PHILOSOPHICAL ELEMENTS IN MARTIN DE
Transcripción
PHILOSOPHICAL ELEMENTS IN MARTIN DE
PHILOSOPHICAL ELEMENTS IN MARTIN DE CARETAS by RICHARD DAVID SHEEHY B.A.,University Of V i c t o r i a , 1 9 7 7 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES Department Of H i s p a n i c We a c c e p t to THE this And I t a l i a n thesis the r e q u i r e d as c o n f o r m i n g 'standard UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH April © Richard Studies COLUMBIA 1984 David Sheehy, 1984 In p r e s e n t i n g t h i s t h e s i s i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l m e n t of requirements f o r an advanced degree a t the the University o f B r i t i s h Columbia, I agree t h a t the L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t freely a v a i l a b l e f o r r e f e r e n c e and study. I further agree t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e copying of t h i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be granted by the head o f department o r by h i s or her r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s . gain v Kii-oa^l^ &^~A ^4&Lt^. The U n i v e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia 1956 Main Mall Vancouver, Canada V6T 1Y3 Date 2-4 J^-rii thesis s h a l l not be allowed without my permission. Department of IQ^H my It is understood t h a t copying or p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s for financial thesis Q^Cle^ written i Abstract Martin with de C a r e t a s literary and v a r i e d sources as is a trilogy of philosophical novels elements the O l d Testament, In writing Martin Arb6 a v a i l s himself of certain superficially which serve not picaresque novel for a uniquely which, like transcending with author contrasts rural of people, gives Martin pessimistic aid the of of general Juan features of timeless of the conditions the a u t h o r ' s human apparent Ecclesiastes us a p e s s i m i s t i c de C a r e t a s view of of Ecclesiastes optimistic spite view with Arbo's man's life's earlier determination of in which one sees associated protagonist through only through which an influence. Both he existentialists develops for Arb6, about a of This harsh rustic pessimistic then, series as psychic qualities. superficial extended from which the c h a r a c t e r with e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . earth, in narratives the of wisdom potential of on climate negative Catalan one life and t h e h u m a n i s t i c about of is the ideological its adventures Sebastian with book elements and qualities young in life Cervantes, and s o c i a l had come t o e x e r t c o n s i d e r a b l e were e s s e n t i a l l y well-being a the and existentialism the effect such Ecclesiastes for such on e a r t h . ultimate ironically cultural from the the t r u e p i c a r e s q u e , man's c o n d i t i o n The wisdom from a modern a d a p t a t i o n The same can be s a i d to O l d Testament endowed picaresque twentieth century protagonist characteristics. recourse de C a r e t a s , so much t o c o n s t i t u t e to p o r t r a y stemming the p i c a r e s q u e , Gald6s and B a r o j a . as richly of leads his episodic responsible, ii autonomous man inscrutable v i c i s s i t u d e s of l i f e , seeking over the impediments posed but function ideological/formal would embrace existential thought study of of affords work further The adults potential elements Caretas novelist, with intention. may r e v e a l that climate that responding of the t i m e . contribute elements t h e s i s proposes the wisdom, to structure f o r the study of time, author a preconceived philosophical he was m e r e l y literary This m e n t o r s and t h e i r tripartite ( l a n d s c a p e ) and money a s c o n s t i t u e n t philosophical and meaning O l d Testament and p i c a r e s q u e f e a t u r e s o f M a r t i n de C a r e t a s . the these the aforementioned the uniqueness such well t o guide him. An space by n o t so much by t h e of Arbo's that a study of composed M a r t i n de scheme o r t h a t , t o the e x i s t i n g as a philosophical iii Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgement i v Chapter I A BRIEF S U R V E Y OF THE MODERN S P A N I S H A. NOVEL 1 NOTES TO C H A P T E R I Chapter 20 II SEBASTIAN JUAN ARBO: HIS LIFE A. BIO-BIBLIOGRAPHY B. THE C R I T I C S ON S E B A S T I A N C. NOTES TO C H A P T E R I I Chapter AND WORK OF S E B A S T I A N 22 J U A N ARBO 22 J U A N ARBO 29 41 III EN E L P U E B L O 43 A. THE F U N C T I O N OF L A N D S C A P E 43 B. ROQUE G A L D A : H I S 54 C. IDEOLOGICAL D. NOTES TO C H A P T E R I I I Chapter PHILOSOPHY CONSEQUENCES 65 82 IV EN E L CAMPO 84 A. F U N C T I O N OF L A N D S C A P E 84 B. ANTONIO C A R D E N : H I S 95 C. IDEOLOGICAL D. NOTES TO C H A P T E R I V Chapter PHILOSOPHY CONSEQUENCES 104 117 V , EN L A C I U D A D '. , ." 118 A. THE F U N C T I O N OF L A N D S C A P E 118 B. SENOR T O R I O , 132 C. IDEOLOGICAL D. NOTES TO C H A P T E R V HIS PHILOSOPHY CONSEQUENCES 141 161 iv Chapter VI CONCLUSION 163 A. NOTES TO CONCLUSION 180 BIBLIOGRAPHY 181 V Ac k n o w l e d g e m e n t My thanks must go first to my s u p e r v i s o r , D r . Arsenio Pacheco, for inciting my interest in Catalan culture and letters, and f o r d i r e c t i n g me a l o n g s u c h a f a s c i n a t i n g p a t h o f e n q u i r y . I am a l s o g r a t e f u l t o Dr. Derek C. Carr, who gave f r e e l y of h i s t i m e and r e n d e r e d v a l u a b l e a s s i s t a n c e i n a v a r i e t y of capacities too numerous t o m e n t i o n . I owe a g r e a t d e b t o f gratitude to Lynne Marie Quarmby, my typist and computer c o n s u l t a n t , w i t h o u t whose a s s i s t a n c e t h i s t h e s i s w o u l d n o t e x i s t in i t s p r e s e n t f o r m . F i n a l l y , I w i s h t o thank t h e Department of H i s p a n i c and I t a l i a n S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of British Columbia, f o r f i n a n c i a l support i n the form of t e a c h i n g assistantships. 1 I . In A BRIEF spite entire of a certain literary subject his rarely novels and is being vice letters Also, the stylistic regarding his place and profound novel. its a early the and his and for the a 1930's of the to define in turn as Castilian career in periods in twentieth century, His the devotion to controversy contemporary singular twentieth-century Spanish in a movement novel of the nineteenth underlines late major Given currents Arbo's in the twentieth unique our as tendencies n i n e t e e n t h and in century, function novelistic author's would a i d its fiction. other of this in critical creative review through us Catalan the fiction the a body, the for the been distinguished in of has his writer, throughout. a f f i n i t y with century, would h e l p novel recognized state development scheme, in his throughout a bilingual recognized l i t e r a r y movement the previous century is as and landscape consequence nature novel's that realism to of NOVEL Arbo whole responsible the reappearance reaction realist of in A dominant a long consistency partially novelists: his Spanish is and as several realism Juan literary critics: independently spanned of continuity Sebastian considered versa. development showing for evaluated has thematic endeavor, challenging work SURVEY OF THE MODERN S P A N I S H place evaluation of in his work. The following selective, works by Sobejano, survey composite Gonzalo which by no means d e s c r i p t i o n , drawn Torrente merely is Ballester, seeks to definitive: mainly Eugenio provide from de N o r a it is a historical and background Gonzalo and an 2 appropriate perspective for a critical analysis of Arbo's f ict ion. Gonzalo literatura in Spain Torrente espafTola as an assimilating realismo retraso de puro, esas es Mesonero Romanos' which que prematuro se publicado Therese del es for this Galdos -and and realist convincing and this emphasizes realidad de tomarla"(p. To Fernan As 1 and realista; relacion examples Fernan he Caballero's es -- Papers adds, later whose of of en Zola pleno intention Spanish of "la literaria y, ha auge differentiates Caballero, be p r a c t i c e d by La realismo ya Fernan the Gaviota is life costumbrismo, importance como m a t e r i a decir, characterizes portrait mere to este cuando Ballester that La Pickwick de 1870, el mentions valiosos de el con frutos He pioneering realismo Ballester prematuro" appear como Torrente Torrente was "El However, (1867) what realism from Europe: narracion en la in primero como of de tardiness with Dickens' despues 20). accurate inmediata tarde, narrative might the en E s p a n a , los Pereda. "Spanish" While trends coincide Raquin "realismo example cultural matritenses hasta advent to relativo." que retrasan the Panorama customary Fair. naturalismo"(p. between of Escenas sucede cites rnani f e s t a c i o n e s muy Vanity his nation's mas roughly Thackeray's "Lo y, in the aparece primeras europeo Gaviota, to responding decimononico realismo and contemporanea, exception and costumbrista Ballester, to a a culture. Torrente sobre as present and decision likes Ballester de todo, tomar el la modo 21). Caballero, pseudonym for Cecilia Bohl de Faber, 3 Torrente Ballester inventa, se commentary Fernan observa." on burgeoning of what the positivista, espanol, "positivist believes realism influence of matiz is the the in novela basis of century. the In "Es diferenciarlo His 20). no for flaw latter positivism: cosa"(p. couched "la be a c r i t i c a l speaks permite otra realism" in that is to late he es comment remark and G a l d o s , y este que the This he Spanish Caballero suffered attributes se his in the comparing as having un realismo del realismo criticism a d e f i n i t i o n of of "traditional rea1i sm:" "La novela no s e i n v e n t a , s e o b s e r v a . " He a q u i u n a f e r t i l p r o f e s i o n de f e . No l a s i g u e n a r a j a t a b l a , n i mucho menos, A l a r c o n o V a l e r a ; p e r o s i c o n b a s t a n t e r i g o r , Pereda, Galdos, y los demas realistas y los naturalistas. Conviene d e c i r a q u i q u e l a f o r m u l a no c o r r e s p o n d e a l a d e l r e a l i s m o t r a d i c i o n a l , s i como t a l s e e n t i e n d e e l de C e r v a n t e s . El realismo t r a d i c i o n a l , n o s o l o no h a d e s c a r t a d o j a m a s l a i m a g i n a c i o n s i n o q u e ha h e c h o de ella la columna central del edificio novelesco. Tampoco ha t r a b a j a d o de p r e f e r e n c i a c o n m a t e r i a o b s e r v a d a (en e l sentido positivista), sino con materia experimentada, vivida . . Al reducirse a " l o observado," la senora B. de Faber hizo un f l a c o s e r v i c i o a l a s l e t r a s e s p a n o l a s . No s e le culpe, sin embargo, de manera exclusiva: el prejuicio l o r e c i b i o Gald6s, p r o b a b l e m e n t e , p o r o t r o s conductos . . . ." (p. X) Torrente adherence to insufficient attitude he of observed to goes on to say phenomena as novelistic produce toward w r i t e r s touches advent Ballester upon realism one in a good n o v e l , with p o s i t i v i s t of the in the major course of a footnote strict m a t e r i a l would hence his tendencies. controversies the that be disapproving With this concerning nineteenth-century the novel; 4 that is, the manner material. The reality offer of to uniquely the instead Spanish some m o r a l customs. literary c o s t u m b r i smo for its 2 representation its view the presentation depressing, Following another Galdos in effecting the the along observed in this concerning reflect period unartistic, and D.L. which Caballero Shaw innovations nineteenth-century says that relying Galdos in the of contemporary perceived " the reality general would be 3 there Ballester he of Romanticism incipience polemic, While credits baseness its Torrente for fictional preservation observed immoral." quotation. w i t h Fernan the unembel1ished realism/idealism above significant of the and Shaw probably naturalism, reality, to character this as objected to during "indifference Of that eschewed also school universal "reality" e d i f i c a t i o n and They immorality. was of i d e a l i s t i c costumbristas prevailing reality", of appears too (and emerges seems to indict heavily Clarin) development of to on with realism novel: It is clear . . . t h a t b e f o r e and perhaps d u r i n g the s e v e n t i e s , the i d e a of d e p i c t i n g r e a l i t y as objectively as possible without either moral or aesthetic embellishments . . . had h a r d l y been granted serious consideration. When it was not dismissed a s u n a r t i s t i c , i t was a t t a c k e d a s i m m o r a l . W i t h t h e a d v e n t of the mature work of Galdos and Clarin, this ideal, without perhaps prevailing c o m p l e t e l y , came a p p r e c i a b l y c l o s e r t o r e a l i s a t i o n . " Thus, while positivism", branch of he Galdos may thought human b e h a v i o r of but have "suffered himself as the "not as creator the a of influence specialist a total in of one fictional 5 world too drawn strict likes of In the his Ballester he coexisting the the not As sees certain w i t h works considered a movement inspired still of one of established is not most sources certain case, realist naturalism and of 1890, and Clarin.' With about surprising the for to precedent of period in and proximity this and period and being experience, writers is literature. purity, for idealism modernism Spanish Hispanic Spain, products the by that dubious alien in a Romanticism brought and this characteristic glorious duration by a 1874 the short essentially between it pioneering and most and In 5 inappropriate. the renovation '98, of seem Galdos reality". the features by literary of realism limits a period Generation would of to urgent between Caballero chronology movement which observation a comparison Fernan Torrente of from d i r e c t of the it next century. To asserts that complete the that naturalists they the bore little picture of the movement, were so called resemblance to the Torrente Ballester "capriciously," example of and Zola: Jamas e s c r i b i o n a d i e en E s p a n a n o v e l a s experimentales, ni p a r t i o , p a r a c o n c e b i r l a s , de una t e s i s cientifica, n i c r e y o a sus p e r s o n a j e s c o n d u c i d o s por una n e c e s i d a d p s i c o l o g i c a , f i s i o l o g i c a o m a t e r i a l , n i por una tara hereditaria, ni por nada que suponga d e t e r m i n i s m o . (p. 25) In addition, nineteenth-century he gives realist us the following definition endeavor: El p r o p o s i t o e s c o m u n i c a r l a r e a l i d a d en s u v e r d a d e r a c o n s i s t e n c i a p o r m e d i o d e un a r t i f i c i o n o v e l e s c o ; no, como en e l c a s o de " F e r n a n C a b a l l e r o , " p a r a o f r e c e r l o of 6 a l " q u e d i r a n " e x t r a n j e r o , s i n o mas b i e n p a r a revelar lo que s e o c u l t a b a j o l a a p a r i e n c i a mas s u p e r f i c i a l , p a r a d e s c u b r i r e l e n v e s de l a r e a l i d a d a p a r e n t e ; y no con propositos metafisicos, sino, segun se dijo, sociologicos, historicos y morales.(p. 24) These assertions this thesis. Juan Arbo's assertions from fiction, certainly nineteenth After the and to arrived form as of "el de todo and introduces his to of likes de la of Florez some the and of novela novela are subject at of Sebastian particular least a mimetic of these temper, hold-over D'Ors reminiscent to of of the de signo study the in a chapter 1880, which de of theory deals with includes Madariaga. representatives Ayala, Wenceslao previous es the of of entitled major certain the factors, chapter contemporanea This in Sobejano generational Salvador cites of on War cuyo by challenge Gonzalo whose period around and World by de N o r a , this Ramon P e r e z Nora First wrought direct europea, espanola born letters most primarily intelectual." contribution namely the influence Gabriel Miro, which in or the referred Eugenio 6 authors, Eugenio movement, of Spanish vanguardia awakening La the nature merely '98, after based the secondary acknowledging this is masterful "Aspectos group us la realismo." generations refute, of of a movement de novel the Caretas is renewal from.abroad contemporary to Arbo the Generation torbellino de the to century. vanguardism, enemigo consider help that monumental modernism realism to and M a r t i n accusations the p a r t i c u l a r l y germane When we come would critical are a the In of Fernandez characteristics, generations. When he 7 tells us that "la 'novecentista' marcadamente promocion . . . intelectual, o consider the possibility describes Miro as "una modernismo."(11,i; the prose of qualities the literaria incluso intelectualista," of casi . . . legacy. rezagada Turning then secondary certain to Espana Unamuno's aforementioned noventayochentismo, cronologicamente en 40). resembling y ofrece figura p. tlpica to . matiz we might himself . common of 7 Nora writers, aspects un . del features we of recognize modernism and wit: imperatives intelectuales, morales o politicos, se sobreponen aqui a l a " e s p o n t a n e i d a d " d e l r e l a t o [e.g. Unamuno's Niebla ]; a p a r e c e n , en c o n s o n a n c i a , formas n a r r a t i v a s poco o nada " o r t o d o x a s " . . . [y] c i e r t o a l a r d e o c o m p l a c e n c i a en e l d o m i n i o d e l a p r o s a p o r s i m i s m a , d e l o s mas r e f i n a d o s r e c u r s o s l i t e r a r i o s , como si la n a r r a c i 6 n f u e r a un a l e g r e y d e p o r t i v o c a m p o d e v a c a c i o n y d e p o r t e de un cerebro habitualmenre mas grave y mas altamente preocupado [ t h i s is at l e a s t m a r g i n a l l y r e l a t e d t o some m o d e r n i s t p r o s e ] . ( 1 1 , i ; p. 41 ) B Much of this, ortodoxas" p a r t i c u l a r l y the would vanguardism. The literature, which the plastic Ortega la y arts, Gasset novela. vanguardist Ortega regarded the of appropriate advent was in stages the of to in be and art" is on the part attitude avant-garde as del as his "new the arte the creatively nada to avant-garde in in upon and music Jose Ideas sobre spokesman by certain atavistic a and by for lucid exposition contrasted of o path expounded regarded Spain, on innovations deshumanizacion came the poco similar i n t e r p r e t e d and La narrativas and a c c e p t a n c e accompanied movement characteristics disapproving seem "formas of the the generally critics rather who than 8 progressively innovative. It surprising is certain not critical he a f f i r m s , a that the responds of other public the scornfully because that aesthetic novela, genre will soon exhaust time has yet to undaunted.. as the still the in In new art test an proceso desenvolviendose acceptance of bourgeois bourgeoisie desempenar to desde these ideas novel acumen; have appear as While incompatible of In as in a la literary Perhaps left novelists creatively Ortega's novela the Ideas a definitive albeit minority sobre art," creativity. to movement sobre principios notions realism forgetting como are at feelings movement. for seem Ideas Ideas overestimation of critical admonitions subjetivizacion nineteenth-century directed "dehumanized the describe. his is arte daring ideas are avant-garde, seems twenties to have into a perspective. refers de the that they they vanguardist historical of potential these of new a r t human c o n c e r n s ever-present, value the rankle del i n t i m i d a t e s and p r o d u c e s Ortega's case, should deshumanizacion penetrate posits its that to the Sobejano del any premonitory specific it the meantime pertinent accompanied to preoccupations Ortega La that everyday la but In assertions with extraordinary unable sobre fashion, things, endowed majority, inferiority; with Ortega's sensibilities. among minority that and of "la trasunto la novela y antirrealismo del as not siglo." as naturalism, funcion artistico a que de que reaction but individualism. culminacion venia He d e s c r i b e s 9 merely "la a He la against complacent accuses novela la the the puede conciencia 9 colectiva." be a Ultimately, 1 0 temporally reemergence limited of realism had not yet exhausted de novela of t h e phenomenon one. starting itself. avant-garde the particular group of n o v e l i s t s little tendencias;" to 1928, modest vanguardism entitled "Tentativas Nora treats on due to Nora speaks "frivolity" and letters. The Spanish that comment a to while a s s o much of was sees y deshumanizada," direction in the f i r s t de Nora In a chapter movement indicates offers changing Eugenio about intelectualista, lirica the minority of vanguardism in the this chapter de "Dispersi6n place, e l s e n t i d o mismo de a q u e l l a s corrientes literarias, deshumanizantes, asepticas y antirrealistas, se oponia, casi por d e f i n i c i d n , a toda posible madurez dentro del genero novelesco, condenando a los narradores potenciales al formalismo y a la e s t e r i l i d a d c r e a d o r a . (I.I , i ; p . 1 8 8 ) Secondly, as Pedro Nora points Salinas and Francisco "intelectualista" toward realism He waits goes for beginnings further, school school in fiction and s t i l l on t o warn the he points will in the forties socially.conscious traditional writers are capable take resurgence i n these emergent dichotomy to diverge as includes the group of " p r o l e t a r i a n " sees t h e years movement On t h e o n e h a n d and realism and in the realist by Zunzunegui Arbo) lean humor. Nora pre-war an and f i f t i e s . of of Nevertheless, such producing others up t h e s t a n d a r d the true headed of "frivolity", renovation realists opinion, Ayala period. out continue of bourgeois Nora's us t h a t post-war more without others of t h e r e a l i s t that momentum out, other he s e e s a (this on t h e o t h e r realists, gains with group, hand, a Ramon 10 Sender this as their period these standard prior divergent to the schools critical humorists remaining practitioners As for Nora's the nuevo waning produce minority have year general de humano, asi puramente of la forms the in brevity transition un a b o n d o n o de as a viable lyrically, influence literary "en confusion, el falsificado and the heard "artistic that nature poetry "El arte o por commercial designed and movement's The when una as arte y The orientacion recaida lo estetizantes o 1931 of to 1936 saw vanguardism Ballester que, la could en Torrente los a studied fiction "la years for lifespan. collapse todos el to limited entonces, ultimate perecen slightly already posiciones movementand, of vanguardists' 1930, 291). and naufragio habian the las of conducive by the supone, intelectuales"(p. diminishing are is have the their of coexistence incomprensible cites that in Poncela asserts por that hints as bluntly also so, group And fiction. we movement and the Jardiel vanguardism, literatura como the la to a "dehumanized" Ballester He sees with Enrique sentimentality contributed critical of artistic of as 189-190). Nora realism the 290) public. avoidance War, irritacion, irrespetuoso,"(p. of of of of Torrente viability Civil such indictment sterility." bearer(11,i;pp. says aprovechando poesia"(pp. 291- 292) . It is in Civil War turn toward has this that divided period prevailing realism. into The just prior literary existing "moderate" and to the outbreak sensibilities realist critical take movement, realists, a of the decisive which Nora betrayed 11 "rasgos radical bautizada por y Ortega"(11,i; chapter entitled speak this of "La new sundry reasons, garde. The gamut literalmente antiteticos the reasons from p e r s o n a l l y creative hesitance result these of writers Nora 191). transicion school to p. as dissidence, intent views the part of motives is less la goes on, a realismo", to opposed, of the says of Nora, some others. In escuela in "dissidents" for on de nuevo narrow conservative varied el rigorously this los Nora hacia comprising a avantrun the writers to any diffuse. for case, About the these says: o se esboza . . . y se va a f i r m a n d o progresivamente en los mejores, una rapida recuperacion del realismo; una manifiesta r e h a b i l i t a c i o n de ' l o h u m a n o ' , d e l v a l o r t e s t i m o n i a l y de l a t r a s c e n d e n c i a m o r a l , s o c i a l y politica de la literatura; una n u e v a c o n c i e n c i a de l a n e c e s i d a d - - y de l a fertilidad -del servicio a unoscuantos valores supremos, tal como cada escritor los i n t e r p r e t s o c o n e i b e . ( 1 1 , i ; p. 281) Choosing Juan Humberto Antonio movement, authors in was these de Nora not de 1939 argues prove sensibilities produced novelists this same his perspective la Zunzunegui further before aesthetic Perez by lead a transition the Ramon as the that the Ledesma leading last signaled Civil school writing of by the a new War. The in the La novela of interest that post-war this these three change in realism concludes^that the years espanola and of radical critic transition, Miranda figures works d e f i n i t i v e l y that continued while Ossa, process and, esfuerzo que marca ese from contemporanea, that el of 'neorrealismo' es, 1 2 en s u c o n j u n t o , a s c e n d e n t e , p e r o t o d a v i a i n s e g u r o h o y , t o d a v i a , h o y , de t a n t e o , de b u s q u e d a de un g r a n e s t i l o narrativo, en c o r r e s p o n d e n c i a con l a s asombrosas t r a n s f o r m a c i o n e s y e l n a c i m i e n t o d e u n mundo nuevo a que a s i s t i m o s en e s t a m i t a d d e l s i g l o . ( I I , i ; p. 284) The the i n t e r r u p t i o n of l i t e r a r y endeavor Civil War, failed spite of the long period the years following y estancamiento hasta, outstanding course, Carmen the Jose Laforet's Nada. following War, evinced the itself '98, later of vanguardism, that realism novel's this during t o reach adds, At is credited new s c h o o l a s i l a s bases this in so-called of p. general critical t h e same t i m e , taking Both hacia para the terms seen, "senalan siempre una r e c u p e r a c i o n , viva of a Nora's r e a l i s m and Generation t h e vogue experiments the incipient Nora, l a fuente in during school toward ideologically divergent says and immediately of the step of c a u s e d by began, novelistic first are Duarte years degree regla 1 0 6 ) . The nineteenth-century heyday la condition crisis of t h e s u c c e s f u l of r e a l i s m , fecundo to the f e r t i l e with rejuvenation. constituyen 1950"(11,ii; speaks i t s most in spite movement. orientaci6n sentando exhaustion even of This in c a r a c t e r i s t i c o s , " a n d , Nora was i t l i m i t e d t o t h o s e the c o n f l i c t . with Civil w h i c h w a s n o t , a s we h a v e nor however, La f a m i l i a d e ' P a s c u a l Nora realism in "una exceptions Cela's of the n o v e l , " Civil view, and obvious toward were, the e f f e c t e d by War aproximadamente, Camilo "crisis of There e s t e r i l i d a d y l a r e i t e r a c i o n mediocre general, of t h e tendency of i n e r t i a . immediately desorientacion "la to curb in Spain, of the tendencies un c a m b i o de d e l realismo, i n c i p i e n t e pero ya 13 efectiva, de That follow la a period the and conflict, but aftermath, hostile With the and Laforet's War also advent continues, and with help Nada as writers La of of certain the the three de realista, muestran tienden p l a n t a m i e n t o de una a dominar r e l a t o ; " another que llega puros" o al adheres menos to en e l "la remozadas creacion del impulso de problematica novelesca realismo by a (1942) narration post-war Spain, sidestepping school emerging linea began in formal, intelectual o group las t r a d i c i o n a l ; " and the marcadamente renovacion segun its ideology. Duarte realist una in censorship of trends the bloody fear realist in means "dentro un of for and and Pascual increased within sees of should only unacceptable current subtle Nora some a u t h o r s , suspicion f a m i l i a de tendencies diverge. not prolonged their literary activity of estancamiento" establishment for (1944), and novel: the y surprising, ambience Cela's to war the t o many different post not to mention censorship, develop is consequences for of 107). "desorientacion direct not the of Civil tangible regime n o v e l a " ( 1 1 , i i ; p. of o moral "narradores formulas finally mas there are l o s e s c r i t o r e s que, f r e n t e a ese c r i t e r tradicion realista, p o p u l a r i s t a y masiva l a n a r r a c i o n , o b e d e c e n mas o m e n o s a b i e r t a m e n t e imperativo de seleccion, y tienden a una e s t e t i c a , en l a q u e e l r e f i n a m i e n t o y l a c a l i d a d p r o s a son v a l o r e s s u s t a n t i v o s . ( 1 1 , i i ; p. 177) While actively these sought developments greater contact were taking with culture io de de a un novela de l a place, outside novelists of Spain as 1 4 the state group of of post-war novelists chapter devoted contemporanea testimonial more entre movement of hace their . and many the With after of of works optimistic inertia, responses orientation (not Spain continued increasing nouveau conclusion, narration in the of the and it is constitutes t r a j e c t o r y of Latin the in American apparent not Spanish and currents only that also the novel and in new notion Ana Luis that state Martin to that the sincere, genre, albeit in aesthetic the novel and for y Maria serves of literature sixties (the momentous of in with French example). resurgence this This external, fifties "Boom", [y] bountiful as and and many world . concerns, The 1 1 changes the their repristandola novel the of . impediments), a major Spanish as social Ferlosio confusion through novelists Sartre's viva, successive growth el such n o v e l i s t s for its to with espanola 287). by A y . p. internal external the weary acre This lirico these puro." portents to novela relato and Sanchez to mention attention roman Rafael "crisis." tentative La influenced by so-called of el metal handicaps, a period oleada." tradicion the such "nueva preoccupied del regeneration produced "entre una Santos counteract the Nora's realists," Aldecoa, a 1950. y deseperado"(11,ii; Matute,. Ignacio evince around as predecesors, ganga quality ease escepticismo reanudar la known in l i t e r a t u r e " and separar to characterizes . frivolo sino procurando variety . Nora "ingenuous "committed be subtitled than ciego to began them objetivo." cinicismo "no came to is intuitive "fanatismo of isolation In realist development century, but is 15 even credited by some with beginning the erstwhile d e g r e e of e x c e l l e n c e , i n v o k i n g t h e Cervantes and Given interest in the and we and might Both context literary broader Oiler, i these conventions with "primer Calonja, While 1 2 those same novelista Naturalist La of wrote with some additional, testify and this endeavor by a prologue --, in proffering s e t them a p a r t the to same the time, authors' conventions. d e l seu temps" a c c o r d i n g producing Catalan Pio anachronistic novelistic At of between of N a r c i s O i l e r time. an author's relationship puzzled c r i t i c s q u a d r e s de novels i n f l u e n c e of E m i l e Papallona i Calonja the to i s often a s s o c i a t e d with Naturalism. c a r e e r by the considerations of seemingly their to w r i t e s e v e r a l important century. Oiler's of embraces example e l e m e n t s or p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t begun h i s l i t e r a r y went on novelists characteristics contemporaneity the examples Arbo's unique, review t o the main c u r r e n t of of from Ruiz The of picaresque. realist to a b r i e f his historical fictional other the clarify certain the of i t s verisimilitude r e a l i s m (which further relative time. of with and now observations. situation Ruiz turn seem t o p a r a l l e l the orientation picaresque work, we specific his the as novelist Baroja social Arbo's preoccupation Cervantes), life the restoration around Zola novelist's for Oiler's the novels Having costums, the fiction Oiler t u r n of i s supposed French Joan -- in the most French translation transcend the of Naturalism. observes: El naturalisme d'Oller, el realisme podem dir-ne millor s e g u i n t e l s seus c r i t i c s , es s o b r e t o t s o c i a l . La p i n t u r a d e l s a m b i e n t s d i f e r e n t s on fa moure les 16 passions de l e s seves f i g u r e s humanes es e l t r e t mes . c a r a c t e r i st ic d e l nostre novel-lista; fets certs, reals, moites vegades v i s c u t s , en un paisatge o e s c e n a r i exacte, pero amb personatges que, malgrat l l u r s e n t i t versemblant lleument i d e a l i z a t , reaccionen volent-ho o no conveneionalment en resoldre els conf1ictes. 1 3 S i m i l a r l y , Arthur "compared with Terry Zola himself, i n d i v i d u a l s and much l e s s Nothing c o u l d be This 1 posture in he is than while more Oiler is interested in about in M a r t i n de C a r e t a s . s t u d i e s of an individual, "la llibre." 1 6 recalls Arbo's S e v e r a l of O i l e r ' s novels proffer i n d i v i d u a l psyche, aided by the La boqeria i s the s t o r y , t o l d dementia and then, both broad and Arbo, and stance ( O i l e r c l u n g to c e r t a i n after its waning in specific Oiler desig Pilar moralitzador." the thematic elements that "de cara a l e s 1 7 person, suicide. affinities of There shared by similarly anachronistic of Romantic a l i t e r a r y convention). h i a f e g e i x una resembles In 15 in the f i r s t eventual a d d i t i o n to t h e i r as C a l o n j a says of O i l e r l'epoca author's i n t r o s p e c c i 6 n p s i c o l o g i c a domina t o t e l panorama d e l a young man's advancing are, kind of along with an "do per a l e s s i t u a c i o n s dramatiques i a n g o i x o s e s . " Prim, society. Zola's p e c u l i a r r e p u d i a t i o n of determinism, f o r the p e r s p e c t i v e of the intimate that, generalizations f u r t h e r from O i l e r determinism." " affinity observes modes idealism F i n a l l y , Ruiz i literacies de s o l u c i o p e r s o n a l d e l s esdeveniments i un This ideological observation, culmination of which strongly M a r t i n de Caretas, r e c a l l s an aspect of Pio Baroja's l i t e r a r y a t t i t u d e germane this "irascible, discussion. Described by G.G. Brown as an to 1 7 uncouth the individualist" literary history "steady, honest, sense compassion of Baroja the With futility and with incumbent intransigent moral sense that set him emerged in and man's apart it from moral justice" the protagonist It enormous work of thematic, mentioned is of is influence this in this it inability that to is accept is moral of his recalls of the Martin craft of and ideological thesis. Insofar chief the to shared feature sense as that in of comfortable the on on and a and behavior or of compassion if ingenuous Baroja exercised Juan Barojian Arbo. some this prefatory a of pattern of which D.L. personality ideas -are discussion particular, two a u t h o r s . Baroja's The qualities --, indicate by bring Caretas. Sebastian abounds supreme pessimistic sincere, de man's of itself more "deep moral reconcile thought as underlines insistence for same a work might an admitted notion Baroja's This sufficient a by Azorin. upon to deep marked Unamuno a n d his with [a] a 9 insist struggle novelist element "the to incontestable the Catalan ideological asserts on stylistic concerned, broad virtually as attempt some 1 with a period M u c h of. capacity and character a world, in possessed human e x i s t e n c e any such contemporaries. to the during ill-will capricious urge of phenomenon Baroja 1 8 justice." continues vital, of of to moral on m a n k i n d . While presupposition period," absurdity decadence angustia disconcerting vision urge inherent values. of the Baroja struggle most such contemporaries and presuppositions, the of novelist vital, commitment "a pessimistic angust ia the and and yet Shaw is his beliefs 18 on which the mass of people This attitude final uncritically fervently b e l i e f s and conduct of expound a bar in lives." by Aurora of the t r i l o g y La lucha por l a v i d a . t i t l e d e r i v e s from the name to their i s e x e m p l i f i e d i n Baroja's f i c t i o n volume anarchists base The which a a gamut of o s t e n s i b l y passionate p o l i t i c a l 2 0 Roja, novel's group of compatible d i s c u s s i o n s about what them are c l e a r l y v i a b l e panaceas f o r s o c i e t y ' s most g l a r i n g defects. By the n a r r a t i v e ' s c o n c l u s i o n , Baroja has betrayed h i s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t with the mirage of p o l i t i c a l that, in critical his view, thought protagonist demand the Manuel, the Here, disapproves regard of the the protagonist nonchalant addition to M a r t i n de C a r e t a s . masses' milieu. learn to Antonio Carden and to And his failures important- B a r o j i a n legacy to Arbo, uncritical Just acceptance "comfortable" but m o r a l l y compromising v a l u e s , so Arbo young trilogy's brother's anarchist delusions. a p p a r e n t l y , i s an at l e a s t with of f o r h i s e x i s t e n c e along with the l i m i t a t i o n s of h i s c o n d i t i o n , having witnessed wrought by h i s own creeds same f a i t h and suspension r e q u i r e d by r e l i g i o n . accepts r e s p o n s i b i l i t y solutions, instinctive reject the as Baroja of c e r t a i n has his the dogmatic views of the imperious distrust Roque of Caretas' while Arbo eschews o v e r t l y p o l i t i c a l or Galda, in antisocial religious examples, he s u c c e s s f u l l y emphasizes the s u p e r i o r i t y of p e r s o n a l responsibility, s e l f - r e l i a n c e and autonomous d e c i s i o n by means of more fundamental, universal examples. In a d d i t i o n to a p r o v o c a t i v e , though not uncommon in the individual's psyche shared interest by a l l three authors, the 1 9 examples of P i o Baroja and N a r c i s O i l e r provide Arbo's time. unique analogy r e l a t i o n s h i p with the l i t e r a r y conventions to of h i s The very "unconventional" c h a r a c t e r of these two authors, particularly their critical of techniques subsequent " a n a c h r o n i s t i c " q u a l i t i e s , exposes a tendency contemporaneity cases an which with Baroja seems prevailing and O i l e r , to insist literary upon of author's practices. In the recourse to "out-moded" themes and f a i l e d to undermine the q u a l i t y of review an dubious Arbo's life their and work w i l l , art. The among other t h i n g s , d i s c u s s how the author has s u f f e r e d unjust r e l e g a t i o n t o secondary s t a t u s because of c r i t i c s ' i n t o u n c r i t i c a l and "comfortable occasional, ironic p a t t e r n [ s ] of i d e a s . " lapses 20 A. NOTES TO CHAPTER I Gonzalo 1 Torrente Ballester, espanola contemporanea, Guadarrama, 1961), 2a I, Panorama de l a l i t e r a t u r a edicion 20 . (Madrid: Ediciones Further r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s work appear i n the t e x t . Donald 2 L. Shaw, A L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of Spain: The Nineteenth Century (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1972), p. Shaw, p. 150. * Shaw, p. 151. Shaw, p. 133. 3 5 Gonzalo 6 Sobejano, Novela espanola de nuestro tiempo (Madrid: Prensa Espanola, 1970), p. Eugenio 7 (Madrid: appear de Nora, E d i t o r i a l Gredos, 20. La novela espanola 1962), I I , i , 40. contemporanea Further references i n the t e x t . 8 The parentheses are mine. 9 Sobejano, p. 21. 1 0 Sobejano, p. 21. 1 1 Sobejano, p. 170. 1 2 Joan Ruiz i C a l o n j a , (Barcelona: E d i t o r i a l Teide, 1 3 1 44. Ruiz i C a l o n j a , p. " Arthur Literature 1 5 Terry, H i s t o r i a de l a l i t e r a t u r a 1954), p. 488 A L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of Spain: Catalan Vallverdu, Historia (Barcelona: E d i t o r i a l Miquel Arimany, 1 6 487. (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1972), p. Josep V a l l v e r d u , p. 114. catalana 80. de l a l i t e r a t u r a 1978), p. 114. catalana 21 1 7 1 8 Century Ruiz i C a l o n j a , p. G.G. 488. Brown A L i t e r a r y H i s t o r y of Spain: The Twentieth (New York: Barnes and Nobles, 1 9 Brown, p. 2 0 Shaw, p. 32. 