but
they avoid concessions inside the zone which is less profitable for the farmers. The farmer
accept the modus vivendi. In fact, inside the area, they do not meet difficulties as the farmers
successively retire and then have an interest to sell the land. Also the high prices that farmers
are able to propose for certain fields limit the competition.
The other aspect of the compromise is the signing of management contracts on land owned by
the associations. In meadows, contracts are concluded with the farmers before the purchase of
fields, in order to convince them to the sale. For instance, the Natuurreservaten propose to the
farmers to put cows in the meadows for free. Nevertheless the use is conditioned: limited
number of cows (2 cows/ha) in a limited period of time (from March to October). The farmer
unions do not appreciate but individual farmers appreciate the cooperation. Moreover they
influenced the decision of subsidisation in order to limit subsidies in the case that the
purchase concerns fields classified as agricultural areas.
Finally, the conflicting relation between the preservation of wetlands and drainage is
moderated. The associations modify the structure of the acquired land only at the margins.
They do not fill in the draining pits. In the future, tensions could appear with the wateringues.
For instance, with the sparing basin (bassin d’épargne) of the Denderbellebroek, the
Natuurreservaten have not the capacity to change its management (conducted by the polder).
For the moment, the associations pay contributions to the polders and wateringues when their
land islocated inside the territory of these authorities, but they have not much to say in the
management of the territory. In some areas the situation could change in the future as they
will own the majority of the parcels inside the wateringue.
Critical factors of success:
The rivalry between the environmentalists and the farmers is (temporarily?) avoided with the
distribution of benefits to the farmers. The associations equally avoid competition with the
farmers on the most profitable fields (mainly dry fields). Land is acquired parcel after parcel
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in a very progressive but planned way. Thus the acquisition occur in areas of poor interest for
the farmers. The rivalry is solved by a divide of the territory between the two uses, at the
benefit however of the farmers.
Influence of property rights and public policy:
The property rights are central in the conduct of the redistribution between two uses. The
public policies play no role.
4.2
Polders and wateringues v. flooding (IC2)
The present case is articuled around an initial contradiction between the draining activities of
the farmers and a controlled flooding of their fields. In reality, we observe that the
relationship is not so conflictual. The rivalries is overcome by several regulations. Before
1997, water floods are not framed by the law.
Schedule:
1933: Building of the sparing basin in the polder of Beneden Dender (Denderbellebroek,
170ha). Protection of the town of Dendermonde against floods.
1950, (as of). Rectification of the river Dender with its banks put into concrete
1956-57. Laws on the polders and wateringues
1967. Law on the management of non-navigable rivers
1974. Severe floods. Making of the SYGMA Plan, limited to the tidal rivers (Dender not
concerned)
1978, 25th November. Inauguration of the new mouth of the Dender. Dendermonde is rid of
the problems of flood and the Dender is no more influenced by tides.
1980. Partial regionalisation of the water policy
1990. Regionalisation of the Hydraulic
1993. Floods
1995. Floods
1996: Decree on the management of dikes
1999, end December. Floods. 500 houses are flooded in the district of Geraardsbergen
All along the Dender. Concern also the tributaries of the Dender and implies their managing
authorities
Political will to create buffer zones against flooding. Inadequacy with the works of drainage
put in place by the farmer for centuries. Still a current rivalry that doesn’t seem to generate
conflicts.
Importance of the characteristics of the river Dender. The flow is influenced by rainfalls and
by the tides of the river Scheldt. During high tides, the water flow of the Dender cannot be
evacuated. The coming water from Wallonia also play a crucial role in the quantitative water
management inside the Flemish part of the Dender basin. The problems of floods in the basin
has increased for 10 years. The number of areas concerned is increasing mainly at the
upstream of the basin (Ninove and Geraarsbergen):
- Rising rainfalls
- Rising influx from Wallonia
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- Rising size of the sewage system and growing waterproofing of the surfaces
Water floods often in the same areas, with a growing frequency (1993, 1994, 1995, 1998,
1999).
The competent authority (AWZ) has much difficulty to manage water floods in the town of
Geraardsbergen, near the linguistic border as upstream the Dender is located in Wallonia and
the AWZ has no competence there. Walloon authorities feel not concerned by the problem.
