THE EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS ON FLOW AND IN THE

Transcripción

THE EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS ON FLOW AND IN THE PERFORMANCE
ENHANCEMENT OF BASKETBALL SKILLS
By
BRIAN L. VASQUEZ
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Education
DECEMBER 2005
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To the Faculty of Washington State University:
The members of the Committee appointed to examine the dissertation
of BRIAN L. VASQUEZ find it satisfactory and recommend that it be accepted.
Chair
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I must first express my gratitude to Dr. Arreed Barabasz and Dr. Marianne Barabasz for more
reasons than will fit in this text. Thank you both for providing your expertise, foresight, personal
time, guidance, and ideas for improving this study from the time of its original conception.
Without your help this study would still be just a light bulb over my head. Your direction helped
me navigate through the dissertation process and pushed me to completion. I also owe Dr.
Dennis Warner sincere thanks for providing his words of wisdom about this study and his
unlimited expertise in statistical analysis.
I am also very thankful for the voluminous help provided by Dr. Jesse Owen. From your
countless weekends and evenings providing assistance in running participants to enduring the
barrage of blank stares while discussing the myriad of intricacies involved with statistics, your
patience and efforts were invaluable. I owe thanks to Dr. Fernando Ortiz and the assistance you
provided in helping me with the early stages of this study. And thanks to Dr. Ross Flowers for
your unwavering support and encouragement through the difficult process of procuring
participants and conducting trials.
I would not be where I am today without the unwavering support and love from my mother,
Melanie Jaquysh. Thank you for the infinite amount of encouragement and patience that only a
mother could supply. You have always been there for me, helping me pursue my dreams.
Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to my beautiful fiancée, Michele. I simply do not know
where to start. Your love, patience, support, optimism, unselfishness, and stubbornness were all
things I needed from you at one point or another. You endured the setbacks and frustrations right
along with me and always gave me your ear. Plus, you never kicked me out of the house. How
lucky am I to be with you?
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Abstract
by Brian L. Vasquez, Ph.D.
Washington State University
December 2005
Chair: Arreed Barabasz
On the basis of Hilgard’s neodissociation theory of hypnosis, Czikszentmihalyi’s concept of
flow, and the similarities between them delineated by Unestahl, this study tested the ability of a
hypnosis intervention to enhance an intermediate level athlete’s basketball skills and ability to
attain flow.
Participants (N = 43) were enrolled in a major university in northern California. Participants
were matched within a scoring range of +/- 1 based upon their hypnotizability scores using the
Waterloo-Stanford Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form C, then randomly assigned to
one of two intervention groups (hypnosis group, relaxation group). The hypnosis group was
exposed to six intervention sessions focused on age-regression to a previous flow experience
(Barabasz & Barabasz, & Bauman, 1993; Barabasz & Watkins, 2005) and post-hypnotic
suggestions to recall the experience. The relaxation group was exposed to six intervention
sessions focused on progressive muscle relaxation techniques. Basketball performance skills,
assessed by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and DanceBasketball Skills Test (AAHPERD-BST) and three-point shooting scores, and flow state, as
measured by the Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2), were measured at pre- and post-intervention.