166. 1972), p. 31. 22 11. A. SEBASTIAN JUAN ARBO: HIS LIFE AND WORK BIO-BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SEBASTIAN JUAN ARBO Sebastian Juan Arbo was born October 28, 1902 i n San C a r l o s de l a R a p i t a , a small c o a s t a l town i n the southern-most of C a t a l o n i a near the Ebro d e l t a and the V a l e n c i a n border. f a m i l y , employed as servants by a wealthy Sephardic Amposta the background, i n 1910. young moved with tots French their Arbo s t a r t e d working els llibres family employers I t was here, on the banks of the que Such 1 In h i s f r e e a Ebro, that time "devorava que queien a l e s sevasmans -- l a B i b l i a , e l s Ibanez, were the beginnings of " l a vocacion por l a s l e t r a s habia de a r r a s t r a r l e a l f i n a l a c i u d a d " . home with to nearby c l a s s i c s grecs, Baroja, e l s r e a l i s t e s f r a n c e s o s , Blasco etc." His as an unpaid a p p r e n t i c e i n the o f f i c e of h i s parents' employers. however, he pursued an i n t e r e s t 2 Before in sports, f o o t b a l l , while he c u l t i v a t e d h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r What developed of 'portion he left particularly literature. i n t o a passion f o r l e t t e r s was a i d e d by the study E n g l i s h , L a t i n and Portuguese. written h i s f i r s t novel. At the age of eighteen he had 3 Arbo's m i g r a t i o n to Barcelona i n 1927, while p e r t i n e n t with regard to the conception of M a r t i n de C a r e t a s , was i n i t s e l f not so significant to h i s formation as a writer. Sergi relates: La seva b i o g r a f i a te poc v a l o r per e l l a sola o com a il-luminacio de l a seva obra; tan s o l s es destaquen unes quantes dates: l a de l ' a r r i b a d a a Barcelona i l e s de p u b l i c a c i o de l e s obres. Molt mes Beser 23 important es l a seva experiencia v i t a l fins a 1'adolescencia, j a que es transforma en materia l i t e r a r i a de t o t s e l s seus r e l a t s . " According to Beser, the most formative experience f o r was was his adolescence young of on the banks of the Ebro, d u r i n g which he imbued with a profound d e l t a region and sense of the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i t s inhabitants. The impression 'Arbo by t h i s s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p was the Ebro d e l t a and Arbo i t s people proved m a t e r i a l , predominating made on the such that the theme to be f r u i t f u l i n most of h i s f i c t i o n . narrative Aside from this contact with the impressive world of d e l t a s o c i e t y , the would-be author, progeny of humble people, now literature. found h i m s e l f exposed Beser a s s e r t s that t h i s aspect of c u l t u r e in the young Arbo a d i a l e c t i c a l influence his early l i t e r a r y tension that was to to produced strongly endeavors: fill de pagesos, l ' a c c e s a l a c u l t u r a e l va desplagant d e l seu medi s o c i a l ; v i u entre e l l s , pero no es un d'ells; com a conseqiiencia de t o t a i x o l'aillament d i n s un mon, a l qual es unit per irrompibles l l i g a m s d ' a f e c t e . Aquesta p o s i c i o d'Arbo es r e f l e c t i r a en l a tematica de l e s novel'les, l e s q u a l s c a l examinar sempre a p a r t i r d'aquest punt. La seva obra narrativa en catala, possiblement sigui 1'intent d ' e x t r a v e r t i r e l complex conjunt de v i v e n c i e s i de processos subconscients o r i g i n a t en 1 ' e x p e r i e n c i a v i t a l d'aquests a n y s . 5 Arbo, earth thus evident existential enthusiasm affected in sense for the of by Ebro the delta, isolation writing, left unique and for bond between man imbued with an and almost with an i n t e n s e personal Barcelona in 1927 with 24 manuscripts of what were to be h i s f i r s t two p u b l i s h e d novels. L ' i n u t i 1 combat, c o n s i d e r e d one of h i s f i n e s t e f f o r t s , appeared in i n 1932. 1931. The T h i s was f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y by T e r r e s de L'Ebre effect of these two novels was such that "En dos anys Arbo havia passat d'esser un e s c r i p t o r desconegut mes ferma esperanca de la novel-la a l h o r a e r a , pero, a u t e n t i c a The author appearance work an Arbo, as was s e v e r a l major r e v i s i o n s . Camins de n i t , which his que 6 impressive momentum with the the first 1935 saw the half appearance, Cervantes. return publication of F e d e r i c o Sainz de Robles r e f e r s to as " l a In 7 of the wake of to the literary i n 1945, of h i s m a s t e r f u l The p u b l i c such industry the decade, there were 10 years of s i l e n c e from Arbo, p r e c i p i t a t e d by Spain's C i v i l His a wont, subsequently s u b j e c t e d t o The year mas d i s c u t i d a de sus o b r a s . " 1939. Esperanqa i n 1933 of Notes d'un e s t u d i a n t que va morir boiq, that during catalana. realitat." maintained i i n e d i t a esser l a War of 1936- scene was h e r a l d e d by the „ biography of Miguel de success of Cervantes c o n s o l i d a t e d Arbo's r e p u t a t i o n and set the stage f o r even wider public recognition for h i s f i c t i o n . The those another post-war writers of simultaneously of climate minority Arbo's problem however languages. highly regarded not a c o r d i a l one f o r Although works, i n both Catalan and C a s t i l i a n then turned to C a s t i l i a n as change, was h i s medium along with Arbo's penchant for c r i t i c s and of was Tino Costa, published i n 1947, the author expression. This f o r r e v i s i o n , posed a unique contributed to confusion about and 25 m i s a p p r a i s a l of some of h i s work. came narrative medium emphasis. In Sobre l a s p i e d r a s g r i s e s published o r i g i n a l l y preoccupation premature abiliti'es. significant in C a s t i l i a n , spite the Arbo Many c r i t i c s to first work to the strong the author's life in s t i l l developing in retrospect, his native he knew i n s i g h t f u l l y and that Catalan intimately. awarded the In Premio 1948. continued to concern himself with the urban action-filled eye Due agree, p a r t i c u l a r l y in Maria M o l i n a r i , p u b l i s h e d i n an (1949), Arbo's of t h i s , Sobre l a s p i e d r a s g r i s e s was Nadal f o r h i s thematic landscape in h i s p r e v i o u s work, the change relative rustic in the author abandons h i s r u r a l Arbo's best work r e s u l t e d from w r i t i n g about shift in favor of an urban s e t t i n g . presence of the r u r a l proved a Along with t h i s change i n h i s novel was toward 1954. This landscape melodramatic and composed, a c c o r d i n g to Juan A l b o r g , with striking a balance between an adventure s t o r y with popular appeal and a moral some i n t e l l e c t u a l appeal. entertaining statement with Alborg d e c l a r e s : Maria M o l i n a r i parece e n c e r r a r una intencion moral. No se si Arbo se habra propuesto deliberadamente escribir una satira contra c i e r t a c o r r u p c i o n de costumbres . . . . Pero l o s hechos, en efecto, parecen apuntar p a r t i c u l a r m e n t e h a c i a una defensa de l a i n t e g r i d a d d e l matrimonio." 8 Alborg a l s o mentions, ahora rather t e n t a t i v e l y , that "Creo recordar -- aunque no puedo a s e g u r a r l o -- que Arbo confeso en unas declaraciones haber tenido este proposito Alborg's memory serves, then a l l t h i s -- that deliberado." i s , an 9 If equilibrium 26 of popular thematic q u a l i t i e s and fodder f o r the i n t e l l e c t , a preconceived didactic intention -- i s significant plus for i t s r e l a t i o n to the conception of Arbo's subsequent n o v e l . Martin de Caretas i s recognized as a from Arbo's customary themes volume of the t r i l o g y appeared by a single volume departure preoccupations. The f i r s t i n 1955, to be f o l l o w e d augmented with the second (each of the p a r t s has been editions). and remarkable published in 1959 and t h i r d p a r t s independently in later Perhaps the most t h e m a t i c a l l y d i v e r s e of a l l Arbo's f i c t i o n a l works, the author here s u s t a i n s h i s g e n e r a l interest in i n man's landscape experience. as an essentially formative In t h i s case, however, Arbo element contracts a marriage between the two s p a t i a l preoccupations of h i s p r e v i o u s work: the first volume culturally of the trilogy is set in the a s p e r i t y of a r e t a r d e d , r u r a l town of Aragon whence the p r o t a g o n i s t ventures f o r t h , to a r r i v e country) i n the awesome and cosmopolitan Critics, who ( a f t e r a v i r t u a l odyssey variously describe through Barcelona. the author as i m i t a t i v e of o b s o l e t e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r e a l i s m or a of a new v a r i e t y of r e a l i s t Martin de Caretas unjustly Camilo none i t alongside Jose of and even justice, the Cela's short shrift. Its marginal some c r i t i c s to La f a m i l i a de Pascual TJuarte. a precursor such post-war picaresque a d a p t a t i o n s as l a t t e r ' s q u a l i t i e s of profound betraying either n a r r a t i o n , a l s o seem to have given a f f i n i t i e s with the picaresque genre have caused consider the sense Martin de Caretas of was gentle bound s i c k n e s s and rage, optimism to Possessing appear and social light and 27 inconsequencial picaresque A close reading m o t i f s play an important, though the d e p i c t i o n elements i n comparison. of Martin's function in social with These many i n f l u e n c e s , a l l u s i o n s and themes to complete optimistic commentary on that subordinate r o l e in medium. concert reveals a picaresque other rich literary fabric of the human c o n d i t i o n which suggests a d e l i b e r a t e l y metaphysical or t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i n t e n t i o n . The i n t e r i m between the f i r s t volume and the appearance urban novel, of i t s expanded t r i l o g y Nocturno c r i t i c s noted Arbo's the urban 1962 the saw which de alarmas, landscape. landscape Soon and and the p u b l i c a t i o n bore the M a r t i n de Caretas form produced Ateneo magazine, d a t i n g from suspects favored, 1959, The year y e l mar, Sergi with the author by L. to narrative Los hombres de l a t i e r r a 1 April of t h i s , however, Arbo was "Recuerdos de i n f a n c i a . " quotes an i n t e r v i e w conducted Several portrayal people of the Ebro d e l t a . of subtitle after one another p u b l i s h e d in 1957. i n c r e a s i n g f a c i l i t y with the r e t u r n to h i s o r i g i n a l , theme: of Gomis Beser for i n which Arbo s t a t e s : he ido liberandome de una carga de preocupaciones y emociones nacidas en mi infancia a l contacto con l a vida d e l pueblo. Siempre desee escribir sobre l o s problemas de nuestro tiempo especialmente l o s s u s c i t a d o s en l o s u l t i m o s anos, pero antes t e n i a que liberarme de aquel l a s t r e . 1 0 Los hombres de l a t i e r r a y e l mar, a somewhat novelized, but mostly a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l work adumbrated the d i r e c t i o n by Arbo's subsequent fiction. In 1965, the taken author's only c o l l e c t i o n of short s t o r i e s , N a r r a c i o n s d e l d e l t a was published 28 in Catalan. Its appearance only f o r the author's shrewd landscape, but expression. also The for e l mar. greeted with enthusiasm, return to his accustomed not rural r e p a i r i n g to C a t a l a n as h i s means of following C a s t i l i a n with the almost was year brought predictable t i t l e forth a novel in of Entre l a t i e r r a y In h i s "Prologo E x p l i c a t i v o " the author e x p l a i n s : Esta es l a primera de una s e r i e de novelas en l a s cuales pretendo v o l v e r y agotar, en l o p o s i b l e , e l tema de l a s t i e r r a s d e l Ebro, o mejor, d e l d e l t a del Ebro, entre Tortosa y e l mar. La serie e s t a r a c o n s t i t u i d a por t r e s , q u i z a por cuatro novelas, cada una de l a s c u a l e s formara un volumen a p a r t e . Estaran unidas, no obstante por l o s personajes c e n t r a l e s y por e l medio o a m b i e n t e . 11 Arbo d i d indeed produce L'espera, Catalan, tempestad were in characters published f i r s t appeared in s e v e r a l more novels on that in C a t a l a n i n 1968; 1975; Cancion de noche (1975) were p u b l i s h e d o r i g i n a l l y these novels the promised most of h i s a d u l t life. La masia, also in (1973) and in C a s t i l i a n . commonality and the common element of landscape the author's consciousness that theme: La There of certain that so pervaded i t seems to have haunted him f o r 29 B. THE CRITICS ON SEBASTIAN JUAN ARBO Critical ranged and r e a c t i o n to the work of Sebastian from enthusiastic Federico dismissal decimononico." regarded de Robles Arbo as a as an author to Juan may criteria has Arbo Sobejano's of is curt "conveneionalismo almost universally of secondary s t a n d i n g , i n s p i t e of h i s patent and c o n s i d e r a b l e t a l e n t s . arbitrary Gonzalo practitioner Sebastian 12 Arbo p r a i s e from the l i k e s of Juan Alborg Sainz of Juan The inscrutable and perhaps that determine the world's g r e a t e s t authors some day, c o n t i n g e n t upon the proverbial "test of time," e x a l t Arbo's work to the l e v e l of primary importance, but i n the meantime critical novelist is not overwhelmingly of appreciation unanimous. prolific inconsistent quality of He his is b e t t e r q u a l i t i e s as a reasonably, though not and h i s work, c o n s i d e r e d as a body, i s according to some. However, many c r i t i c s make note of the i n t e n s i t y of the author's commitment to his accustomed themes of the landscape and human p a s s i o n (and t h e i r mutual r e l a t i o n s h i p ) , and to w r i t i n g begins introduction his saying dels to "La c a r r e r a l i t e r a r i a casos Joaquin de mes de contemporaneas, says Beser Obra c a t a l a n a completa by de Sebastict Juan Arbo ha in estat un terra." 1 3 Las mejores novelas solo l a v i d a sino l a obra misma de Sebastian Juan Arbo, se han regido por una una i n f a t i g a b l e labor de e s c r i t o r . " abound: Sergi intensa v o c a c i o donats a l a n o s t r a Entrambasaguas "No Arb6's itself. impulsiva vocacion l i t e r a r i a 1 4 T e s t i m o n i a l s of t h i s Sainz de Robles goes so f a r as to say that Arbo de l o s mejores narradores espanoles de hoy, de l o s de y type i s "uno formacion 30 mas entera, que de l o s que poseen i n t u i c i o n c l a r a y c e r t e r a de l o debe ser l a n o v e l a . " Such about 1 5 endorsements the notwithstanding, in c r i t i c a l literature. picaresque or neo-picaresque while no that very argument. that del examples, novelty, critics and sometimes complain of the as c a t e g o r i e s : others provide For example, Sainz de Robles fodder tells tremendismo; elementos esto es, edulcorantes." de 1 6 de l a desnudez conmocion While por that movement has been p o l e m i c i z e d , movement by roughly a decade. de su l a accion carencia those of On the Arbo's works the vogue of that other hand, Antonio I g l e s i a s Laguna, i n h i s T r e i n t a anos de novela espanola, sees similarity between Arbo and Bartolome preoccupation with the landscape of C a t a l o n i a . that poesia." Soler 1 7 If we accept form of determinism tells coincidencia: se e l e v a a veces a e s t e t i c a that the true n a t u r a l i s t a for their Iglesias "Entre Arbo y S o l e r e x i s t e , ademas, o t r a e l naturalismo, que en e l primero de the very nature and e x i s t e n c e that c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d tremendistas predated us us "Arbo es, en Espana, uno de l o s c u l t i v a d o r e s mas s o s t e n i d o s r e c t i l i n e a , de su e f i c a c i a of as as a knowledge of that work. curious Some to the M a r t i n de Caretas serve a cursory or inadequate f a s t i d i o u s abuse of "ismos" for to novel proportions. Misappraisal i s of Arbo's c o n t r i b u t i o n references C r i t i c a l misapprehension, comic tendencies. evaluations Frequent f u r t h e r suggest achieves confusion nature of Arbo's w r i t i n g seems to stem from h i s very independence of e v o l v i n g l i t e r a r y common attendant y believes in a and p o s i t s man's h e l p l e s s n e s s before nature, 31 then t h i s i s true of Arbo Determinist only views of l i f e with certain are expressed qualifications. or suggested i n some of Arbo's major works ( T e r r e s de 1'Ebre and M a r t i n de Caretas, f o r example), but i n others landscape f u n c t i o n s as a determinant man's c o l l e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n , r a t h e r than h i s i n d i v i d u a l In t u r n i n g now to s p e c i f i c c r i t i c a l h i s work, we hope to contribution and determine n o v e l i s t s of his time: strictly only draw a clear behavior. e v a l u a t i o n of Arbo and portrait of his unique h i s r i g h t f u l place among the other attempts to categorize this author i n terms of r e a l i s m , n a t u r a l i s m or even tremendi smo can be made Critical with numerous r e s e r v a t i o n s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . c o n f u s i o n , and perhaps even h i s r e l e g a t i o n to secondary s t a t u s i n the h i e r a r c h y incomplete attempts of novelists, An overview of c r i t i c a l should to help pertinent seems to result (or o u t r i g h t f a i l u r e ) to penetrate eclecticism. should of reaction r e v e a l the foundation to t h i s study of to about indicating, the in addition, work of h i s ideology as i t i s M a r t i n de C a r e t a s . author's h i s very Arb6's« Such a l s o a i d us i n r e f i n i n g or c o r r e c t i n g c e r t a i n notions from creative h i s wealth a survey inaccurate orientation, of eminent while literary influences. Without seeking t o r e s o l v e the polemic narration i s rooted t h i s t h e s i s should of any literary stigma as to whether Arbo's i n n i n e t e e n t h - or twentieth-century realism, i n part be an attempt to v i n d i c a t e the author associated tendencies. with his affinity with outmoded Resonances of n a t u r a l i s m and Romanticism in Arbo's work seem to have d i s t r a c t e d c r i t i c s from s u b t l e r and 32 more p r o v o c a t i v e f e a t u r e s of- h i s w r i t i n g . that Arbo previous inherited century, some his aesthetic work shows between the decline nineteenth century, and effort to separate r i s k y at best. R.M. and i t s resurgence mimetic Alberes' assertion 1 8 Beser from Cervantes. realism hacks the at in the the Of end this of the twentieth, any from true p r e c u r s o r s seems Both S e r g i Beser and school of r e a l i s m . knew of sensibilities numerous other i n f l u e n c e s , among them the B i b l e , the picaresque period While i t i s probable Gonzalo that Arbo was p o i n t s out Sobejano dispute a p r e c u r s o r of the that the French new critic only the C a s t i l i a n v e r s i o n s of Arbo's n o v e l s , ignorant not only of h i s importance to Catalan letters but also of his i n h e r i t a n c e of a Catalan t r a d i t i o n of r u r a l r e a l i s t n a r r a t i o n as practiced Sobejano, on the by other V i c t o r C a t a l a i n her Drames r u r a l s . hand, "convencionalismo suggest simply decimon6nico." t h a t , i f Arbo was certainly dismisses anticipated not novel, L ' i n u t i 1 combat a another movement: e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . Beser pioneer profoundly Arbo's writing as however goes on to of realism, he new influential In d i s c u s s i n g Arbo's f i r s t (1931) Beser literary published says Cal s i t u a r aquesta primera obra d'Arbo a l c o s t a t i com digna companya de La Nausee de Sartre (1938) i L'Etranger de Camus (1942) '. 7 . Arbo, p a r t i n t de l'emotivitat i 1'experiencia vital, mostra a l seu l i b r e una concepcio de la vida semblant a la que trobem a l e s obres de S a r t r e i Camus . . . . 1 9 It is not so surprising then, a c c o r d i n g to Beser, that Arbo should be able to share these views s i n c e e x i s t e n t i a l i s m as is not a schematic, procedural philosophy but rather such an 33 ineffable sort existentialism life's of a t t i t u d e about i s thought unprecedented Wars. be a u n c e r t a i n t y and the h o r r i f i c man Torrente B a l l e s t e r , period for future novelists, Spain The modern v a r i e t y of by many people to s e l f - d e s t r u c t i o n manifested by World life. during the response to potential for century's i n speaking of t h i s two formative says that with p o l i t i c a l c r i s e s and economic c o l l a p s e throughout in the world, the year 1930 "representa e l f r a c a s o de toda l a i d e o l o g i a de l a posguerra; y no s o l o en Espana, sino en todo e l mundo, l a v i d a cobra un t i n t e acre y desagradable"(p. 286). Having w r i t t e n L ' i n u t i 1 combat at the age of eighteen, Arbo h a n d i l y predates the French existentialist of l a t e r e x i s t e n t i a l i s t novelists. fiction work of the Many c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f e a t u r e s are present i n Arbo's w r i t i n g s . Enumerated by Beser, these are "l'a'bsurd o manca de s e n t i t de l a vida el i de l e s coses, e l 'sentiment tragic', la situacio limit, compromis, l ' a i l l a m e n t o soledat de l ' i n d i v i d u , e l sentiment d'etranqete, l a n o s t a l g i a de l a sensibilities century. are of course puresa not . . exclusive . 2 0 These to the t w e n t i e t h They are evident i n l i t e r a t u r e throughout the picaresque possesses c e r t a i n e x i s t e n t i a l ." i t s history: qualities, as do c e r t a i n books of the O l d Testament such as Job and E c c l e s i a s t e s , for example. Because of the i n e f f a b l e nature of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m and i t s abundance of a s p e c t s , any c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of authors or works existential is misconceptions expression in a about relative one. existentialism literature, especially Common, as widespread notwithstanding, its i n the t w e n t i e t h century, 34 e n t a i l s c e r t a i n broad contours familiar to many laymen. The aforementioned c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c i t e d by Beser are good examples. In Novela espanola de nuestro tiempo , two major c u r r e n t s i n the contemporary calls "existential", c u l t i v a t o r s of the Delibes. perplejidad del solidaridad . . . extremas y, en Spanish novel: "social". novel are one The Cela, he leading Laforet and n o v e l i s t s who " c o i n c i d e n en ocuparse de l a d e l hombre espanol individuo, de su su tiempo, insolidaridad revelando o muy la dificil l a p r e s i o n d e c i s i v a de c i e r t a s s i t u a c i o n e s general, i n c l u d e s Sebastian other existential Among other existencia the Sobejano d i s t i n g u i s h e s un clima de angustia," Sobejano 2 1 Juan Arbo. In h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n to Arbo's Obra c a t a l a n a completa, Sergi Beser observes that a l l the p r o t a g o n i s t s of h i s Catalan are a l i e n a t e d i n t h e i r own environment; q u o t a t i o n s de n i t mar and the Camins in when speaking works' works such as L'Etranger. i n general overall man's e x i s t e n c e . y el a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l Los hombres de l a t i e r r a sound remarkably s i m i l a r to what i s i m p l i e d , i f not explicitly the from novels Most c r i t i c s terms about Arb6 are tone than the author's more stated however, attuned observations to about For example, Sainz de Robles w r i t e s : Arbo es n o v e l i s t a esencialmente duro y aspero, intenso y amargo; mas t a l e s dureza y aspereza, intensidad y amargura, no a f e c t a n a su t a l e n t o y a su s e n s i b i l i d a d - f l e x i b l e s y d e l i c a d a s -, s i n o a l o s temas e l e g i d o s . Temas recogidos en e l realismo angustioso de l a s clases rurales y artesanas. 2 2 Such terms "aspero" as "duro," are f r e q u e n t l y "amargo," applied to "intenso," Arbo's "violento" Catalan and fiction. 35 Alborg, as well as other c r i t i c s , makes note of the almost absence of humor in Arbo's r u r a l This harsh comprises a dependence portrait of fundamental upon novels. the 2 3 human relationship harsh and condition between intense Arbo's injustice Nora c a l l s with life's "ingenuous"f11,i; provocative and man judicious p. 337 ]) treatment amorous the misfortunes h i s tenant this protagonist, land . that center of his estrangement his landlord. prison, he Joan, from (which Eugenio de will find the a r b i t r a r y peasant. obsessively, after the its A l l t h i s , coupled a t r a n s f e r of of loss el imperativo amor, que reacciona his eventual whole casi i n c l u d i b l e d e l p a i s a j e , de l o s seres a r r a i g a d o s en T e r r e s de L'Ebre, which wife suicide in Joaquin de sobre 2 more than any imperative other of h i s r u r a l f u n c t i o n of l o v e , while not agent in In Arbo's other r u r a l Camins de N i t , la ella." " protagonist. and de l a g e o g r a f i a misma, as an more i m p l i c i t . and i n s t i n t i v a m e n t e , ante e l f e a t u r e s landscape The of become the Entrambasaguas i d e n t i f i e s e s s e n t i a l l y as " l o fundamental vida, In to attempt the murder of with h i s thematic most narrative The which had death h i s son, causes him comprises his s u f f e r s a s e r i e s of c r u e l impoverished worked universe and in Martin de Caretas. which have as t h e i r climax farm to another only passion. T e r r e s de l ' E b r e , i t s u r f a c e s as a key element of the trajectory: not u n p r e d i c t a b l e environments, but a l s o i n v o l v e s the themes of i n j u s t i c e and preoccupation total the landscape novels, the life novels, of the insignificant, is like Tino Costa a c t s more as a determinant of 36 the c o l l e c t i v e c o n d i t i o n of the d e l t a ' s turn influences their behavior. inhabitants, And correspondingly, becomes a more e x p l i c i t force characters. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of these e a r l y It is a in which l a t e r ) novels by Arbo that the (some critics another say reason the plot relationships is composed many critics such as i d e n t i f y Arbo with r e a l i s t / n a t u r a l i s t / R o m a n t i c 19th century. When landscape from a foremost observation Arbo rural initially to is an that with what we setting, Arbo's artistic while With Maria M o l i n a r i , vicissitudes. betrays a few Indeed, remarkable conception this critics' command of the preoccupation Arbo of case intimate l i n k a g e remains comes to better r e p r e s e n t i n g a world of the majority of Arbo's consistency. After f a i l e d dramas, some outstanding b i o g r a p h i e s felt compelled creative to fiction, o r i e n t a t i o n with Martin return which c e r t a i n s p e c i f i c elements; the powerful (in the his Arbo thematic after briefly altering his novelistic Caretas, emphasis on i n the form of Sobre l a s represent the urban ambience while s t i l l producing Sobejano broadly r e f e r to as " e x i s t e n t i a l " concerns piedras grises. fiction Here i s and his urban the same; hence a l e s s c o n v i n c i n g novel melodramatic numerous tendencies of the shifts urban environment i s awkward at best, main (and some of Nora love of g r a t u i t o u s ) melodramatic episodes. why in the to Ebro man's delta), to for him influence amorous confusion, his de original i s formed by of landscape p a s s i o n s and anguish and and their sense of a l i e n a t i o n and a b s u r d i t y . Martin de Caretas is the most outstanding exception to 37 Arbo's accustomed novelistic orientation, while it c e r t a i n of the author's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p r e o c c u p a t i o n s . seem to be a s y n t h e s i s of Arbo's i n t e r e s t essential f i c t i o n a l element, s i n c e ambience are represented. In i n landscape as an both . the rural i n f l u e n c e s and an undeniably p h i l o s o p h i c a l bent. that I t would and The unique allusions, c e r t a i n q u e s t i o n s be c o n f r o n t e d : what i s the true characteristics i n t e n t i o n or simply a response tone of brought the - r e s u l t to the in t h i s t r i l o g y ? a preconceived "existential" What r o l e What other l i t e r a r y Are i t s i s played by i n f l u e n c e s are to bear upon the n a r r a t i v e ? These questions a r i s e novelistic tendencies: uncharacteristic i n part' from Arb6's w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d they are f e a t u r e s present also by certain i n Martin de C a r e t a s . Primary f o r i s the t r i l o g y ' s manifest among these t r a i t s to be accounted association entitled with the Eustis superficially adaptations that internationally. convincing ably resembles i t deviates borrowing picaresque. suggested In an excellent " M a r t i n de C a r e t a s : The Picaresque Myth Christopher that of prevailing l i t e r a t u r e during the f i f t i e s ? landscape and nature of the work s i g n i f i c a n c e of i t s p a r t i c u l a r picaresque a f f i n i t i e s ? philosophical urban a d d i t i o n , the t r i l o g y o f f e r s a k a l e i d o s c o p i c wealth of l i t e r a r y demands retains and certain Transformed", demonstrates that Arbo's t r i l o g y only the c l a s s i c picaresque form, and f u r t h e r from the were If article we current popular accept of not Eustis' well-documented, what then elements from the post-war only in thesis, picaresque Spain, but which is i s Arbo's purpose i n picaresque genre? The 38 author presents a schematic, on the nature of wisdom and protagonist, mentors, Martin, structurally t i d y commentary the nature of human l i f e . benefits from each corresponding to one the guidance sense of l i f e contributions also). one p i t h y phrase, (secondary with and each becomes uniquely i d e n t i f i e d with his existential i n the p e s s i m i s t i c , commonly conceived of these All life are arrogance tested, "stern existentialism that sense. Jean practicability wisdom. to a l e s s e r Paul Sartre put to the where it Arbo's of volume test by the stands or falls commentary on young protagonist's according the to nature its and wisdom i s most s o p h i s t i c a t e d and p e n e t r a t i n g the of the t r i l o g y , M a r t i n ' s grandfather appears as a wisdom, folktales mentor, h i s g r a n d f a t h e r . frequently of l o c a l fame. dispensing o l d man proverbs, His pretense to great wisdom, combined with c e r t a i n other p e r s o n a l t r a i t s , the time- In r e p o s i t o r y of r u s t i c and less In the t r a j e c t o r y of the n a r r a t i v e the case of M a r t i n ' s f i r s t of The on the p a r t of the mentor) as i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e , practicability. image called optimism". practical aphorisms c o u l d be presented to the young p r o t a g o n i s t (with more or circumstances, first views of l i f e three of these w e l l - d e f i n e d n o t i o n s about the nature of each dogma i s in three while no l e s s e x i s t e n t i a l , corresponds known aspect of modern would c a l l essential Each mentor sums up h i s views on l i f e Two view, Each c h a r a c t e r s make t h e i r doctrine. third three volume of the t r i l o g y . repeatedly holds f o r t h on the absurdity) young of mentor c o n s i s t e n t l y and (or The both invokes an as a parody of the p r o d i g i o u s l y wise Old 39 Testament King Solomon. assertion B i b l e was at f i r s t , one formative While we of the this might seem an arbitrary know, a c c o r d i n g to S e r g i Beser, that the influencial introduction to books of literature. the young Aside r e f e r e n c e s to the Old Testament i n the t e x t , Arbo's from various i n the Epilogue of Martin de Caretas Arb6 twice c i t e s wisdom a t t r i b u t e d to Solomon, quoting from the books of Proverbs and E c c l e s i a s t e s . p r o v o c a t i v e not only because these two larger body of profound Hebrew books Wisdom form This i s part of l i t e r a t u r e , but a also because the wisdom presented to M a r t i n by h i s mentors resembles, in book some cases Ecclesiastes. life closely, In specific addition, aspects this of at least on clear Arbo might Ecclesiastes, have sound based his far-fetched, q u o t a t i o n s from the Old Testament abound i n many novels: specifically he and Ecclesiastes. Testament book de C a r e t a s . qualities we know that his other Aside the books of from Arb6's the Proverbs, allusion from the to same in Tino Costa, Cervantes and Verdaguer: e l poeta, e l sacerdot i e l mon, intentional ideological of E c c l e s i a s t e s in Martin de Caretas and epigraphs Old Lest makes use of epigraphs drawn from pool of Solomonic wisdom which comprises Psalms affinities some modern conceptions of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . t h i s a s s e r t i o n , that intention of Old Testament book i n which i s d e s c r i b e d as " v a n i t y of v a n i t i e s " has with the the tone of the t r i l o g y suggests an i d e o l o g i c a l a f f i n i t y between E c c l e s i a s t e s ' and Mart in Allusions to Ecclesiastes by Arbo's contemporaries and its existential Antonio Machado and E s p r i u demonstrate i t s t i m e l e s s a p p l i c a b i l i t y and lend Salvador credence 40 to the l i k e l i h o o d of the n o v e l i s t ' s f a m i l i a r i t y with it. 1 This thesis w i l l the in p a r t attempt to d i s e n t a n g l e and 2 5 analyze complex i n t e r l o c k i n g p a t t e r n of these concepts: to wit, the f u n c t i o n of picaresque elements the r o l e of landscape, picaresque and and their existential i t s d e t e r m i n i s t f u n c t i o n and existential undertones; of E c c l e s i a s t e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p Martin's mentors; the overtones; support the e x i s t e n t i a l to ideas of aspects presented by view of wisdom, i t s p r a c t i c a b i l i t y and abuse; and v e s t i g e s of "modern" e x i s t e n t i a l i s m as they r e l a t e to the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s personal growth. based study of the n e a t l y t r i p a r t i t e this thesis the presence By undertaking a formally scheme of M a r t i n ' s mentors, hopes to r e v e a l Arb6's i d e o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n or absence of a i n t e n t i o n on the part of the author. preconceived and philosophical 41 C. NOTES TO CHAPTER II Sergi 1 Arbo," Beser, "Les novel-les de L'Ebre i n Obra c a t a l a n a completa by (Barcelona: E d i c i o n s 62, 1966), p. Federico 2 Tomo II (Madrid: A g u i l a r , Joaquin 3 of 1964), p. 75. X (Barcelona: 6 Beser, p. 7 Sainz de Robles, E s c r i t o r e s esparToles, p. Juan 7-8. 8. 78. A l b o r g , Hora a c t u a l de l a novela espanola 1958), pp. A l b o r g , p. 281 Beser, p. 1 1 Sebastian Juan Arb6, Entre l a t i e r r a y e l mar 8. Prometeo, 1966), p. 1 3 1 Sobejano, Beser, p. p. (Valencia: 5. 23 . 7. " Entrambasaguas, p. 3. 1 5 Sainz de Robles, Novela 1 6 F e d e r i c o C a r l o s Sainz de espanola, p. Robles, e l S i g l o XX (Madrid: Pegaso, 1957), p. 1 7 (Madrid: 281-2. 1 0 12 Editorial 7. Beser, pp. 9 Palomo, 1967), 3. 5 Taurus, Arbo Ensayo de un d i c c i o n a r i o de l a de Entrambasaguas, with Maria d e l P i l a r " Beser, p. 8 Juan 8. Las mejores novelas contemporaneas, Planeta, Sebastian C a r l o s Sainz de Robles, E s c r i t o r e s esparToles e hi spanoamericanos, 1i t e r a t u r a de S e b a s t i a Juan 200. La novela espanola en 200. Antonio I g l e s i a s Laguna, T r e i n t a anos de novela espanola 42 (Madrid: Prensa Espanola, R. 1 8 Michel, 1 9 1962), p. 72. Beser, p. 11. Beser, p. 2 1 Sobejano, p. 11. 165. 2 2 Sainz de Robles, Novela 2 3 A l b o r g , p. See completas XVIII 200. 5. ( E l poeta) (Madrid: Espasa Fuster's espaTfola, p. 276. * Entrambasaguas, p. 2 5 105. A l b e r e s , H i s t o i r e du Roman Moderne ( P a r i s : A l b i n 20 2 Joan M. 1969), I I , Calpe, in Antonio 1969), pp. Machado's 31-3. See I n t r o d u c c i S a l a p o e s i a de Salvador E s p r i u E s p r i u ' s Obra p o e t i c a (Barcelona: Santiago A l b e r t i , xx i v , xxv i i i . Poesias 1963), also in pp. 43 III. A. THE EN EL PUEBLO FUNCTION OF LANDSCAPE Martin de Caretas en e l pueblo Mateo Aleman's observation statement Guzman de A l f a r a c h e , that "la tierra negative of and Caretas, y "amargo" treatment but also begins with a similar A d j e c t i v e s such come to mind: extensas zonas de trigo, pequenos matorrales" (p. land 11). and of the town i t s e l f cuadros Accordingly, hambre, rezos tambien podido 11). i s ominous: "era institutionally gives pueblo de y de r e f r a n e s ; e l r e f r a n y l a estaca habrian s e r v i r como emblemas v i v o s are (p. the c o l l e c t i v e psyche of the i n h a b i t a n t s i s C h r i s t o p h e r E u s t i s p o i n t s out inhabitants de corresponding i n the n a r r a t o r ' s o b s e r v a t i o n that "era un de "El With t h i s oscuro, s i l e n c i o s o , de casas bajas y a p l a s t a d a s , v i e j i s i m a s " expressed as estaba s i t u a d o en un p a i s a j e rudo y montuoso, the t a n g i b l e presence 11). of preoccupation itself immediately c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of i n h o s p i t a b l e , a r i d flora, text the Aleman's i t s e n v i r o n s , s e t t i n g a tone entre o l i v a r e s , exiguos campos de vinas customary Arbo's e a r l i e r Catalan n o v e l s . "duro","aspero" pueblo, While in man's a f f a i r s , The from includes peligrosa".' factor q u a l i t i e s as such. d e s c r i p t i o n of Caretas and that which i t s use r e f l e c t s not only the author's with the land as an i n t e g r a l to es i s more s u c c i n c t than Arbo's landscape, its opens with an epigraph under the de su escudo" (p. i n h i s study that the town's yoke of a r e p r e s s i v e t r a d i t i o n sanctioned p o v e r t y . 