Water comes faster and faster upstream and cannot be evacuated downstream (tides). The
Walloons modernised their gates and dams without taking the Flemish problem into account.
Before the regionalisation, their was a project to build a sparing basin in Deux-Acren, in
Wallonia, upstream to Geraardsbergen. A single division of the Ministry of Public Works
managed the whole river. This project has not been finalised.
In the basin exist six sparing basins. Some are installed along the non-navigable tributaries of
the Dender, but the biggest in the Denderbellebroek (80ha) located near the mouth of the
Dender, on the territory of the polder. When the basin was build, in 1933, the State gave no
compensation to the neighbours. Nowadays, the AWZ determines the moment when the basin
is flooded, but the resulting pumping of the incoming water is under the responsibility of the
polder. It is an employee of the polder that makes the pump work. The fields inside the
sparing basin are dried in three days. It induces not much disturbance to the farmers. Floods
occur mainly in wintertime when the cattle is not on the affected meadows. Farmers receive
no compensations and the basin never generated any conflict. The priority of the AWZ is to
protect the houses, not the fields. AWZ builds dikes to protect the houses and canalise the
flow of water to the fields.
Necessity to diminish the influx of water into the river Dender and to facilitate the evacuation
into the Scheldt.
Actors involved :
- AWZ, afdeling Boven Schelde. Division of the regional minister of the infrastructure. In
charge with navigation and quantitative water management of the navigable rivers. It has
also a more general competence of management of the navigable rivers, except the quality
aspects
- AMINAL afdeling Water. Division of the same department as AWZ but not many
relationships between the two administrations. The afdeling water is in charge of the
management of non-navigable rivers of 1st cat. and has a partial competency on water
quality and water protection. Is is placed under the authority of the minister of the
Environment while the AWZ is under the authority of the minister of Public Works.
- Polder van de Beneden Schelde. Public administration in charge of drainage and river
management on a given territory
- Ministère de l’Equipement et des Transports. Walloon ministry of Public Works, in
charge of quantitative water management on the Walloon part of the Dender
- Communes
- Wateringues: same type of organisation as the polder
Mechanism for problem solving:
We observe no conflicting situations between the actors. The (often technical) solutions are
imposed or negociated.
Technical answers brought to the problem:
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No possibility to build a new sparing basin. This would require expropriations. There is no
real need either as many fields receive water without intervention and minimise the
floods.
Build of small sparing basin on tributaries but without much connection with the authority
that manages the main river.
No coordination between the manager of the sewing/purification system and the manager
of the river
Building of dikes to protect the houses.
The Denderbellebroek remains under the supervision of the polder. Good
complementarity of the actors.
Project to build a pump of high capacity (30m³/h) at the mouth of the Dender in order to
evacuate water during high tides.
Coordination by AMINAL of a map of water floods
Difficulties to coordinate the different managing authorities in the same Region on the one
hand and between the two Regions on the other hand. The authority in place at the tail-end is
compelled to adopt non-integrated technical solutions. On the other hand, it is impossible to
reduce the influx of water coming from Wallonia. Contacts are regular between the managers
of both Regions but it does not conduct to concerted actions. The actor in place at the tailhead simply evacuate water from its territory without considering the problems of the actor
placed at the tail-end.
Critical factors of success:
- Mobilisation of technical solutions
- Financial means
- No imputation of responsibility to the public authorities for water floods (rainfalls are
considered as responsible)
- Easement (servitude) on the land of the polder concerning flooding
- Arrangement of the public domain to limit the problem pressure: building of dikes
- Separation of the public domain between the two Regions that hamper a resolution of the
problem
- Policy of expropriation for the purpose of dike management and making of sparing basins
- Absence of a public policy that favours a retention of water on private land upstream
(limited action of the compulsory rainwater tanks)
- Unsuitability of both the policy of (great scale) purification and the 1967 law on the
management of non-navigable rivers
Continuous increase of the problem:
- Integrated water management that is developed is limited to Flanders when most of the
basins are inter-regional and international
- No integrated solutions between the actors involved. Basin committees have a role limited
to exchange of information
- Disagreements and no will of cooperation between the different competent ministers
- Risk of problem increase due to works (digging) in the port of Antwerp (external factors)
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Sewing and purification v. return and efficacy (IC3)
Since 1991, Flanders has conducted a systematic policy of purification of domestic
wastewater. This policy is guided by the conformation to the requirements to the 1991
wastewater directive. The Region decided on the design of the policy very quickly, with the
single objective to purify the wastewater of 75% of the housings (29% in 1990). The
infrastructure is standardised. The system gives good results in urban areas, but is more
questionable in rural areas. There the wastewater is too diluted by incoming rainwater and the
sewer are too long, a situation that creates a process of self-purification with the deposit of
sludge in the sewers. However, the policy of purification produces results on the quality of
surface water at the regional scale27.