Results showed the hypnosis group scored significantly better (p < .05) than the relaxation
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group on dribbling scores, defensive scores and three-point shooting scores at post-intervention,
but not for speed shooting scores. The hypnosis group also scored significantly better (p < .05) at
post-intervention than at pre-intervention on dribbling scores, defensive scores and speed
shooting scores of the AAHPERD-BST. No significant differences were found in flow state scale
scores.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS............................................................................. iii
ABSTRACT.................................................................................................. iv
LIST OF TABLES........................................................................................ x
CHAPTER
1. INTRODUCTION......................................................................... 1
Sport Psychology................................................................... 1
Hypnosis................................................................................ 2
Flow....................................................................................... 4
Theoretical Bases................................................................... 5
Hilgard’s Neodissociation Theory............................. 5
Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory............................... 6
Similarities between Flow in Sport and Hypnosis..... 8
Rationale ............................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms ...............................................................11
Hypotheses………………………......................................... 12
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................... 14
Historical Overview of Hypnosis...........................................14
Neodissociation.......................................................... 15
Hypnotic Susceptibility and Suggestion.................... 17
Age Regression.......................................................... 19
Post-hypnotic Suggestion.......................................... 20
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Hypnosis in Sport Psychology............................................... 21
Strength and Endurance............................................ 24
Pain Relief................................................................. 25
Imagery...................................................................... 26
Anxiety/Arousal/Relaxation...................................... 27
Concentration............................................................ 29
Self-confidence, Self-concept, Self-efficacy............. 30
Age Regression.......................................................... 31
Flow....................................................................................... 31
Antecedents to Flow.................................................. 33
Prevention, Disruption, Controllability of Flow…… 41
Flow in Sport - Similarities with Hypnosis........................... 43
Challenge and Skill Balance...................................... 45
Action and Actor Merge............................................ 46
Clear Goals and Unambiguous Feedback.................. 47
Concentration/Focus................................................. 48
Sense of Control......................................................... 49
Loss of Self-consciousness........................................ 49
Time Transformation................................................. 51
Autotelic Experience................................................. 52
Hypnosis and Flow Research – Preliminary Studies............. 53
Unestahl’s Inner Mental Training.............................. 56
Pates et al. Studies......................................................58
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Conclusion............................................................................. 76
3. METHODOLOGY………............................................................ 78
Participants.............................................................................78
Experimental Design..............................................................79
Instrumentation...................................................................... 79
Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of Hypnotic
Susceptibility (WSGC)...................................79
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills
Test (AAHPERD-BST)…………….……… 80
Three-point Shooting Skill.........................................80
Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2).................................. 81
Apparatus............................................................................... 82
Procedures.............................................................................. 82
Participant Recruitment............................................. 83
Independent Variable – First Level – Hypnosis
Intervention Group…………………............. 85
Independent Variable – Second Level – Relaxation
Intervention Group……………………......... 87
4. RESULTS...................................................................................... 89
Hypothesis One...................................................................... 91
Hypothesis Two..................................................................... 93
Hypothesis Three................................................................... 95
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Hypothesis Four, Five, Six.................................................... 95
Hypothesis Seven.................................................................. 98
Hypothesis Eight.................................................................... 100
Hypothesis Nine..................................................................... 100
Hypothesis Ten...................................................................... 100
5. DISCUSSION................................................................................ 102
Hypnosis and Flow Similarities…………………….…........ 104
Flow State Scale – 2………………………………………... 106
Post-hypnotic Suggestion...................................................... 108
Hypnosis and Performance Enhancement Skills................... 108
Hypnotizability Levels........................................................... 110
Neodissociation Theory......................................................... 111
Importance of Findings.......................................................... 115
Limitations............................................................................. 117
Future Research..................................................................... 118
Conclusion............................................................................. 119
REFERENCES.............................................................................................. 120
APPENDIX
A. Demographic and Information Form............................................ 139
B. Informed Consent.......................................................................... 141
C. AAHPERD-BST Administration and Scoring.............................. 143
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Post-intervention Means and Standard Deviations……................ 90
2. Between Groups ANCOVA – Dribbling Skill...............................92
3. Between Groups ANCOVA – Defensive Skill.............................. 94
4. Within Group Paired Sample T-test – Hypnosis Group................ 97
5. Between Groups ANCOVA – Three-Point Shooting…………… 99
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Dedication
I would like to dedicate this milestone in my life to the memory of my grandmother,
Roberta Jaquysh. Grandma, I wish you were here to enjoy this with me. And talk sports.
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Sport Psychology
Like other concepts of psychology, there are many arbitrary places in which one can begin to
discuss the early history of sport psychology. Different researchers vary in opinion as to the
specifics of who investigated it first and when and where (Garfield, 1984; Vanek & Cratty, 1970;
Weinberg & Gould, 1999). Most agree that the father of sport psychology in the United States is
Coleman Griffith, who is credited with opening the first laboratory in sport psychology and
helping to initiate one of the first coaching schools in North America. He also wrote two classic
books in this field, Psychology of Coaching and Psychology of Athletes (Kroll & Lewis, 1970;
Vealey, 1988; Weinberg & Gould, 1999; Whelan, Mahoney, & Myers, 1991).