2 While this i s true -- examples of hardships ranging from poverty-induced and Arbo hunger 44 to r e l i g i o u s h y p o c r i s y and fear condition Spanish Caretas' towns. Martin's its of The of citizens the Guardia brutishness and narrator's in squalor, the prejudiced there through the r e s t of the t r i l o g y , in concert mentioned by Eustis added with to the the dimension first book environmental Caretas and becomes Landscape i s a f e a t u r e distinguish of Indeed, as the name Caretas other of towns may match people's c o l l e c t i v e e x i s t e n c e . synonymous with b r u t i s h s t u p i d i t y . functions representation other i s an the n a r r a t i v e t r a j e c t o r y develops through even -- the i s not merely t y p i c a l of small home town i s such t h a t , although poverty Civil that factors f o r i t s deeper dimensions of s o c i a l r e t a r d a t i o n . The initial denunciatory: descriptions of Caretas are unequivocally we have an image of a r i d land, scrubby squalid peasant homes. perhaps betrays the The sea writer's i s distant predilection) flora and (a d e t a i l that and the nearby highway "venia de l a s a l t u r a s y se a l e j a b a h a c i a e l mar, como s i huyese. Tampoco hubiese sido de extranar" opening pages, Arbo s i g n a l s a durable coarse (p. relationship 1 2 ) . In the between the landscape and the men who i n h a b i t e d i t : e x i s t i a n ruinas de v i e j o s poblados i b e r i c o s ; todos con su entrada labrada en roca, que podia abrirse y c e r r a r s e ; todos con su c a r c e l y cerca siempre de un lugar pedregoso; prueba todo de l a armonia que reinaba ya en a q u e l l o s tiempos entre l o s hombres. (p. 1 2 ) Such "harmony" confronts r e t u r n s home each day from school Martin from a l l s i d e s : as he (which he attends only as a matter of convenience) he must choose between the mad a s s a u l t of 45 a goat belonging to the local p l e a s u r e i n the misfortunes of a beating, formidable [his route. takes by the blacksmith's perverse possibility son who l i e s in Even these c o n s t i t u t e d not so much t h r e a t as that to be found "en a l a vara de Camandulas schoolmaster], en l a a l p a r g a t a de su madre, en l a cayada de su abuelo . . . " by domesticated own family, (p. animals, Arbo 15). This portrays indispensable Caretas' recurring the of r o u t i n e dangers cannot maliciousness entera," the escape. narrator environment's e f f e c t In a delivers on the people a young i s part of the near and to age. unanimity points to the a t t r i b u t e d by.Arbo to harsh c o n d i t i o n s from which most of the people, inertia, as having had s e l f - r e l i a n c e at inhabitants posed even members of h i s protagonist self-interest mean-spirited cycle With such j u v e n i l e r i v a l s and develop v i g i l a n c e , c a u t i o n and of (who of i t s v i c t i m s ) and the threatened wait along another butcher through chapter this ignorance entitled description "La or familia of the of C a r e t a s : El campo, a l a t a r d e c e r , era un campo de muerte; l o s olivos se erguian como fantasmas en ademanes siniestros, con sus miembros mutilados levantados en e l c r e p u s c u l o . Muchos ya no reverdecian. El frio agrietaba l a s rocas; helaba e l r i o en l o s remansos; ahuyentaba a l o s animales, acobardaba a l o s hombres. (p. 60) Accordingly, still sun's an o p p o s i t e extreme of harsh weather produces more aggression and v i o l e n t p r o v o c a t i o n intensity seemed, c r i c k e t s to a manic f r e n z y : among other among things, to men. The drive the 46 Tambien los hombres, a veces, parecian enloquecer, y se producian d i s p u t a s , r i n a s v i o l e n t a s que terminaban en sangre; se cometian crimenes. En ninguna parte l a s rirfas alcanzan l a v i o l e n c i a que suelen a l c a n z a r en Caretas. Pero cuando e s t o ocurre, no se t r a t a ya d e l hombre: es su entorpecimiento v e g e t a l , con e l denso sopor de l a t i e r r a ; es l a soledad de l o s campos, b a t i d o s horas y horas por e l sol . . . ; es e l s o l de fuego, que se r i e en l o alto, que enloquece a l a s c i g a r r a s , que enciende l o s cerebros hasta bajo l o s sombreros de palma. (p. 61) Caretas, then, people are i s a clearly inhospitable uniquely malevolent. environment and i t s In the preceding passage, the n a r r a t o r seems almost to exculpate men f o r such behavior, nature's incitement nettlesome of i t . That these a s s e r t i o n s should appear i n a chapter about Martin's f a m i l y and is not narrator tells us, "era seca, sarmentosas y dedos como g a r f i o s . secos" (p. described administer 62). She, this first in a peor life like Era almost volume, was 'Of Martin's silenciosa, un manojo a l l of always mother con de manos espinos the c h a r a c t e r s disposed to b e a t i n g to the young p r o t a g o n i s t : she wore one of her sandals l o o s e l y , battery. home c a s u a l : d e s c r i p t i o n s of Martin's parents are couched i n terms of v e g e t a t i o n , a r i d i t y and a s p e r i t y . the given f o r ready access as an instrument of M a r t i n ' s f a t h e r , a c c o r d i n g to the n a r r a t o r , "era e l de catadura; era eremita, pero tambien inclemericias" (p. alto como duro, 62). a He un cipres prueba was de y mas f l a c o que un aguardiente likewise y ill-disposed de to beneficence or clemency: during a wheat harvest, i n an e f f o r t to get Martin's a t t e n t i o n , the f a t h e r p i t c h e s a lump of dry sod at the boy which, " s i l e a c i e r t a l e deja sordo para siempre" (p. 47 48) . Aside from Martin's grandparents, "aquel negro retablo" (p. b r o t h e r s , we l e a r n that they each and other i n descending 62) we that discharge learn little i s h i s family. their Of h i s frustrations also upon. h e l p to provide f o r the f a m i l y by s e t t i n g out r a b b i t t r a p s i n which the animals d i e an a g o n i z i n g and h o r r i b l e s p i t e of t h i s c r u e l t y , the f a m i l y depends on its on order ending with M a r t i n , the youngest s m a l l e s t who i n turn has no one to r e l e a s e h i s anger They In about sustenance during the w i n t e r . the Hence, another death. traps for fundamental bond i s shown between the e x i g e n c i e s of nature and the formation of man's c h a r a c t e r , another cruel responses example f o r M a r t i n elicited from man by of necessarily nature's inscrutable vagaries. The only f a m i l y member represented M a r t i n ' s s i s t e r Concha. cuatro hojas" in a p o s i t i v e She i s " e l garbanzo negro, e l t r e b o l de sense of j u s t i c e . For her w e l l - d i s p o s e d goodness however, she goes unnoticed, her p a c i f i c nature bland i n comparison to the her is (p. 63), whose goodness and kind d i s p o s i t i o n i s as i n e x p l i c a b l e as M a r t i n ' s f i n e l y tuned all light parents. figures who, protection, enemy, valuable patent during guidance, a l l disposed punishment upholds The with l i t t l e the pretense lessons that heated irony i n a l l t h i s childhood, outbursts of i s that a u t h o r i t y - traditionally represent a f f e c t i o n and c a r i n g are here the c h i l d ' s to dispense swift or no reason. that he such himself and harsh corporal Only M a r t i n ' s grandfather beatings learned serve to through instill even more 48 r i g o r o u s experience, lessons that l a t e r biased and spurious p h i l o s o p h y . prove conducive M a r t i n at l e a s t to a recognizes the tenuous connection between t h i s kind of p u n i t i v e b a t t e r y and the d e s i r e t o e f f e c t an padres, el abuelos, buen ca.mino. improvement in h i s behavior: "Maestros, v e c i n a s : todos a punto para g u i a r l e a uno por iQue mundo, senor!" (p. 25). To sum up,the fearsome schoolmaster Camandulas administers s a d i s t i c beatings on the b a s i s of s o c i a l c l a s s : the l o c a l manifests little of Christ's characteristic f o r g i v e n e s s and p a c i f i s m when he catches M a r t i n , n e a r l y d e l i r i o u s stealing the f i g s from h i s orchard. young p r o t a g o n i s t possesses r e s t having been "perdido. Disillusioned children own It i s l i t t l e by favorable . . con treatment He i s t e r r i f i e d I t i s here dread embodied i s manifested, nearby cemetery. wonder, then, that el palo" accorded (p. to the p r i v i l e g e d priest in that Martin's and h i s page of deep-rooted characteristic the text, in a t h i s mortal a n x i e t y that mentions the p r o t a g o n i s t time. In t h i s case, the n a r r a t o r c a s u a l l y remarks on the e e r i e w h i s t l i n g of the owls i n and observes the cemetery causes at that " l o s c i p r e s e s asomaban por encima de l o s muros como una p r o c e s i o n de encapuchados" (p. which fear i s the f l o r a and fauna of the Arb6 e s t a b l i s h e s t h i s e s s e n t i a l by name f o r the f i r s t nightfall, 12). by the town's cemetery which M a r t i n ' s p e r s o n a l i t y on the second reference of hunger, parents' antagonism toward him, h i s only i r r a t i o n a l he avoids a s s i d u o u s l y . of with only one s u p e r s t i t i o n , a l l the i n s c h o o l , the h y p o c r i s y of the l o c a l that of m o r t a l i t y . priest Martin profound psychic 12), all discomfort. 49 Notwithstanding Martin, he continues the c a s u a l nature of t h i s The to u n s e t t l e him through most of the manifested to trilogy. fear of death i s i n a p p a r i t i o n s in the cemetery's reader q u i c k l y comes to recognize the primary of t h i s f e a r ; the otherworldly h i s s i n g of owls and trees' resemblance to an' ominous p r o c e s s i o n of With Martin's ready cemetery. grandfather almost landscape. manifestations the cypress "encapuchados". d i s p o s i t i o n to such f u n e r e a l imaginings, s p e c t r a l a n x i e t i e s o c c a s i o n a l l y extend the reference i s s t r o n g l y i d e n t i f i e d with h i s mortal a n x i e t y which In subsequent r e f e r e n c e s , Martin's always initial On one occasion i s about to recount beyond the confines f o r example, j u s t as a ghost his s t o r y of l o c a l of Martin's fame, the boy's p e r c e p t i o n s b e l i e h i s t e r r o r : Habia unas nubes grandes, unas nubes negras cubriendo el h o r i z o n t e ; parecian monstruos, brujas con camisas hinchadas como v e l a s , barcos extranos navegando, entre reflejos siniestros . . . . E l campo semejaba un cementerio, y l o s a r b o l e s fantasmas d i s p u e s t o s a d a r l e un susto a uno a s i que se quedase s o l o . (p. 70) In t h i s passage, where the macabre presence of the cemetery extends to the f o r e s t a l l s the implicitly countryside attendant describes itself, terror, Martin's the which of a ghost features story. of p e r s o n a l moods or c o n d i t i o n s , fallacy", a popular his Superficially, landscape seem evokes fellowship third perceptions which in t h i s case are a p p r o p r i a t e to telling and to the person of the alone narrator landscape, grandfather's vivid such a d e s c r i p t i o n , in respond to or so-called feature of nineteenth-century reflect "pathetic Romanticism. 50 Judging from t h i s imitator of passage, nineteenth-century given the dimensions Martin's of tendencies the author's respect liberty interpret world, credible taken by the imagination inanimate i s enough addition, as o b j e c t s as h o s t i l e v i s i t o r s to cause f o r other that ghosts 69). Martin's What shrewd irascibility. in a the dread exist rationalism the however, and quarter. outrage A child's and of story, childhood. loving reach. the for Martin i s the absence extent of extremes (e.g. The c i t i z e n s of Caretas Martin's In s t o r y or the mere of jaundiced of of weather, l e a d the i n h a b i t a n t s from which there is i n general show no w i l l to ingenuous sense of justice at.the i n s e n s i t i v i t y and b r u t i s h n e s s of h i s f e l l o w s l i k e h i s fear of g h o s t l y v i s i t a t i o n s and f a s c i n a t i o n ghost next In the u n i v e r s e c o n s t i t u t e d by the small town change or even to escape. is, out a r i d c o u n t r y s i d e , of personal behavior) and from holds a morbid f a s c i n a t i o n i s surprising, and of darkness or s o l i t u d e , to an a t t i t u d e of b i t t e r n e s s and h o s t i l i t y no darkness secure c h i l d r e n , the ghost Caretas, a l l manner of environmental of i s not an abnormal are a l l common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of c h i l d h o o d . prospect as an i n such circumstances to where p r o t e c t i o n from unseen dangers seems (p. Arbo p o r t r a y a l of' of s o l i t u d e i n dependence on h i s or her parents,even home, of i s understandable, to such a n x i e t i e s , Martin Fear of the dark, of ghosts, the opinion t y p i c a l l y y o u t h f u l a n x i e t i e s expessed i n the landscape. With boy. critical a These seemingly innate characteristic common common elements notwithstanding, u n r e l e n t i n g , u b i q u i t o u s c r u e l t y to which Martin f o r the in the kind of is subjected 51 normally serves delinquents, like overwhelmingly cultivate the picaro. cruel, sense of m o r a l i t y and The to how retarded He social is i s one in this aware to to routinely garner receives warranted and local i s w i l l f u l and protest Martin's or he original. merely illusions remaining of delinquent or i n j u s t i c e of the understands, administer for sadistic classroom Martin's the parents, public the assumes anti-social are A l l of h i s misdemeanors are is response directed to by extreme behavior responses. his sense hunger, S i n c e , as the n a r r a t o r s t a t e s , but one that Arbo is a most all fear and suggesting bordering on word causes him worry and protagonist's imagination of normality, the of fear. o b s e s s i v e : mere mention of the features of While is The fear anti- death discomfort. his a stress into his i n s t e a d causing deep p s y c h i c Martin d i s p l a y s s u r p r i s i n g of have been l o s t to the g r a t u i t o u s l y the r e s u l t a n t a n x i e t y , and boy i n c o r r i g i b l e spreads on the l i p s of which in discipline superstition, forestalling actively hostile behavior exaggerated, of In f a c t , none of Martin's of m o t i v a t o r s . sublimation social inherent which d i s c i p l i n a r y cane, i t i s p o s s i b l e one so or develop such a not impunity, from beatings He a c t s out of revenge, powerful is Since no amount h i s fame as an gossips. justice, environment posesses? milieu: with anti-social the lower c l a s s c h i l d r e n whereas he cannot do so to the p r i v i l e g e d ones. avails the s t r u c t u r e of h i s an to preserve case of example, that Camandulas can, beating In j u s t i c e as M a r t i n protagonist antisocial. irrationally translation of by landscape the into 52 terrifying, f u n e r e a l images i s restricted first of the t r i l o g y . the hermitage that Martin i s f o r c e d to see each time his home (an Arbo's i n t e n t i o n to t h i s inescapable i s not an e s o t e r i c one. is a he Like leaves symbol, a c c o r d i n g to E u s t i s , of the town's devotion to o p p r e s s i v e l y t r a d i t i o n a l cemetery volume institutions), the morbidly i n t r i g u i n g , ever-present symbol of the town's c o l l e c t i v e a t t i t u d e of h o s t i l i t y . "La t i e r r a era una t i e r r a s i n piedad. E s t o s , en su mayoria, eran pequenos, el trigo que crecia en Como l o s hombres. o s i a l t o s , muy secos, como l o s bancales, encinas; todos de p i e d r a berroquena" (p. pero duros como l a s 60): t h i s statement s u c c i n c t l y c h a r a c t e r i z e s the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the landscape, the town and i t s inhabitants. c o n t r i b u t e s to an richness. limited trees The life environment result weather inimical to scrubby, by the n a r r a t o r . the townspeople. materially stunted by traditions. as diminished, adherence the to inevitably its dry bush and form i n the s p i r i t of spiritual outmoded and life is growth is oppressive i s a kind of s t a s i s , harsh weather, which the town as a place of l i v i n g death f o r i t s absence v a r i e t y , growth and clemency. truly all The i n h o s p i t a b l e environment T h i s psychic underdevelopment as in In Caretas, where the q u a l i t y psychically slavish predictable stigmatizes of and particular but perverse and spiny, l i k e w i s e e l i c i t s a weathered and t w i s t e d l i f e of in life i s tenacious, r e s i l i e n t forms such as the described The I t i s a place where there is "nothing new under the sun", and where what does e x i s t i s p a i n f u l and t e r r i f y i n g , at l e a s t to the p r o t a g o n i s t . 53 In of Caretas, with the f e r o c i t y of the weather, the the countryside and the brutality d i s t i n g u i s h e s M a r t i n from the rest unwillingness the s t a t u s quo. to accept p o r t r a y e d by Arbo as u n w i l l i n g to or the established alternatives. dramatic order, Martin, expedience elsewhere. that social of of the as to psychology, True, h i s grandfather has i s a cosmopolitan sounds awesome i n i t s own way, pragmatic motive based f l e e h i s hometown: miedo, pero ahora mas de questioning more as benevolent to decides to experience life imbued him with the notion s t u p i d i t y , and that p l a c e of g r e a t n e s s . Martin expects there. a While i t fundamental In a d d i t i o n to a t t r a c t i o n an urban landscape would o f f e r to one who en contacto con alii; cuanto (p. 138). And of life and la tierra" his related d i f f e r e n c e i n the c h a r a c t e r of the people to of motives Caretas i s synonymous with c r u e l t y and remote Barcelona the of is townspeople are incapable for people, what populace The ignorant perhaps the asperity (p. 137), "vivia another, more on s p a t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s causes Martin "El mundo siempre le miedo l e i n f u n d i a C a r e t a s . habia infundido Tenia que huir antes mejor y aunque fuera a l mismo i n f i e r n o " so Martin leaves Caretas with a p r e j u d i c e d man which, while fostered by the view biased pronouncements of h i s grandfather, more i m p l i c i t y and originally stems from harsh and d i v e r s e environmental With elements. l i m i t e d experience, narrow e x p e c t a t i o n s of l i f e , his grandfathers a d v i c e , both c y n i c a l and odyssey is bound enlightenment. to be an exercise and such remembering r o m a n t i c i z e d , Martin's in d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t and 54 B. ROQUE GALDA: HIS PHILOSOPHY Roque Galda, Martin's g r a n d f a t h e r , is introduced as " e l unico que a M a r t i n l e t r a t a b a un poco b i e n , e l unico que t a l vez le q u e r i a " (p. 25). Such a lukewarm c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p stems from the f a c t that Martin i s beaten by h i s grandfather as much, i f not more so than by h i s "enemies." differentiates Roque Galda from What Martin's other oppressors i s that the grandfather a d m i n i s t e r s c o r p o r a l punishment with a more reasonable pretense to imparting e s s e n t i a l These lessons are p r a c t i c a l ones designed l e s s o n s to the boy. to prepare the boy f o r l i f e ' s abrasiveness r a t h e r than f o r i t s pleasant q u a l i t i e s . example, when Martin i s caught and beaten by the l o c a l for attempting t o p i l f e r a few f i g s , Roque Galda's "no que te digo of the absence admonitions, albeit in moral he i s t r u l y a about The dogma concerned pragmatic, i d e a l l y moral one. attitude of from about non-altruistic 83). the the is en este In spite grandfather's boy's welfare, f a s h i o n rather than an irony of Roque h i s grandson is that they are not r e l a t e d by blood: M a r t i n ' s grandmother was a young daughter (p. priest reaction no c o j a s f r u t a s ; todo se puede hacer mundo, pero debe hacerse b i e n , y no dormir" For Galda's widow "protective" with an ( l a t e r to be the boy's mother) when Roque Galda infant married her p r i m a r i l y out of a v a r i c e . The circumstances as "rey de l a casa" his roguish admits and (p. l e a d i n g up to the o l d man's installation 65) are humorous and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c paradoxically immature that he married M a r t i n ' s grandmother nature. (whom of Roque Galda he describes 55 as immeasurably shrewish) for her wealth, which comprised house, grapevines and o l i v e orchards. was that "a mi no me 96). With ha gustado nunca con exceso uncharacteristic equivoque; tuve His motive, que humility, sufrirla y he trabajar" Galda time and sturdy quarrels with Having given the world (p. to disillusioning in odd deafness assortment of books He accepts rushing and while he hears d e t a i l s of fortune. While the household whose as to reserves f o r him, fear wisdom, pamphlets. their he plans is frustrates imagines the character figures and i r o n i c episodes. an essential as fodder the weights spend his privileges avaricious will in his own outlive discretion so much so that i t e v e n t u a l l y proves h i s is license investment. supreme confidence Such arrogance to He f e i g n s to that the o l d man them, d e p r i v i n g them of a l e g i t i m a t e Roque Galda has a without open he enjoys the meager but s i g n i f i c a n t greatest in order of the novel's most comic s u b - p l o t s , Roque Galda an last b e l i e v e that h i s trunk before h i s body i s even c o l d , to f i n d stones, lead and uncle, for t h e i r mean-spirited a v a r i c e . --with b l i s s f u l l y c r u e l p l e a s u r e — t h e i r couple After unknown them: he views t h e i r u l t e r i o r motives to e x p l o i t them i n r e t r i b u t i o n and- "me 96). appear s h e l t e r and a s s i s t a n c e to the o l d man. In one that leaves with h i s fortune which he guards j e a l o u s l y trunk. (p. h i s i n s u f f e r a b l e wife f o r the i n h e r i t a n c e i s enormous, Martin's parents offer explains, trabajar" allows c o l l e c t i n g a modest i n h e r i t a n c e from a h i t h e r t o Roque he a element for of his undoing. paradoxical several tragicomically For example, a f t e r c a u t i o n i n g Martin against 56 the s i n of p r i d e , p o i n t i n g out that " l a becerra tnansa mama de madre y recount de la ajena" (p. 104), the grandfather goes on to the exemplum of a one-eyed man, By t a k i n g h i s wealth to the seashore, better guarded: since no need only watch the l a n d . landed, he fortune. was possessor of a f o r t u n e . he reasoned, by foils the s e v e r a l attempts to break victim to Galda machinations: a boat into himself his falls the ruse i s exposed and Roque i s run out of town i n d i s g r a c e and h u m i l i a t i o n . T h i s b i a s , s h o r t s i g h t e d n e s s and the be s a i l o r s and d e p r i v e d of h i s His v i g i l a n c e n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , the o l d man own could His rear flank unsupervised, trunk. his it one would approach from the sea, he overcome Roque Galda su grandfather's personality egocentricity figure essentially p r a c t i c a l philosophy, with which he t r i e s to the boy's p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l i f e . personal episode The imbue nature of the in in his Martin for grandfather's d o c t r i n e , and h i s devotion to i t , i s e x e m p l i f i e d by an from h i s own Martin: as boyhood, which he a young boy, of a man Witnessing the g r i s l y spectacle, discourage any misdemeanor adherence to v i r t u e and credits the experience anecdotally Roque Galda was see the p u b l i c hanging c o n v i c t e d of murdering on the the father responsibility. would Roque Galda from the temptation However, the of lesson for tone h i s wife. reasoned, Indeed, with saving him the to boy's p a r t and ensure h i s h i s i n t o l e r a b l e spouse. sets relates taken by h i s f a t h e r to murdering this evident the ghastly of excess o l d man's notion of t u i t i o n : proverbs, exempla and aphorisms given emphasis by blows from h i s cane. The grandfather i s s t e r n l y credulous that only 57 such harsh disgraceful instruction could avail personality, it an from the he is to be one of Roque Galda's to i n h i s f a i l u r e to heed In folktales not However, the Roque Galda's he very case, the i s not so much to be p r a c t i c e d and heeded as -- a As a man f a i l u r e and -- the accumulated claim the wisdom he u t t e r s . proffers. displayed. accomplishments suggest of f o l k l o r e : h i s personal f a i l i n g s do quality confidently wisdom he possesses it nature impressive command of s t o r i e s , proverbs, f i g u r e s most prominently wisdom from i s i n d i s p u t a b l e that i n s p i t e of the o l d man's and other wisdom-related irony Martin s e l e c t i v i t y regarding the a p p l i c a t i o n of h i s dogma, possesses detract save perdition. In keeping with the p a r a d o x i c a l bias and to of modest means and seeming h y p o c r i t e , one might knowledge of f o l k l o r i c d i g n i t y and self-respect. wisdom i s his I t i s h i s most valued possession. Most of rustic. Roque For Galda's example, Juan Lanas, the l o c a l constituting he repertoire to whom the V i r g i n Mary own establishment of the l o c a l characteristically e n t e r t a i n s Martin with the story of shepherd Caretas' is miracle hermitage. and This appears, effecting story, recounted c o n t r a p u n t a l l y to great e f f e c t with that of M a r t i n ' s f i r s t harvest (a asperity and miserable cruel experience pranks), i d e a l i z e d notion of r u s t i c noblest profession as a non-taxing life. forms of unrelenting part of the the heat, old wheat dry man's He o f t e n t e l l s M a r t i n that the i s that of shepherd. Aside from v o c a t i o n , there i s the added p r e s t i g e i t s appeal of being 58 commissioned by God with the "finding of V i r g i n s . " reminded of don Q u i j o t e ' s l y r i c a l g l o r i f i c a t i o n Age and the i m p l i c i t eventually r e t i r e of One i s the Golden understanding that he would, with Sancho, from knight e r r a n t r y to take up the shepherd's staff . Aside from s p e c i f i c examples of l o c a l f o l k l o r e , Roque Galda r e s p e c t s and s u b s c r i b e s to r u s t i c wisdom i n g e n e r a l . aficionado of lowly, of the from first unattractive mythical kingdom. imposing the early part of peasant seventeenth the t r i l o g y (Bertoldo) to century. the court aphorisms. Bertoldo demonstrates the wins the superiority B e r t o l d o , B e r t o l d i n o y Cacaseno burlas" it of rural is one a sage, and r e p a r t e e i n proverbs contest wisdom. and and thus H i s t o r i a de 3 of the s e l e c t parents. items i n The o l d "para que aprendieran a precaverse c o n t r a l a s (p. 103). With p r o v e r b i a l wisdom B e r t o l d i n o y Cacaseno, should of friendly trunk awaiting M a r t i n ' s greedy included of a B e r t o l d o engages the king -- a reputed which they exchange e s o t e r i c , sometimes enigmatic man The i s the v i s i t i n h i s o s t e n t a t i o u s f i n e r y -- i n debate Roque Galda's i s an the H i s t o r i a de B e r t o l d o , B e r t o l d i n o y Cacaseno, an I t a l i a n t r i l o g y premise He use instruction. pithiness it proverbs Popular figuring is liberally not in Historia de B e r t o l d o , s u r p r i s i n g that Roque Galda as his preferred means of i n v i r t u a l l y every c u l t u r a l m i l i e u f o r i t s and potency, the proverb normally enjoys a p r i v i l e g e d r e p u t a t i o n as a profound and c h e r i s h e d t r a d i t i o n to be guarded, form of expression, a an enduring custom with the pedigree of 59 the biblical s a g a c i t y and in our While and from what we many common whose resilience as a f i g u r e of sustains his c u l t u r a l importance even of Roque variety. Proverbs", Galda's proverbs reveal sense, they are of a d i f f e r e n t category u s u a l l y expect of the Solomonic Spanish Solomon, judiciousness time. pragmatism the King proverb, particularly In h i s address e n t i t l e d A.A. Parker makes "The from Humour of the following observat i o n s : i t has often been pointed out that there i s a strong s t o i c element i n Spanish l i f e and c u l t u r e . But on the whole I would p r e f e r the term f a t a l i s m . Spanish proverbs show not so much an i n d i f f e r e n c e to pain and s u f f e r i n g as a resigned acceptance of them. This submission to the inevitability of everything that happens i s f a t a l i s m rather than s t o i c i s m , and i t seems to me much more c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of Spain, than the s e l f - c o n s c i o u s search for v i r t u e through i n d i f f e r e n c e . " Arbo hastens to point out, Martin on the first de Caretas en e l pueblo, that Caretas "era un hambre, de rezos y de Eustis sees town's i n h a b i t a n t s traditional in t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n subscribe attitudes"(p. to "a 26). two f u n c t i o n as c o n s t i t u e n t s In t h i s case, the proverb i s not as a means for perpetuating which, while a common de su the suggestion fatalistic brutishness (p. that the adherence to proverb underlines of t h i s f a t a l i s t i c so much an de habrian escudo" T h i s equation of the with a symbol of the townspeople's the pueblo r e f r a n e s ; e l r e f r a n y l a estaca tambien podido s e r v i r como emblemas v i v o s 11). page of the text of how tradition. instrument of wisdom t h i s same r e s i g n a t i o n feature of Spanish l i f e , and fatalism distinguishes 60 Caretas as e s p e c i a l l y backward. Martin's grandfather e x e m p l i f i e s t h i s a t t i t u d e of proverbs, most of which valga" hace (p. rascaria" te hara s o l , calentemonos. llorar" Cuando routinely e l i c i t truene, 112). As an almost se s a b i a e l por que" (p. of P a v l o v i a n response Dios nos el mundo i n the boy. The a Martin y e l 1 0 0 ) . In t h i s case, Roque Galda makes a proverb to quash the boy's l e g i t i m a t e c u r i o s i t y about the contents of the enigmatic frustrates Martin's eager d i g r e s s i o n s , responds Martin. 102); f o r M a r t i n , the o l d man's proverbs n a r r a t o r o f f e r s that " l o s r e f r a n e s no l e gustaban use (p. 1 0 2 ) ; and " S i l a e n v i d i a fuese t i n a , todo (p. h i s use betray a r e s i g n e d or p e s s i m i s t i c a t t i t u d e ; "Quien bien te q u i e r e , "Mientras in No conviene necesarias" poco v i v e . and trunk. The o l d man, usually j u v e n i l e c u r i o s i t y with h i s anecdotal with h o s t i l i t y , saying "No seas curioso, saber demasiadas cosas; se han de saber l a s "Quien sabe mucho, mucha pena, y quien En boca cerrada no entran moscas" (p. to understand who why h i s innocent c u r i o s i t y resounding antagonism, and associating cavila, 1 0 0 ) . Unable should be met with Roque Galda's such use of proverbs with f r u s t r a t i o n and reproach, M a r t i n views the proverb as one more element i n the m i l i e u of r e p r e s s i o n , a v e r b a l cane, as the n a r r a t o r suggests. The grandfather's p r a c t i c a l philosophy a l s o betrays a sense of f a t a l i s m and r e s i g n a t i o n . With a p e s s i m i s t i c view of man and the world, h i s s i n c e r e e f f o r t s to prepare Martin f o r the t r a v a i l of human e x i s t e n c e are of a c a u t i o n a r y nature. which are repeated o f t e n in Martin's C e r t a i n phrases, presence, typify Roque 61 Galda's view of the world. These phrases become r e c u r r e n t , a b s t r a c t p o i n t s of r e f e r e n c e f o r M a r t i n even, and i n some especially, when grandfather. country he For on i s beyond example, h i s way with another as the direct Martin i n f l u e n c e of h i s journeys to Barcelona, with almost person he r e c a l l s t h i s cases through every the encounter admonition: s i vas s o l o por e l camino y encuentras un perro, piensa que es un lobo. S i te equivocas_ no perderas nada. En cambio, s i piensas que es un perro y te equivocas estas p e r d i d o . Cuando se oye t r o n a r , e l agua e s t a cerca . . . pero no o l v i d e s que a veces l l u e v e s i n t r o n a r . iCuidado M a r t i n ! (p. 104) Hence that Martin will judge "hay que pensar "iCuidado Martin!" f u t u r e encounters que todos son will ring lobos" in a g a i n s t the n o t i o n and the admonition h i s ears at most c r i t i c a l junctures. According menacing to place Roque in Galda, which the justice world i s utterly with the i r o n i c r e f r a i n of h i s f r i e n d , "Reina una bondad en is a e l mundo . . ideal. Juanin . " deceptive, de (p. He agrees Lara, that 35). T h i s too r e c u r s i n the mind of the impressionable young M a r t i n , who, when faced with the i n t r a n s i g e n t (i.e., h i s universe), support of occasionally injustice recalls "habia, s i , una gran bondad en e l mundo, como Lara. S i , s i , habia However, M a r t i n ' s definition of uniquely h i s . bondad grandfather life although another una expressed in and concurs that decia que daba asco" himself Caretas proffers an Juanin de (p. 123). intricate i n the form of a r e f r a i n , which, example of f o l k wisdom i n the p u b l i c domain, i s The n a r r a t o r t e l l s us that "toda l a f i l o s o f i a d e l 62 abuelo p a r e c i a c i f r a r s e en e l sentido de una vieja copla que siempre r e p e t i a : No o l v i d e s que este mundo es un g o l f o redondo. Quien no sabe nadar vase a l fondo. Lo importante, ropa'" (p. The e l , era saber nadar, 'nadar y guardar l a 26). multiple especially l a y e r s of s i g n i f i c a n c e of apropos unpredictably world segun and of Roque this Galda's deceptively perilous. view The enough: much of Swimming, only as a learned teaching) as Thus learning importance. "abyss," sense situations implies The of notion irretrievable (and, of with chaos them. metaphor's meaning. sinking the immense statue of the the into such hopelessness. to l e a r n how by to their unable to impose h i s r e v e a l s another nuance to As he e x t o l s the magnificence of h i s grandson, the o l d man of "whirlpool," even though these, i s h e l p l e s s and Roque Galda himself the use "chasm," p e r d i t i o n and confusion, nature, imply that man w i l l on to and conversely, implications: There i s a l s o an obvious, fundamental n e c e s s i t y grapple for Further, word "confusion." swimming i s but existential "chaos," by the a s o l u t i o n , i s a c c e s s i b l e to a l l , ability. the that as to term " g u l f " bears even gloomier has life anyone assumes c r i t i c a l also are the metaphor's potency r e s t s in the idea of death by drowning, a g h a s t l y p o s s i b i l i t y consider. of notion i s a gulf that must be arduously n e g o t i a t e d daunting very metaphor the Barcelona d e s c r i b e s , with p a r t i c u l a r d e t a i l , Christopher Columbus at the city's 63 harbour, that "esta alia arriba en l a punta de una a l t i s i m a columna: en l a punta de l a columna, hay representa 108). bola redonda que e l mundo, que como sabes, es una bola y redonda" (p. When a Galda r e p l i e s , redondo, una puzzled "Tambien es un en cuesta Therefore, Martin asks i f i t i s not a g u l f , Roque the golfo; es igual, pero siempre siempre, para que no te duermas" (p. 108). mere learning of survival skills is not s u f f i c i e n t : one must c o n t i n u a l l y a d j u s t one's approach a c c o r d i n g to the s i t u a t i o n , and one must be e v e r - v i g i l a n t . The que us that " a l abuelo sabia d e l mundo" (p. trusting to narrator t e l l s youngster 26). As a typically whose grandfather pronouncements Nonetheless, are l o poco credulous i s the only a d u l t i n s t r u c t him i n any way, i t i s not Galda's debia M a r t i n taken surprising to willing that heart by and Roque Martin. i n s p i t e of h i s condemnations of Caretas as a p l a c e of uncommon b r u t i s h n e s s , the o l d man i s i n f a c t the quintessence of the town's c o l l e c t i v e malaise: participation in and unable to responsibility recognize f o r the h i s own town's social r e t a r d a t i o n , he accepts the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b i l e and h o s t i l i t y as r o u t i n e , f a i l s to q u e s t i o n an unchanging dogma, i t s primacy and adheres indiscriminately applied. Roque Galda s i n g l e s out Caretas as a p a r t i c u l a r l y his jaundiced view of l i f e l i m i t s ) suggests unwillingness experience made by recognize flaws would c e r t a i n l y expose. Parker to Even though cruel place, (which he extends beyond the town's e i t h e r l i m i t e d experience to strictly in or the that Recalling inability view, the or flaws that observations and E u s t i s with regard to a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y 64 Spanish v a r i e t y of f a t a l i s m , resignation is its the tragedy contribution oppressive t r a d i t i o n s and s o c i a l to of the institutions. such fatalistic perpetuation Roque Galda i s , more than anything, resigned to man's i n t e r n e c i n e h o s t i l i t y . i n d o c t r i n a t e s M a r t i n i n t o the b e l i e f game of life chance, of that to t r u s t He i s a" p e r i l o u s that people are marauding scavengers and that i s unrelentingly b i t t e r , a l l in the hope that it will f o r e s t a l l M a r t i n ' s l e a r n i n g f i r s t 'hand through harsh experience. These notions, more than anything else, define p e r s p e c t i v e of the world and f u r t h e r a c t as a f o i l his first hand experiences c o n t r a s t , e v e n t u a l l y more reasoned and balanced view of l i f e . Martin's a g a i n s t which to cede to a 65 C. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES The specific a f f i n i t i e s between Martin de Caretas and the picaresque genre have been noted above. While the picaresque i s not commonly d i s t i n q u i s h e d f o r i t s p h i l o s o p h i c a l major and effect of Arbo's borrowing forming , part existence. of a features, the from i t i s one of supporting commentary on the nature of man's C h r i s t o p h e r E u s t i s ably put the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the trilogy and the picaresque into perspective in h i s a r t i c l e and, as we s h a l l see, the most patent borrowings from the genre are s u p e r f i c i a l and s e l e c t i v e . Since the de Caretas purpose of E u s t i s ' a r t i c l e i n the l i g h t of a r i g o r o u s a p p l i c a t i o n "picaresque," he philosophical characteristics. observations and of o f f e r s only i m p l i c i t Nonetheless, brisk polemics as to the acceptable picaresque form. more first working wrought so demonstrating term his Because of the c a s u a l rigorous sets out definition of by twentieth-century the p i c a r e s q u e , to c o n t r a s t with Arbo's t r i l o g y . addition of say and to the nothing accurate present a classical He goes on to use t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , along modifications differences the many o f t e n c o r r u p t use of the term "picaresque," to precise, and of commentary on the work's are h e l p f u l to our purpose. i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of i t , E u s t i s the i s to examine Martin with adaptations of The essential uncovered by E u s t i s are not only so numerous but i n fundamental the marginal the c l a s s i c a l that he handily succeeds in a f f i n i t i e s between M a r t i n de Caretas form of the p i c a r e s q u e . Eustis asserts: 66 A c o n s i d e r a t i o n of the e n t i r e t r i l o g y as an attempt to r e c o n c i l e the picaresque t r a d i t i o n with an e s s e n t i a l l y sympathetic and e q u i t a b l e view of mankind r e v e a l s an u n d e r l y i n g s t a t e of mind and a vague s o c i a l commitment which are antithetical not only t o picaresque l i t e r a t u r e but a l s o to the main c u r r e n t s of Spanish n a r r a t i v e s i n c e t h e c i v i l war.(p. 21) While t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n i s a c c u r a t e enough i n i t s e l f , f a i l s to do j u s t i c e to the p o s s i b i l i t y not necessarily essentially means Eustis that Arbo's i n t e n t i o n was to " r e c o n c i l e the picaresque t r a d i t i o n with an sympathetic and equitable view of mankind." By of a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on the ideological implications predilections and of the selectively author's reviewing d i f f e r e n c e s between Martin de Caretas and form, we hope to shed some light picaresque similarities the true on . Arbo.'s and picaresque motives for p r e s e n t i n g an o p t i m i s t i c view of mankind. The most patent superficial. and s i m i l a r i t i e s are p r e c i s e l y t h a t ; patent and The t r i l o g y ' s Guzman de A l f a r a c h e . title recalls Pithy L a z a r i l l o de Tormes summaries at the beginning of each chapter, o f t e n j o c u l a r adumbrations of what i s to come, are s i m i l a r to those found i n the Guzman, not to mention many other p r o t o t y p i c a l n a r r a t i v e s of the same p e r i o d and l a t e r . Arbo even seems to a l l u d e to s p e c i f i c episodes from c l a s s i c a l l y picaresque works. "una When M a r t i n , while on h i s f i r s t boniga de burro" i n h i s soup (p. similarly nauseating gustatory which the p r o t a g o n i s t i s served eggs. The episode wheat h a r v e s t , i s served 45), experience an omelet we are reminded of a from the Guzman, i n of nearly hatched of Martin's stay with h i s grandmother also 67 c o n t a i n s such a l l u s i o n s . of figs, successful pilfering and h i s eventual s e i z u r e at the vengeful hands of h i s grandmother, i s votive loaves. the His temporarily similar to Lazarillo's experience with the And the climax of the episode, when Martin sends o l d woman sprawling down L a z a r i l l o ' s causing h i s f i r s t a flight of stairs, recalls master to b r a i n h i m s e l f a g a i n s t a pi l i a r . Far presence more important of c e r t a i n described as than ideological picaresque, even these superficialities features though that they can are r i g o r o u s l y a c c o r d i n g to the model of the c l a s s i c p o i n t s to t h i s be i s the fairly not a p p l i e d form. Eustis imbalance: The world of Caretas i s picaresque not so much because i t exemplifies a d e c e i t f u l , hypocritical society, but r a t h e r because of h a b i t u a l i l l - w i l l and i n j u s t i c e which p r e v a i l . Likewise, Martin does not resemble the p i c a r o through reflecting i n h i s own behavior the v i c e s of s o c i e t y nor through conforming to h i s own environment, but r a t h e r i n that he faces t h i s world alone and fends f o r himself by means of t r i c k e r y and a s t u t e n e s s . ( p . 