The particular problems of the purification system in rural areas are present in the district of
purification of Geraardsbergen. There, a purification plant of a great capacity collects water
from all the surrounding villages linked by pipes that can reach a length of 20km.
Schedule:
1971. Law on the protection of surface water. Creation of basin agencies
1974. Law of pre-regionalisation
1981. Creation de la VWZ, in charge of the purification of the whole region, except for the
basin of the Coast.
1991. Directive on Urban wastewater
1991. Creation of the VMM and Aquafin
1995. Building of the new purification plan of Geraardsbergen. Cost: 124 mio BEF.
1999, 22nd October. Expected date for the delivery of the new purification plan of
Geraardsbergen28.
Geographic localisation :
Overal inside the basin. In the less densely populated purification districts. The purification
district is in the South of Geraarsbergen
The purification plants are not efficient and don’t play a major role in the improvement of
surface water quality. unsolved rivalry that mobilises regional political élites as the ecologists
participate to the regional executive coalition.
The Aquafin system. Aquafin builds purification plants of a high capacity and link the
surroundings to it. Flanders is considered as a big agglomeration. In order to constitute areas
of 10000 inhabitants/equivalent, VMM decided to link 2-8 small villages. The size of the
purification district is consequent: +/-100km². The sewers are disseminated in the perimeter.
They collect mainly rainwater from the communal sewing systems, but also water from
ditches (fossés). In the district of Geraardsbergen, around 100km of pipes are in place. The
flow in long sewers is low and the residues present in the water create deposits of sludge.
Water is very diluted (17mg/l BOD in some places according to DAK). The water that comes
to the purification plants is already clean.
27
« De inspanningen van VMM worden stilaan beloond. De kwaliteit van onze waterlopen verbetert, traag maar
gestaag. Toch hebben we nog heel wat werk voor de boeg... », in VMM, 2001, « Activiteiten verslag 2000 », De
Verrekijker, p. 4
28
Source : VMM web site : www.vmm.be.
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Overflows. All along the sewers, overflows are installed, at least one per kilometer. In case of
important rainfalls, they allow a direct discharge of water in excess in the rivers. The problem
is that the sludge in the sewers is washed by the high flow and its discharge before
purification in rivers, provokes local problems of water quality. According to Aquafin, 6-7
overflows occur per year. According to the environmentalists, their occur 12 times per year.
Furthermore, the building of an overflow is expensive.
The purification system of the district of Geraardsbergen is expensive. The total investment
reaches 233mio EUR, of which 37.8mio EUR for the purification plants, over the period
1991-2005. 60.8mio are already spent, 172.2mio EUR remain to be invested29. However, all
the district is not linked to the purification system.
The purification plant of Geraarsbergen does not give good results. It has a capacity of 30'000
inhabitants equivalent. In order to work properly, the plant should receive at least water with a
BOD of 100mg/l and actually it does not exceed 68mg/l. According to the DAK, the
conception of the purification policy is responsible of such bad results. The purification plants
are well designed but they have no wastewater to purify. VMM and Aquafin accuse the
communes to be liable of these results. They pretend that they do not accept to invest in
separated sewing systems.
The competence on purification is not well defined. According to the law, Aquafin
implements a policy that it does not design. Every decision of works is approved by a threeheaded committee composed of AMINAL, VMM and Aquafin. In this context the only
liability of Aquafin is to execute works in due time and to respect the norms of emissions in
surface water defined for purification plants (less than 25mg/l BOD according to Vlarem2).