Sport psychology may best be defined as the scientific study of people and their behaviors in
sport contexts and the practical applications of that knowledge (Gill, 1979). Of the utmost
relevance to this study is the aspect of sport psychology concerning itself with the development
of psychological skills for enhancing competitive performance and training (Weinberg & Gould,
1999). Sport psychology is a relatively new field in psychology and has been called the youngest
of the sport sciences (Williams & Straub, 1986). It is also a fast growing and developing field
(Gould, Petlichkoff, Hodge, & Simons, 1990), and as Garfield (1984) points out, this can be said
much more so for the United States than other parts of the world, since European countries have
frequently been in the forefront of applied sport psychology.
Why research and apply sport psychology? What makes this a field worth investigation? As
Murphy (1995) states, the primary reason is likely due to the changing of sport in the United
States, indeed the world over. With the advent of sports television and sports sponsorship, large
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amounts of money and large profitability margins became more of a focus for athletes and
organizations, hence making success and failure in competition more valuable (Murphy, 1995).
Much more is at stake in today’s society for athletics and the participants in them. This has
driven the monetary values of players and organizations higher, and made these same sports
organizations, whether professional, Olympic or collegiate, more averse to losing valuable
players to psychological reasons (Murphy, 1995). Also, higher monetary stakes, for better or
worse, have placed more of an importance upon winning, causing a greater demand on individual
and team athletic performance (Jones, 1995). The difference between winning a gold medal at
the Olympics and the failure to even qualify in that same event may be as little as hundredths of
a second. This has pushed athletes to seek every competitive edge they can possibly attain, legal
and at times illegal, to hopefully allow them to achieve peak levels during performance (Suinn,
1997). Hence, the need for sport psychology, specifically performance enhancement, has been
created.
Hypnosis
The Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association (APA), Division 30,
Society of Psychological Hypnosis, chaired by President Arreed Barabasz during the 2002-2003
year provided the latest APA definition of hypnosis. It states that hypnosis, usually involving an
introduction to a procedure in which the person is told that suggestions for imaginative
experiences will be presented, typically includes one person (subject) being guided by another
(hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in their subjective experience, as in alteration
of perception, sensation, emotion, thought, or behavior (APA, 2003). It further states that if
subjects respond to the hypnotic suggestions, then it is generally inferred that hypnosis has been
induced (APA).
3
Though this description sounds simple enough, hypnosis has been, and continues to be, a
controversial topic for the public at large. For the average lay person, it usually means knowing
only what popular culture mediums describe or define hypnosis to be, and most often this is not
in a true light. Due to these often-negative messages, there are many misconceptions and
misunderstandings about what hypnosis is, as well as what it can and cannot do.
Despite the misconceptions, research has shown hypnosis to have a powerful, wide ranging
effectiveness as an adjunctive treatment. In their meta-analysis of hypnosis as an additional
treatment to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapies, Kirsch, Montgomery, and Saperstein (1995)
found that the addition of hypnosis substantially enhanced treatment outcomes in clients. In fact,
the average client receiving hypnosis as an adjunctive treatment showed greater improvement
than at least 70% of clients that did not receive hypnosis with cognitive-behavioral treatment.
The effectiveness of hypnosis as an additional treatment has been shown in the treatment of
depression (Yapko, 1993), smoking (Barabasz, Baer, Sheehan, & Barabasz, 1986), eating
disorders (Barabasz, M., 1990; Nash & Baker, 1993), child sexual abuse (Rhue & Lynn, 1993),
post traumatic stress disorder (Spiegel, 1993), pain management (Chavez, 1993; Smith,
Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1996), rape (Smith, 1993), trichotillomania (Barabasz, 1987) and phobias
and intense fears (Crawford & Barabasz, 1993), to name but a mere few.
Similarly, hypnosis has a long and extensive history in the area of sports psychology. As
Liggett (2000) states, by using the characteristics of hypnosis, such as relaxation, focus, and
suggestion, among others, hypnosis has the ability to make a major impact in mental training by
helping athletes develop correct techniques, build willpower, concentration, and confidence
essential for maximum performances.
A review of the literature indeed shows that hypnosis has been researched and clinically used
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in the areas of, among others, increasing and decreasing strength and endurance (Howard &
Reardon, 1986; Ito, 1979), ameliorating pain (Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1989; Freeman, Barabasz,
Barabasz, & Warner, 2000; Smith, Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1996), enhancing imagery (Liggett,
2000; Liggett & Hamada, 1993), optimizing anxiety, arousal and relaxation (Krenz, 1984;
Wojcikiewicz & Orlick, 1987), improving concentration and focus (Robazza & Bortoli, 1994,
1995; Schreiber, 1991), increasing self-confidence (Liggett, 2000), and using age regression and
heightened recall to help athletes in developing skills or analyze errors in sport techniques
(Onestak, 1991; Wolberg as cited in Taylor et al., 1993).