24) This is true: Caretas outstanding for recognizes, inherently although of its i s portrayed extreme not as t y p i c a l , but as brutishness. i t seems, Also, h i s s o c i e t y ' s d e f e c t s , and the p r e v a i l i n g c o n d i t i o n s push him toward c e r t a i n picaresque hostility. Martin forms behavior, he does not espouse o u t r i g h t , i r r a t i o n a l In a d d i t i o n , the s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s that behavior are augmented by h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s urgent force h i s tutelage. In a sense, Martin i s i n s t r u c t e d t o be a p i c a r o . The purpose of Roque Galda's i n s t r u c t i o n of h i s grandson i s 68 the . boy's self-preservation circumstances vigilance of and Caretas, at least which, implies initial in the the need picaresque for constant s u s p i c i o n of o t h e r s . a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r with some of the o l d man's accustomed We are refrains; "iCuidado M a r t i n ! " , " S i ves un perro en tu camino, piensa que es un lobo y guardate. 147). No perderas nada. Another of Roque Galda's En cambio . . . " (p. e x p r e s s i o n s of the importance of shrewdness and c a u t i o n i s couched i n the terminology of s l e e p i n g and waking. A f t e r Martin's i l l - f a t e d attempt to s t e a l f i g s the p r i e s t , h i s grandfather t e l l s him :"Hay que i r con Martin. y D e s p i e r t o siempre, s i vas a un "Cuidado, M a r t i n . las siempre from cuidado, sobre e l quien v i v e . huerto a robar, que no sea e l d e l c u r a ; " and: D e s p i e r t o siempre. No te digo que no cojas f r u t a s ; todo se puede hacer en este mundo, pero debe hacerse bien, y no dormir" (p. 83). " In a d d i t i o n to the emphasis here on shrewd v i g i l a n c e , there seems to be i m p l i c i t i n i t the n o t i o n that moral s t r i c t u r e s do not apply s i n c e , as i n . t h i s case, traditional guilty upholders of t r a n s g r e s s i o n as anyone. morality one of the picaresque sees Roque Galda's the elements "absence prerequisite), what (Eustis a the boy c i t e s Alexander fellowship" as as to this, a truly Blackburn, who a picaresque i m p l i e d by the o l d man's statements i s i s o l a t i o n , a v o l u n t a r y estrangement from one's f e l l o w addition of i n L a z a r i l l o de Tormes. disqualifies of is as s t a t u s as M a r t i n ' s t e a c h e r / p r o t e c t o r i s that protagonist just T h i s i s , i n a way, a l s o reminiscent of the p o r t r a y a l of the c l e r g y While are the Martin man. In achieves unhappy fame i n Caretas as 69 " l a s ancas de Barrabas" piel de Satanas" undeserved: (p. (p. 118) and as "un demonio; era de l a 132). i t i s determined This r e p u t a t i o n i s unjust and and upheld by the same s o c i e t y that c r e d u l o u s l y adheres to oppressive t r a d i t i o n s . como se habia ganado esta fama. Ocurre M a r t i n "no sabia como con l a s medallas; un d i a se l a cuelgan a uno en e l pecho s i n que sepa muy bien que ha hecho para merecerla" (p. 25). E u s t i s elucidates: As long as he remains i n the v i l l a g e he i s trapped i n a t y p i c a l l y picaresque dilemma: he cannot l i v e - o u t s i d e society but n e i t h e r can he e x i s t within Caretas without being persecuted and abused. Upon, defending himself with tricks and schemes, h i s only d e f e n s i v e weapons, he gives r i s e to a s e r i e s of personal disasters characteristic of an i l l - f a t e d picaresque life.(p. 25) The a l i e n a t i o n and Galda's to admonitions, solitude implied by this f e a t u r e s of modern e x i s t e n t i a l picaresque literature and thought. that like many philosophy that predate existentialism. above by have since come is forcibly ever hostility acceptance known. Compelled to what an approving we accept as to be a s s o c i a t e d with modern the estranged dilemma described from h i s own s o c i a l community he fend f o r himself amid uniform from a l l q u a r t e r s , none of h i s a c t i o n s by that other m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of m i l i e u , a l i e n a t e d by the only experience of human has certain t i m e l e s s o b s e r v a t i o n s of human The c l a s s i c p i c a r o , i n Eustis, sense I t has been noted tradition, " e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , " r e f l e c t s sundry existence Roque p l u s the a b s u r d i t y of the s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s which Martin i s subjected, resemble i n a broad the and garnering his s o c i e t y , i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that 70 f e e l i n g s of a l i e n a t i o n and a sense of a b s u r d i t y should f o l l o w . It of i s t r u e t h a t , l i k e the picaresque existentialism or inaccurately employed in school of thought, i t i s safe to say that the s o l i t u d e of the i n d i v i d u a l and the a b s u r d i t y of man's significant, novelists. i f broad preoccupations for picaresque form, but only in examples i n M a r t i n de Caretas of existential existential thought in Arb6's trilogy. a l i e n a t e d w i t h i n h i s own community and situation, a but he also evinces the as w e l l . these are f u r t h e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of what we c o u l d trapped than classic In f a c t broadly Martin term i s not only in an- absurd kind of deep anguish resembles the e x i s t e n c i a l i s t ' s preoccupation end condition Both of these problems, perhaps more i m p l i c i t l y e x p l i c i t y , are present not Neant. casual But judging from the l i t e r a r y m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of t h i s philosophical are nature i s d i s p u t e d and p o l e m i c i z e d , and i n a d d i t i o n the term i s o f t e n abused discourse. form, the very that of the notion of l e Death being the one experience common t o a l l men, the of an admittedly absurd and p a i n f u l , yet somehow compelling e x i s t e n c e , Martin's fear of m o r t a l i t y r e f l e c t s t h i s same kind of e x i s t e n t i a l concern; that t h i s miserable f e e l a fundamental, i n t u i t i v e compulsion with an ominous, and even worse, existence, which we to p r e s e r v e , should end unknown and unknowable experience. Martin, struggles with against h i s innate his own sense of the trilogy, justice dehumanization, s t r u g g l e s to make sense of h i s absurd volume of stealing existence. food and and In logic, therefore the out of urgent first hunger, 71 standing up f o r h i s own innocence (when p o s s i b l e ) and a c t i n g out of vengeance against oppressors were the reliant, self-defining the f i r s t decision learning to be t r u l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i m s e l f . in actions. extent a of his self- H i s d e c i s i o n to leave home i s process which finds him gradually I t puts him i n a p o s i t i o n to be able to judge the v a g a r i e s of man's behavior himself, according to h i s experiences, rather than for simply a c c e p t i n g what he i s t o l d by a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e s . The view picaresque of of omniscient dolorous represented and the suggestions M a r t i n de Caretas element life on borrowings human existence. o b s e r v a t i o n s about man's e x i s t e n c e book of E c c l e s i a s t e s . Arbo as a boy, and that s t o r i e s from the Testament should not s u r p r i s e us ethos should then that betray with the ideology of the resemblance to in the Old and quotations appear f r e q u e n t l y i n h i s f i c t i o n . e s p e c i a l l y when these complement sense, of We have already seen that the impressed Biblical Many found Bible Old the and expanded by yet another n a r r a t o r ' s statements bear a s t r i k i n g Testament from of e x i s t e n t i a l thought present i n i s corroborated commentary by a writer imbued with It the some i d e o l o g i c a l aspects of i t , and the dovetail, picaresque in a general and e x i s t e n t i a l thought. Since we intend to demonstrate the trilogy with Ecclesiastes, obvious picaresque of Arb6's i t should be pointed out that Old Testament book o f f e r s i d e o l o g i c a l its affiliation features that this transcend s i m i l a r i t i e s to the views of l i f e e x e m p l i f i e d by the and e x i s t e n t i a l thought. However, Arbo seems to have 7 2 schematized the of ideology Ecclesiastes) in each of the interpretation and Scott of virtually the writes on the unique writings not author u t i l i z e d complementary c o n s t i t u e n t s all book's that r a t i o n a l i s t , an a g n o s t i c , (the terms are (the s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d three volumes of h i s t r i l o g y . E c c l e s i a s t e s save one: R.B.Y. of Qoheleth the the result philosophical author of E c c l e s i a s t e s sacred the writing. and Further, 5 a he book compared to the an aspects of as a skeptic, a pessimist, nature of the is status used p e j o r a t i v e l y ! ) . " that c o n s t i t u t e The of i t i s "a fatalist comments other sacred Bible: In the case of E c c l e s i a s t e s , there is no p o s s i b i l i t y of a l l e g o r i z a t i o n to b r i n g i t in l i n e with the tone and teaching of the r e s t of the B i b l e . It d i v e r g e s too r a d i c a l l y . In f a c t , i t denies some of the things on which the other w r i t e r s l a y the g r e a t e s t stress -notably that God has revealed himself and h i s w i l l to man . . . . In Ecclesiastes, God is not only unknown to man through r e v e l a t i o n ; he i s unknowable through reason, the only means by which the author b e l i e v e s knowledge i s a t t a i n a b l e . Such a God is . the mysterious, i n s c r u t a b l e Being whose existence must be presupposed as that which determines the l i f e and f a t e of man, i n a world man cannot change, and where a l l h i s effort and values are rendered meaningless. 6 The the pessimistic door on tone of the above a n a l y s i s does not close p o s i t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n s of Qoheleth's ideology: for example, proof of the evanescence of man's worldly a f f a i r s might encourage a t t e n t i o n the element the light matters. 7 However, of E c c l e s i a s t e s a l s o makes i t the greatest case, to godly it is p o t e n t i a l for secular not inappropriate of Qoheleth's ideology, agnostic B i b l i c a l writing application.' T h i s being with the to examine Martin de Caretas in e s p e c i a l l y given the similarities 73 between the two. When and . . necessity can Scott . of Qoheleth's "mood of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t philosophy of r e s i g n a t i o n " and h i s espousal of "the of c a u t i o n recognize However, speaks and moderation before the i n e x p l i c a b l e , " we the vague contours of Roque in Martin Galda's philosophy. de Caretas en e l pueblo, i t i s the n a r r a t o r that most n e a r l y approximates Qoheleth's d e c l a r a t i o n s . Qoheleth's b a s i c tenets conditions One of i s that man s u f f e r s e s s e n t i a l l y the same as the dumb a n i m a l : 8 Dijeme tambien acerca d e l hombre: Dios q u i e r e h a c e r l e s conocer que de s i son como l a s b e s t i a s ; porque una misma es l a suerte de l o s h i j o s de l o s hombres y l a suerte de l a s b e s t i a s , y l a muerte d e l uno es l a muerte de l a s otras . . . y no t i e n e e l hombre ventaja sobre l a b e s t i a , pues todo es v a n i d a d . 9 Qoheleth f u r t h e r observes i n a f a m i l i a r passage that: no es de l o s a g i l e s e l c o r r e r , n i de l o s v a l i e n t e s e l combate . . . sino que e l tiempo y e l acaso salen al encuentro de todos, y que n i aun su hora conoce e l hombre. Como pez que es capturado en una s i n i e s t r a red y como pajaro que se enreda en e l l a z o , a s i se enredan l o s h i j o s de l o s hombres en e l tiempo aciago cuando de improviso cae sobre e l l o s . (Eccl.ix.12 ) . There i s , i n the f o l l o w i n g q u o t a t i o n e l pueblo, a striking parallelism from Martin with the de Caretas en passages E c c l e s i a s t e s c i t e d above. Todo eran matas y por rodar, todo trampas . pero eso se l o sabia de memoria. Lo que no s a b i a era donde l a proxima saltaria . . . . Nadie sabe l a p i e d r a con que ha de tropezar . . . . La d e s g r a c i a l e viene a uno por donde menos puede esperar. Fue e l preludio de l a d e s g r a c i a mayor que habia de seguir a a q u e l l a ; una y otra estaban o c u l t a s en e l tiempo, como l o s cepos en e l campo en l a s sendas de l o s conejos. from 74 Sale e l animal por su h i e r b a ; es de noche; l o s hombres duermen, duermen tambien l o s perros y todo esta en s i l e n c i o . <iQuien ha de pensar que puede p a s a r l e algo? Sale e l animal por su h i e r b a y i z a s ! , ya esta cogido por l a pata en e l cepo. Asi estaba e l peligro o c u l t o en l a senda de Martin, como una b e s t i a a l acecho, y no habia prudencia n i a v i s o , no habia santo que l e pudiese apartar. (pp. 15-16). In M a r t i n de Caretas en e l pueblo, passages are many l i k e n i n g the p r o t a g o n i s t to the hapless animal into a trap. that there Although these words are the n a r r a t o r ' s , such walking we know the c h o i c e of metaphor i s f o r M a r t i n ' s b e n e f i t because h i s own family depends sustenance during upon the h i s brothers' winter: "En Martin s a l i a n a cazar; por l a noche . las sendas de l o s conejos" rabbit traps for i n v i e r n o , l o s hermanos de . (p. . armaban e l cepo 60). These en traps, a g r a t u i t o u s l y c r u e l recourse, are a d i s t u r b i n g aspect of M a r t i n ' s daily r e a l i t y and a v i v i d , i f melodramatic parallel to the boy's fear and sense of a l i e n a t i o n ; not so f a r - f e t c h e d i f we it the product The of an ingenuous 'and abused context of the lengthy youth. citation above r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of the u b i q u i t o u s and u n r e l e n t i n g p e r i l Martin, in the persons of s a d i s t i c Camandulas; i n the element of Qoheleth's of this recurring of metaphor man's sacred Caretas and before faced by itself. A key i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to c h a r a c t e r , Qoheleth, helplessness is a grandfather and the philosophy i s that of " e l tiempo a c i a g o . " Ecclesiastes' portray h i s mother, form consider In spite i n h i s e f f o r t to life's inscrutable 75 vicissitudes, fortune. sometimes Given Qoheleth, implies the i n f l u e n c e of treacherous the e s s e n t i a l mystery of God's w i l l by he says such t h i n g s as "una misma es l a suerte de l o s h i j o s de l o s hombres y l a suerte de l a s b e s t i a s . "asi posited se enredan expressed there is a by Roque Galda, Martin ill-conceived dia nefasto" . foray into In the ". Era 13 y v i e r n e s . . misfortunes and the ' n a r r a t o r . Martin's explained . . to . . E l d i a b l o , segun e l , estaba en t a l e s d i a s de befall the mala e s t r e l l a , 25). He goes i s given protagonist. "Much l i k e Guzman or Pablos, he i s under disaster"(p. of the p r i e s t ' s orchard occurred on "un muy s e r i o , que aquel e r a un d i a aciago that volume strong element of s u p e r s t i t i o n , malhumor" (p. 83). S i m i l a r j u s t i f i c a t i o n pernicious first (p. 79), about which h i s grandfather him, " and l o s h i j o s de l o s hombres en e l tiempo aciago cuando de improviso cae sobre e l l o s . " Martin de Caretas . •. for other E u s t i s notes t h a t , the influence of a which leads him c l o s e r and c l o s e r to on to quote the following from t Arbo's text: "Poco a poco l o s hechos fueron amontonandose en torno a M a r t i n , c o n v e r t i d o s en amenazas. cuenta. Era l a trampa en e l camino; s o l o que aqui eran d i e z , eran mas . most No habia e s c a p a t o r i a " (p. p r o v o c a t i v e of the many resonances p e r c e i v e i n Martin de Caretas. together E l , M a r t i n , no se daba the notions It 115). T h i s i s one of the of E c c l e s i a s t e s that we i s here that Arbo in chapter draws of man's b e s t i a l h e l p l e s s n e s s to c o n t r o l events and the i n f l u e n c e of i n s i d i o u s f o r t u n e , much as does o i x , verse 12. Qoheleth In a d d i t i o n , both authors p o i n t to the r e l a t i o n s h i p between time and i n e v i t a b l e m i s f o r t u n e . In 76 Qoheleth, ". . todos:" i n Arbo, el tiempo, "una y o t r a como intervention time . e l tiempo y e l acaso salen a l encuentro de los ( l a s d e g r a c i a s ) estaban o c u l t a s cepos en el i n a given t r a j e c t o r y . itself, or the journey enigmatic t r a v a i l of l i f e , time camino." the Be it of an individual is another makes philosophy of corroborating comprises other, Qoheleth. that of the to the purpose of world view that also defined thought. of the the picaresque so ideology is clearly reflected. that of Qoheleth, but "De the underlying For example, Qoheleth the prevalence of i n j u s t i c e and the absence redress: of complains commensurate todo he v i s t o en mis fugaces d i a s : j u s t o que muere en toda su j u s t i c i a e impio que con todas sus i n i q u i d a d e s largo tiempo" fundamental (Eccl.vii.15). lesson in s c h o o l , where the d i f f e r e n c e schoolmaster's p r e j u d i c e s : "a e l l o s , no alcanzaba l a vara de Camandulas. c o l e r a d e l d i o s , ante desvanecia, mas o bien bajas y rapadas" aquellas between this the i s f u r t h e r exaggerated by the sadistic la campa Appropriately, Martin learns p r i v i l e g e d and the u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d les and In these cases, Arbo's language does not resemble of closely elements man. allusions serve fatalistic of through the component systematic These specific, broadly existential less imply transience cosmos' p e r v a s i v e s t r u c t u r e of oppression a g a i n s t Arbo Both en cabezas los privilegiados, Alii l a vara d e t e n i a ; bien peinadas, se descargarse sobre l a s cabezas vecinas algo (p. classmates, the dichotomy 19). In the case of Martin and his i s not as c l e a r as Qoheleth d e c l a r e s . M a r t i n , sometimes innocent, i s a l s o at times g u i l t y of m i s c h i e f , 77 however the responses of his misdemeanors to urgent for which he i s punished are always s i t u a t i o n s l i k e the classmates or the bellicose provocations butcher's v i c i o u s goat takes the l i b e r t y of b e a t i n g Martin f o r h i s having goat with a stone he The kind of injustice represented to M a r t i n ' s v i v i d , by this emphasize the the moral l i c e n s e to expressed: f i r s t - h a n d experience of a s u b t l e r , more metaphysical v a r i e t y to injured threw). oppress the u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d i s a l s o more broadly addition (Camandulas of the i s apparent. in injustice, Roque Galda, above-mentioned g h o s t - s t o r y , expresses i t p r o v e r b i a l l y with "Muchas veces ocurre v i d a : que unos levantan l a l i e b r e y o t r o s l a cobran; unos l l e v a n la y o t r o s cardan fama of one l a lana" 93). (p. asi proverbial i n our time: ". .« . which ni favor . . . " theme, de l o s entendidos l a r i q u e z a , n i aun Arbo's (Eccl.ix.11). approach than that of Qoheleth, who salen tiempo sus " j u s t o que muexe en toda su j u s t i c i a iniquidades campa c o n s t i t u t e d by Caretas and the "el privileged suffering: largo i t s people, there i s y el no acaso that he In que the has con world mention of while d e s c r i b e d by the n a r r a t o r as an a p p a r e n t l y i n s i d i o u s , yet mysterious f o r c e with some kind of perverse particular e impio tiempo." ill-fortune, el more c o n s i s t e n t a l encuentro de todos," but f u r t h e r complains witnessed todas this and perhaps allows that sabios de l o s cuerdos e l With regard to is stricter is no es de l o s a g i l e s e l c o r r e r , n i de l o s v a l i e n t e s e l combate, n i de l o s pan, la T h i s i s reminiscent of the most f a m i l i a r verses from E c c l e s i a s t e s , literally en intelligence, metaphysical seems in fact 78 strictly t o obey d i v i s i o n s Qoheleth might contradictions, just of but p e r i s h and expecting class. seem the sinful In the prosper punishment: p r i v i l e g e i s not supreme v a l u e s such as responds to u t t e r l y function In and of worldly the of that the He offers goodness. On that life. volume of in and that thematic, this on on the social reward and according the to contrary, i t furthermore, sustain mortal the i t is town's of of concrete, and fear town. f o r b i d d i n g landscape, in world Arbo's different they The expression Galda's factors, flesh and grim ideological levels out of the Arbo's whole. ideological tangible qualities the the sweetness. Roque Other in Caretas: of or and to the rendering of acuity finds personal this philosophical portrait clemency i n t o a coherent basic level the life the r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of a mode of treachery. lend a u t h e n t i c i t y concerns most no of this purity existence life's depiction ideological is knows in Martin's pronouncements nature a comprehensive corroboration The first the futility this metaphysically attitudes there of The the in justice t h e whole of abrasiveness author's decided and where of h i s commentary no diverse compose human e x i s t e n c e and i n the circumstances same man's e x i s t e n c e , design. rewarded apparent brutishness.. spite postures t o be is virtue his i s to emphasize added d i m e n s i o n there for in p o r t r a y i n g a world r e s e m b l e s A r b o ' s message with collective class. inconsistent h i s purpose Caretas, a social one's v i r t u o u s n e s s This closely trilogy, of squalor and whole is of life the disrepair the of of 79 the b u i l d i n g s and most patent as the the customary h o s t i l i t y of the people c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of that s t i g m a t i z e d development of the protagonist c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are confirmed, authors recourse picaresque: to certain quotidian thematic existence in qualities particular. The boy's neglect and poverty-induced with the more general q u a l i t i e s of behavior and personal in turn' e l i c i t skills development. c l a s s i c picaresque to punitive environment, results concerns. Martin's confront the r e s u l t of the impossible isolation same town of the Martin's homelife, The to the catalyze unhappy earning him his results -- his ill-fame defensive t r i c k e r y , a l l resonant and of the resemble that Arbo v i v i d l y actively s u r v i v e the h o s t i l i t y . should r e s u l t s of marks perceive this existential his absurdly i l l u s t r a t e s that l i f e and human -- goes on by v i r t u e of Martin leads from the r e s t of the community i s i s not encouraged by the environment. surrounding estrangement intimate that persecution predicament. v e g e t a l , animal boy the in Caretas and c o u n s e l l i n g voluntary abstract the from a l i e n a t i o n wrought by the town's p e r s e c u t i o n of Martin more to the protagonist. and h i s grandfather's us by depiction Roque Galda's advice on a c q u i r i n g the in shrewdness, c a u t i o n and The borrowings these hunger f u n c t i o n in concert the p e r c e i v e d as m a l i c i o u s m i s c h i e f and concerned, abysmal the Insofar expanded the of l i f e town. is and these borrowings a l s o serve concrete, parental supported are The special tenacity: -it circumstances f r u s t r a t e h i s fundamental attempts Therefore deathly i t i s not surprising manifestations in the that local 80 landscape, and might that the anguish expressed support the notion that Caretas with b r u t a l s t u p i d i t y , but with death autonomous world by perceptions i s not only synonymous itself. Caretas as an i s "un g o l f o redondo," p e r c e i v e d by M a r t i n as an a b s t r a c t , t e r m i n a l v o i d : the absurd and personal these trajectory. s e n s e l e s s end of his I t i s fear and d e s p a i r that motivate h i s departure. to While the apparent Arbo's portrayal c o n t r i b u t i o n s of of life Qoheleth's resemble certain resonances e x i s t e n t i a l i s m , they provide an a d d i t i o n a l dimension not only the of injustice and picaresque man's this case, metaphysical achieved both Arbo and i n f l u e n c e on d a i l y Qoheleth's all of vital attitute: values are negated Roque Galda's features of are about the negative ones. Hence h i s admonitory que es . . . " to 1 0 sally positive un aspects, overall effect Scott to d e s c r i b e by death, so T h i s i s the b a s i s more potent They must be given accorded greater No perderas nada. At the end of the f i r s t on could c o u n s e l , " S i ves un perro . lobo y guardate. forth but a treacherous i s cancelled by t h e i r o p p o s i t e s . " attention. is The used by R.B.Y. over cambio imply affairs. precedence piensa Qoheleth "As l i f e the The level, p h i l o s o p h y : the more s i g n i f i c a n t , life also h e l p l e s s n e s s to c o n t r o l h i s by Arbo through a l l h i s a l l u s i o n s and borrowings be c h a r a c t e r i z e d with a phrase of augment affinities. f a t e , among o t h e r s , can be considered on a concrete in to l a t t e r ' s q u a l i t i e s of a b s t r a c t intimacy but the concrete r e a l i s m supported by problems philosophy his own, volume, as En Martin he c a r r i e s with him a 81 psychic man. burden of f e a r , despair and an unhappy view of l i f e and S u f f e r i n g from the ingenuous c r e d u l i t y of youth and Roque Galda's c o n f i d e n t l y expressed wisdom, h i s journey w i l l test the dialectic will and of his tension judiciousness between his own inherent and the ominous, u n s e t t l i n g g r a n d f a t h e r ' s i n s i s t e n t views. good implications 82 D. NOTES TO CHAPTER III Sebastian 1 Juan Arbo, M a r t i n de Caretas en e l pueblo (Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 1972), p. to 9. A l l subsequent references t h i s work are from the same e d i t i o n and appear i n the t e x t . Christopher 2 Myth 20, Eustis, Transformed," No.1 " Martin de C a r e t a s : The Picaresque R e v i s t a canadiense de e s t u d i o s h i s p a n i c o s , (Otono 1980), 23. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s appear i n the text. 3 The first part of the trilogy H i s t o r i a de B e r t o l d o , B e r t o l d i n o y Cacaseno was based on an e a r l i e r , Italian text e n t i t l e d Dyalogo d i Salomon e Marcolpho. case, the humble peasant q u e s t i o n , as the t i t l e sage and sixteenth-century king. is Marcolpho indicates, With and the In t h i s sovereign in i s the legendary Old Testament Arbo's patent interest in the Old Testament, the apparent a f f i n i t i e s of h i s t r i l o g y with Solomonic wisdom, and with seeming parodies Solomon, c l o s e r enlightening certain of the scrutiny with of Roque prodigious of regard both to Galda's qualities Italian the characteristics first texts volume a t t r i b u t e d to might prove of Martin de Caretas. * A.A. Parker, "The Humour of Spanish House Ninth Annual L e c t u r e , The Hispanic and 16 May Luso-Brazi1ian S e v e r a l of the proverbs mentioned M a r t i n de Caretas i n humorously 5 R.B.Y. Scott, 1962, Diamante X I I I , Councils, 1963), Canning (London: p. i n Parker's address appear 22. in expanded forms. introd., B i b l e : Proverbs, E c c l e s i a s t e s Proverbs," t r a n s . , and notes, The Anchor (Garden C i t y , New York: Doubleday, 83 1965), p. 192. 6 S c o t t , p. 191. 7 S c o t t , p. 192. 8 There f o l l o w herewith s e v e r a l long q u o t a t i o n s . reproduced at length in order to show their They are procedural p a r a l l e l i sm. 9 study, Ecclesiastes, i i i , the edition cited 18-19. text. 1 0 S c o t t , p. 203. the i s Sagrada B i b l i a de Autores C r i s t i a n o s , 1972). the For purposes of this (Madrid: B i b l i o t e c a Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s appear in 84 IV. A. FUNCTION OF LANDSCAPE Before two EN EL CAMPO Martin s e t s out from Caretas, h i s dilemma i n v o l v e s i n h o s p i t a b l e worlds; Caretas, certain, having experienced of which i t s inclemency o u t s i d e world, which h i s grandfather treacherous. compels him Roque When ideology. fear and a n x i e t y . the spectral nearly the he is i n excitement trilogy, examples hapless r a b b i t s caught noche." As the to be of fully the i l l fortune charged with Arbo not night. only metaphor in traps include volume opens, of In the first aspect, noche, el susto, h a c i a l a derecha, Given hostility his the phrase Martin's "es "miedo uncertain l o s s i s e o s d e l cementerio, the code of Caretas' synonymity in the e x c l u s i v i t y of Martin's v i t a l protagonist large. The as a measure first with volume, habia experience, the of h i s encounters town's f u n c t i o n as a model is town del Con doblado 2 ignorance and de journey. en lugar de h a c e r l o h a c i a l a izquierda." established but l i k e n i n g Martin to the Wandering a i m l e s s l y , "se habia desviado desde e l p r i n c i p l e la last a s s o c i a t e s the boy's nocturnal the inauguration for a over h i s s p e c t a c u l a r escape of second nocturno" marks the uniformly His "entrada en e l mundo" i s marked by imaginings with the cemetery's all f i r s t - h a n d ; and A f t e r c o n f e r r i n g with Roque Galda town s t i l l of is juggernaut from h i s grandmother, M a r t i n departs at volume knowledge alleges unfolding to leave h i s hometown, Galda's time, the his and given the serves the with the world at supported by the 85 consistency of Roque Galda's ideology ( a p p l i c a b l e beyond the world c o n s t i t u t e d by Caretas) with the c o n d i t i o n of brutish inhabitants. with i t s landscape All this town's the a s s o c i a t i o n of the town i s s u s t a i n e d in the mind of the e r r a n t i s connoted mundo," the f i r s t Furthermore, the i n the f i r s t chapter of two boy. pages of "Los caminos d e l M a r t i n de Caretas en e l campo, to wit: Caminaba por un llano, por campos de o l i v o s , v i n a s escasas, t r i g a l e s raquiticos, malezas, en e l paisaje tan conocido de Caretas; aqui y a l i a s u r g i a n tambien pinos recortandose en l a s a l t u r a s y tambien los pinos eran pequenos, r e t o r c i d o s . Doblo un recodo; ante e l se a b r i o un campo s i n a r b o l e s , una amplia extension sobre l a c u a l brillaban l a s e s t r e l l a s a l t a s en e l c i e l o a l t o . Martin se detuvo y r e s p i r o por primera vez. Hasta alii l e habia perseguido l a aprension de los cipreses, d e l cementerio, e l siseo de las l e c h u z a s . Tenia miedo de que l e p e r s i g u i e s e n . (pp. 11-12). Here, a fundamental change in the aspect of the produces a fundamental change i n the the usually relief ominous at t a n g i b l e and evidence boy's awesome darkness of his psychic fails escape. landscape condition: to dampen h i s The unfamiliar c h a r a c t e r of the t r e e l e s s p l a i n , which o f f e r s no o p p o r t u n i t y f o r m i s p e r c e p t i o n , i s enough to a l l e v i a t e the h a b i t u a l a n x i e t y about ghostly visitors that i s i n e x o r a b l y l i n k e d to darkness. change of mood, while merely Martin's true psychic temporary, marks the i n c i p i e n c e autonomy. p r o t a g o n i s t ' s development in t h i s second The trajectory book obeys a of This of the learning 86 process in which he is progressively estranged q u a l i t i e s embodied in h i s hometown: b r u t a l i t y , s p i r i t u a l poverty as p r e v a l e n t f a c t o r s Caretas) are gradually Carden, the challenged. hedonist boy's protector/mentor, and truck ideology is strong; In the incipient stages of challenged d r i v e r who level. physical, distancing f e a t u r e of t h i s process of aquaintances. occur, the example, references direct, avail Martin's memories. trilogy landscape to the In fact, Nature's the encounters over at t h i s process h i s p s y c h i c The by first evidence outstanding, For owls' the in eerie hissing the second and p e r t a i n only book of the in There i s some s u b t l e suggestion of determination of man's there i s the unhappy madman, one en route to Barcelona, who lost the riverbank n e c e s s i t a t e s r e g u l a r v i s i t s who fear in a p p a r i t i o n s i n nature. his behavior. of M a r t i n ' s mind to h i s son's drowning in the l o c a l r i v e r : h i s o b s e s s i v e daughter, his f o r the most part r e a l i z e s a f u n c t i o n d i s t i n c t book. Specifically, open i s that Martin's mortal a n x i e t y and from that of the f i r s t role successive to resemblance of cypress t r e e s to hooded s p e c t r e s now to process M a r t i n ' s adherence to only from the p l a c e . night i s no longer manifested by serves as the estrangement from the values of Caretas i s preceded of norm in Roque Galda's openly c h a l l e n g e s to the boy's a c q u i r e d p r e j u d i c e mind. and by s e v e r a l passing begins on a s u b t l e r , more profound Galda's superstition Likewise, However, before these s p e c i f i c events Roque the (the unquestioned ideology i s i n turn t e s t e d by events and Antonio from b r i n g him from h i s wife the food that serves as Martin's first grief vigil and first 87 meal of the journey. has In a more general sense, numerous unpleasant encounters Arbo p o r t r a y s them almost ignoramuses, enslaved unrelentingly d i f f i c u l t explicitly book s i n c e events and brutes, Such way. ingrates and upon a t a x i n g and determinism, described book, has only l i m i t e d a p p l i c a b i l i t y i n i n s u l a r world of C a r e t a s . implicit as dependence vocation. in the f i r s t the second their protagonist with farmers along h i s uniformly by the are no longer confined to the In a d d i t i o n , what relevance i t has i s understood, having seen its full extension i n M a r t i n de Caretas en e l pueblo. The emerges local principal out of the inextricable landscape and the denizens. The brutality town and intellectual and f u n c t i o n of landscape is collective hostility more merely ignorance. volume bond between the f o r b i d d i n g than Initially, from similar of Caretas' synonymous any virtually countryside nonexistent On the f i r s t and for i n t u i t s that a more h o s p i t a b l e landscape clemency. second with rational or boundary that d i s t i n g u i s h e s Caretas, i t s landscape i t s people elsewhere is in t h i s human behavior the p r o t a g o n i s t . would signal He greater night of h i s f l i g h t , when he f e e l s like r e s t i n g he n o t i c e s that " E l t e r r e n o no o f r e c i a l a menor senal de bondad. Era levantaban .... y severos; aspero, despiadado. teasing (p.13). of Los Martin In a d d i t i o n , h i s response i s : " E l mundo . . continuo to the two members of the Guardia C i v i l in h i s journey) arboles se l a s a l t u r a s p a r e c i a n cenudas, malhumoradas Pero d e t r a s de e l estaba Caretas; adelante" early duro (who . hacia good-natured intercept esta lleno him de 88 bandidos, ladrones, Caretas. iCuanta bromistas razon t e n i a e l abuelo!" S e v e r a l other s i m i l a r Todo (p. el mundo es 25). i n c i d e n t s move Martin to observe "Todo e l mundo es Caretas." the majaderos. While these vexing episodes remind p r o t a g o n i s t of h i s p i t i a b l e hometown, the landscape, aspect changes i n the course of M a r t i n ' s influence in a nearly subliminal fashion. the passage c i t e d above i n which vez" in Caretas. influence. response unable to a Martin respite In one case, of Galda's works its T h i s i s evinced i n "respiro por primera examples of t h i s kind j u s t as Martin Roque as i t s from the accustomed f l o r a of There are even more e x p l i c i t h i s acceptance wandering, that i s mentally admonitory of reinforcing counsels, he is to overcome sensations of w e l l - b e i n g : Pasaba junto a unos a r b o l e s , con un r i a c h u e l o mas a l i a ; e l agua se v e r t i a a l i i c e r c a desde una altura, s a l t a b a entre l a s p i e d r a s ; en l o s a r b o l e s cantaban l o s pajaros. Martin se paro, y acaso por primera vez en su v i d a l e gusto e l ruido d e l agua; escucho con agrado e l canto de l a s aves. Habian cantado muchas veces en su vida, pero c u a l q u i e r a se paraba entonces a e s c u c h a r l a s . Ahora l e s p r e s t o a t e n c i o n y l e gustaron. Despues mir6 l o s montes y e l c i e l o y le parecieron tambien hermosos. Tuvo ganas de hacer una zapateta en e l a i r e , de ponerse a c a n t a r . (p. 41) There i s no d i r e c t of gratifying mankind. landscape In the transformations r e l a t i o n s h i p between M a r t i n ' s and service in the experience improved r e l a t i o n s with the rest of of the aspect narrative's of the verisimilitude, countryside are i n t e r m i t t e n t and do not obey a normative p a t t e r n : while much what he sees pleases him, he o c c a s i o n a l l y passes of wheat f i e l d s and o l i v e groves through reminiscent of C a r e t a s . of areas Those 89 episodes in which the p r o t a g o n i s t responds changes i n the precedent for preconceptions contentment first landscape other about or serve more the as fundamental, concrete nature well-being a are of virtually such pleasant jaundiced view of l i f e : they to his Sensations of non-existent i n the in the second experiences open a breach allow in him, book. and his own independent experiences, h i t h e r t o unknown realm of experience. the protagonist's manifested precedent the sympathy i n the landscape, with And the narrator with Antonio to c o n f r o n t a having Nature's in h i s conjunction other processes such as h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s mentor Carden, to abstract challenges life. book and only s l i g h t l y more present Nonetheless, with s a t i s f a c t i o n established merciful then face subjects as the to a c o n t o r t i o n that b r i n g s t h i s theme to conform with rest of trilogy; that Martin's is, a experience i n t h i s second progressive volume of the disillusionment with his g r a n d f a t h e r ' s dogmatic i d e o l o g y . As Martin approaches Barcelona with h i s mentor/protector, he r e c a l l s Roque Galda's lyrical e x h a l