As an opposition, the DAK organises spectacular actions and do some observations on the
purification system. For the bio-rotor of Sint-Maria Lierde, the water has a BOD of 25mg/l
for the immission and 17mg/l for the emission30. During an action in a dry period, they took a
sample in a collector with a BOD of 108mg/l. It also organises press meetings that denounce
the ‘policy of VMM-Aquafin’. In theory, Aquafin should purify water only as of 100mg/l
BOD. In Practice, water is in many occurrence too clean to be purified.
Actors involved:
- Denderaktiekomittee (DAK). The DAK constitutes a group of local citizens involved in
various local associations. It activities began in the 1980s in order to protect against the
important pollution of surface water in the basin. Its actions were a success. The basin of
the Dender has been a priority area. At the beginning of the 1990s it thought it could stop
its activities but realised that the policy implemented by Aquafin did not produce the
expected effects on the quality of the rivers. Since then the DAK denounces the regional
purification policy at the local and regional levels.
- NV Aquafin. Aquafin is a public/private partnership in charge to implement the Flemish
purification policy. Aquafin realises the investment program defined by the VMM. In fact,
it builds, owns and operates the purification plans and the collection systems. Its activities
are financed by the Region (Mina-fonds). The annual investment is around 150mio EUR
per year. The staff is mainly composed of civil engineers. Aquafin has a monopole on the
29
30
VMM, 2000, AWP2, TW, p. 47
Source VMM cited by a member of the DAK.
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purification sector. It distributes a guaranteed income of 7-8% of the invested capital to
the shareholders.
VMM is a public company. It defines the policy of water quality and monitors the quality
of water. It also controls industrial emissions and collects the fees on discharges. The
purification policy is conducted by the tandem VMM/Aquafin, but the expertise is
provided by Aquafin, a situation that gives a favourable position in the negotiations on
investments.
AMINAL afdeling water is the regional water administration. It has no competence on the
quality of surface water, except the design of legislative proposals. It has a seat in the
three-headed commission that decides on investments (technical plans) and supervises
Aquafin’s activities.
Communes. They have the competence to build and operate the local sewing systems.
Mechanism for problem solving:
An integrated water policy and more responsabilities for the communes. Modifying the
rationale of the policy.
Difficulties to solve the problem:
- Aquafin rejects the responsibility of the dysfunction of the purification system. It specifies
that it only implements investment programs that are defined by the VMM and that the
dilution of incoming water is due to a lack of investments in communal sewing systems.
- The management contracts that ties Aquafin to the Region offers high guarantees but no
obligations of result to Aquafin. The notice of termination is of 20 years. The income of
Aquafin is guaranteed and its obligation of results are limited to the quality of the
emissions. The regional government decided to give notice of termination last year. It
negotiates a new contract with Aquafin.
The question of purification is considered at the regional level. The local participation is very
weak. The other water users are only informed of the planned investments of Aquafin. This
weakness in participation is coupled with a weak interest of the population about the efficacy
of the purification system. Even the environmentalists, except the DAK of course, do not feel
concerned. They focus more on biodiversity and bird species without seeing the link with a
good purification of water.
No solution is brought to the problem of the overflows. This problems denounced by the
DAK is not accepted by the other actors of the sector.
Discussion on the small scale purification. The DAK promotes a particular biological system
of purification for the rural areas. Aquafin is not competent for project of a capacity of less
than 500 inhabitants equivalent. But the communes do not receive enough subsidies to realise
such project and, in fact, generally prefer that Aquafin takes the question of purification in
charge for free. The competency of Aquafin could be extended to these areas.
Necessity to separate wastewater from rainwater. The double sewing system is promoted by
all the actors. However the realisation of a system of full separation is impossible. It is
hampered by the limited intervention of the State on private places according to the rules of
private property. Thus the separation system promoted by the VMM only isolate rainwater
that fall on the streets and public places. Its efficacy against dilution would be limited. Works
are subsidised at 75% and placed under the responsibility of the communes.
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Critical factors of success (remain to put in place):
- Systematic measurement of the efficacy of the purification plants
- Processing of the need in purification on a case-by-case basis
- Clarification of the respective competencies of the actors and mechanisms of mutual
control
- Enlargement of the competence of the communes for areas less than 2000 inhab. eq.