Flow
A study of collegiate athletes found that it is sometimes difficult for performance
enhancement specialists to draw an athlete’s attention to some types of performance
enhancement techniques (Maniar, Curry, Sommers-Flanagan, & Walsh, 2001). Some aspects of
sport psychology are more popular than others, and in the authors’ own personal experience, this
holds true. However, there is one area of performance enhancement that catches even the most
doubting athlete’s attention, and that is helping them get in “the zone,” as it is commonly called
by athletes. It is a concept also known to sport psychologists as attaining the state of flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000). Flow, for athletes, is associated with high levels of performance
and a very positive, enjoyable experience. As Jackson (2000) states based upon her research with
flow, everything is optimal, the mind and body are in harmony, negative thinking and self-doubts
are absent, and functioning is enhanced. It may even be said that optimal performance, or flow, is
often the ultimate end that athletes seek, while performance enhancement techniques of the sport
psychologist and coach, at times including hypnosis, provide the means.
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Theoretical Bases
The theoretical foundation for this research is based upon two fields of research that have
been studied extensively, though rarely together. These fields include hypnosis and the state of
flow. This research is conceptualized within a neodissociation theoretical conceptualization
(Barabasz, 1982, 1984; Barabasz & Watkins, 2005) based upon Ernest Hilgard’s (Hilgard, 1973,
1986, 1992, 1994) neodissociation theory of hypnosis. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000)
first conceptualized and defined the state of flow and how it pertains to physical activity.
Hilgard’s Neodissociation Theory
The concept of hypnosis has been around for over two hundred years, at least, and some
would argue longer (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). Despite this, and similar to other disciplines
within psychology, researchers in the area of hypnosis have not come to a complete consensus on
several factors of hypnosis, such as what exactly is occurring when a person is hypnotized, the
different depth levels attained, a person’s hypnotizability, etc. These problems existed when such
notables as Mesmer, Faria, Liebeault, and Janet were investigating the theories that lay behind
hypnosis, and they are still very much in existence today (Dixon & Laurence, 1992).
Contrasting theories exist that generate debates over whether hypnosis is a “special” or an
“altered” state of consciousness (Kihlstrom, 1985). The theoretical basis used for the present
study is that known as neodissociation by Ernest Hilgard (Hilgard, 1973, 1986, 1992, 1994).
Neodissociation is currently recognized as being the most influential theory of hypnosis (Kirsch
& Lynn, 1998). It is also meant to be a more generalized theory other than only a theory of
hypnosis (Hilgard, 1994). Neodissociation also enters the realms of dissociative disorders,
obsessive compulsive behavior, antisocial behavior, and hallucinations (Hilgard, 1986, 1992,
1994). The theory operates under the premise that a hierarchy of control and monitoring systems
6
exists at any one time in a person. Hypnosis enters the picture as modifying the hierarchical
arrangement of these controls by taking much of the subject’s control function away, such that
some systems become dissociated from others (Hilgard, 1975, 1994). This is what happens
when, among other occurrences associated with hypnosis, motor controls are altered,
hallucinations are perceived as reality, and perception and memory are distorted (Hilgard, 1994).
The theory of neodissociation will be discussed in more detail later.
Of primary concern for the present study is how the neodissociation theory of hypnosis
accounts for the effects of hypnosis in the field of sport psychology, specifically the performance
enhancement of athletes. Its similarities with Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of flow are of interest,
as well.
Csikszentmihalyi’s Flow Theory
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000) first defined the state of flow as a very enjoyable
psychological state that refers to a holistic sensation people experience when acting with total
involvement in a number of different activities. It is also seen as a highly valued experience and
source of motivation for many people undertaking any type of physical activity (Jackson, 1996).
Much of Csikszentmihalyi’s original theory of flow was developed from his studies conducted
with not only athletic participants, like rock climbers and basketball players, but also players of
chess, dancers, surgeons, and in artistic contexts with painters and musicians (Csikszentmihalyi,
1975,1990,1992).