t a t i o n of the r i v e r L i k e h i s e n t h u s i a s t i c d e s c r i p t i o n s of the marvels of images for of the Ebro's majesty protagonist, fuelling his w i l l the truck-driver announces the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s response act as to continue goals the Barcelona, the young odyssey. to M a r t i n that the Ebro i s almost Ebro. When i s nearby, predictable: Martin se s e n t i a a g i t a d o ante l a proximidad de aquel rio. Desde su ninez habia oido hablar de e l y lo esperaba c a s i conmovido, con v i v a sensacion de gozo anticipado. Cada vez s e n t i a c r e c e r mas en e l e l deseo 90 de ver e l famoso Ebro. Ironically, with (p. 204) the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s long encounter the famous r i v e r comes on the heels of h i s s e p a r a t i o n from Antonio Carden, s e i z e d by the Guardia Civil. absence weighs h e a v i l y on the boy who, struggles of anticipated the simply river The truck d r i v e r ' s l o n e l y and disheartened, to reach h i s intended d e s t i n a t i o n . "no le impresiono" (p. 225). The The sight narrator eluc i d a t e s : La verdad era que e l famoso Ebro a l i i andaba de capa c a i d a ; causaba poca impresion; pasaba por alii estrecho y menguado, con caudal escaso, asomando aqui y alia manchas de tierra, pobladas de hierbajos sucios, s i n b e l l e z a , s i n grandeza ninguna. Fue para e l una decepcion. Se detuvo un momento en e l puente; desde alii estuvo mirando melancolicamente la sucia eorriente; formaba una curva cerrada y se p e r d i a en seguida d e t r a s de unos a r b o l e s t r i s t e s , de unos canaverales raquiticos. (p. 225) The general characterization tone of of this "arboles passage, particularly tristes" and "canaverales r a q u i t i c o s , " r e c a l l s the d e s c r i p t i v e motif employed by Arbo r e p r e s e n t i n g Caretas' v i t a l poverty. The the for n a r r a t o r s u b t l y allows that M a r t i n has happened upon an u n i n s p i r i n g part of the river's course. in With more than resemblance to the landscape disillusionment his this is a little of h i s own irony home, the compounded by the apparent g r a n d f a t h e r ' s t r i b u t e s to the magnificence time, between h i s own residing experiences its protagonist's c o n t r a d i c t i o n of of the Ebro. (some of which By gainsay 91 - Roque Galda's ideology) and o t h e r s ' d e n i a l s infallibilty, Martin's shaken, yet s t i l l sight of confidence in of Roque old Galda not thoroughly undermined. Barcelona the The man's has been boy's first serves to salvage- some of h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s c redi b i 1 i t y . Martin's f i n a l approach to the c i t y last four pages of the second volume. a f t e r the truck d r i v e r ' s a r r e s t at Civil i s condensed into In the preceeding the hands of the the pages, Guardia and Martin's d i s i l l u s i o n i n g d i s c o v e r y of the Ebro, there is a shift in the tempo and emphasis of the n a r r a t i v e : the final stages of Martin's describes only journey a few dias the t r i l o g y and caminando caminando, siempre defrauded A l s o , temporal references those con aquella pena" few these that temporal (p.224) and The (p.226). The "continu6 vaguest of r e f e r e n c e s i n t r o d u c e s the f i n a l episode of n a r r a t o r t e l l s us "Pasaron i n the las outskirts semanas. otono empezaba a dorar l o s campos y Martin continuaba (p. the semisonambulismo, Martin de Caretas en e l campo; Martin's a r r i v a l of Barcelona. frame f o r example, " l a r g o s en aquel estado de pena, de y se acercaba d i a en d i a a Barcelona" all Arbo being i n t h i s l a s t chapter are i n d e f i n i t e ; fue selectively. f o r Barcelona and h i s an unguarded moment i n a bar. are scant throughout action narrated e p i s o d i c experiences, such as the boy's mistaking a smaller c i t y during are El su camino" 228). The effect correspondence toward the of such indefinite temporality to the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s tedious but steady city is one of dramatic and its progress c o n t r a s t when i t looms 92 suddenly before him: . . l o que v i o a l i i l e dej6 a n t o n i t o . s i n t i o perdido como nunca, i n s i g n i f i c a n t e . Martin se Estaba en e l c e n t r o de un inmenso l l a n o ; d e l a n t e de e l y por l o s lados no v e i a nada; se s e n t i a p e r d i d o , desamparado .... Lo demas en todo l o que abarcaba la mirada, eran huertos, trigales verdes, a r b o l e s frutales; casas aqui y alia, grandes edificios perdidos en e l verdor; y por todas p a r t e s , postes sosteniendo h i l o s , t o r r e s de h i e r r o , a l t a s chimeneas . . . (p. 230) C h r i s t o p h e r E u s t i s notes that Caretas i s so in cultural r e t a r d a t i o n that i t has yet to f e e l of modern ideas and modern t e c h n o l o g y . " flight from metropolis, train, he sees and todo se fuera abajo" the the urban as buildings (p. hears at influence prior to his The then to range a t r a i n 229). Thus the bridge, the and the telephone p o l e s , a l l elements features author close approach s i n moverse, a t e r r a d o , con miedo landscape, j o i n the greenery and unaccustomed amazement. Indeed, i n n o v a t i o n s : when, in t h i s same c r o s s i n g a b r i d g e , "permanecio, de que 1 "the stuck the town, M a r t i n has only second-hand knowledge of such t e c h n o l o g i c a l the rigidly that makes fruit-bearing compound explicit the of trees protagonist's what he merely i m p l i e s at the beginning of the second volume: En su t i e r r a no se veian l l a n o s como aquel; no los habia. Alia eran todo montes, hondonadas, barrancos y montes o t r a vez, y l o s pueblos pequenos, s i n poder asentarse bien subiendo y bajando, doblados, t o r c i d o s de costado, y l o mismo l o s c u l t i v o s , los bosques; todo como aguantandose de m i l a g r o . (p. 230) 93 This recalls the first Caretas when, faced with extension" (p. 11), "un he night campo of Martin's flight sin arboles, una breathes "por primera from amplia vez." In a d d i t i o n , the boy's amazement i s compounded by the f a c t that "se s i n t i o p e r d i d o " and "se s e n t i a perdido, desamparado" (p. T h i s a l s o resembles Martin's p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n at the outset his odyssey: the f i r s t e l campo are "Debia donde. circularity of en the experiences l e j o s de Caretas; pero no sabia realidad, perdido" protagonist's a q u a i n t a i n c e with the world sundry of words of the text of Martin de Caretas en de e s t a r muy Caminaba, 230). en humor (p. suggests i s not yet complete: route to the c i t y , 11). The that his h i s d i v e r s e and in s p i t e of exposing him to v a r i o u s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s of r u r a l c o n t r y s i d e , f a i l to inure him to the n o v e l t y of the v i s i o n before him. his memory of trees s t i l l form part of h i s amazement. sun s i g h t of the c i t y ' s of his is striking. developed in this landscape more tranquility p a l p i t a b a con odyssey, by It extends the subtle than joy. plain function part of the t r i l o g y . gratifying and treeless on the p a r a l l e l i s m between the that In of this of the Caretas case, (p. the two landscape The boy's response is one to of " E l corazon l e fuerza en e l pecho; se s e n t i a l l e n o de s e n t i a a l e g r i a , pero tambien espanto" The gilded however, produces a r e a c t i o n of greater i n t e n s i t y than that night episodes is fruit-bearing More important skyline experienced by Martin when he sees the first tenacious Caretas' a r i d i t y that verdure and while the imposing setting So maravilla; 230). irony of Martin's s i m i l a r circumstances of abandonment 94 and t r e p i d a t i o n at the beginning and end of h i s to his that automobiles question he i n a l l the phantasmagorical movement of t r a i n s and of sees the the no (p. responses, c h a r a c t e r of men the Nature's hometown, Here was mainly habia While, as a essential hombres i n t h i s second volume, catalyst for Martin's relationship established fundamental the on i t s i n h a b i t a n t s i s acknowledged explicitly and again influence 231). its As the most t a n g i b l e in dreamlike Martin wonders: " A l i i landscape has f u n c t i o n e d initially people. landscape's pero, tf'como s e r i a n ? " Caretas city's As appearance, he raised again. intimate points incomplete education as to the nature of the world. the p r o t a g o n i s t regards notices journey to i n the f i r s t feature that the volume. separates from "the world," i t i s not s u r p r i s i n g that Barcelona's phantasmagorical appearance should cause protagonist. influence it is on not Given human his own behavior surprising that Barcelona's r e s i d e n t s "icomo s e r i a n ? " implicit" astonishment acceptance of as embodied he should in wonder his of 95 B. ANTONIO CARDEN: HIS PHILOSOPHY The interim vicissitudes between unusual c o n s t r u c t e d by Arbo. serving as the mentors even Roque boy's in i s , for Martin, the Galda's only frame one semi-picaresque prejudiced of context view reference, of to the appearance of Antonio Carden. man, i s neither confirmed nor d e f i n i t i v e l y c o n t r a d i c t e d by the course of up of events The p r o t a g o n i s t ' s attendant c o n f u s i o n i s only compounded by the b e w i l d e r i n g nature of those experiences that l i e beyond the l i m i t s of the o l d man's philosophy. M a r t i n ' s f i r s t c o n t a c t with people no c h a l l e n g e to h i s p r e c o n c e p t i o n s . and hostility when he seeks o u t s i d e of Caretas poses He i s r e c e i v e d next encounter, as w e l l as a n x i e t y . ranch house, first of commonplace: Spain's Arb6 that "La Guardia by the national refers volume of the t r i l o g y . Martin to The Guardia's conforms to institutional psychic Civil protagonist's at the force i t s e v e r a l times is a i n the f o r example, no es una broma .... t del The tells Hasta l o s tricornio" (p. r e p u t a t i o n , however accurate or i n a c c u r a t e , Martin's previous oppression, burden. 15). Guardia C i v i l . police Roque Galda, fantasmas se ponen s e r i o s cuando se t r a t a 75). into on the other hand, causes him astonishment i s apprehended fearsome r e p u t a t i o n popular extrano"(p. The morning a f t e r he seeks l o d g i n g he oaths l o d g i n g at a ranch house l a t e the n i g h t , "pero como era de Caretas, no se His with Thus it and is experience of injustice and i n turn forms p a r t of the boy's not surprising i n i t i a l r e a c t i o n to being caught that the i s "debia de ser 96 v i e r n e s y t r e c e .... has p i s a d o ' " ( p . Martin's guardias' the skillful manifold are when take M a r t i n next vez. day, Mala develops avail. His jokingly (p. from the discomfort accuse him of having 21). T h i s , combined such Martin metaphysical mayhem s t a t i o n and no way as i l l fortune: b a l l a d that begins, opuso (p. 20). In f a c t , a of indigenous to essentially resolve variety the matter jocular Senor to C a r e t a s . the la aforementioned reminder Martin ..." of the r e c a l l s the (p. 21) as he An a l r e a d y ominous predicament Remigio, (whom we know and good-hearted, a sympathetic makes use of a proverb con f o r M a r t i n , the episode represent " E l d i a 13 de j u l i o when resistencia, i t is a down to p l o t h i s s t r a t e g y . compounded with n a r r a t o r t e l l s us: "Camino de Caretas o t r a suerte. in is i n C a r e t a s : when the guardias determine to the accumulation is no they to t h e i r makeshift costumbre de perder" beds to t o e x t r i c a t e himself y o u t h f u l c r e d u l i t y produces the now f a m i l i a r of r e s i g n a t i o n common the attempts "las vinajeras d e l cura" boy's hierba 16). inquisition increased stolen Como en l a tarde d e l huerto.'Mala that e l i c i t s a to be guardia ), near-Pavlovian response from M a r t i n : "Con l o s r e f r a n e s l e c o r r i a a l punto un temblor por el cuerpo; l e p a r e c l a o i r en e l l o s un r u i d o de cayadas, l a r i s a del abuelo ..." that proverbs it (p. 22). The boy's experience augur i l l i s that Martin's their shown rather than w e l l f o r h i s w e l l - b e i n g . him So s i t u a t i o n , as he p e r c e i v e s i t , degenerates even f u r t h e r : as he f e i g n s reveals has amusement sleep, at the guardias' his credulity conversation regarding " l a s 97 vinajeras del cura." Unable to a p p r e c i a t e t h e i r Martin becomes f u r i o u s : bandidos, ladrones, Caretas. Martin "El mundo bromistas, iCuanta razon t e n i a is nearly . . esta majaderos. el apoplectic . sense of humor, Todo abuelo!"(p. of pero life the e n t e r a " (p. 26). variety, guardia's act of disaster, the pattern fallaba ella su is profoundly kindness. en el. alargo sobre Infused conditioning non-plussed with of by the resignation to of p r o g r e s s i v e l y unlucky p o r t e n t s shows la filosofia fe as The p r o t a g o n i s t , whose e n t i r e view the extent of Martin's b i a s : "No Alii Just with rage and h u m i l i a t i o n , Senior c o u l d be seen as a r e s u l t of c l a s s i c a l Pavlovian de e l mundo es 25). Remigio "Se q u i t 6 l a manta, como San M a r t i n , y l a el, lleno acababa de s a l i r de su asombro. d e l abuelo; c a i a por su base y con No l l e g a b a a c o n c e b i r que a l g u i e n pudiese hace<_ a q u e l l o , pero sobre todo, que fuese un guardia c i v i l " (p. 26) . Impressive as the guardia's kindness was unable to overcome h i s accustomed responses: demasiado d o l i d o de l a broma; t e n i a aun Ademas <iNo habria alii una to slumbering and His shown next him feign sleep, trampa escondida? takes "Estaba . l a r a b i a en e l senor Remigio a b l a n d a r l e para que cantase?" continues however, Martin i s <JNo b u s c a r i a e l (p. advantage cuerpo. 26). The boy of the guardias' s l i p s away from them to continue h i s journey. independent encounter also results in kindness by a s t r a n g e r , again i n p e c u l i a r circumstances. The hapless l o c o of the obsessive r i v e r s i d e v i g i l shares with Martin what i s the most sumptuous meal of the boy's life. Again the 98 protagonist's reaction i s one of bewilderment: "Se acordaba de tantos lances de su v i d a pasada y empezaba a pensar que e l debia uno a c e r c a r s e a l o s l o c o s y h u i r de l o s cuerdos, estos l e habian once more acaso en t r a t a d o " (p. causes 36). The Martin to q u e s t i o n c u r i o u s course of segun events the dogma of Roque Galda: "dentro de e l empezaba a i n s i n u a r s e un carnbio. 'No sustos, Senor Remigio's pensaba" astonishing 40-41). kindness. experiencias en Almost immediately this (pp. He Ultimately contrario para however, fiar a f t e r the episode a t t i t u d e of c a u t i o n i s confirmed of kindness toward Martin are thrown perspective recalls con with and into "tenia the familiar to the boy. the v i a b i l i t y Any muchas 41). vigilant loco, the p r e v i o u s d i s p l a y s the espoused by the boy's g r a n d f a t h e r . r e v e a l s himself as one todos exceso" (p. same jaundiced As the f a t i g u e d p r o t a g o n i s t t r i e s to h i t c h a r i d e from a passing driver son carriage, of the g r a t u i t o u s l y c r u e l types doubts that Martin may of Roque Galda's philophy are the so have had as to dispelled: No, no habia motivo para entusiasmarse: por cada l o c o que te daba de comer, habia c i e n cuerdos que te ensenaban e l garrote. E l mundo estaba lleno de bromistas, de aficionados a l palo. Aqui podia acordarse tambien de J u a n i n . ' iReina una bondad en el mundo! iQue bondad r e i n a , no t i o Roque?'" (p. 43). The following evanescing with day, memories of recent hunger, Martin makes use some of the small cache of c o i n s given him enters a town that resembles Caretas: misfortunes for the f i r s t by Roque " p a r e c i a un time of Galda. He cementerio" 99 (p. is 47). When he l o c a t e s a bar and t r i e s to buy some food, he subject to the a g g r e s s i v e i n q u i s i t i o n s of the bartender. timely i n t e r v e n t i o n of the truck d r i v e r Antonio Carden the bartender's dines in again. by e x p l o i t a t i o n of peace, after the which defenseless bartender, Martin "no por e l cambio?' Tanto tabernero, converse defense <ino seria c a s u a l l y and Carden s o c i e t y and channels se s i n t i o t r a n q u i l o . '<iNo vendra que no se para q u i t a r s e l o e l ? " wonders i t s oppressive f e a t u r e s . who lo quitase "No me el (p. 50). As they will come to his situation, conventional He e x p l a i n s that he is in the truck he had been d r i v i n g : the normal for r e s o l v i n g statement interest manifested r e v e a l s that he does not represent a f t e r wrecking Martin opportunism en Martin boy. should the truck d r i v e r take advantage of the Antonio flight interes prevents the truck d r i v e r approaches him F e a r f u l of the kind of predatory the The such gustan problems los he lios" dismisses (p. 51). with With i n s o c i e t y ' s s t r u c t u r e of r e g u l a t i o n s , h i s the little display of a l t r u i s m toward Martin i s genuine and s i n c e r e . Also, during t h e i r d r i v e r makes a statement Martin: of "El initial, which c a s u a l c o n v e r s a t i o n , the truck has mundo es una m i e r d a " 3 a (p. t h i s short d i a l o g u e , they r e a l i z e well as the similarity t r a v e l together. guardian is 51). their So it is that Martin's ended, at least temporarily. for resonance During kindred of t h e i r circumstances: presents a h i t h e r t o impossible context development; familiar course nature as they agree to period The the for without a interim i t s e l f Martin's autonomous seeds of doubt as to the v e r a c i t y of Roque Galda's 100 philosophy are p l a n t e d , events emerge. defines his strength different perspectives The protagonist's relationship of life Carden, and man Martin which confidence in some in t h e i r With the resembles The ideology advent exposed to a jaundiced ways of suggestibility mentor/guardians. point of view. i s again the nature youthful his t h e i r c o n v i c t i o n s and command M a r t i n ' s personal Antonio with on of view of that of his grandfather. Like life Roque uniquely that "La vida driver's calls deriving carefree mierda. verdad, maximum of the to observation the truck as Christopher Eustis enjoyment out of rare and siempre a 63). expressed with This Martin The will a comically melodramatic, mierda, pero no hay cosas de la E l mundo era una preocuparle to enjoy l i f e hedonistic destitute Desembuche. que His narrator when the truck d r i v e r , d i s c u s s i n g the "Pero, <ique l e pasa a usted? una and since unpredictable. era l a misma. insouciance necessity life, Siempre l o mismo, pero e l hecho no p a r e c i a es narrative justify never ceases to a s t o n i s h M a r t i n . tomarselo tan a pecho" (p. His serves irresponsibility," conclusion things enquires, course " E l mecanico l e e x p l i c a b a demasiado" (p. further mierda" for g r a t i f i c a t i o n are aplomb La the phrase i s most o f t e n used to convey the the t e l l s us that vida. una "insouciant i t . " The in Carden summarizes h i s view of i d e n t i f i e d with i t . His repeated es opportunities of Antonio in a s i n g l e phrase and, becomes of Galda, is nature actor, La v i d a , hacer caso, no hay es que 68). ideology at times assumes a critical 101 perspective. Like u n d i g n i f i e d and Roque Galda, he eschews labor as futile, i n i m i c a l to happiness: iHay que ver como t r a b a j a n l o s hombres! Todos con l a azada, echando l o s bofes, y en dos d i a s a p u d r i r malvas, a alimentar a l c i p r e s . La vida es una mierda, M a r t i n . iHay que ver como t r a b a j a n ! (p. 79) This observation suggests that Antonio Carden s u b s c r i b e s p a r t i c u l a r notion of personal not his with the conventional one. autonomy, though i t He f l e e s the scene of h i s truck rather than face opprobrium, and to Barcelona However, for fear of an he subscribe .satisfies to tradition. futile He h i s personal for for a c o n v i c t i o n s by the sake lifestyle that path merely emphasizes h i s good judgement. repeated vida urgings es una like mierda" (p. should que 110) beber. Hay kind of f a t a l i s m , the volume of the t r i l o g y . beating a boy of response When he vida, Martin, es and about Martin's is una greater the more alegrarse, "No Martin age, offers quieras mierda, es no also la entails witness a first a farmer the p r o t a g o n i s t becomes assistance. Antonio a r r e g l a r e l mundo .... un to characteristic l i k e s of which i s expressed in the enraged when the truck d r i v e r Carden's que life or i t gives r i s e -- i s the dominant of h i s ideology, h i s excremental view of r e f u s i n g to chose d r i v e r ' s hedonism -- "Hay marriage). affords difficult truck returning convention for enjoyment: the others of potential Although that accident avoids i n e v i t a b l e committment to labor opts certainly behaves i r r e s p o n s i b l y in terms of s o c i e t y ' s customs ( i . e . , he the is to a asco" (p. 56). La This 1 attitude, which f u t i l e as farm implies 02 that labor, i s the such final intervention complement would be as of the truck d r i v e r ' s e d i f i c e of hedonism. Christopher Eustis p o i n t s out that the p e r i o d of t u t e l a g e under Antonio Carden i s , f o r the clemency that and impression Hunger enjoyment. He that they are is notes involved in most a Martin's part, "one one of never has the struggle for life. not a problem, for whenever they cannot l i v e o f f the land they have money to f a l l back on." In 5 addition to this, Martin need not s u f f e r beatings as a part of h i s e d u c a t i o n . truck driver, in his function' as mentor, presents a c o n t r a s t to the pessimism of Roque Galda. concise phrases characterize the diametrically of parallel nature opposed s t r u c t u r e and of in Whereas the their world, only h a r s h l y administered basic education of s u r v i v a l . world, dramatic both employ like simplicity they emphasis. lessons are In serve Roque Galda's to impart be little enjoyment. The hedonism a f f o r d s the p r o t a g o n i s t a omnipresent danger, of which exponent, that served the Martin. The result gradual, toward burden resignation fomented by mentor s t i l l proffers the travail, his emphasis respite his of from the kind grandfather was a prejudice overcoming the his grandfather. on familiar pleasure can truck d r i v e r ' s devotion allows of by t e n t a t i v e and pessimism While the boy's denunciation to prime shouldered i s further progress, a l b e i t Martin's the When constant v i g i l a n c e , c a u t i o n s u s p i c i o n are fundamental e x i g e n c i e s of s u r v i v a l , there of to virtually and hope The of life and new as M a r t i n , i f not to 103 unravel a l l the c o n f l i c t i n g understand i t s essential with s i n c e r i t y views of life and nature, then at l e a s t ultimately to to come to g r i p s and a l t r u i s m without s u s p e c t i n g u l t e r i o r motives. 1 04 C. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES Picaresque less elements influencial in than Martin de Caretas en e l campo in the f i r s t L a z a r i l l o de Tormes that begins to Martin's me cumple me those Martin's The epigraph from the second volume i s a p p r o p r i a t e s i t u a t i o n as he leaves home: "Verdad d i c e este, que a v i v a r e l ojo y a v i s a r , pues s o l o soy; y pensar como sepa v a l e r " (p. of volume. are that 9). Indeed, the i n i t i a l episodes, feature a c t s of kindness s o l i t u d e and necessary in spite or a l t r u i s m , emphasize c a u t i o n and self-reliance. The l a t t e r however, as E u s t i s p o i n t s out, r e t a i n p r a c t i c a l l y none of their erstwhile significance as picaresque advent of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s second the protagonist's accustomed behavior such a absent change in character, i s manifested the there is Caretas, which the in alienation volume, It The motivate sort very by temporarily the l i t t l e of the p i c a r o ' s Martin. The extraordinarily causes absurd a conundrum i t e x i s t s only as a memory or c r i t e r i o n delinquent more for picaresque typically behavior in On one guardian. world of the first in the second. behavior. picaresque conditions to leaves only revenge as a c a t a l y s t what c o u l d be viewed broadly as the p l a y i n g of a of prank. for boy's undeserved r e p u t a t i o n causes h i s from h i s n a t i v e medium; absence of lost p r o t a g o n i s t r e s i d e as much i n elements has no value as a c a t a l y s t for features from h i s c o n d i t i o n as in the presence of a new For example, the mentor/protector. With these t y p i c a l l y picaresque to a l l u s i o n s with o c c a s i o n , Martin i n t o a w e l l to avenge a farmer's picaresque k i c k s a bucket of beating a boy of Martin's fruit age 05 1 (p. 58). Shortly farmer's haystacks typically (p. picaresque the p r o t a g o n i s t predilection protagonist mecanico thereafter, 61). sets C u r i o u s l y , one The such truck group of men are forthcoming with a to one sees perhaps vengeful driver pranks, f e e l s are too extreme at times. repairs fire brokendown In shares which one and virtually fuerte" l a b o r i n g over. When the farmer is (p. To Martin rigorous do reality, truck to opt could he considered His g e n e r a l l y labor undoes and a his classically irresponsible attitude, estrangement from w i l l , an shares intellectual society, rather i n h o s p i t a b l e circumstances. nature denies that typically f o r s o c i a l acceptance and l i e s beyond the driver be out of c o n v e n t i o n a l to s t r u g g l e picaro's merit none of Pablos' and with c r e a t i n g in t h e i r appearance the gentility. gratitude society's r e c a l l c e r t a i n of the p i c a r o ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . carefree tendency than picaresque i n t o i s o l a t i o n by genuinely the Carden s c a r c e l y resembles a c l a s s i c a l l y However, i t seems that personal forced case, demasiado neither of causes him the "La broma l e p a r e c i a protagonist. mainstream even 88). though evasion Martin's less a commensurate, m a t e r i a l d i s p l a y of impossible. picaresque more j e t t i s o n s an e s s e n t i a l p a r t , making f u r t h e r r e p a i r s Antonio amo, the p i e c e of farm equipment that a ("Bueno, adios y g r a c i a s " ) , Antonio s u r r e p t i t i o u s l y repairs of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in Antonio Carden than in himself. for he and decision, than being Also, his picaresque s t a t u r e that, in abilities. Lazarillo's The obsession i l l u s i o n of a r i s t o c r a c y or 106 Some of Antonio with those Carden's c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s show aforementioned, existentialism. First philosophy, vida conception life. "La es a l l , the una defined basic mierda," affinity features tenet of of r e f l e c t s that his popular of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m as a p e s s i m i s t i c , anguished view of It is existentialism absurd of broadly an life true finds that in much of literature the expression represents a that dolorously and man's s t r u g g l e -- l i k e l y a f u t i l e one -- to make sense of i t . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , existentialism i n the case of S a r t r e f o r example, i s a philosophy of a l t r u i s m and " s t e r n optimism" that presupposes man's freedom t o d i r e c t h i s own existence and emphasizes h i s o b l i g a t i o n t o choose and a c t r e s p o n s i b l y in order to live in a worthy and e x i s t e n t i a l i s m g e n e r a l l y suggests, optimistic manifestation, exemplary fashion. be i t i n that the process a Carden stands a p a r t . society, his self-reliant acceptance in of h i s hedonism. with independence h i s c h o i c e of l i f e - s t y l e , He seems s a t i s f i e d , Martin on the other hand at and sense, h i s responsible there i s a complacency least superficially, q u e s t i o n of the nature continues autonomy i s s t i l l to grapple of human e x i s t e n c e . in barely i n c i p i e n t . the v a r i o u s c o n c i s e d e f i n i t i o n s of l i f e avoidance of cowardice. s p i t e of h i s harsh, d i s i l l u s i o n i n g experience of In t h i s In s p i t e of h i s estrangement from c e r t a i n r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s c o u l d be deemed ideological or of a man's s t r u g g l e h i s e x i s t e n c e and, i n a d d i t i o n , h i s admitted thorny sum, pessimistic with the v a g a r i e s of h i s e x i s t e n c e i s on-going. Antonio In 6 with the Ingenuous i n Caretas, his His perception i s oddly literal. 107 Most of these definitions the same sentiment, from varying p e r s p e c t i v e s ; E l comico e x t r a v i a d o ("La vida del ...," "Es un sueno and express essentially hombre sobre l a T i e r r a es un drama," "Es una es una E l v i e j o de Alfama ("Es pesadilla un l i o " p. . 154) . . e v o c a t i v e than Roque Galda's, but point Martin expresses his is 68) lyrical is similar. bewilderment at This image d e r i v e d less the e f f e c t "p. for example. a p p l i e s a l s o to the more f a m i l i a r d e f i n i t i o n s : the from the truck d r i v e r ' s metaphor for l i f e tragedia the and At one gamut of descriptions: M a r t i n r e f l e x i o n o : "Este [ e l comico], que es un sueno; e l abuelo, que un g o l f o redondo; e l mecanico, 'es una mierda.' iMenudo l i o ! " No se sacaba en claro que era l a v i d a , pero s i que no era una f i e s t a . A todos l e debia a l g o . (p. 68) The truck d r i v e r ' s g u a r d i a n s h i p the boy's a c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e , development of protagonist on human a judicious, is s t i l l existence anguish toward M a r t i n ' s The absence Antonio's independent also effectively independent view familiar and to him, literally, d e f i n i t i o n s that travail, there is s t i l l his of l i f e . The perspective since b i r t h . portray life enormous progress a t t a i n i n g that j u d i c i o u s p e r s p e c t i v e of studied formerly urgent avoidance experiences of hunger and strife on ubiquitous and open as never before forestalls retards exposed to a kind of jaundiced However, even with a l l those senseless of M a r t i n , which as life. perils, Martin's own the p o s s i b i l i t y of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d e f i n i n g the terms of h i s own existence. In 108 Caretas, there i s l i t t l e hope of autonomous personal c h o i c e : in that environment of conformity and resignation conventions, to choose and act independently fate. mere The breach own, absence of such p r e v a l e n t oppression opens a the course of events attendant among his own significations and s t r a n g e r s a l i k e , Qoheleth's impression no f a u l t of his throughout i n the first leads Martin to puzzle over independent adopts the Qoheleth's grim philosophy again seems to leave M a r t i n de Caretas en e l campo. book, owing philosophical paradoxical aside from Roque fatalism of to Arbo's material, We Galda's Ecclesiastes. component apparent we of are the saw marginal The who f u n c t i o n of schematization of presented In this with another, i d e o l o g i c a l whole of Qoheleth's thought. of Old Testament philosophy irresponsible finds hedonism. its involve c e r t a i n q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , from a s i m i l a r premise; una mierda;" Qoheleth, (Eccl.i.2). this particular expression While fetched, and any comparisons between the vanidades" its i t i s the n a r r a t o r In the second volume of the t r i l o g y , Carden's their ideology in t h i s second volume i s s u b t l e r s t i l l . case, system of experiences, the the p o n t i f i c a t i o n s of mentors and a f f i n i t i e s with the Old Testament f i g u r e , begin Martin's burdens the p r o t a g o n i s t . discrepancies this oppressive i s to r i s k i n the biased p e r s p e c t i v e which, through While that to the two in aspect Antonio t h i s might seem f a r two must necessarily philosophers in question the truck d r i v e r , that "La v i d a es that a l l man's p u r s u i t s are a "Vanidad And while Qoheleth's de c o n c l u s i o n s are 1 09 more demanding and numerous than those of M a r t i n ' s mentor, agree i n at l e a s t paraphrases good." life, He 7 some s i g n i f i c a n t Qoheleth by respects. they For example, Scott saying "Contentment i s l i f e ' s highest The p r o v e r b i a l rub, with regard to Antonio's view of becomes apparent when we examine Qoheleth's a c t u a l words. observes that "No hay para e l hombre cosa mejor que comer y beber y gozar de su t r a b a j o , y v i (Eccl.ii.24), and, perhaps que more esto es appropriate don de Dios" to the truck d r i v e r ' s i d e o l o g y , that "no hay para e l o t r o bien que alegrarse y p r o c u r a r s e e l b i e n e s t a r en su v i d a , pues e l que uno coma, beba y se goce Qoheleth's course, de one su t r a b a j o , don es de Dios" condition for this Both Antonio Carden leads essential, and Qoheleth agree as to them shows both a to mierda" (p. similar 110) and t r a b a j a n l o s hombres!.... logical in "un "the the futility Even t h e i r reasoning, proceedure. The truck que a l e g r a r s e , l a v i d a es f u r t h e r observes "iHay que ver como Todos con l a azada, echando l o s bofes y en dos d i a s a p u d r i r malvas, es una mierda, M a r t i n " (p. of conclude that enjoyment of l i f e i s d r i v e r , as we have seen, d e c l a r e s "Hay life's is, 8 a l i f e of e x c e s s i v e or ambitious t o i l . which una pleasure-seeking a r e s p o n s i b l e and humble a t t i t u d e that Scott c a l l s c a p a c i t y to f i n d enjoyment i n work." of (Eccl.iii.12-13). a alimentar a l c i p r e s . 