- Improvement of mechanisms of concertation about purification. Concern for the needs of
the other water users
- Solution brought by a public policy
- High pressure on the change of the policy rationale that clashes with the (financial)
interests of the actors in place
4.4
Agriculture v. drinking water(IC4)
No drinking water is produced inside the basin. In the past the project of a drinking water
treatment plant has been developed, but abandoned in the end of the 1980s mainly reasons of
costs. By the way, this (non-) decision concerning drinking water production limits the scope
of the rivalries that could arise inside the basin, in particular the problem of a pollution of
surface water by the nutrients spread by farming activities. The originality of the intra-case is
given by the fact that the resolving of the (potential) rivalries in the basin occurs with an
abandonment of a former project, however not as a result of a conflict with the other local
users.
Schedule:
1969. Increase of the production of drinking water advised by the commission on the water
problems
1984. Policy of hydrical independence (minister Lensens)
1987, 21st October. Flemish application decree. Classification of the Mark as a river intended
for the abstraction of drinking water
1992. Programming of the purification of Galmaarden
1998, 8th December. Flemish application decree. Confirms the classification of the Mark as a
river intended for the abstraction of drinking water.
Question focussed on the tributary basin of the Mark. The treatment plant ought to be located
at the mouth of the Wijze Beek, at the downstream of the Mark, just before the linguistic
border. In fact, the whole tributary Mark basin is affected, even the upstream part also located
in Wallonia.
For the moment, the major part of the drinking water distributed in the basin comes from
Wallonia. There is no local production. Even water produced in Flanders is transported on
very long distances. The policy of hydric independence does not concern the Dender basin.
Project to build of drinking water treatment plant on the river Mark. The project is developed
as a consequence of the conclusions in 1969 of the Royal Commission on the water problems:
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“Flandre orientale. Un déficit est à prévoir en 1980. Il convient d’étudier toutes les
possibilités des nappes souterraines de la province et de les exploiter à fond. Il faut employer
les eaux de surface disponibles, utiliser à pleins les possibilités des adducteurs existants et en
créer de nouveaux dans la mesure où cette solution s’avèrerait rentable”31. The treatment
plant was planned downstream the Mark, just before the linguistic border. the project foresaw
a drinking water production of 20000 m³/day. It involved the building of a huge water
reservoir of 5mio m³. Nowadays, the project would have an over capacity of production.
Major implications of the project:
- Suppress every pollution source in the Mark basin (river plus all the tributaries, both in
Flanders and Wallonia
- Regulate manure spreading in the basin
- Severely modify the landscape of the interesting valley of the Mark with the reservoir
Absence of recognition of the diffuse pollution and the denying of the imputability of manure
spreading in part of the pollution of surface water with nitrates. Strong eutrophication of
watercourses. The main cause of pollution is attributed to the domestic emissions. However,
agriculture also contributes to the biological pollution of the stream.32. The highest
concentrations of nitrates over the period 1990-1998 are found in the region of TollembeekHerne, at the east part of the Mark basin33. This region is characterised by intensive catering.
Allocation of pollution inside the Mark basin between households and agriculture.. In 1997,
emissions by the households are: 218kg/j Ntot and 37 kg/j Ptot. In 1996, spread of nutrients
by agriculture: 6357kg/j Ntot, that correspond to the equivalent of an emission of 489kg/j
Ntot (divided by 13) and 1637kg/j Ptot equivalent of an emission of 23kg/j Ptot (divided by
70)34. According to the VMM, it is necessary to highly reduce emissions of nitrates (N) in the
western part of the tributary basin of the Mark and phosphorus (P) in the eastern part, in order
to respect the defined quality criteria for the basin. Reduction efforts should be distributed
between agriculture, households and the purification plants35.
Domestic pollution comes most from two sources: the Mark river coming from Wallonia and
the river Odra, a tributary of the river Mark, that delimits the linguistic border. This
constitutes another source of problem. The main part of the pollution is emitted in Wallonia.
Flemish authorities have no capacity to convince Walloon authorities to commit in the respect
of parameters corresponding to the classification of the Mark as drinking water.
Third aspect. The valley of the Mark is a landscape of interest. The treatment plant would
prejudice the surroundings. It would severely attain the landscape. The attached reservoir
would have had a surface of 50ha with a depth of 10m. It would have involved the digging of
an impressive hole or the building of huge dikes.
Fourth aspects. The building involves a huge investment. For the moment, such an investment
is not profitable at all. Only a sharp rise in prices of water coming from Wallonia. Such a rise
is not expectable.