The state of flow is a highly sought after experience and source of motivation by just about
every athlete that takes the court, course, track, pitch, pool or field. It is desired by every athlete
from the seasoned, veteran professional, to the collegiate athlete and the weekend warrior. There
are several reasons for this. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) believes that, for most, experiencing flow is
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to have the utmost enjoyable experience when participating in an activity, also often referred to
as an optimal experience, where optimal levels of functioning often occur. In research with
athletes, because it is often when optimal performance levels occur, flow has been shown to
relate to positive performance outcomes, as well (Jackson & Roberts, 1992).
Also, as previously mentioned, the stakes are constantly being raised in Olympic, collegiate,
professional and semi-professional sports. Any edge that a competitor can gain to succeed will
be greatly pursued. And even though the primary reason some may want to enter flow is for the
simple enjoyment of the experience, the further benefits of such a state are potentially
innumerable and beneficial, as well. As an example, for individual sport athletes it may mean
the difference between a world championship or Olympic gold medal or not even making the
Olympic team. For a team, this may mean a world championship victory or not qualifying for the
playoffs at all. It could also elevate a relatively unknown to the top of his sport in the world, thus
meaning not only newfound notoriety and perhaps respect, but also a potentially large increase in
salary, contracts or prize money.
So, if the state of flow is such a positive experience for an athlete or dancer or artist, why do
people not enter this state when they want the desired effects? Therein lays the problem. It
cannot be completely controlled and cannot be switched on and off at will. As Jackson and
Csikszentmihalyi (1999) state, even though the sport setting is structurally designed to enhance
flow, many athletes have trouble entering flow. And like the ever-elusive fountain of youth, the
secrets for achieving this realm upon command have yet to be discovered.
Research has been conducted with athletes to assess and understand the factors that enhance
or inhibit the occurrence of flow, with hope that by doing so, sport psychologists can help
athletes achieve flow (Jackson, 1992, 1995; Kimiecik & Stein, 1992; Russell, 2001). This
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research has been equivocal, however (Catley & Duda, 1997; Jackson et al, 1998; Stein et al,
1995). Csikszentmihalyi and Jackson (1999) outlined nine “flow fundamentals” or dimensions
that characterize the state of flow in athletes. They are: a perceived balance between challenge
and skill, a merging of action and actor, the presence of clear goals, the presence of unambiguous
feedback, total concentration and complete focus, a total sense of control, a loss of selfconsciousness, a transformation of time, and an autotelic experience. These will be discussed at
length below. Csikszentmihalyi and Jackson also stress that the mind-set of the athlete is what
opens the possibility for flow to occur, and that athletes have the ability to maximize the
possibility of entering flow by manipulating some of the nine dimensions prior to and during
competition (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
However, simply identifying antecedent factors, having the knowledge of how to improve
athletes’ chances of attaining flow, or any other such information, does not guarantee an athlete
will enter this state. Nothing, as of yet, has been shown to demonstrate this ability.
Similarities Between Flow in Sport and Hypnosis
It is interesting to note that many of the descriptions recorded in qualitative research from
those that have experienced flow and the nine “fundamentals” that are characteristic of it are
very similar to those involved with hypnosis. Having long worked in the field of hypnosis
research, Lars-Eric Unestahl (1979, 1983, 1986, 1995) recognized that the state of hypnosis was
similar in many ways to the state athletes enter when they are performing at their best, and
designed a sport psychology concept around this called the Ideal Performance State (IPS). For
Unestahl (1979, 1983), an IPS meant that the athlete was performing at a very high level which
also bore many striking resemblances to the dissociative aspects of hypnosis. Specifically this
included having an altered state of consciousness similar to hypnosis, an increase of focus and
9
concentration on task-relevant stimuli, a dissociated state from everything but the task-relevant
stimuli, sometimes having amnesia of the past events, and changes in perception such as time
slowing down, nonexistence of pain and an effortlessness in actions (Unestahl, 1979, 1983).
Very little research has been done investigating hypnosis and its ability to facilitate or control
an optimal performance state or flow. However, the commonalities between the states of flow
and hypnosis have led some to see the significance of using hypnosis to help athletes attain flow.