79). La His equation of such t o i l vida with s o r r o w f u l c h a r a c t e r , along with h i s r e s o l v e to enjoyment s p i t e of the attendant woe, hombre solo que no recalls tiene Qoheleth's exemplum of sucesor, que no t i e n e h i j o n i hermano y no cesa nunca de t r a b a j a r ni se hartan sus ojos de 1 10 riquezas. dPara quien t r a b a j o yo y me Tambien esto es vanidad y duro t r a b a j o " and other para observations llevarselo Ecclesiastes en medio de sol evident good tantos of life exhibit The que man's here profit of the work i t s e l f , but abstract which the i s an in the means of s u b s i s t e n c e , or edification d i g n i t y inherent irresponsible episodes: for orchard a tree and, of example, at one with is its no fruit. from the apparent so much in toward only eschews labor fails to see deriving from it. His the The humility truck d r i v e r ' s exemplified by predicament fear The i n e v i t a b l e feature in point he b o l d l y enters Confronted 9 Testament several a private with no concessions to f u r t i v e n e s s begins to e x t r i c a t e s himself aplomb, attitude can but a l s o in Qoheleth's thought. arrogantly the man Old a t t i t u d e l a c k s the e q u i l i b r i u m that c h a r a c t e r i z e s and a individual's attitude hand , not is of work i s in Moreover, problems r e s i d e not rather profit "Thus to h i s descendents." that labor Antonio Carden, on the other as a c o n v e n t i o n a l perspectives profit or residue is del (Eccl.v.17). i t . The course presupposition existence. of se afana e l hombre debajo Dios l e concede" in any fatigas author summation of Qoheleth's a t t i t u d e : i t , not philosopher's any afanes con i s in the l i v i n g of element sus this "es bueno comer, beber y d i s f r u t a r , as h i s achievement or pass on critical From "nada podra tomar de fundamental d i f f e r e n c e between the two in S c o t t ' s privaciones? (Eccl.iv.8). (Eccl.v.14). concludes that the doing of it. consigo," l o s contados d i a s que The of such as someto a a strip f u r i o u s farmer, with he characteristic or remorse (pp. 54-55). The 111 episode of h i s " r e p a i r i n g " the c r i p p l e d farm equipment aftermath could serve as another example. and i t s Antonio Carden i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y unrepentant of these p a r t i c u l a r events and of his a t t i t u d e as a whole. life style corroborate His l y r i c a l e x a l t a t i o n s of h i s chosen this: No hay nada en e l mundo que valga e s t a v i d a ; no hay nada como esto . . . a c o s t a r s e cuando uno t i e n e sueno . . . l e v a n t a r s e cuando uno q u i e r e y andar a la buena de Dios; comer cuando uno t i e n e hambre . y t i e n e comida, c l a r o e s t a ; beber cuando uno t i e n e sed. No tener que dar l a s g r a c i a s a nadie d e l pan que uno come . . . c a n t a r , comer, beber y caminar, y r e i r s e d e l projimo y hasta de su sombra. (p.182) Later d e c l a r a t i o n s of t h i s kind, volume, merely confirm i r r e s p o n s i b l e hedonism. appearing Antonio's As f o r M a r t i n , the f u l l Antonio's toil manifest pleasure will protagonist's a r r i v a l Ecclesiastes is not be i n Barcelona. scarcely present caught a and only t r e a c h e r o u s l y hidden snares in this perspectives until the after few to hapless references on the wisdom i n the second volume. directly traps, third s i g n i f i c a n c e of Otherwise, are no metaphors l i k e n i n g Martin in the intransigence the c o n t r a s t between Qoheleth's and and in of There rabbits to life's (p.94). In t u r n i n g now to the p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n of our p r o t a g o n i s t , we see that h i s misfortunes being persecuted manifestation personal of by a are s t i l l seemingly adversity: disasters couched i n intelligent ominous portents terms and of h i s selective often precede that i n v o l v e i n c r e d i b l e c o i n c i d e n c e s . Martin e n t e r s a p a r t i c u l a r town in order to buy food, When for 1 12 example, he i s apprehended by a farmer, one of whose haystacks the boy burned out of revenge: on h i s way, un gatazo negro s a l t o ante e l , s a l i d o de un oscuro portal. Detras d e l gato a p a r e c i o una v i e j a . Iba v e s t i d a tambien de negro .... La v i e j a l e recordo a l a v i e j a Manita y a su burro, de aquel d i a i n f a u s t o de su v i d a , y d e l momento en que e l i n t e n t o q u i t a r l e unas algorrobas. (p. 90) An already astonishing mischance i s compounded when the guardia to whom the complaint i s r e g i s t e r e d turns out to be the selfsame Martin's p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e . Senor Remigio of episode reminds us of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s s i t u a t i o n in the The first volume, which E u s t i s l i k e n s to that of Pablos and Guzman, dogged by insidious adversity: "Todas l a s senales negras, todos l o s negros augurios se habian.acumulado sobre e l , como g a r r o t e s " (p. 92). The confirmation encourages Martin's protagonist "maldecia aquel tremedal" While of such ingenuous superstitions. clearly The habia furious metido en Qoheleth's r e f e r e n c e s to " e l tiempo a c i a g o " and " e l and indiscriminate penalties by Providence, the focus of such m i s f o r t u n e i n Mart in Carden's the protagonist. So i t is that Antonio a r r e s t by the Guardia at the end of the second book i s as much Martin's of i l l fortune i l l fortune as i s also s i g n s : the two t r a v e l l e r s witness their events (p. 95). de Caretas i s on episode by su mala e s t r e l l a que l e acaso" emphasize the i n s c r u t a b l e inflicted omens way into the town. the truck driver's. This amply adumbrated by ominous two funeral processions These make a profound on impression on 1 13 the protagonist, given his exaggerated addition, the compulsion to f l e e p r e c i p i t o u s l y seizure of Guardia C i v i l . guardias a The enter famous from le In in which, at to a l o c a l c h a r a c t e r recount at the hands of the the reader remove the mecanico. se l e a c l a r o todo habia bar r e g i o n a l outlaw and c a s u a l l y que the irony i s not l o s t on o f f e r s that "Entonces inquietud fear. truck d r i v e r experiences vague forebodings and a Martin's u r g i n g , they are l i s t e n i n g the mortal perseguido el a when two The n a r r a t o r malestar, toda la l o l a r g o de aquel d i a " (p.217). The p e r i o d of s o l i t u d e that f o l l o w s sees M a r t i n Barcelona with of l o s s and arrive a minimum of c a l a m i t y , notwithstanding one temporary lapse i n his accustomed in feelings vigilance. Insofar as our p r o t a g o n i s t ' s p s y c h i c c o n d i t i o n i s concerned (and in seen particular, his view of l i f e that h i s general ambience certain of his concerning the grandfather. thought since independent dogmatic and the world), we have leaving Caretas, experiences, philosophical In s p i t e of the broad along with has given him pause pronouncements similarity of to Roque his Galda's evinced by Antonio's p i t h y view, i n a d d i t i o n to those of secondary characters, definitions worries over is the which Martin right sect wonders one, effect c l a r o que era l a v i d a , pero s i que experiences and life the i s not one of the much as the s i n c e r e C h r i s t i a n proffers ultimate which the correct i s t h a t , while our p r o t a g o n i s t "No no era una dogma. The se sacaba fiesta," his en own the example of the mecan i c o have shown him that unrelenting travail characterized by Roque 114 Galda. In alone. f a c t Antonio communicates t h i s by more than example Many times he c h a l l e n g e s M a r t i n ' s preconceptions, both o r i g i n a l ones and those owed to Roque Galda: of M a r t i n ' s fear of death, f o r example he says, "no se por que l a muerte .... dormir, Al f i n y a l descansar" (p. cabo, <ique 116). It t i e n e s tanto miedo a es is morir? Morir es here that we are t o l d explicitly, perhaps life: no estaba conforme con l o que d e c i a e l mecanico; con "el f o r the f i r s t time, M a r t i n ' s s61o nornbrar a a q u e l l a senora temblaba terror. Le gustaba mucho l a v i d a " These thoughts (p. fire to el, se the farmer's de 117). cell where he was haystack. escape kept for While they c o u l d be a t t r i b u t e d to the euphoria attendant upon h i s l i b e r a t i o n , is of helaba come on the h e e l s of h i s s u c c e s s f u l (with Antonio's help) from the j a i l setting todo assessment more to the episode than j u s t h i s escape: there i n hot c a r e e r from the j a i l M a r t i n i s again i n t e r c e p t e d by the seemingly u b i q u i t o u s Senor Remigio. a T h i s time the sympathetic s a r d i n e sandwich g u a r d i a g i v e s the and counsels him to f l e e . In d i s c u s s i n g the episode with the truck d r i v e r , M a r t i n i n i t i a l l y f a i l s Remigio's kindness. susto pase la .... vida?" (p. About h i s Susto a q u i , susto a l i a 115). death, the truck d r i v e r disaster ... This seizure, Martin . . . and a d v e r s i t y : "No allows that a rare admission life d i a l o g u e on is not nos pongamos s e r i o s ; ahora, a f o r Antonio Carden: that " l a v i d a es una mierda" and rarely tenders "iQue dSiempre es a s i Es una mierda, pero a veces tampoco esta mal" is to mention remarks A f t e r t h e i r aforementioned again boy (p. all vivir 117). the p r o p o s i t i o n opportunities 115 for joy or hedonistic gratification irresponsibility. heightened capacity to serves He as his takes full life, but enjoy justification for advantage his he of never verbally concedes that l i f e provides such o p p o r t u n i t e s . When Martin f i n a l l y altruism Senor to the mecanico, the response incredulity. Antonio simplistic, pasa reveals en himself Lourdes, M a r t i n " (p. famous g r o t t o e l i c i t s i s one of labors jaundiced view of l i f e . Remigio's under display understandable an ingenuously He t e l l s the boy 119). of "Esto solo Martin's ignorance of the the f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n : Un lugar donde r e s u c i t a n l o s muertos, andan l o s cojos, oyen l o s sordos, por l a g r a c i a de l a madre de Dios; un lugar donde l o s c i v i l e s dejan marchar a los presos y l e s dan encima pan y una s a r d i n a . (p. 119) The truck d r i v e r subsequently e s t a b l i s h e s a d i a l e c t i c p i t s Caretas, a v i r t u a l h e l l place of earthbound .... and against Lourdes, miracles; paradise. He t e l l s M a r t i n "Lo mejor sera que pasemos Estas cosas solo pasan en Lourdes 120). in the benevolence u l t i m a t e l y demonstrates s h o r t , an y a q u i , como quien d i c e , The t r u t h , and to a l l ( p a r t i c u l a r l y what Martin to Roque Galda), i s the r e a l essence of man's l o t r e s i d e s f o r the most part i n the p r o v e r b i a l happy medium. yet earth, clemency, estamos aun en Caretas" (p. that on that to proffers. without from h i s assimilate the In the meantime balanced view of l i f e S t i l l , h i s experience i n the second the truck d r i v e r ' s guidance, indoctrination at the however, that book, he has experience with and s i g n a l s enormous progress hands of Roque Galda. In 116 addition to the aforementioned relationship with experiences a environmental h i s mentor i s of cast great importance. He kind of f e l l o w s h i p and warmth never a f f o r d e d him even by members of h i s own f a m i l y . Antonio's f a c t o r s , the boy's sincerity, i n t o doubt. There are moments in which l i k e the p r a c t i c a b i l i t y of h i s wisdom, are The ingenuous p r o t a g o n i s t s u f f e r s b r i e f l y , but these episodes serve to i l l u s t r a t e to the boy the f a l l i b i l i t y of more "experienced" a d u l t s and the i n e f f i c a c y notions as " l a vida es r e l a t i o n s h i p with Antonio implied i n Roque Galda's concession that l i f e unfolding process limitations and i s the boy's reacts process of to protagonist autonomous of 119). T h i s , among increasing autonomy, other the of a l l faculties of trilogy, by t h i n k i n g things, irregular the t o which h i s Antonio's d e s c r i p t i o n of Lourdes (p. grudging signals The u l t i m a t e s i g n i f i c a n c e development solitude the t r u t h of man's -to the i m p e r c e p t i b l e , which reaches f u l f i l l m e n t ciudad. to mal" Toward the end of the second volume of the "Este se b u r l a " la successful grim of the broadly p e s s i m i s t i c assessments this the esta access illustrates two mentors are g i v e n . Martin the sweeping The truck d r i v e r ' s tampoco Martin's such Martin's gainsays ideology. first judgement. mierda." Carden "a veces of c o n d i t i o n on e a r t h , una of and evinces nearly i n M a r t i n de Caretas en 1 17 D. NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 1 E u s t i s , p. 2 Sebastian (Madrid: 22. Juan Arbo, Martin de Caretas en e l campo Espasa Calpe, 1972), p. 11. Subsequent r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s e d i t i o n appear i n the t e x t . 3 In Arbo's t e x t , the initial word mierda rrr^ followed by e l l i p s i s . case i n which mierda." the mecanico Curiously, o f t e n , appears author's observes that reproducing form. i t s complete " E u s t i s , p. 29. E u s t i s , p. 27. See Jean Paul S a r t r e , Existentialism I have taken "Existentialism from Dostoevsky to S a r t r e , ed. (New York: World, 7 es una Whether t h i s is wish or an example of the v a g a r i e s of the censor, study 6 " l a vida i n other c o n t e x t s , the word mierda, along for the purpose of t h i s 5 an I t i s so represented in every with other taboo words, i s reproduced i n f u l l . the as S c o t t , p. 1956), pp. 231. 287-311. the liberty of i s a Humanism" i n Walter Kaufmann 118 V. A. EN LA CIUDAD THE FUNCTION OF LANDSCAPE We recognize landscape is environment the and saw i n the second bond that rural the ignorant b r u t i s h n e s s of i t s people. As we Caretas' of the with the relevance we morbidity other remnants in vestiges first more saw volume. is features of Arbo's However, the gratifying of of to effect, then, sense, Martin's the rural of more important i n protagonist's landscape and gradual more c i v i l prejudice. i s one of s u b t l e d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t with regard h i s i n d o c t r i n a t i o n at the hands of broader this treatment behavior, which i n turns wears away at h i s a c q u i r e d The of and d i m i n i s h e d r e l a t i v e to i t s f u n c t i o n i n M a r t i n de Caretas en e l campo acquaintance between For example, among in i n Arbo's treatment of volume of the t r i l o g y , personification landscape factor harsh volume. countryside, key relationship was transformed the f i r s t a through the Roque influence Galda of and, in a the benighted town itself . A s i m i l a r process occurs i n the t h i r d volume, although relationship between Caretas' i n h a b i t a n t s i s again of Caretas en l a ciudad, a physical indirect of landscape pertinence. i s pivotal i s concerned. the consequence of t h i s f u n c t i o n i s to Roque Galda's In and i t s Martin de s p e c i a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between the urban ambience and the people of Barcelona function environment the prejudice and to insofar As i n the second counter offer the an as the volume, element of protagonist an 1 19 ideological alternative. through At the beginning of the country, he bears a weight from h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , that are errant solitude. Martin's odyssey of p r e j u d i c e s , i n h e r i t e d relevant to h i s condition of As he e n t e r s Barcelona, he bears a burden of d i f f e r e n t misconceptions, l i k e w i s e p e r t i n e n t to h i s presence the city. Presupposing a r e l a t i o n s h i p between urban t h e i r environment, Roque Galda's these misconceptions exalted have in people and their origin in and i d e a l i z e d d e s c r i p t i o n s of the c i t y , which i n s p i r e M a r t i n to go t h e r e . A p p r o p r i a t e l y , the t h i r d volume opens with a memory of of Roque Galda's descriptions of Martin's astonished exclamations familiar landmarks. The f i d e l i t y these p h y s i c a l discredit Ebro. the as city, he punctuated recognizes by already of the o l d man's p o r t r a y a l of f e a t u r e s serves to rescue h i s r e p u t a t i o n from the i t s u f f e r e d on the protagonist's discovery of the When the boy f i n a l l y c o n f r o n t s the statue of C h r i s t o p h e r Columbus at Barcelona's harbor, antiguo, que hubiese de " p a r e c i a que bajar a l i i se conocieran para s a l u d a r l e . visto Martin, soy yo. No manifests the profound The o l d man was l i t e r a l l y personal interest youthful 1 This imagination, and durable i n f l u e n c e of Roque Galda. the only a u t h o r i t y f i g u r e to take a i n M a r t i n d u r i n g the boy's formative years, a c t i n g as both parent and teacher. Implicit trust the l a t e r experience of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t at t h e i r common phenomena 'Ya l o te engano t u a b u e l o . ' " f a n t a s t i c c o n v e r s a t i o n , the product of a de 'iHola!, M a r t i n . ' Y e l : ' i H o l a ! , senor Colon!' Y e l senor Colon: has one in the psychological i n a d u l t s and f a l l i b i l i t y are development of young 1 20 people. Bound to Martin's love f o r h i s grandfather have f a i t h to brook contempt f o r that knowledge i s to draw the of throughout his the aspersions very existence second cast on volume, into the Roque Galda's country "desengano," this welcomed the by turning question. Martin protagonist, defensively i t s faults. out corroboration reacts Therefore, wisdom, even a f t e r experience has begun to underscore through to i n h i s dogma: s i n c e the boy owes a l l h i s knowledge to the o l d man, nature is a will to be immediate With h i s journey an exercise of Roque Galda's especially to in in knowledge i s this time of i n s e c u r i t y and c o n f u s i o n . While fantastic initial the old to the boy man's the expectations m a r a v i l l a d o , emocionado. era exacto. Parecia vision protagonist. Galda and sensory at Ramblas p r o f f e r 12), an that every landscape en la ciudad, the sentia Todo l o que el abuelo 12). In the l e habia dicho e s t u v i e s e sonando" (p. causes amazement and is added the from a f a r trepidation vindication is a i n the of Roque immersion in an overwhelming p l e t h o r a of results in a kind of stupefaction, turn by s u c c e s s i v e l y amazing s i g h t s . iCuanta gente!" s p e c t a c l e f o r a n a t i v e of C a r e t a s . the w a t e r f r o n t , seeing an enormous "aqui even he owes to h i s g r a n d f a t h e r : "Se "iCuantas f l o r e s , Dios! unaccustomed exceeds volume, the c i t y seen To t h i s now stimuli compounded that Martin's urban que f i n a l pages of the second dreamlike images of Barcelona seemed in the austere context of h i s hometown, h i s experience of heightened lyrical en train at medio de l a c a l l e , close Las (p. Near proximity, l e h i z o un e f e c t o 121 formidable, l e maravillo, fascinado" (p. 13). myriad glimpse estuvo mirando 15) comprises, of the sea, the shops proffering exotic consumer goods, automobiles tempted t o invoke the reaction "aquel pasar de among other wonders, the kaleidoscopic of the boy the phantasmagorical city i s Antonio Pedrera." foodstuffs and "culture shock" to It i s ironically culmination Gaudi's of M a r t i n ' s f i r s t Casa M i l a , known When Martin popularly and r e c t i l i n e a r happens appearance -- "Como un acordeon upon innovative s t y l e , which conventions the house, i t s of earthy que e l modern a r c h i t e c t s , and M a r t i n ' s n o t i o n s that the pragmatism. his aesthetic Barcelona's Such examples simplicity There i s a l s o some i r o n y i n the boy's opinion of the unorthodox s t r u c t u r e : the house of nociones 16). Gaudi i s c o n s i d e r e d one of the most d a r i n g and house i s strange and ugly underscores Caretas. fascination (p. 15) -- causes him to think that "En su v i d a habia (p. extreme as "La r o t o ; como s i e s t u v i e r a v i s t o casa mas extrana, n i mas f e a , segun l a s tenia" day i n the frequent r e f e r e n c e s t o i t . i n the face of the symmetrical borracha" One i s appropriate,then,that L i k e Columbus' s t a t u e , i t holds a s p e c i a l architecture. conspicuous from the n a t u r a l , m a t e r i a l and s p i r i t u a l the boy owing to Roque Galda's surreal and of d e s c r i b e the Barcelona o f f e r s s e v e r a l examples of Gaudi's unique of aspect and a l l manner of b u i l d i n g s . term desert that i s Caretas. flies absorto, v e s s e l s i n the harbor, a p r o l i f e r a t i o n of g e n t e e l - l o o k i n g people, for lo What the n a r r a t o r c a l l s asombro en asombro" (p. boy's f i r s t y opposition of avant to garde represents the a u s t e r e culture are the world of usually 122 accessible the boy only that to urban p o p u l a t i o n s "'iCasas Barcelona!'" (p. como 16). panorama of the c i t y ' s aforementioned that gives intense from the it of solo se told ven en forms part of the o l d man's Further, it reestablishing serves Roque the Galda's in turn completes that e d i f i c e of misconceptions r i s e to another round of d i s i l l u s i o n i n g At the end its Thus Roque Galda has Martin, superiority. purpose c r e d i b i l i t y and aquella, and of Martin's f i r s t and alien day character episodes. amid the urban confusion, e l i c i t s a n o s t a l g i c response protagonist: Se s e n t i a cansado; estaba ya harto de palacios; harto de luces, de movimiento y de ruidos, casi mareado. S e n t i a deseos de s a l i r de aquel maremagnum, de encontrarse s o l o , con e l c i e l o y l a s e s t r e l l a s , con e l campo donde cantaban l o s g r i l l o s , a l que estaba tan acostumbrado . . . . Estaba, s i n embargo, en l a s Ramblas e iba en busca d e l campo . . . . (pp. 1 9 20) His immersion in t h i s a l i e n medium r e s u l t s in d i s o r i e n t a t i o n and a sense of abandonment. juncture it is the According boy's belief Antonio Carden that s u s t a i n s him More to the maravillosa, point however is i t i s not between the s o c i a l and the in his narrator, the in s p i t e f r u t o de su esplendida most fundamental l e v e l , gulf to of his protagonist. experiencia" (p. s u r p r i s i n g that However,, when recobrado rapidamente e l dominio de adaptacion 22). the On a enormous r e t a r d a t i o n of Caretas we awe and mismo" (p. and dismay l e a r n that Martin si of misgivings. de the t e c h n o l o g i c a l modernity of Barcelona should the this imminent r e t u r n "fuerza cultural at "habia 22), we 1 recognize the more a b s t r a c t conception of landscape, 23 f u n c t i o n of a key element i n Arbo's that is, its influence on human behavior. As to we have seen, the c i t y , in Martin's i n i t i a l , after the many challenges through the c o u n t r y s i d e . Attendant that philosophy Roque Galda's f r e q u e n t l y by Martin in the f i r s t people social s k i l l s . particularly his de Barcelona. and the aquella casa." whole n o t i o n , expressed superior dogmatic in urban practical wisdom, and pronouncements on the lead Martin to think "Era nada menos que . tanchermosa, hubiese 2 ideological second volumes, that P a r e c i a imposible que ciudad tan grande, . . desde aquella ido a parar a Caretas, y In the second volume of the t r i l o g y , Carden's example i n s p i r e s a s i m i l a r i n s o u c i a n t a u d a c i t y in p i l f e r i n g owner is causes M a r t i n to marvel kind of near Antonio reverence. f i g ' s i n the presence of His their " 'Debe de ser de Barcelona . cosas a s i s o l o l a s saben hacer l o s de Barcelona; hay que de a l i i 3 breeding, Martin Barcelona's i n h a b i t a n t ' s when he catches h i s city is moved to wonder "dcomo When he f i n a l l y see a native urban serian?" first from a f a r : there are no s i g n s of l i f e resplendance and he has yet to habitat. ser para saber andar por e l mundo.'" Notwithstanding t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n of s a v o i r f a i r e with the is i t on the journey The o l d man's apparent confidently nature of l i f e and man, to upon the ( i . e . those from Barcelona) are knowledge and en exposure the boy's esteem for h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s a g a c i t y reconfirmed is superficial glimpse of of i n the b u s t l i n g in his natural sees these c i t y d w e l l e r s i n the t h i c k 124 of the c h a o t i c urban milieu, his respect wisdom i s compounded by t h e i r apparent q u a l i t i e s unknown i n C a r e t a s . this special class of for their g e n t i l i t y and worldly refinement, By v i r t u e of t h e i r elegant d r e s s , people is an integral factor sumptuous v i s i o n that accompanies M a r t i n ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n i n the to the city: Martin miraba ahora a l a s personas, a los "senores;" todos eran "senores" a l i i , o l a s senoras; todas eran tambien "senoras." iQue l u j o ! iQue f i n u r a Desde e l primer d i a , l a gente, l o s de Barcelona, l e habian despertado admiracion; miraba con l a boca abierta. Pasaban s e r i o s ; pasaban con sus t r a j e s , sus estupendos a b r i g o s -- iQue bien debian de i r para e l invierno! --, lejanos, como s i d i j e s e n : "Soy de Barcelona." (p. 14) Thus the c h a r a c t e r of these people, as Martin imagines worthy of admirat ion "as the grandeur: the between upper elegance gentry was sophisticated to the omnipresence. boy Perhaps for attired el One detects literally a of their the note manifest. mien the In t h i s seeming attention case, uniformity feature to of their superior c l a s s . that gap the and Martin's mode of "ique bien debian de i r para r e c a l l i n g the b r u t a l winters of C a r e t a s . Martin concludes from t h i s experience, in a d d i t i o n preconceptions, city's of l o n g i n g when the p r o t a g o n i s t , i n rags, observes i n v i e r n o ! , " no doubt of the people are even more essential o b s e r v a t i o n above however i s h i s dress. examples a m i n o r i t y i n Caretas, where the and lower c l a s s was and impressive material i t , i s as these people constitute an to his admirably At no time does the n a r r a t o r suggest that such 1 25 characteristics, superficial and d e c e p t i v e as they are, cannot be a c q u i r e d by the p r o t a g o n i s t . Indeed, is of p r e d i c a t e d upon the juncture Martin substantive. mere promise still h i s f l i g h t from Caretas self-betterment. perceives such this superficialities In a d d i t i o n , he has reason to b e l i e v e presence At that as one's in Barcelona can allow f o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l as w e l l as m a t e r i a l improvements. Roque Galda c a u t i o u s l y t e s t i f i e s : Si ves a uno que camina y a cada dos pasos vuelve l a cabeza, es de Caretas. Les ha quedado e s t o de l o s sustos pasados. Antes de a c e r c a r t e a e l , asegurate de quien es; es verdad que a l i i se mudan, se ablandan; pero de todos modos, no te c o n f i e s demasiado. (p. 1 1 ) In t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n we these two see another antithetical realms. example of the i n terms of p h y s i c a l una se que llama "de dimensions, Cataluna." Caretas, con su i g l e s i a y todo, y aun case people of Caretas and Barcelona and Caretas' well established "se ablandan" "'Hay tres sobra e s p a c i o . ' " " In their ill-fame, o l d man's c a u t i o n a r y tone, to say that hometown e.g. En e l l a caben Roque Galda makes an i m p l i c i t but cogent Given of In other cases, c o n t r a s t s are expressed s o l e l y plaza dialectic this commentary on the respective and worlds. in spite immigrants from of the Martin's i s to t e s t i f y to Barcelona's s a l u b r i o u s character. In another important Cataluna: the same descriptive monologue, Roque c a s u a l o b s e r v a t i o n that epitomizes one themes, couched in a description of Galda of the the makes trilogy's Plaza de 1 26 En un angulo de l a plaza, hay una mujer desnuda, agachada en un campo de f l o r e s ; parece de verdad; es de p i e d r a . Esto ocurre a l i i en muchas cosas; parecen verdad y son mentira; son puras f i l f a s . No te dejes enganar . (p. 11) T h i s statement appears l a ciudad i t s s e r v i c e to Arbo's sense of i r o n y c o u l d h a r d l y and be more e f f e c t i v e . the role of on the f i r s t First of a l l , f o r one d e c e i v e r (e.g. to who intimately knows h i s ruse • i n v o l v i n g the trunk that c o n t a i n s h i s " f o r t u n e " ) , he has susceptibility page of M a r t i n de Caretas en false also contributed appearances r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of Barcelona. Secondly, to Martin's through after idealized having invoked t h i s memory of the o l d man's monologue, the p r o t a g o n i s t f a i l s take heed city. and of this timely admonition on h i s f i r s t In any case, having become accustomed to both disheartening admiration experiences of decepcionado" s o p h i s t i c a t e s he had unos grandes 22). For example, Martin bobos, l o s mas congregated itself. requiring (p. 21). imagined Martin's In a tree The crowd s w e l l s u n t i l police again drawing addition, Rather than the "eran, por e l c o n t r a r i o , the a large a impassioned i n which a c a t has thoroughfare to remedy the c o n g e s t i o n . becomes and comically is asombrado, no l o comprendia. stranded blocked, In another case, a chaotic the a t t e n t i o n of large numbers of i d l e estaba his simples que habia en e l mundo" (p. witnesses around q u a r r e l between two men "Martin encouraging disillusionment, o p i n i o n of them s h i f t s to the o p p o s i t e extreme. crowd i n the f o r the r e s i d e n t s of Barcelona i s s h o r t l i v e d : "A l o s t r e s d i a s estaba dignified day to furore, passers-by: Habia v i s t o dos o t r e s casos p a r e c i d o s ; por c u a l q u i e r boberia ya estaba la gente 127 amontonada i n q u i r i e n d o . As Martin begins . . to alborotando" forge personal c i t y , p a r t i c u l a r l y with the l i t t l e /mentor golfo (p. 22). r e l a t i o n s h i p s in the Juanillo and Senor T o r i o , he emerges from h i s p r e j u d i c e -- the issue of extremes of o p i n i o n people. Before these to a more balanced view at lively home. street of p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s develop Martin does f i n d a part of the c i t y whose i n h a b i t a n t s feel sereno Near the customs-house, the boy scene in which he witnesses, city however, make him happens upon a among other t h i n g s : ninos que ensayaban ya en l o s t r u c o s ; mujeres pintadas, con v e s t i d o s de c o l o r e s y mucho metal en l a s - munecas, que llamaban, a l pasar, a l o s hombres; parecia como s i e s t u v i e s e n siempre un poco de f i e s t a , siempre en plan de v i v a l a a l e g r i a ; estaban a todas horas a l acecho, a ver s i pasaba algun t o n t o . Eran como eazadores en i n v i e r n o -- a s i l o pens6 M a r t i n preparando l i g a s , l a z o s , trampas. (p. 24) This scene, while stimulating s i m i l a r to that of h i s e a r l i e r betrays a difference in Martin's senses experience the with urban participants' p u r p o s e f u l , w e l l - d r e s s e d c i t i z e n s that Martin first We same i n o r d i n a t e l y f a s c i n a t e d by events. On the other hand, these to the p r i n c i p l e s that guided In fact the boy street were r e v e l l e r s not only show intriguing e l i c i t s Roque Galda in his empathy according education of i s r e l i e v e d to d i s c o v e r a segment of the urban p o p u l a t i o n not given to g r a t u i t o u s Arbo d e s c r i b e s two saw insignificant M a r t i n : t h i s urban underclass conducts i t s a f f a i r s Martin. The a l s o i n f e r that these c o n s t i t u t e d the a j o i e de v i v r e , but t h e i r larcenous in bustle, attitude. d e s c r i b e d as " s e r i o s . " urban c l a s s to be in a f a s h i o n swindles witnessed silliness. by M a r t i n , to which 1 28 the boy has almost identical reactions. The f i r s t absurd s t r e e t theater i n which an a l r e a d y unhealthy lies on the sidewalk with an Another man with a l a r g e hammer "con b r i o , con a l e g r i a " thereby constituting with The se reia strikes When the feat passing the hat stone repeatedly of breaking i t , i s accomplished, from a the boy o f f with the r e c e i p t s , M a r t i n has sympathy f o r them, tambien viendo l a l i g e r e z a d e l rapaz" "timo de (p. 26). l a s misas:" it an o l d woman who, f a l l i n g v i c t i m to her own greed ends up with an envelope thought the dashes other swindle i s the well-known concerns man enormous stone on h i s c h e s t . (p. 25) f o r the purpose leaving dejected p a r t i c i p a n t s . "pero looking a s p e c t a c l e worthy of remuneration crowd of o n - l o o k e r s . charged i s a case of were bank full of newspaper c l i p p i n g s notes. Again which Martin feels p i t y , h a c i a r e i r e l t r u c o ; l e hacia tambien r e i r l a boberia que (p. 28). c r e i a que iba a hacerse r i c a de golpe" Thus foolishness m i t i g a t e d h i s disappointment in the c i t y , Martin she had "pero l e de esta, at the e x i s t e n c e of such concludes at this early juncture: iQue bien estaba Barcelona! Cada d i a d e s c u b r i a cosas nuevas. Tambien aqui habia trampas a cada paso, y aqui era mas d i f i c i l d e s c u b r i r l a s ; todos iban i q u a l , en sus t r a j e s . Aqui nadie podia a d i v i n a r donde estaban l o s p i l l o s , l o s l a d r o n e s , l o s granujas; pero no c a b i a duda que estaban; a veces, l e p a r e c i a que l o eran todos. (p. 28) The above q u o t a t i o n r e v e a l s that the p r o t a g o n i s t i s beginning to come t o g r i p s with the thorny problem Also of d e c e p t i v e appearances. r e v e a l e d i s a c u r i o u s element that p l a y s an important part 1 29 in Martin's perception of urban people. It must be born i n mind that the p r o t a g o n i s t goes about dressed must appear g r i e v o u s l y impoverished are a constant initially in a l l barceloneses sees "marineros borrachos" and observer. of h u m i l i a t i o n f o r M a r t i n , reminder of h i s humble o r i g i n s . perceives rags, to the o b j e c t i v e His t a t t e r s are o c c a s i o n l y the source and literally Although as "senores," and "mujeres p i n t a d a s " he and l a t e r (p. 24), he seems to equate them a l l by v i r t u e of the s t a t e of t h e i r a t t i r e , as opposed to his pitiable tatters: trajes." F a i l i n g to different segments perceive of the class urban "todos iban i g u a l , en sus differences population, among Martin a s s o c i a t e s the u r b a n i t e s with the notion that "habia cada in paso." the f i r s t In previous expressions volume, these snares f u n c t i o n of h o s t i l e mischance. the in cosmic c o n s p i r a c y , t h e i r persecution city folk, they traps along man's path. further trampas a of t h i s idea, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the boy's path are mainly a People , while often agents are u s u a l l y aided by unlucky of the p r o t a g o n i s t . are these Worse s t i l l , coincidence In the case v i r t u a l l y synonymous with their of of these the p r o v e r b i a l uniformity i n the boy's eyes suggests to him that the workings of fortune are even more random: no one, Martin the c r i m i n a l s and the decent Still, eran bobos en aquella ciudad" i s a familiar kind of s o c i a l order (p. of "no 28). What t h i s solitude, todos discovery p a t t e r n of human behavior to which he i s accustomed. marked by the boy's c o n d i t i o n between folk. the p r o t a g o n i s t welcomes the notion that s i g n i f i e s to Martin a b e l i e v e s , can d i f f e r e n t i a t e and This period, stongly resembles 1 30 Martin's state volume. mentor of abandonment at the beginning of the second I t i s during these i n t e r v a l s without that the f u n c t i o n of landscape the guidance i s most dynamic. who " v i v i a en contacto con l a t i e r r a , " the physical an i n t i m a t e f a c t o r aspects boy's moods. and of landscape are suggestions a To one of the i n the In a d d i t i o n , a r e l a t i o n s h i p between human behavior these d i f f e r e n t faces of man's environment is M a r t i n ingenuously accepts the n o t i o n that c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s guarantee In of the second presupposed: environmental a given p a t t e r n of behavior. and t h i r d volumes, these i n t e r v a l s i n which landscape exercises i t s greatest influence on coincide with of h i s b i a s : d e s p i t e an initial consolidation the p r o t a g o n i s t experiences of mixed c h a r a c t e r , some of which run counter p r e j u d i c e , the boy f i n a l l y and self-reliant just r e s o l v e s to be at the moment r e l a t i o n s h i p with h i s next mentor. experiences to vigilant, suspicious he i s about to forge a This bias, along with h i s the c o n t r a r y , c o n s t i t u t e s the c r u c i a l through which the i d e o l o g i c a l to. h i s foundation of the second dialectic and t h i r d volumes emerges. In impressed His Martin de Caretas en l a ciudad, the protagonist by many experiences that c o n t r a d i c t h i s a c q u i r e d b i a s . f r i e n d s h i p with Jaime, an e r s t w h i l e enemy i n Caretas, i s an example. Another--the acquisition of a deciding factor in h i s genuine, balanced view of l i f e - - i s advent landscape of this mentor, the dynamic i s d i s p l a c e d and i t s f u n c t i o n final h i s p r o t e c t i o n and t u t e l a g e at the hands of Senor T o r i o , the humble the is sereno. With participation thereafter is of largely 131 implicit. In the second value of landscape i s one benighted to place landscape's inhabitants and of of o r i g i n . supposed behavior. As t h i r d volumes, the s u p e r f i c i a l contrast to intimate a determination criterion for So i t i s that the shifts ephemeral from the to the more t a n g i b l e , p r o t e c t i v e presence of judging boy's suggestions b i a s e s about landscape i n i t s d e t e r m i n i s t Senor T o r i o . protagonists's T h i s in turn i s i n e x t r i c a b l y bound landscape f a i l s M a r t i n . away the its people, concentration o f , or a c q u i r e d f u n c t i o n , and succumbs of, in this case, 1 32 B. SENOR TORIO, HIS PHILOSOPHY Senor T o r l o i s the humblest of a l l of M a r t i n ' s mentors, and paradoxically, philosophy of the i n the f i n a l a n a l y s i s , the most i n f l u e n t i a l . i s one of pragmatism and moderation, negative or f a t a l i s t i c overtones and previous ideology comprised two mentors, the for self-preservation. regard in In that h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s characteristics absurdity of by such a view. of his the f u t i l i t y Antonio Carden, we in E c c l e s i a s t e s . ideology of is so Ecclesiastes Caretas en l a ciudad c o u n s e l s of the humble affinities each becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y That and so thoroughly ideology, that v i r t u a l l y it relates to M a r t i n de w i l l g r a v i t a t e around the o b s e r v a t i o n s and sereno. volume, Qoheleth's concentrated i s to say, that resemble Qoheleth's belong mainly the Insofar as Senor T o r i o i s succinct, as with T h i s i s the c u l m i n a t i o n of a process that spans the with the of adhering to fatuous saw c e r t a i n aspects of Qoheleth's discussion mentors. we the ensuing c o n d i t i o n of s o l i t u d e wrought In both mentors philosophy presented resembles case from an e x i s t e n t i a l p o i n t of view; life, s o c i a l conventions and concerned, the h i s philosophy elements of a p e s s i m i s t i c , broadly i n t e r p r e t e d view of l i f e trilogy: to p i c a r o : v i g i l a n c e , c a u t i o n , a s t u t e recourse to t r i c k e r y recognize all saw With elements a s s o c i a t e d with the of vexing we betrays none that c h a r a c t e r i z e the i d e o l o g i e s of Roque Galda and Antonio Carden. Martin's His in in the f i r s t pragmatic the philosophy entire cosmology of the volume those a s s e r t i o n s very words, and t h e i r u n d e r l y i n g ideas, to the n a r r a t o r . Roque Galda's a f f i n i t y with this 1 33 Old Testament philosophy hedonism of Antonio characteristics i s marginal. Carden -- In the second volume, the as well as -- i s expressed i n terms that p a r a l l e l phrases from E c c l e s i a s t e s , but the u n d e r l y i n g moral c o n d i t i o n s both certain imposed by Qoheleth. mentors, there existentialism. are In ideology the likenesses specific l a c k s the philosophies to The elements of Senor T o r i o ' s other elements philosophy of of that distinguish i t f o r i t s resemblence t o E c c l e s i a s t e s are those of clemency, a sense lacking Senor of responsibility i n Martin's other Torio's ideology and humility that are two mentors. The " p o s i t i v e " nature of also the evokes S a r t r i a n concept of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m as an instrument of man's betterment. The it is sereno r e f l e c t s s e v e r a l aspects of in Senor representation Qoheleth's T o r i o that Arbo f l e s h e s out h i s schematicized of Qoheleth's wisdom. The prime v e h i c l e f o r t h i s exposure of the more o p t i m i s t i c and moral face is the sereno's " f i l o s o f i a intervenes i n Martin's del clavo." vital companionship and a n o c t u r n a l monoloque on wisdom: the nature of Ecclesiastes Soon a f t e r Senor T o r i o trajectory refuge, of and offers him he p r o f f e r s an u n s o l i c i t e d existence f o r the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s benefit j u s t as previous clavo" epitomizes the sereno's h u m i l i t y and i n d i f f e r e n c e to the ambitious s t r u g g l e mentors had done. f o r wealth and s o c i a l This status. "filosofia T h i s i s not to equate him with Antonio Carden's s o r t of i n d i f f e r e n c e , one of the sereno's f i r s t should work, a notion counsels t o the p r o t a g o n i s t however: i s that he that we know would have h o r r i f i e d Antonio Carden and Roque Galda. Senor Torio, del like both Qoheleth, 1 34 speaks of one's u n d e r l y i n g to e x c e s s i v e ambition a t t i t u d e toward labor as or the temporal w e l l - b e i n g i t relates of the spirit: "Todos l o s o f i c i o s t i e n e n sus pros y sus c o n t r a s , Martin . . . . Hay que r e s i g n a r s e porque hay poco para escoger, y cada d i a menos . . . . Hay mas hombres para l o s o f i c i o s que o f i c i o s para l o s hombres l a mayoria tenemos que . . . coger l o que podemos, no l o que queremos. No se puede e s t a r , Martin, esperando un poco a l a i r e , como l o s milanos; acaso a e l l o s l o s alimente Dios, a s i l o cuentan por ahi, y yo no me meto en e l i o ; yo s o l o se que e l que espera de l o a l t o esta a r r e g l a d o . Hay que a s i r s e a un c l a v o , aun que sea tan v i e j o , tan oxidado, tan podrido como este mio. E l caso es no perderse, no i r por ahi a s a l t o de mata . . . " (p. 72). When the sereno speaks of r e s i g n a t i o n , i t i s not a of fatalism pragmatism. tells que or cowardice an eminently r a t i o n a l sense of T h i s a t t i t u d e i s f u r t h e r envinced Martin "hay que a s i r s e a un c l a v o todo sean g l o r i a s . f i e s de a p a r i e n c i a s " counsels but . (p. the p r o t a g o n i s t , . 