31
Commissariat royal aux problèmes de l’eau, 1969, Le problème de l’eau. Rapport final du commissaire royal,
Service du Premier ministre, unpublished, p. 4.
32
VMM, AWP2 Dender TW, p. 44.
33
VMM, AWP2 Dender TW p. 66.
34
VMM, AWP2 Dender TW tabel 6.
35
VMM, AWP2 Dender résumé p. 26-27.
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Actors involved:
- Farmer unions. Until 1995, they don’t recognise the fact that manure spreading leads to
the pollution of surface water. Progressively they temperate their position
- The Vlaamse Landmaatschappij (VLM) is a public company in charge, among others, to
manage the surplus of manure in the whole region
- The Vlaamse Milieumaatchappij (VMM) is a public company in charge, among others, to
monitor the quality of water
- The Vlaamse Maatchappij voor Watervoorziening (VMW) is the Flemish arm of the
former national water distribution company (SNDE). It is entitled by the communes
(majority shareholder of the company) to distribute water in most part of the Basin, Aalst
being the more important exception.
Mechanism for problem solving :
Absence of the building of a drinking water production plant in the Mark valley in the 1980s.
The project is postponed, but not released. This is not due to an action or claim of other water
users or neighbours. The project was postponed for the above mentioned problems. The main
cause of postponing is surface water pollution.
In fact, if the project would come into more developments, the difficulties would come up
along with these various lines of problems:
1. The river Mark belongs under the classification of a river intended for the abstraction of
drinking water. Flanders has the will to keep this potential for drinking water production, as
the regional potential is somehow limited. In that way, the purification plant of Galmaarden
was build in the respect of the classification of the Mark.
2. Wallonia has no interest to conform its emissions in the Mark to requirements for
drinking water.
3. It becomes more and more difficult to engage such works in Flanders as the
environmental and building permits are harder to get than in the past. It is especially true
where landscape is protected as it is the case in the Mark valley. Such a huge project would
also rise stronger oppositions from neighbours and environmentalists.
4. Nowadays, the project has no economic justifications. Given the price of water from
Wallonia, the investment is not profitable. However, the option remains open as we cannot
anticipate the situation in the future.
However, the protection of the potential is maintained. The water company VMW defends
this position, e.g. in the Mark subcommittee of the Dender basin committee.
Pollution is not yet tackled however. Technical expertise and scientific evidence of the degree
of diffuse pollution. Discussion between actors (not yet widespread). Difficulties for the
regional administration to take a position as it subsidies mest imports in the Dender basin.
In short term, it is excluded to develop the project in the Mark valley. It seems however
necessary to the Flemish authorities to keep the potential. Then the classification as a
protected area remains in place.
The rivalry is overcome with a suppression of the use. Conflict is avoided by a non-decision.
This non-decision is in first instance explained by the lack of economic opportunity to
develop the project, as water provision from Wallonia is assured.
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43
EUWARENESS is a research project on European Water Regimes and the
Notion of a Sustainable Status . Research institutes from six European countries
(Netherlands, Belgium, France, Spain, Italy, Switzerland) have been cooperating in
this two year project (2000-2002). The project is supported by the European
Commission under the 5th Framework Programme, and co-ordinated by the
University of Twente in the Netherlands.
The EUWARENESS-project has focused on sustainable use of water resources by
means of integrated water management. It aims to contribute to the implementation of the EU Water Framework Directive. A better understanding is needed of
the dynamic relationships between various conflicting uses of water resources, the
regimes under which these uses of water resources are managed, and conditions
generating regime shifts towards sustainability. The EUWARENESS-project studied
the long term evolution of 6 national regimes, and also - more in depth - the
specific regime transitions of 12 water basins across Europe during the last
decades. Important issues are the participation of users, redistribution of property
rights among users, the coherence between water rights and water policies.
More information: www.euwareness.nl
The EUWARENESS project is joined by:
University of Twente (project co-ordinator) - The Netherlands
Université Catholique de Louvain - Belgium
Université Francois Rabelais de Tours - France
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona - Spain
Istituto per la Ricerca Sociale - Italy
Institut de Hautes Études en Administration Publique - Switzerland

Case Study 2: Dender River Basin

Transcripción

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