73). grasping at the wind. is, The . . Torio Y no te enganan; creas no te In these statements, Senor T o r i o rather to . when Senor las apariencias p u r s u i t of unreasonable, i d e a l i z e d self-aggrandizement question implicitly, goals paraphrase for that the purpose of Qoheleth, f u t i l i t y and sereno l a t e r makes the ambitious these sentiments more e x p l i c i t : "Me he convencido de que en esta f e l i z e l que se conforma con l o que que tienen riquezas, que viven considero lo que l e s cuesta, envidia." (p. 213) perra vida s o l o es t i e n e . Veo muchos con lujo; cuando dejo de tenerles While these d e c l a r a t i o n s of Senor T o r i o ' s f a i l to show the 1 35 kind of s t r i k i n g , nearly that literal, p a r a l l e l i s m with E c c l e s i a s t e s i s apparent elsewhere in Arbo's ideology shows a strong trilogy, the principal ones f u t i l e p u r s u i t of wealth and of We ambition and have already effect any that "The profit or but he are the profit his que the r e l a t e d notions which a man in can observation that beber gozar existence, "No hay 6 to and This stating He his those r e l a t e s to su enjoying evokes trabajo" of the sereno's v o c a t i o n , approach to E c c l e s i a s t e s . stoically that 215). man (Martin The as boy's (Eccl.v.16). guardian a representative "can real Qoheleth's i f our c r i t e r i o n 5 unalterable its not upon ventaja: (p. terms with the in in i s a humble but repeated para e l hombre cosa mejor que de the as t i e n e esta c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of Senor T o r i o , enjoyment i s duties to exhibit l o es de verdad'" coming satisfactions." the vanity interpretation r u i n : " ' E l ser pobre, M a r t i n , c o n d i t i o n s of h i s element the story of the marquis whose f r i e n d s abandoned him only the one's true l i m i t a t i o n s . from t h e i r wealth. Scott a l s o summarizes Qoheleth by y of a kind of d i g n i t y denied s i t i e n e s un amigo sabes que limited by to a v o i d Senor T o r i o admits that h i s v o c a t i o n serenity the of work i s in the doing of i t , not knows i t a f f o r d s him financial find Of reflected exhortation Scott's whose s o c i a l s t a t u s i s d e r i v e d Martin an of a c c e p t i n g R.Y.B. residue achievement." one, the value cited fundamental k i n s h i p with that of Qoheleth. s e v e r a l aspects of t h i s Old Testament wisdom sereno, the comer In an y Arbo's explicit is a literal discharges his of Spain's most depressed c l a s s sees irony in Senor T o r i o ' s v o l u n t a r y vigilance 1 36 over the estates of the wealthy). There b i t t e r n e s s i n h i s kind of r e s i g n a t i o n . es f e l i z e l que rather than underscores letter the of absurdity t i e n e " evokes the Ecclesiastes' text. prodigious unprecedented accomplishments and wealth only to conclude he spirit, Qoheleth wealth describes his that no "solo of man's esteem f o r m a t e r i a l which i s devoid of any t r a n s c e n d e n t a l v a l u e : own however His a s s e r t i o n that se conforma con l o que the is his accumulation "mire todo of cuanto habian hecho mis manos y todos l o s afanes que a l h a c e r l o tuve, y v i que todo era vanidad y apacentarse de v i e n t o " While Qoheleth uses his own example ephemeral value of wealth, Senor T o r i o the lives of people sereno recounts the provides no culminate i n familiar of for madness a and in a millones y provides German c&ain examples Senor family The whose destitute from ire: " ' Ya lo The wealth that marquis, T o r i o ' s neighborhood, los amigos'" (p. 213). se fueron ves, los In these two a i s another Martin: no l e quedo n i un r e a l ; t e n i a amigos que, e s c u c h a r l o s , se habrian matado por e l ; desaparecieron emphasize the of grievous c a l a m i t i e s death. v i c t i m of f o r t u n e ' s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e tenia to has known through h i s v o c a t i o n . story buffer eccentric he (Eccl.ii.11). de reales, examples, the r i c h are not g u i l t y by v i r t u e of t h e i r wealth, nor i s wealth the source of t h e i r m i s f o r t u n e s : i t t r a n s c e n d e n t a l purpose However, Senor merely fails to serve a commensurate with the esteem accorded i t . Torio also acknowledges the s i n of greed which i n turn r e c a l l s Qoheleth's admonishments a g a i n s t consuming the p r e c i o u s g i f t of l i f e in pursuit of essentially valueless 1 37 wealth. ve In E c c l e s i a s t e s we are t o l d harto de el, y provecho alguno; sereno e l que tambien dispatches esto the subject "La p l a t a vuelve locos a todos" to the notion, Qoheleth, i t i s wise of a have broadly and Ecclesiastes, popularly (Eccl.v.9). The observation that (p. 159). T h i s brings us back by Senor T o r i o , i m p l i c i t l y by recognize and f u n c t i o n w i t h i n insofar as understood i t s "ideal evangelica," his responsibility "despair" within moral . and f o r himself . esta muy that since man God must does not I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note Senor T o r i o , the d e f i n i t i o n given to the term S a r t r e : " I t merely means that we limit to a r e l i a n c e upon that which i s w i t h i n our w i l l s , or 8 misconceptions a t t i t u d e as a and one than " f i r s t steps probabilities which render our In the address from which t h i s d e f i n i t i o n S a r t r e undertakes rather . ideologies the sum of the feasible." of empathetic by Jean Paul ourselves them. interpretation implying 7 d r a m a t i c a l l y on h i s b e h a l f . Qoheleth reasonable de Caretas comprises elements at t h i s j u n c t u r e , having e s t a b l i s h e d the of the Many of these same elements c o u l d be a p p l i e d to l e j o s de l a r e v e l a c i o n intervene vanidad" no saca de e l l o s with the c o n c i s e n o t i c e d that Martin existentialism. accept es to l i m i t a t i o n s of one's e x i s t e n c e We ama l o s tesoros stated e x p l i c i t l y that " E l que ama e l dinero no se with defense attempts responsibility this to collective introversion in of existentialism portray this applications or s e l f - o b s e s s i o n . process are the from i s drawn, popular' philosophical and benefits, In any case, the individual's f o r h i s a c t i o n s and c h o i c e s , action and a l s o accepting accepting 138 the v a g a r i e s of our e x i s t e n c e on own. To quote enderezarse, is, the wisdom of relevance immediately for wealth of impose his this Martin that the boy shows and c r i t e r i a bequest,' in a d d i t i o n to the none of content, by Qoheleth and The of or lust It i s in M a r t i n has and to inherited situations consequences of t h i s kind of harsh, one-sided lessons of his and i s to develop of into s e l f - r e l i a n t model espoused Senor T o r i o . from his ideological view of l i f e , contributions the sereno makes an Martin on a c o l d night and customary o f f e r s him in Martin's impression on the s h e l t e r , the boy In a comic episode Barcelona, e x t r a c t e d hard labor from Martin boy When the sereno approaches responds s u s p i c i o n : a previous o f f e r of lodging food had d i s a s t r o u s r e s u l t s . arrival to with a j u d i c i o u s sense of autonomy and a an act of unexpected a l t r u i s m . his that irrational warn a g a i n s t . f o r judging men r e s p o n s i b l e and development as a person balanced the rapacious ambition e x i s t e n c e that must be overcome i f he Aside (Eccl.i.15); are the biased e x p e c t a t i o n s of h i s f e l l o w man the serene, Martin's "Lo t u e r t o no puede tends toward the f u t i l e attempt from h i s previous two mentors. childhood, our for the p r o t a g o n i s t i s not on the ways of f o r t u n e . b e h a v i o r a l standards h i s own has personal greatness, will not upon the i n s c r u t a b l e nature that Senor T o r i o and Qoheleth a d i f f e r e n t way terms, folly. all apparent. expectations with Qoheleth, to attempt to impose our w i l l What rigorous y l o f a l t o no puede completarse" our e x i s t e n c e i s p i t i a b l e with its shortly a seemingly f r i e n d l y and after tabernero in exchange for " f r e e " room and 1 39 board. with I t turns out, however, that the sereno's introduction a p r o t e c t i v e gesture p a r a l l e l s that of Antonio the author resulta observes mejor nocturnal that " E l senor T o r i o , a l de l o que refuge for significant factor it one quells p a r e c i a " (p. Martin but city and tantos, summary). is in itself A a self-reliance: sets larcenous g u i l d of g o l f i l l o s him with acquainted. that of the youth in abandonment who of 71, chapter the n a r r a t o r p l a y s on a l i t e r a r y realities de element of urgency in h i s c o n d i t i o n and i s already The reves in h i s passage toward t r a n q u i l apart from the sympathetic which he in Carden, and r e a l - l i f e commonplace; falls the urban netherworld. The prey to the seamy refuge o f f e r e d by the sereno i s o p t i o n a l : the f a c t that Martin e v e n t u a l l y goes to stay w.ith h i s boyhood acquaintance take Senor T o r i o ' s counsel the r e l a t i o n s h i p . of survival. Even his if path he testifies the time i s no longer aventurero exposure criminal conforme . . . " to t h i s not long before daily perdition. When Senor T o r i o i n i t i a l l y con (p. i s charmed but lo que 73). decia. Jaime arranges El A f t e r the ideology of h u m i l i t y and "en expounds on h i s el fondo tenia algo conventional lifestyle. de first responsibility, it is employment As no protagonist's for Martin as wandering vendor of c i g a r e t t e l i g h t e r s , an unaccustomed and, Martin, of exigencies leaves the sereno's in danger of to engages in minor mischief with the g o l f o J u a n i l l o , i s decided. muy returns to the v o l u n t a r y nature Martin " f i l o s o f i a d e l c l a v o , " Martin estaba frequently I t i s no longer a q u e s t i o n of the By s u p e r v i s i o n , he Jaime and he opts f o r s t a b i l i t y a for in 1 40 t h i s choice, i t i s a symptom of the conversion Other f a c t o r s f l e s h out and elucidate, in a f a s h i o n , the e v o l u t i o n of Martin's conversion one that Senor Torio espouses examination of these f a c t o r s . explicity. of h i s largely to a new We ideology. implicit ideology, turn now to an 141 C. IDEOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES Leaving a s i d e Senor T o r i o ' s " f i l o s o f i a moment, there are other, more dramatic of Martin's ideological bias. del clavo" factors for i n the m i t i g a t i o n These other processes implicitly serve the sereno's philosophy of h u m i l i t y and moderation, they more e x p l i c i t y Galda's There f u n c t i o n to negate the mean s p i r i t view of man, are which numerous still afflicts possibilities the figure during who with the advent there dominant those Galda's view mentor, Antonio of Martin's is Carden, grandfather; are a l s o experiences that c o r r o b o r a t e the p r e j u d i c e of Roque Galda. when protagonist. the boy's Roque of the second holds o p i n i o n s not u n l i k e and, of Roque a most formative p e r i o d of c h i l d h o o d ; the e f f e c t of experiences that gainsay eclipsed while f o r the t e n a c i t y of the o l d man's ideas as they i n f l u e n c e M a r t i n ; he was authority the As we have seen, these o f t e n occur at moments M a r t i n i s beyond the d i r e c t p r o t e c t i o n of a mentor. during these p e r i o d s of abandonment that he i s a r r e s t e d It i s by the Guardia C i v i l and swindled out of money, f o r example. Before Senor Torio's protective Caretas en l a ciudad, experience that the results intervention protagonist from a is chastened a better bar. The episode develops associated culminates in with an lapse i n h i s v i g i l a n c e . The to accept a job i n t o a comic s e r i e s of d u t i e s indentured servitude. The scene " l a cocina d e l i n f i e r n o , " the d e c i d i n g f a c t o r i n ' the boy's r e s o l u t i o n to f l e e . recall his de by promise of f r e e room and board e n t i c e s the boy in in Martin earlier At t h i s disillusionment juncture i t i s germane to with the foolishness of 1 42 "1 Barcelona's citizenry and h i s subsequent admiration f o r the i n t r i g u e s of the urban underclass he d i s c o v e r s near the customshouse. Martin astute by suggests i s comforted the by the e x i s t e n c e of people standards he inherited from who are Roque Galda: i t t o him that the urban m i l i e u holds a p l a c e f o r him. T h i s lesson i s brought home by h i s own impossible offer e x t r i c a t e s himself of free food from the bar and after succumbing lodging. When one he day, to the Martin reflects h a p p i l y on the outcome: La experiencia . . . no.habia r e s u l t a d o p e r d i d a . Barcelona no era l a que habia imaginado l o s primeros d i a s ; tampoco era l a que habia c r e i d o despues . Se s e n t i a muy conformado en l a idea de que tampoco aqui habia que dormirse; que, segun en que circunstancia, e l lecho malo era e l mejor; que habia, s o b r e . todo a q u i , de guardarse de ofrecimientos demasiado agradables; mirar que no l e sorprendiesen y no caer nunca en l a t e n t a c i o n de aceptar una cena de balde. (p. 35) Such appearance. golfo is Martin's mood The p r o t a g o n i s t , Juanillo, has in when having the of his interjects: condition "Siempre l e habia already met urchin. Martin's presses Torio same s p i r i t l o s i n g money to the c a r d - s h a r k i n g n o c t u r n a l s h e l t e r arouses Senor to The sereno's accept. sorprendido 44). Soon after their perspective the sereno's le relationship act of o f f e r of the The urgency narrator l a bondad, pero recognizes the fundamental goodness of Senor new little s u c c e s s f u l l y avoided despues de l a e x p e r i e n c i a d e l bar, t o d a v i a (p. the s k e p t i c i s m , but him makes h i s sorprendia ahora, mas" i s forged, Martin Torio: altruism from this i s no longer 1 43 questionable. mitigated. Martin's p r e j u d i c e , i n t u r n , Thus the protagonist is is only unprepared partially f o r another unexpected a c t of a l t r u i s m , one of f a r greater consequence. Martin's boyhood reunion i n Barcelona enemy, i s a c r i t i c a l with one chapters of protagonist's their a whole. An Jaime as school i s the bane a b i d i n g and intense feelings for "Jaimito." The of the In the Martin de Caretas en e l pueblo, existence. d i s t i n g u i s h e s Martin's in as of the p r i v i l e g e d youths i n Martin's the h i s erstwhile t u r n i n g p o i n t i n the course t h i r d volume, as well as i n the t r i l o g y earliest Jaime, of dislike nature of reunion and subsequent r e l a t i o n s h i p i s so anomalous t h a t , order to introduce i t , Arbo r e s o r t s to an function as invokes. The f i r s t two pages of the rendered entirely i n the t h i r d person. recount chapter in that he seldom question that open chapter and each carries s o r p r e s a " and i n the f i r s t his f e l l o w man. the chapter, the the As with h i s p i t h y narrator t e n s i o n of u n f o l d i n g droll title a events. sentence the n a r r a t o r w i l l admit What Arbo goes on to d e s c r i b e are the e f f e c t s of of adumbrates "Martin t i e n e una that the p r o t a g o n i s t "se topo con un antiguo conocido" observations are The' n a r r a t i o n does not rather i t d e s c r i b e s o m n i s c i e n t l y undermining the dramatic This narrator of h i s t a k i n g place i n the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s i n t i m a t e a t t i t u d e h i s existence summaries without third-person a c t i o n s or events: "conversion" toward omniscient extension general nature this commensurate i d e o l o g i c a l background of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s v i t a l only (p. 96). meeting, with course: the 1 44 M a r t i n s e a l e g r o e n g r a n m a n e r a , no s o l o por el encuentro; tambien p o r q u e e l c a s o se acomodaba a una n u e v a d i s p o s i c i o n s u y a de e s p i r i t u , u n a manera nueva de p e n s a r , y h a s t a de s e n t i r , que i b a i n s i n u a n d o s e en e l desde h a c i a algun tiempo.. M a r t i n , en e f e c t o , p o c o a p o c o , s i n a p e n a s darse c u e n t a , h a b i a i d o c e d i e n d o ; h a b i a i d o pasando a l bando opuesto. No era c o s a , c i e r t a m e n t e , de d e s c u i d a r s e , p e r o t a m p o c o de p a s a r s e l a v i d a con la mano en la lanza; a d e m a s , p a r a l o que t e n i a q u e p e r d e r , no v a l i a l a pena d e m a s i a d o . Esto, los millonarios. (p. 96) This p a r t i c u l a r l y dramatic concerned, is ideology brings and similar, than in though impressed which elicited head a events was the like that son Nowhere himself so else consider of Arb6's use of of minor novel of as the does Martin's narrator's third rather a l t r u i s t i c act in the many episodes expressed the the by nonplussed, some is Galda's sustos," exclusively maximum e x t e n s i o n Roque earlier, todos Martin sustained merely Those as of process beneficiary "No own w o r d s . This to a insofar refutation the p r o t a g o n i s t . avail condition. us to a response narrator definitive lesser Martin protagonist's brings the episode, the intimate omniscience person point of view. On person to the surface, n a r r a t i o n as distinguish convention. faithful availed If Martin of purposes, third strictly of the that Arbo factor from did the picaresque certain we in the a u t h o r ' s single de C a r e t a s we a c c e p t ideological person recognize perhaps adaptation himself we that the intend to novel, but of account for the picaresque third- his most picaresque produce rather to not of serves true characteristics need terms not use merely suit use a his of the convention of 1 45 first-person can serve narration. to shed l i g h t Nonetheless, c o n t r a s t s between the two on the n a r r a t o r ' s motives third-person omniscience. In picaresque the personal interest consequences perspective to imparting others. the n a r r a t o r has a s p e c i a l , h i s experiences The to course. and confessional, a process The material of selection, sometimes e p i s o d i c , though u s u a l l y The choosing center of protagonist. ideological The personal of which gravity for a arrangement. naturally F r a n c i s c o Rico, with novel's accounts r e s i d e s i n the and e x c l u s i v e nature of the n a r r a t i o n Tormes and Guzman de A l f a r a c h e , the picaresque of the trajectory i s chronological f a i l s to serve any sense of r e l a t i v i t y with prosaic values. this their first-person i s anchored i n a f i x e d moment, the c o n c l u s i o n protagonist's subject in tradition, for regard reference to to supreme or L a z a r i l l o de sums up as f o l l o w s the nature of point of view: los ingredientes p r i n c i p a l e s tendian a explicar l a situacioh f i n a l d e l protagonista, de l a que era elemento n o t a b i l i s i m o e l hecho de redactar una autobiografla: l o s nucleos mayores d e l conjunto daban cuenta d e l personaje como narrador, justificando la perspectiva que, a su vez, d e c i d l a l a e x i s t e n c i a y e l contenido de l a s memorias, de suerte que l a novela quedaba rigurosamente c e r r a d a . En ambas obras, l a a u t o b i o g r a f i a presentaba toda l a r e a l i d a d en funcion de un punto de v i s t a . 9 Although Martin de Caretas comprises with a d i s t i n c t l y e p i s o d i c tempo, only the kind of vague c h r o n o l o g i c a l gap. temporal This i l l u s i o n a n a r r a t i v e course r a r e l y does references Arbo that invoke signal of temporal c o n t i n u i t y , a along 1 46 with the omniscient v o i c e of the n a r r a t o r , leaves no room for doubt i n the reader's mind that Martin selection of events to be represented. not to be so "rigurosamente of M a r t i n de Caretas cerrada." i s of course chooses to represent a c t i o n s and purposes, interest values person be plays over other, selective to s u i t his does. beyond the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s a b i l i t y suggestion of o b j e c t i v i t y -- a device value systems a g a i n s t each other justify his own bias. to protagonist country Having weigh particular Given Arbo's ideological established where a d i f f e r e n t The different volume, Roque hostile that system of v a l u e s , the realm on h i s journey and could to know. protagonist's set of values begins boy's a c q u i r e d view of man third values the For example, i n the f i r s t then enters a new he allows Arbo to e l u c i d a t e and Galda's counsels seem a p p r o p r i a t e to the circumstances. way: purpose c o u l d only be served by n a r r a t i o n , whereby the r e l a t i v i t y of these established the narrator i n h i s own the s u p e r i o r i t y of c e r t a i n his in omniscient j u s t as the p i c a r o /autobiographer in demonstrating role Hence the work appears The events no existence. through the to c h a l l e n g e the Thus begins that process of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s p h i l o s o p h i c a l c o n v e r s i o n upon which the narrator's ideological intention i s based throughout the r e s t of the n o v e l . The memoirs picaresque's fixes departure and, the traditional recourse to the style of protagonist's maturity as the point of as we have seen, tends toward an e p i s o d i c In the case of Martin de Caretas, the person point of advantage of the format. third view i s i t s p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o the e v o l u t i o n of 1 47 the p r o t a g o n i s t as i t Initially of Martin conflicting is influenced by extraneous factors. i s a kind of t a b u l a rasa, and as the dynamics ideologies give him pause, he begins his development toward true autonomy and s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . In the same in a l l way that Martin's i t s aspects of s p i r i t u a l growth i s b e t t e r served by t h i r d person n a r r a t i o n , so i s the linear development. The p r o t a g o n i s t ' s e a r l y adolescence c h r o n o l o g i c a l l y to represent In and begins proceeds about three years apparent events the service quotation of third ideological goals. that challenge todos s u s t o s " or perspective of Martin's and life. progression "no from from person Martin de Caretas n a r r a t i o n to Arbo's Whereas Martin often responds h i s p r e j u d i c e with phrases l i k e tenia razon el r e l a t i v e to t h i s gradual abuelo," conversion his omniscient narrator. juncture of Martin's to "no son intimate does not permit to expound on i t e x p l i c i t l y and o b j e c t i v e l y i n the i n the to a c o n c l u s i o n . To summarize, the above epitomizes sense consistently other words, the novel comprises a coherent a beginning him narrative novel's the way of Since only the n a r r a t o r knows at t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l odyssey, h i s p e r s p e c t i v e the o b s e r v a t i o n that the p r o t a g o n i s t opuesto:" there i s nothing "habia ido pasando a l bando to i n d i c a t e that Martin himself the s i t u a t i o n as a d i a l e c t i c of extremes. allows He i s aware of views "una nueva d i s p o s i c i o n suya de e s p i r i t u , " but the c h o i c e of verbs and progressive disposicion algun verbal . tiempo" . . and constructions que iba "habia in the insinuandose phrases en el "una nueva desde hacia ido pasando a l bando opuesto" denote 148 the i m p l i c i t , e v o l u t i o n a r y development of Martin's c o n v e r s i o n . Arbo's h a b i t of vaguely or p a r t i a l l y d i s c l o s i n g certain is f e a t u r e s of the n a r r a t i v e , to be f u l l y another unique perspective. In prerogative addition afforded to by practising in advance recounted the this later, omniscient technique p o r t r a y Martin's i n t i m a t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , the author a l s o the liberty of addressing the reader d i r e c t l y . having revealed by having length, n e i t h e r the i d e n t i t y of the "antiguo conocido" nor h i s kindnesses, Arbo suddenly chastened takes After d i s c u s s e d the consequences of the grand reunion at some to the shifts his attention, as if kind of impatience Martin d i s p l a y e d at Roque Galda's d i g r e s s i o n s from otherwise good yarns: La vida . . . Pero acabemos, por San Ambrosio, charlador celeste, lloron sublime y defensor de grandes causas, que no vamos a terminar en un ano. Esto pensara tambien alguno escuchando esta monserga. "iVaya l a t a ! " exclamara para s i y no le faltara razon. Vayamos, de una a M a r t i n y a l encuentro que tuvo a q u e l l a manana y no nos metamos en caballerias. iPor e l santo santo! iNo volvamos! (p. 98) The sobriety narrator's abrupt The reflective preceding paragraphs, man encountered and to own sentimental the i n l i g h t of the abundance of views on life serious character c o n s i s t e n t l y along Martin's v i t a l p r o f f e r h i s own of emotionalism and immediate his of makes i t appear to the t r u s t i n g about to i s w e l l served by the j o c u l a r and s e l f - e f f a c i n g tone of the paragraph. and reaction view. resumes h i s experiences. reader We that the Arb6 shrewdly account learn that of course, narrator breaks the the Jaime, is spell protagonist's while still 1 49 imperious and arrogant, welfare. He buys the p r o t a g o n i s t a new a l l e v i a t e s another his i n s t a n t l y takes an of M a r t i n ' s urgent interest suit in of c l o t h e s , which c o n d i t i o n s (the boy rags however, to avoid a l i e n a t i n g h i s good f r i e n d Also, it is Jaime who Martin's keeps Juanillo). i n t r o d u c e s Martin to employment which, however modest, marks the f i n a l and definitive phase of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s i d e o l o g i c a l development. And while Martin's renewed relationship with Jaime i s d e f i n i t i v e proof of Roque Galda's f a i l i n g s as a p h i l o s o p h e r , a l s o proves a kind formidable of urban salvation milieu, for the boy i t i s the l i t t l e in Martin's living c o n s o l i d a t i o n of a balanced, view produces conditions of with a g o l f o J u a n i l l o that o f f e r s true f r i e n d s h i p : Jaime's i n t e r v e n t i o n improvements faced and life, and while tangible h e r a l d s the the humble g o l f i l l o provides the p r o t a g o n i s t with a c h e r e t o f o r e unknown sort of fellowship, that grotesque appearance golfillo tries to of of a peer. his lure Aside ill-fitting Martin from the humorously rags, the i n t o a game of cards on f i r s t meeting, soon a f t e r the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s a r r i v a l J u a n i l l o , a n a t i v e of S e v i l l e , a l s o s p o r t s an of his that regional often dialect, confounds the engaging i n the exaggerated their city. form r e p l e t e with a comical reverse ceceo protagonist to the point of incomprehension. In spite of aggravations, J u a n i l l o As we have seen, causing the protagonist i s a thoroughly soon a f t e r the two Columbus, M a r t i n s e t s out on a steady certain sympathetic petty character. boys meet at the statue of course of estrangement 150 from the lifestyle embodied empathy e x i s t s between the two in J u a n i l l o ' s i l l - a d v i s e d to recover abandoned a of sustained silver character to from subplot an participate attempts a mysterious becomes another f o r the p r o t a g o n i s t : Senor T o r i o o f f e r s the a n a l y s i s of i t s moral consequences and the Nonetheless, that leads Martin cache This exemplary experience Juanillo. schemes, such as the repeated legendary house. by of h i s f r i e n d and Martin i n t o the gains i n s i g h t i n t o futility of irrational ambitions. Martin proposal: is dubious "le parecio prometia; penso que de from muy the outset poco about trabajo para a q u e l l o debia de ser una J u a n i l l o , nacido de.. . . Juanillo's la plata f a n t a s i a , un sus deseos de verse con sueno 'parne' a poco p r e c i o , en l o c u a l se p a r e c i a a todo e l mundo" (p. In spite of proposicion his por reservations, amor del riesgo" doomed to f a i l u r e by more than treasure. The house is Juanillo's ill-health and intruders. Their initial the guarded -- and then to see his little entertaining by a threaten marquis companion, by of Martin debilitated is the expose the t e r r i f i e d by a Senor Torio's sadistic escapes night unscathed by t u b e r c u l o s i s and " e l gordo Anton." g o l f o l a b o r s under a general f a n t a s t i c and of la watchman, and to the mission nature night 82). "acepta The apocryphal surprised m a l n u t r i t i o n , beaten m e r c i l e s s l y by The 82). foray sees them f i r s t watchman, a l s o known to the sereno. only protagonist (p. frailty g h o s t l y a p p a r i t i o n -- the d e s t i t u t e acquaintance the que unreachable g o a l s . delusion, one of J u a n i l l o ' s chosen 151 vocation, once bullfighter. selling he When M a r t i n , lighters, "Juanillo leaves h i s y o u t h f u l c a r d s h a r p i n g , . . encouraged by h i s own o seria to a el 'torero o naa'" solo (p. le 207). from will, lack l i m i t a t i o n s that h i s of poor health, impose on h i s p l a n s . Martin on to the attack ends in n e a r l y failure to i s l o s t on J u a n i l l o , not suffered physical j u s t i f i a b l e vengeance, but guardian of with of Their next fashion, with suffering another i t i s Martin treasure, who, at least While the moral l e s s o n of the i t serves to chasten Anton, who injuries f a i l e d to as a r e s u l t of extract the house. payment His d e l u s i o n s without Martin's for l e d him making Senor Torio chides him thus out of greed: the e n t i r e episode prompts the to observe that "La p l a t a vuelve locos a todos." his to formal the owner in the hope he would be p a i d out a p p r e c i a t i o n for h i s good w i l l . acting and the undertake h i s v i g i l a n c e of the property arrangements dismay. In the end secure revenge. resolves identical limitations by the guard. appropriate as Juanillo protagonist's experience services condition recover in l i g h t of t h e i r only and immediate to the mystery house to e x t r a c t revenge and J u a n i l l o succumbing to h i s extracts poverty the return the' house humiliating recognize by to the t r e a s u r e , a l l attempt compounded Minutes a f t e r h i s drubbing at the hands of the s a d i s t i c Anton, with to queria Thus d i v o r c e d an abandonment friend, los for easy wealth i s or at interesaban r e a l i t y , h i s a b s t r a c t longing inability, his no manifesto ningun entusiasmo; no saber nada de compras y ventas, toros; easy success suggests the same l i v e l i h o o d . i s that of of for sereno 1 52 In the example of J u a n i l l o , Martin has an o b j e c t lesson the futility embodies of irrational qualities s y n t h e s i s of those avoid; futile that expectations. would appear an ambitions, desires others, a l l i n t e r r e l a t e d n o t i o n s . his extreme closest hours consequences and moments. the lesson save J u a n i l l o by doctor, The is so i s a powerful prevailing upon responsibility, protagonist de in terrified one. muerte, nada. Jaime's 248). Juanillo's continuaba changing con last mortality father, view with (p. of se as attempt to a medical i r e yo a molestar que a la his own a l b e i t in life receives l e causaba l a perdida su miedo a l a muerte. La vida era estupenda, etc." relationship of the face of i t d e f i n i t i v e l y manifested, In concluding manifest to golfillo, With the i n e v i t a b i l i t y of death and de l o s majaderos, de l o s granujas, bromistas, among i s witness A desperate more impetus: "aparte de l a pena que Juanillo, pesar our i n c r e d i b l e c a l l o u s n e s s : "<iTu c r e e s melodramatic terms, Martin's still warn us to of such d e l u s i o n s when the For one greeted with (p. impotence systematic e x p e c t a t i o n s beyond por un g o l f o c u a l q u i e r a , por un perdido, gente?" qolfo the scene of h i s f u n e r a l are the novel's most somber and poignant Martin, almost f r i e n d , succumbs to t u b e r c u l o s i s . and little that Jean Paul S a r t r e and Qoheleth means, evasion of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n and the The in estaba No; con l a bien aqui a de l o s ladrones, de l o s 272). t h i s d i s c u s s i o n of the g o l f o J u a n i l l o and Martin, it a f f i n i t i e s the author i s germane to t r e a t b r i e f l y shares with Pio B a r o j a . i n f l u e n c e on Arbo can hardly be o v e r s t a t e d : the his the Baroja's massive (some 1 53 ungenerous s o u l s would say obsessive) biography, P i o Baroja y su t i empo, preoccupation. i s alone Stylistic abound the and in thematic Arbo's anguished reflect evidence a of fiction. of prodigious affinities an with the prolific To c i t e only a few broad protagonists view a of Arbo's alienated, early absurd novels existence i n an l i k e that of Andres Hurtado i n ciencia. on y la E l a r b o l de l a the i n s i d e cover of the A u s t r a l e d i t i o n of M a r t i n de Caretas, the author sencillez examples, Catalan i r r a t i o n a l world, Also, Basque claridad i s quoted as saying "creo son las principales que l a virtudes (del e s c r i t o r , en g e n e r a l , y d e l n o v e l i s t a , en p a r t i c u l a r ) , y son, en el fondo, are e l a t r i b u t o de l o s mas grandes." espoused estilo." at length i n Baroja's a r t i c l e manifests to Arbo. "La i n t u i c i o n y e l the question certain special In accounting post-war at resonances hand, Martin de Caretas of Baroja's d i v e r s e legacy f o r the numerous picaresque Spanish novels . . en l a obra de P i o Baroja lucha por l a v i d a proximo" of the Baroja's -- trilogy h i e r b a and Aurora M a r t i n de Caretas. sent and which comprises 1 1 the r o j a , has p a r t i c u l a r intermediary: particularmente estos tradition. en La e s c r i t o r e s un eslabon La lucha por l a v i d a , novels La busca, relevance with regard Mala to Baroja's young p r o t a g o n i s t Manuel A l c a z a r i s from a small town to Madrid, "aprender -- encontraban picaresque adaptations ( Martin de Caretas among them), Gonzalo Sobejano recognizes Baroja as an important " . convictions 1 0 With regard to among Similar un o f i c i o . " 1 2 i n order to r e j o i n h i s mother Although the action of a l l three 1 54 novels i s confined protagonist to i s exposed to context, whose pertinent than material depicts the horrors prostitutes, situation. a abstract qolfos depressed different or and and o c c a s i o n a l delinquent a sometimes picaresque an accompanies a acts. succession convincingly urban indigents, utterly hopeless i n t h i s world when he group The of g o l f o s who protagonist of menial jobs, motives Hasting, are incomprehensible invariably an odd sort of mentor influence of Nietzche counsels the p r o t a g o n i s t decisive trilogy action finds anarchists, on According one from a Seminary. of unequivocally 1 3 that Robert exemplifies 1 part. close The contact whom i s h i s brother Their hopeful, j u s t and p e a c e f u l i s convinced i n the hope of i n s p i r i n g in . on Baroja's t h i n k i n g at the t i m e , " " Manuel's Manuel and also from which he v i l e and e g o t i s t i c a l . " "who urban are more B e a t r i c e P a t t , Manuel i s " p e s s i m i s t i c and hopeless, human a in the i n s i g h t i n t o a d i f f e r e n t kind of human misery. sees l i f e as sad and the of Manuel p a r t i c i p a t e s m a r g i n a l l y perpetrate to Baroja degradation criminals within dimensions considerations. and gains media ideological befriends sustains s e c t i o n of the c i t y , the some sort f i n a l volume of the with a group of Juan, r e c e n t l y escaped millenarian speculations s o c i e t y a r e put i n a d e f i n i t i v e by Manuel and he speaks to h i s deceased of about perspective brother: iTe has ido a l o t r o mundo -- y miraba e l cadaver de Juan -- con una b e l l a i l u s i o n ! Ni l o s miserables se l e v a n t a r a n , n i r e s p l a n d e c i r a un d i a nuevo, s i n o que persistira l a iniquidad por todas partes. Ni colectiva n i individualmente podran libertarse los humildes de l a m i s e r i a , n i de l a f a t i g a , ni del 1 55 t r a b a j o constante In spite of bearing a c e r t a i n y aniquilador. the pessimistic 1 5 tone resemblance to E c c l e s i a s t e s and do at the very c o n c l u s i o n of Baroja's Arbo do not discount the undercurrent the novel's "el sueno de of Manuel's remarks, outcome. both of hopefulness they Patt and implicit in Arbo d e s c r i b e s the c h a r a c t e r of Juan as redencion . . . e l heroe de su l i b r o , que Patt the total effect i s dreary and p e s s i m i s t i c , each of the three novels ends a note of hope . . . . h i s own Baroja that "although el del 1 6 observes es sueno on autor." trilogy, coming as i s not yet ready t h i n k i n g to i t s l o g i c a l c o n c l u s i o n but seeks . . . m i t i g a t e the consequences of h i s apparent n i h i l i s m . " personal trajectory i s , l i k e M a r t i n ' s , one for a l i f e s t y l e of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and integrated into the bourgeois to become an upstanding Manuel and Martin regard, there option, to f o l l o w and should be no Manuel's 1 7 of g r a d u a l l y opting s t a b i l i t y : he "is finally s o c i e t y of h i s time to marry respectable c i t i z e n . " resemble to the model dishonor of 1 8 While Lazarillo associated and both in t h i s with their s i n c e they act out of reasoned pragmatism, the f r u i t r e l a t i v e l y wide experience. In s p i t e of numerous obvious trilogies, there are Baroja's p r e o c c u p t a t i o n atrasamiento g o l f o " and is of well a f f i n i t i e s between fundamental with known. the d i f f e r e n c e s of problem In of these conception. Spain his a r t i c l e s two and its "Patologia del "Mala h i e r b a " he r e l a t e s t h i s n a t i o n a l complex to the c h a r a c t e r of the g o l f o , and the i s s u e of his observations is 1 56 particularly Baroja sets about formidable classes, have germane it. among Having its 1 9 In "Patologia the term g o l f o , that proceeds exists the popular the universal with an del golfo," w h i c h he a d m i t s golferia t h e poor as established Baroja of study. He a s s e r t s just phenomenon, analysis defining task. not to t h i s in a l l is a social c o n c e p t i o n would nature almost of this anthropological origins: es una forma que ha nacido de nuestro raquitico medio social, es un t i p o s e p a r a d o por una c a u s a c u a l q u i e r a de su medio a m b i e n t e y que reune en s i mismo t o d a s l a s a s p i r a c i o n e s de su c l a s e . 2 0 The those that of aspirations only t h e most gives rise relatively new seems not peculiar to to such that the manifestation refers petty variety. ignoble political indict Baroja s y s t e m as through The f r a i l desires system: is but filter social be fabric i n t u r n weakened by a democracy. such, the t o would seem t o of In all, Baroja r a t h e r condemns Spanish its society: Una de las causas de la golferia es la d e m o c r a c i a ; yo no soy enemigo de e l l a . . . pero l a d e m o c r a c i a n u e s t r a , l a que gastamos en E s p a n a . no ha s i d o mas que un camino abierto a todas las ambiciones pequenas, a todos l o s deseos mezquinos y malsanos. Ha hecho que e l hombre busque su progreso social mas que su perfeccionamiento moral; ha p r o d u c i d o en t o d o s l a a m b i c i o n de r e p r e s e n t a r mas que l a d'e s e r . 2 This the is 1 a curious impoverished manifest t h e same observation squire symptoms. when we r e c a l l i n L a z a r i l l o de T o r m e s , Oddly, while Baroja t h e example of who seemed to decries the 1 57 collapse of social classes which people lose s i g h t respective of due the nos pero que malo." defining m o r a l i t y of t h e i r c l a s s , that "Estamos dominados por l a dinero to the democratic nos system, in characteristics i n "Mala h i e r b a " he plutocracia mas and laments absoluta. El ha hecho perder una p o r c i o n de ideas, q u i z a f a l s a s , sostenian. Whatever Nos opinions para todo lo as to the causes of this g o l f e r i a , the e f f e c t s that he underscores s t r o n g l y resemble some 22 Baroja's industrializamos of those c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that S a r t r e , Qoheleth and caution us irrational against; futile materialism, ignorance personal limitations. Some describe Juanillo: is aspirations. he However, striving of of social disregard Torio status, for he guilty of unrealistic corresponds to a general, popular conception of•the g o l f o -- a d e s t i t u t e , urban youth earns his living by means t r i c k e r y --, -his f u n c t i o n beyond of our these t r a i t s c o u l d be used to undeniably while or for Senor shrewd, sometimes larcenous in M a r t i n de Caretas c a r r i e s Baroja's a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l d e f i n i t i o n : " . . who him far . e l golfo es un hombre d e s l i g a d o por una causa c u a l q u i e r a de su c l a s e , s i n l a s ideas n i l a s propia, que preocupaciones es generalmente de esta, con una negacion de toda m o r a l . " filosofia 2 3 Juanillo i s even f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h i s concept o f ' t h e c h a r a c t e r of the g o l f o when Baroja e l u c i d a t e s on t h i s " f i l o s o f i a propia:" En todas l a s c l a s e s e l golfo tiene l a misma filosofia, e l egotismo, la filosofia d e l y_o. A l perder l a moral de su medio ambiente, a l no tener utilidad para e l l o s preceptos morales de su c l a s e , desaparece de su e s p i r i t u toda r e l a c i o n de deber para con l o s demas. " 2 1 58 If we apply this definition pages of M a r t i n de Caretas, the therein of is the character medical d o c t o r . the dying epitomize toward the obverse will can a l s o occur grievously Jaime's f a t h e r , Caretas' former to the boy's p l e a s to help attitude servant of of egotism human welfare. and If should, f o r the purpose of t h i s study, in destitute. are all suggest social we no less means. reflective s t a t e i n the aftermath golfo's classes, significant modest little that a l t r u i s m and even posit good- among the J u a n i l l o ' s small a c t s of s e l f l e s s n e s s i n extremely odyssey found even more absurdly i r o n i c coming of t h i s notion and M a r t i n ' s favor the to Baroja's a s s e r t i o n that l a g o l f e r i a occurs i n a l l s o c i a l s t r a t a , perhaps we of golfo search the be this others, from a purported healer and accept grandest His c a l l o u s response Juanillo insensitivity r i g o r o u s l y as we The for narrator, example the golfillo's describing Martin's of J u a n i l l o ' s death, makes use to put Martin's ideological in r e l i e f : Ahora s a b i a que tambien en Barcelona hay gentes que viven en e l mayor abandono, gentes que perecen de hambre y f r i o . Como en C a r e t a s , y mas aun que a l i i . Habia v i s t o casos que nunca habia podido imaginar; habia d e s c u b i e r t o l a bondad donde menos l o esperaba, y donde menos l o esperaba l a maldad. Ahora s a b i a que en un golfo c u a l q u i e r a , en un J u a n i l l o , en un Panda, d e s p r e c i a d o s , se o c u l t a a veces un alma mas hermosa que en e l senor medico de Caretas, con todos sus t i t u l o s , todas sus amistades, rodeado de r e v e r e n c i a s . (p. 256) It must be borne i n mind that Baroja's p e r s p e c t i v e , i n s o f a r as " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o " and rational, nearly empirical. "Mala He hierba" is are concerned, is preoccupied with what he 159 p e r c e i v e s as flaws in the Spanish c h a r a c t e r : t h i s in his novels particular, as well as r e f l e c t s a tendency tormenting, his emphasis commentary. This to on p e r v e r s i t y endows h i s work brand essays. a with contrasts, While view life in sense that ideological Barojian foundation f i c t i o n , in as absurd Spanish of a general sense, concepts to be expanded and, of social with Arbo's Still, provided and form concrete of u n i v e r s a l commentary on human e x i s t e n c e . undeniable reflected his peculiarly a is Arbo it with to a c e r t a i n is an extent, mitigated. In Caretas c o n c l u s i o n , the whole of t h i s t h i r d volume of Martin i s d i r e c t e d toward the ideology of of m i s t r u s t and disillusionment, alleviation isolation. of The toppling of Martin's de stern process h e r e i n i s one preconceptions. The p r o t a g o n i s t ' s experiences, even at the expense of h i s accustomed p r i n c i p l e s , are not wholly without accompanying negative: l e s s o n s are imparted blows. to him Landscape c o n t r i b u t e s to M a r t i n ' s i d e o l o g i c a l e q u i l i b r i u m by v i r t u e of i t s f a i l u r e to v e r i f y preconception The character l i n k i n g Barcelona with u n i f o r m l y s u p e r i o r people. of amended, balanced Senor Torio c o r r o b o r a t e s the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s view of urban man, Of M a r t i n ' s three mentors, the sereno dogmatic protection to attitude that or r a t h e r man in general. l a c k s the a u t h o r i t a r i a n or distinguishes his predecessors. forms part of a complex that allows the been abandonment. thoroughly Finally, susceptible we see given his i n i t i a l unprecedented His protagonist opt out of the l i f e s t y l e of the g o l f o , to which the boy have that could s t a t e of ideological 1 60 significance concentrated characters. With stability, the in Martin's chain of the acceptance events p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of h i s mala e s t r e l l a unpredictability unprecedented protagonist's of his personal persons rural of two by in and Caretas odyssey these secondary responsibility represented relationships. preconceptions, of the very i s d i s p l a c e d by these would have u n l i k e l y a l t r u i s t s : u l t i m a t e l y , t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s to r a t i o n a l l y balanced m a t u r i t y are d e c i s i v e . harsh the According two and to the seemed Martin's 161 D. NOTES TO CHAPTER V Sebastian 1 Juan Arbo, M a r t i n de Caretas (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, 1972), p. 12. en l a ciudad Further r e f e r e n c e s appear in the t e x t . Arbo, M a r t i n de Caretas 2 of this Martin. discrepancy, Roque en e l pueblo, Galda wishes 95. In light not to d i s i l l u s i o n He e x p l a i n s that "La suerte no me acompano Me toco, en verdad, . . . e l terno negro, l a l o t e r i a de l o s g r a j o s . " Arbo, Martin de Caretas en e l campo, p.54. 3 * Arbo, M a r t i n de Caretas en e l pueblo, Senor T o r i o ' s r e p u d i a t i o n of wealth 5 mind i s i n t e r e s t i n g to note, of p. especially the homes and property of people While Martin protect is the nonplussed wealth ' of by p. 105. i n favor of peace of i n view of h i s v i g i l a n c e more " f o r t u n a t e " than he i s . Senor Torio's willingness o t h e r s , i t i s c l e a r to the reader Arbo's purpose i n c o n c e i v i n g of the boy's third mentor to that as a sereno was not c a s u a l . 6 S c o t t , p.- 206. 7 Sagrada B i b l i a 1972), p. 8 (Madrid: Jean Paul Sartre, "Existentialism from Dostoesvsky to S a r t r e , ed. (New York: World, 1956), p. i s a Humanism," i n Walter Kaufman 298. F r a n c i s c o Rico, La novela p i c a r e s c a y e l punto de v i s t a . (Barcelona: Seix B a r r a l , 1 0 Cristianos, 797. Existentialism 9 B i b l i o t e c a de Autores See "La 1970), p. intuicion 116. y el estilo" i n P i o Baroja's completas, VII (Madrid: B i b l i o t e c a Nueva, 1949), 965-1099. Obras 162 1 1 Sobejano, p. 219. 1 2 P i o Baroja, La busca, B i b l i o t e c a Nueva, 1946), B e a t r i c e P. 1 3 p. in Obras completas, I (Madrid: 262. P a t t , P i o Baroja (New York: Twayne, 1971), 95. 1 * P a t t , p. 95 P i o Baroja, Aurora Roja, i n Obras completas, I 1 5 B i b l i o t e c a Nueva, 1946), 643. Sebastian Juan Arbo, P i o Baroja y su tiempo 1 6 E d i t o r i a l Planeta, 1963), p. 1 7 P a t t , p. 97 1 8 P a t t , p. 94 1 9 See L u i s Maristany, figur-a pp. del (Madrid: (Barcelona: 350. "La c o n f i g u r a c i o n barojiana de la g o l f o , " in B u l l e t i n of H i s p a n i c S t u d i e s , 45 (1968), 102-22. relationship Maristany of the h i e r b a " to the f i r s t examines, articles among other things, " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o " and two novels of the trilogy the "Mala La lucha por l a vida. 2 0 (Madrid: 2 1 2 2 (Madrid: 2 3 2 P i o Baroja, " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o , " i n Obras completas, V B i b l i o t e c a Nueva, 1948), 55. Baroja, " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o , " p. Pio Baroja, "Mala Hierba," 56. in Obras completas, B i b l i o t e c a Nueva, 1948), 42. Baroja, " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o , " p. " Baroja, " P a t o l o g i a d e l g o l f o , " p. 56. 57 V 1 63 VI. A review CONCLUSION of Sebastian Juan Arbo's f i c t i o n , as w e l l n o n - f i c t i o n a l works, r e v e a l s preoccupations into the ideological foundation example, Arbo's choice of Miguel Martin de C a r e t a s . For and Oscar Wilde as the author's interest i n the of i n s c r u t a b l e fortune on man's view of h i s e x i s t e n c e . In h i s foreward escritores una that are s y n t h e s i z e d de Cervantes b i o g r a p h i c a l s u b j e c t s underscores effects of as h i s to Oscar Wilde, Arbo como observes that "en este se ensano con i g u a l v i o l e n c i a pocos l a fortuna, vez que l o hubo d e r r i b a d o d e l p e d e s t a l de t r i u n f o s sobre cual le habia alzado." The 1 biographer t h i n g s , t o emphasize the process of Irish poet's fall p r o v i d e s examples Caretas does from of not grace. extreme represent The and life effect While circumstances interest among other i n the of Cervantes, too, vicissitudes. consequence, there i s a manifest terrible cause seeks, el of Martin de such sobering i n the mysterious and f o r c e s that play upon our e x i s t e n c e . This preoccupation i s a l s o evident f i c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r y T e r r e s de L'Ebre, i n Arbo's e a r l y Catalan i n which we a l s o see the author's trademark p o r t r a y a l of a c l o s e bond between man and the terrain he itself inhabits. to the The p r e s u p p o s i t i o n of such a bond lends representation f o r t u n e : depressed rural of the folk, especially underdeveloped nation r e c e i v e the f u l l They are unable to terrifying farmers, of i n an already brunt of nature's wrath. escape i t s sometimes d i s a s t r o u s e f f e c t on their l i v e s . Arbo's i n t e r e s t in this intense undeniable. We in first have vagaries seen the relationship is volume of Martin de 1 64 Caretas how dominant the harsh v a g a r i e s of lives nature are i n the of the poor r e s i d e n t s of Caretas, and how they e f f e c t the c o l l e c t i v e c h a r a c t e r of the people. To r e t u r n to the example of T e r r e s de L'Ebre, obsession parcel of disaster. leaving the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s land i s an e f f e c t , to h i s sorry r a t h e r than cause of h i s personal A f t e r the a c c i d e n t a l him with drowning care f o r an i n f a n t of h i s young wife, son, " e l t r a b a j o i n c e s a n t e , desesperado, es como una borrachera" f o r Juan, the p r o t a g o n i s t . This f u t i l e , reminiscent warnings, a l l consuming accompanies a c o n d i t i o n of a l i e n a t i o n , simmering, impotent Recalling develop through lack function blows Qoheleth's s o l i t u d e and a dealt by life. that was to the l i t e r a t u r e of the f o r t i e s and f i f t i e s , these through again to Martin de Caretas as w e l l , but the somber, p e s s i m i s t i c , grievous p o t e n t i a l of t h e i r i n Arbo's e a r l y Catalan Critical native rage at the absurd of the e x i s t e n t i a l p o r t r a i t u r e of human l i f e elements f i l t e r they effort, consensus favors language for their fiction. these early compelling novels unity in Arbo's of c o n c e p t i o n . However, M a r t i n de Caretas would seem e q u a l l y impressive for i t s p r o d i g i o u s d i v e r s i t y , at l e a s t with regard to the s e l e c t i o n management of disparate p h i l o s o p h i c a l manifesto. Some c r i t i c s have allowed the l i t e r a r y Juan Alborg observes that " E l genuino -- dejando aparte e l M a r t i n de Caretas, de c a l i d a d y especie s i n g u l a r e s -- se encuentra y de sus hombres . of and i d e o l o g i c a l elements to form a unique e x c e l l e n c e of Martin de Caretas. Arbo 2 . T e r r e s de L'Ebre, . . " . Antonio 3 en l a s novelas de l a t i e r r a In a d d r e s s i n g Iglesias Laguna the p o p u l a r i t y confesses that 1 65 "Personalmente, estimo que obra capital."" as "un trilogy, quedara recognize libro delicioso", with i t s p h i l o s o p h i c a l The de Caretas While some, l i k e Alborg, l i b r o estupendo, un grappled and Martin few, 5 to judge from i t s d i v e r s e design, an analogy l e a r n i n g to accept e x i s t e n c e terms. The of the trilogy accepting proffered on views error. to the its He thematic borrowings a own, sometimes him his to a t h i r d volume we see, successive, notions and autonomy, systematic exaggerated integral development, vigilance human nature i s son component initially and Life, as attendant In other to determinism. those of those would the have complex conditions seen as of that subject to self-preservation In t u r n , the meanness of upon the inhospitable must always "pensar que influence of maturing words, in the world of Caretas, The of discretionary rejecting that in posits caution. of Nature: hence Martin lobos." subject implied condition well-being. n a t u r a l c a l a m i t i e s , i s u n r e l e n t i n g l y harsh and conditions end Toward the end conditions l e g i t i m i z e Roque Galda's p h i l o s o p h y . on at the refutations c r i p p l e d M a r t i n ' s development toward psychic depends rigorous by means of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s almost Landscape, as an a more a s s e r t i o n s that experience proves f a l l a c i o u s . Martin's systematically r e a l - l i f e process of proceeds from to a t t i t u d e in which he e x e r c i s e s biased have i s the r e s u l t of a process of d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t , of and psyche, trilogy i f any, balanced view of l i f e a t t a i n e d by Martin l e a r n i n g by t r i a l the the su features. i t s n e a t l y componential s t r u c t u r e , betrays philosophical como of todos men existentialism are is 166 evident in regarding the the p o r t r a y a l of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t the bond between Nature and man's c h a r a c t e r . basic tenets responsibility no excuses f o r f a i l u r e The further insists architect nature, that than cowardice and "frailties beings have of no of s t a t e s that "there Naturalism, of fortune. since the surprising he of f o r Martin's the should gradual c o n v e r s i o n . in i s the the the of man's unforeseeable century, i t i s not effects and we suppose that he determinism, trilogy's despidamonos de Martin the f i n a l pages: narrator " . . . a l que dejamos en Barcelona sonando t a l vez, a su 6 logical supposes While we see the boy's d i s i l l u s i o n i n g experiences i t explicit essence or a v a i l himself of t h i s concept as a no longer adheres to any notion makes nature." Given Arbo's acknowledged conversance r e a l i s m of the nineteenth foil human latter with the l i t e r a r y that of i s no determinism." h e l p l e s s n e s s before Nature as i t p e r s o n i f i e s aggressions evasion a priori has been suggested that e x i s t e n t i a l i s m antithesis seek any extraneous happenings, are the the human Sartre f l a t l y It man's rather that and axiom that "existence precedes essence" of what we c a l l Presupposing for h i s existence in events beyond the i n f l u e n c e of h i s own Sartrian responsiblity, of of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m i s that an i n d i v i d u a l can, and must assume f u l l powers. One pesar, con l o s campos de . Caretas, porque l o s campos no tienen l a culpa de l o que hacen l o s hombres que viven el ellos." that allows Martin to the 7 It i s a gradually acquired t h i s kind of n o s t a l g i a . Before perspective h i s exposure "other" world, the e x i s t e n c e p o s i t e d by Roque Galda and 167 v e r i f i e d by the boy's e a r l y experience determinism of a s p e r i t y -- was given -- seemed u t t e r l y What sets The b r u t i s h denizens home town can be seen as cowards i n the e x i s t e n t i a l fatalism, conventions espouses are evidence of self-defining responsibility path hostility to and their choices self-determination f o l l o w s , as we have seen, is his of h i s sense: to cowardice. Existentialism a means of Martin's f i r s t is his flight oppressive assuming step on modify erroneous i s progress along that notions urged c o n s i d e r a t i o n to reasoned, the from C a r e t a s . same What path the p r o t a g o n i s t l e a r n s to heed the l e s s o n s of experience, or their resignation as f o r one's e x i s t e n c e . which plausible. Martin apart from h i s f e l l o w s i n Caretas r e s o l v e to seek a b e t t e r medium. habitual in as reject on him by mentors, and give balance o b s e r v a t i o n s from the likes of Senor T o r i o . In literary expressions of existential thought, o f t e n c o n f r o n t e d with a p r o t a g o n i s t engaged i n a to make sense of h i s absurd existentialist's prescription, render h i s existence existence. which sensible, foundation in Martin's of t h i s acceptance tempering h i s s t e r n outlook, apparent senselessness condemned by Qoheleth. struggle M a r t i n f o l l o w s the serves not so much to but r a t h e r a l l o w s him to make peace with i t , to c o e x i s t , as i t were. which open a breach grim we are Experiences learned of a l t r u i s m , prejudice, are the of the terms of r e a l i t y : p r i o r t o the boy's resembled .When at l a s t the struggle futile, with life's o b s e s s i v e labor the p r o t a g o n i s t comprehends the s i n c e r i t y of Senor T o r i o ' s s e l f l e s s n e s s , f o r example, or any 168 of s e v e r a l other a c t s of descubierto of goodness, he l a bondad donde menos l o esperaba." Jaime's g o o d w i l l e l i c i t s a s i m i l a r en l a v i d a , vienen a s i : cuando uno often to repeated warnings to e l pueblo. R.B.Y. death, all so summarize the resound nature are of growth. throughout negated by their world. of "en golfo medico amistades, involves cualquiera, marked by clemency de rodeado his and Caretas, de passage terror en un or characterize alleviated and con todos from en hermosa sus un by by Panda, que titulos, Martin's en el todas sus conversion the absurd netherworld of Caretas, alienation, to the f e l l o w s h i p where i t i s proven obverse that hacen l o s hombres que M o r t a l i t y , a c o n s i s t e n t motif throughout factor to To Juanillo, reverencias." t i e n e n l a c u l p a de l o que key opposites" in a l l c l a s s e s , M a r t i n l e a r n s that despreciados, se o c u l t a a veces un alma mas senor by Whereas P i o Baroja concludes that l a g o l f e r i a , s o c i a l malady, e x i s t s un i s cancelled i s indeed c a n c e l l e d death, a l l i t s negative f e a t u r e s are negated a grave without M a r t i n de Caretas en l a we c o u l d a s s e r t t h a t , while l i f e their opposites. Qoheleth's M a r t i n de Caretas en "As l i f e Qoheleth's M a r t i n ' s a t t i t u d e at the c o n c l u s i o n ciudad, veces, in Caretas, t h i s i s that misfortune c a l l s Scott observes that values His experience As the converse of a phrase spiritual the e f f e c t n o t i c e or d i s c r i m i n a t i o n "habia judgement: " l a s s o l u c i o n e s d e s c r i b e Martin's s i t u a t i o n i n d i c a t i v e of the extent of h i s that l a s espera menos y, a de quien menos se h a b r i a esperado." used concludes i n Martin's c o n v e r s i o n . While realm of " l o s campos no v i v e n en ellos." the t r i l o g y , is a the p r o t a g o n i s t f a i l s 1 69 to adopt the c a s u a l attitude of his grandfather Carden, the death of J u a n i l l o a f f o r d s Martin As we have seen, "aparte Juanillo, continuaba muerte, nada. majaderos, de con l a pena que su miedo La vida era estupenda de los granujas . a new Antonio perspective. l e causaba l a perdida a l a muerte. . . . . or . No; a pesar " Shortly . de con l a de los after J u a n i l l o ' s death, the n a r r a t o r g i v e s us t h i s i n s i g h t : volvio a encontrar gusto a la vida, a distraerse con l o que v e i a a su paso. Tenia razon e l abuelo . . . . La v i d a , a veces, estaba muy b i e n . Hay que h u i r de l o s malos momentos; hay que salir de estos negros t u n e l e s . (p. 264) Arbo's use key in of the phrase " v o l v i o a encontrar this passage. sense of l i f e ' s to him that inevitable life and Martin p o s i t i v e aspects, mortality, place protagonist While in finally has g r a d u a l l y acquired J u a n i l l o ' s death the entirety of man's has i t s existence: the comprehends an a b s t r a c t d i s t i n c t i o n between death. make . sense of e x i s t e n t i a l protagonist makes peace with The a demonstrates no l e s s fearsome than before, In r e a l i z i n g an a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r l i f e , much gusto a l a v i d a " i s absurd virtually life, absurd existence, often s t r u g g l e s much in the way in his existence superseded: with the passing the real sorrow of does for vain. not which so the Rather, he that Qoheleth recommends. of manifesting conundrum an Martin human in of Caretas the has been little golfo m o r t a l i t y , and with a glimpse of l i f e ' s p o t e n t i a l for contentment, Martin's existence ceases no to be absurd. The two alternatives are longer 170 different s i d e s of the same c o i n . The p r o t a g o n i s t has a c l e a r l y d e s i r a b l e o p t i o n with which he can l i v e t r a n q u i l l y and h a p p i l y . His c h o i c e to lead a s t a b l e and outwardly by his least temporarily. "bourgeois" resolution lifestyle has life is t o continue s e l l i n g Martin's acceptance Christopher E u s t i s . clearly contented o f , or been misunderstood E u s t i s , whose a r t i c l e shows the t r i l o g y ' s marginal on manifested l i g h t e r s , at inurement to a i n p a r t i c u l a r by M a r t i n de Caretas k i n s h i p to the p i c a r e s q u e , seems to betray a modicum of h o s t i l i t y when he concludes that Arbo r e v e a l s himself to be a " r e a l i s t a conveneional" not merely because he r e v e r t e d to a traditional l i t e r a r y convention, but because he renounced the very essence of the picaresque novel -- i t s c a p a c i t y f o r serving as .a sweeping t e s t i m o n i a l and an u n r e l e n t i n g indictment of contemporary s o c i e t y . 8 It would seem, by v i r t u e of E u s t i s ' own conclusions,, that Mart in de Caretas bears so l i t t l e resemblance to the true picaresque that to judge i t r i g o r o u s l y by those standards would be u n f a i r . The study suggests that such c r i t i c i s m would seem l e s s present than f u l l y relevant. Of Martin's c o n v e r s i o n to a s t a b i l i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , E u s t i s lifestyle observes: Arbo does acknowledge social and economic i n j u s t i c e . . . but the c r i t i c a l dimension lacks conviction. It is virtually eclipsed by the p r e v a i l i n g message of acceptance of the e s t a b l i s h e d order. Martin i s employed, a l b e i t s u p e r f i c i a l l y , as an agent f o r r e g i s t e r i n g the c a l l o u s ' i m p e r s o n a l i t y , the h y p o c r i s y and the shocking d i s p a r i t y between the rich and the poor of Barcelona, but he remains detached and immune to these problems. In no way do they i n t e r f e r e with h i s p r i v i l e g e d assimilation into the dominant p a t t e r n of s o c i a l and economic s t a b i l i t y . The primary purpose of M a r t i n ' s exposure to the m o r a l l y and m a t e r i a l l y d e f i c i e n t aspects of l i f e i n of 171 Barcelona i s to medi ocr i t y . impel him toward s a f e , wholesome 9 Many of the a s s e r t i o n s founded on in an oddly l i t e r a l the preceeding approach quotation t o Arbo and h i s work. In short, E u s t i s i n t e r p r e t s Martin de Caretas as an endorsement free e n t e r p r i s e and bourgeois v a l u e s . are Had he taken into of account the p h i l o s o p h i c a l elements examined i n t h i s study, he might have concluded t h i s case: that Arbo's t r i l o g y itself as we While Arb6's unreasonable for in of i d e o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s of a t i m e l e s s , u n i v e r s a l , nature, adapted Paul do abstract to a s o c i a l medium f a m i l i a r to h i s r e a d e r s h i p . purpose f o r doing to think that S a r t r e i n the f i f t i e s so i s not c l e a r , i t i s the same that i t i s not motivated to exhort men t o take Jean responsibility t h e i r own e x i s t e n c e , to a c t w i t h i n the means of t h e i r Eustis does interpretation Arbo of a the disservice trilogy. with protagonist problems i n between is the the golfos, in city, rich Martin's e n t i r e "detached the experience some of and poor" of exegesis. immune" particularly and such a the is Juanillo to will. prosaic In the passage quoted there are s e v e r a l examples of i n d i s t i n c t the avails above, To say urgent "shocking that social disparity to e f f a c e the impact of and h i s society whom he d i s c o v e r e d the noblest of s o u l s . E u s t i s accuses Martin -- and Roque Galda, who a l s o takes up sale of lighters characteristic t h i s statement, the boy's -- of of having "the e n t e r p r i s i n g of the f a m i l i a r bourgeois success the attitude story." 1 0 By i n a d d i t i o n to h i s a s s e r t i o n that the reason f o r "exposure to the m o r a l l y and m a t e r i a l l y deficient 172 aspects of l i f e wholesome in Barcelona mediocrity," the t h a t , i n s o f a r as the t r i l o g y of life are, is impel critic In s p i t e of h i s him toward i s concerned, the m a t e r i a l The very word a notion that Martin e x p l i c i t l y "esperanza de a t t i t u d e toward h i s employment mejoramiento" i s modest and the c l a s s i c a l notion of bourgeois safe, r e v e a l s h i s f a i l u r e to as i t were, immaterial. implies materialism, to to see aspects bourgeois renounces. (p. 294), betrays no his affinity values: Sin embargo, no abuso. Martin no s a l i o d e l j u s t o medio. No era ambicioso, s o l o q u e r i a lo necesario. Vivir s i n necesidad . . . . Con esto l e bastaba. Ganaba menos dinero, pero v i v i a mas t r a n q u i l o . (p. 148). T h i s i s s c a r c e l y the a t t i t u d e of a devoted c a p i t a l i s t . might not i n f e r Martin's for the elements, presence culled philosophical likely from throughout thousands tradition, c o n d i t i o n of man Arbo's t a c i t approval the of t r i l o g y of years of Whereas characteristics in view of the evidence Eustis as a refutes by citing the and to the to show at hand that he proposes a d a r i n g Sartre introversion literary n o v e l i s t , i t i s more f o r s o c i a l betterment through i n d i v i d u a l that it ideological attempts formula charges were which have u n i v e r s a l relevance on e a r t h . retrograde of f r e e e n t e r p r i s e One existentialism example we responsibility. is anti-social set f o r mankind by actions: . . . when we say that man is responsible for himself, we do not mean that he i s r e s p o n s i b l e only for h i s own i n d i v i d u a l i t y , but that he i s r e s p o n s i b l e for a l l men . . . . S u b j e c t i v i s m means, on the one our 173 hand, the freedom of the i n d i v i d u a l s u b j e c t and, on the other, that man cannot pass beyond human subjectivity. I t i s the l a t t e r which i s the deeper meaning of e x i s t e n t i a l i s m . When we say that man chooses h i m s e l f , we do mean that every one of us must choose h i m s e l f ; but by that we also mean that in choosing f o r himself he chooses for a l l men. For i n e f f e c t , of a l l the a c t i o n s a man may take i n order to create himself as he w i l l s to be, there i s not one which i s not c r e a t i v e , at the same time, of an image of man such as he b e l i e v e s he ought to b e . 1 1 The ideology espoused by Arbo, while detached from specific s o c i a l circumstances, supposes consequences of a more u n i v e r s a l , but nonetheless concrete nature. the question Arbo's i n t e n t i o n of the very nature of our e x i s t e n c e , and so the author tenders an a d a p t a t i o n designed h i s own i s to address to equip man existence. of for p o t e n t i a l l y While ideological in doing approaches r i g o r o u s encounters both S a r t r e and Qoheleth use with examples from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e times and c u l t u r e s , t h e i r d i d a c t i c message is universal: there are no n a t i o n a l , p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l bounds to i t s a p p l i c a b i l i t y . with regard tradition, Such is Arbo's to Martin de C a r e t a s : h i s borrowings for functions. example, His all thematic have temporal, or intention from specific, literary identifiable a l l u s i o n s to the l i k e s of Cervantes, Calderon, Baroja and the picaresque are not c a p r i c i o u s , nor they intended as l i m i t s to or c r i t e r i a for a l i t e r a l judgement of the n a r r a t i v e ; r a t h e r , they serve the intention. j u s t the kind of u n i v e r s a l didactic two The statement examples -- result i s , in fact, author's are made by S a r t r e and Qoheleth -- to ideological name couched i n a framework of l i t e r a r y and media comprehensible to and only social known by a l l manner of Spaniards. 1 74 The p h i l o s o p h i c a l path espoused political activism. personal evolution, as final examples the is not of p r o t a g o n i s t ' s only r e l i a b l e b a s i s f o r of h i s f e l l o w s . the socially From the p e r s p e c t i v e condemned impotent by Sartre i s duped by the i l l u s i o n have d e f i n e d the s i t u a t i o n of man and without help, victims and of passions, doctrine, a self-deceiver." or by h i s o b s e r v a t i o n that "La v i d a es from the conventions participation himself sense to Qoheleth. and something una "Since takes refuge behind some the deterministic mierda" excuses himself M a r t i n , on the other hand, shows of an e x i s t e n t i a l " p r o t a g o n i s t in the trajectory, from in a This i s more s i g n i f i c a n t by v i r t u e of h i s exposure, most formative age, the truck d r i v e r , by means of that he must choose, along h i s v i t a l all we r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s attendant upon h i s in h i s society. be who The Antonio of free c h o i c e , without inventing 1 2 Martin's c o n f u s i n g array of d e f i n i t i o n s and experiences of l i f e . made of those of a human nature. as one any man excuse of h i s is of of an i n t i m a t e , Carden f i t s S a r t r e ' s d e s c r i p t i o n of a s e l f - d e c e i v e r : excuse one c o n d i t i o n , Roque Galda and Antonio Carden stand characteristics grandfather Arbo I t i s , on the c o n t r a r y , one s e r v i n g the betterment Martin's by to the b r u t a l world c o n s t i t u t e d by at a Caretas, a d d i t i o n to the imperious pedagogy of Roque Galda, h i s major authority course, figure. As we have seen, through a l l the harsh lessons of h i s youth Martin's i n Caretas are vital resilient ones. His f i n a l c o n d i t i o n , while i t does not comprise ideology, is the fruit of a process of an rational original self- 1 75 determination: his c o n d i t i o n on h i s a r r i v a l have impelled M a r t i n toward social delinquent. The in Barcelona c o u l d the l i f e s t y l e of a complacent, f u n c t i o n of h i s deciding and conduces M a r t i n to a modest, reasonable l i v e l i h o o d . necessarily an endorsement of c a p i t a l i s m , anti- choosing T h i s i s not free e n t e r p r i s e , or the s t a t u s quo of Spanish s o c i e t y , nor protagonist's o p t i n g f o r " s o c i a l and economic s t a b i l i t y " to the e x c l u s i o n of h i s s o c i a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s . which i s i t a question Rather, this of stability admittedly signals Martin's p r i v i l e g e d s o c i a l compared to h i s poor moderate and f e l l o w s -- is responsible ideology. a symtom of the status, his modest, T h i s ideology, which in f a c t eschews many e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of bourgeois thought, i s a of sort formula for personal contentment r a m i f i c a t i o n s a f t e r the f a s h i o n of S a r t r i a n At the ideological affinity conclusion of preoccupations for this are certain clear landscape as a determinant social existentialism. study, in with of Irbo's resolution. His of human behavior, the picaresque view of the world and Old Testament wisdom i s c l e a r l y demonstrable. As to whether existentialists such explicit evidence Beser's comparison as to not Sartre suggest of or so. or Arbo read and emulated A l b e r t Camus, there i s no However, Arb6's e a r l y f i c t i o n recalling Sergi to the work of the aforementioned French e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s , we can kindred s p i r i t manifested through those same preoccupations that are more distinctly establishes a determinism tangible. deterministic world For later further example, to prove r e s i d e s only in the p u s i l l a n i m o u s s p i r i t see the his author that the of C a r e t a s ' 176 fatalistic inhabitants. Ecclesiastes and the Existential picaresque characteristics convention also p o r t r a y a l of t h i s absurd, impossible environment. of Qoheleth's wisdom that address, " E x i s t e n t i a l i s m the seem serve of the Those aspects to resonate- through Sartre's i s a Humanism," in turn h e l p to effect a m e l i o r a t i o n of the p r o t a g o n i s t ' s view of h i s e x i s t e n c e . The result confronts the contentment is vital pragmatic possibility and of enjoyment, Roque Galda, who grandson, a in the end attitude toward calamity, as per learns yet Qoheleth's from the life that allows for prescription. example of his g i v e s an e n l i g h t e n i n g , p e r s o n a l i n t e r p r e t a i o n of t h i s attitude: Y ya que no sabemos por donde andamos, n i s i por la derecha vamos b i e n , o por l a i z q u i e r d a tropezamos, hagamos como el; vayamos • sin cuidado ni preocupaciones, a ver que sale. Que cada c u a l se a r r e g l e y b a i l e como sepa; que coma y beba, y duerma poco, que es s a l u d a b l e . (p. 291) Thus the message i s expressed in terms of the while i t r e t a i n s u n i v e r s a l these ideological implications social criticism. philosophical relevance. far In exceeds Arbo not only manages a and folkloric fact, traditions the range Eustis' myriad in individual his of throughout folkloric Cacaseno. the author d i s p l a y s a r e s t r a i n e d the forms but urge to profound ideological s y n t h e s i s , but does so with an eye toward optimism and Furthermore, of clemency. piquant wit t r i l o g y , commensurate with the c h a r a c t e r of the that gave rise to Bertoldo, Bertoldino y 1 77 In his epilogue, Arbo again assumes f u l l command of the n a r r a t i o n , addresses the reader d i r e c t l y , undertakes of literary realism, directs harsh e x p e r i m e n t a l i s t s and a v a n t - g u a r d i s t s of gives an literary defense toward the endeavor and overview of h i s c h a r a c t e r s ' circumstances to draw the story to a c l o s e . makes words a a droll In t h i s address to the reader, the r e f e r e n c e to the ideology he espouses narrator through the example of M a r t i n , and at the same time acknowledges a s p i r i t u a l father: Suenos por suenos l o s de Salomon . . . que decia que l a vida era un asco -- "todo vanidad de vanidades" --, pero que h a c i a l o que podia; no dejaba fruta por verde, sobre todo en c u e s t i o n de mujeres; suenos por suenos, s i , l o s de Salomon, a l lado d e l cual l o s don Juanes y Casanov'as de l a h i s t o r i a fueron ninos de coro; e l l a s tuvo r u b i a s y morenas / gruesas y delgadas, altas y bajas; l a s tuvo n a c i o n a l e s y extranjeras, que en esto no reparaba en p a t r i o t i s m o s , y aun en su vejez c o r r i a en pos de e l l a s con e l mismo entusiasmo, mientras aseguraba que estaba cansado de l a vida -- y t a l vez fuera verdad --, que l a vida era un asco, "todo vanidad de vanidades." Y basta de Salomon; volvamos a M a r t i n , ya que t r a t a , sobre todo, de M a r t i n . (pp. 297-298) se Arbo r e t u r n s to the subject of the p r o t a g o n i s t by means a device similar to that used when the omniscient n a r r a t o r d e s c r i b e d the a m e l i o r a t i o n of Martin's that, makes however, the author no p r o t a g o n i s t ' s c o n d i t i o n of s t a b i l i t y and he proffers for is, i t s realism: of vital more attitude. mention contentment. With of the Instead the reader the v i r t u e s of h i s n a r r a t i v e , that 1 78 Si eres s i n c e r o , l e c t o r querido, has v i s t o a Martin de Caretas . . . confesaras . que Confesaras que has v i s t o a l abuelo, sentado ante l a puerta, con l a cayada entre l a s manos Y a J u a n i l l o , l e c t o r , i n o has v i s t o a Juanillo acaso, vagando por e l puerto , fumando su c o l i l l a y parpadeando cuando v e i a a c e r c a r s e a Martin como s i l e doliese l a l u z en l o s ojos? iNo l e has v i s t o acaso despues, con su t r a j e de oro y a z u l , desplegando su c a p o t i l l o , toreando a . a q u e l l o s t o r i t o s negros de l a s plazas c e l e s t i a l e s . . . entre v i t o r e s y aplausos, en que e l g o l f i l l o sonaba, se r e s a r c i a de l a s m i s e r i a s de aqui abajo? Pues este es e l merito de l a obra y de nuestro autor. Fuera de e s t o no busques, que no hay mas. (p. 300) In It s p i t e of Arbo's admonition, there i s indeed much more. i s true that the author presents a seemingly with a happy ending, escapist. Martin innocuous story but i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s are by no means p u r e l y achieves a v i t a l a t t i t u d e that allows him to make the best of h i s tenuous s t a b i l i t y and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , as Solomon under circumstances his "hacia own, l o que more abstractly podia." If worrisome we c o n s i d e r Arbo's r e a d e r s h i p at the time Martin de Caretas was p u b l i s h e d , we take into account the With the major p o l i t i c a l that run having almost Taoist effectual, any Thus that author response social one person, the the to such revolution exhorts behind progress, i t is' not should propose an inward-looking, a political failure. would be too much to expect p a r t i c u l a r l y a humble narrator forces amok and, i f anything, having had a r e t r o g r a d e e f f e c t on the nation's s o c i a l surprising must freshness of the memory of a h i d e o u s l y f r a t r i c i d a l C i v i l War. conflict just us l a d of "volvamos a sixteen lo An from years. nuestro y no 1 79 queramos a r r e g l a r e l mundo y menos esta mundo" (p. posture of futility 300). quietism. of social this Arb6 Rather, he tan to personal danada d e l does not mean to endorse a wishes to man's mania f o r f o r c i b l y d e c i d i n g others: h i s c a l l bolder By parte responsibility i m p l i c a t i o n than any p o l i t i c a l underscore the the e x i s t e n c e of and humility doctrine. has 180 A. NOTES TO CONCLUSION Sebastian Juan Arbo, Oscar Wilde 1 1960), p. 11. 2 A l b o r g , p. 273. 3 A l b o r g , p. 270. " Antonio (Madrid: Prensa I g l e s i a s Laguna, Espanola, 5 A l b o r g , p. 284. 6 S a r t r e , p. 295. 7 (Madrid: E d i c i o n e s C i d , Sebastian Juan (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, appear i n the t e x t . 8 E u s t i s , p. 32. 9 E u s t i s , p. 31. 1 0 E u s t i s , p. 31. 1 1 Sarte , p. 291. 1 2 S a r t e , p. 311. Treinta 1969), I, p. Arb6, 1972), p. anos de novela espanola 105. Martin de Caretas en l a ciudad 300. Subsequent references 181 BIBLIOGRAPHY A l b o r g , Juan. Hora a c t u a l de l a novela esparTola. Taurus, 1958. A l b e r e s , R.M. 1 962. H i s t o i r e du Roman Moderne. Paris: Albin Michel, Arbo, Sebastian Juan. Entre l a t i e r r a y e l mar. Prometeo, 1966. Martin de Caretas en e l pueblo. Calpe, 1972. Martin de Caretas en e l campo. Calpe, 1972. Valencia: Madrid: EspasaMadrid: Espasa- Martin de Caretas en l a c i u d a d . Calpe, 1972. 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