Pates and colleagues (Pates, Cummings, & Maynard, 2002; Pates & Maynard, 2000; Pates,
Maynard, & Westbury, 2001; Pates, Oliver, & Maynard, 2001), have researched the possibility
of improving an athlete’s attainment of flow in athletic skills in their groundbreaking series of
studies. Though they are pioneering, these studies have limitations and have merely broken the
surface, thus signifying further research is needed.
Rationale
There were six specific reasons for conducting this research:
1. It was necessary to further investigate and work toward the development of scientific
evidence that supports the use of physical practice with performance enhancement
techniques (Greenspan & Felts, 1989)
2. If techniques are developed and found to be performance enhancing, these techniques
must be safe for use by athletes, reasonably accessible, minimally time consuming,
professionally delivered, and within the legal and ethical guidelines for use as determined
by sport governing bodies (Carney & Corcoran, 1990)
3. It was necessary to further investigate the effectiveness of a specific technique (hypnosis)
that has shown preliminary evidence of enhancing an athlete’s performance and
10
attainment of flow in previous controlled studies (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates &
Maynard, 2000; Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001; Pates, Oliver, et al., 2001).
4. This study attempted to enhance an intermediate level athlete’s all-around basketball
skills, including dribbling, defensive, and close range speed shooting skills as measured
by the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and DanceBasketball Skills Test (AAHPERD-BST). The AAHPERD-BST was selected as a task as
it encompasses important components of the sport and participants were familiar with the
skills involved. The AAHPERD-BST (AAHPERD, 1984; Kirkendall, Gruber, &
Johnson, 1987) is also a well constructed, norm-referenced basketball skills test for males
and females. Reliability and validity results regarding the AAHPERD-BST provide
adequate substantiation of it as being a reliable and valid instrument (Kirkendall, Gruber,
& Johnson, 1987).
5. This study attempted to enhance an intermediate level athlete’s three-point shooting
performance as measured by a modified five-point scoring system developed by Pates, et
al. (2001, 2002). The three-point shooting performance was selected as a task due to its
importance as a component of the sport and participants were familiar with the skill
involved.
6. Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000) first defined and characterized the state of flow. This was
soon followed by work further investigating flow within the realm of sports and athletes
(Jackson, 1992; Jackson & Roberts, 1992). The Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2) was
developed, which provides a reliable instrument for measuring the state of flow in
athletes during a specific event (Jackson & Eklund, 2002). Therefore, this research
11
investigated the effects of a hypnosis intervention on an intermediate level athlete’s
ability to enter flow as measured by the FSS – 2.
Definition of Terms
Anxiety:
unpleasant emotional state involving qualities of uneasiness, dread,
apprehension, and distress (Reber, 1995)
Arousal:
activity readiness based on level of sensory excitability, glandular and
hormonal levels, and muscular readiness (Reber, 1995)
Flow:
a very enjoyable psychological state in which a person experiences a
holistic sensation when acting with total involvement in an activity; a state
of such focused concentration amounting to absolute absorption in a given
activity that it inherently creates a state of mind where optimal
performances are capable of occurring and usually do; where the mind and
body are in harmony, negative thinking and self-doubts are absent, and
functioning is enhanced (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 2000; Jackson, 2000;
Jackson et al., 2001)
Hypnosis:
a dynamic state of attentive, responsive concentration, even to the point of
dissociation. Hypnosis is characterized by a contraction of peripheral
awareness and an increase in focal attention (Spiegel, 1972)
Hypnotic susceptibility:
aptitude to produce a hypnotic state (Weitzenhoffer, 1997) as indicated by
the behavioral responses to the suggestions provided by the Stanford
Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C; Weitzenhoffer &
Hilgard, 1962) or other hypnotizability scales
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REST:
Restricted Environmental Stimulation Technique: the reduction of normal
levels of environmental stimulation (Suedfeld, 1980)
Three-point line:
A line 19 feet 6 inches from the basket, in which each shot is worth three
points in collegiate-level competition
Waterloo-Stanford Group C
Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility
(WSGC):
a group adaptation of the individually administered Stanford Hypnotic
Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C) (Bowers, 1998)
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were generated on the basis of the theories presented and the review of
literature:
1. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will score significantly lower (p < .05) on
the dribbling skill test from the AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than
participants in the relaxation intervention group.
2. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will score significantly lower (p < .05) on
the defensive skill test from the AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than
participants in the relaxation intervention group.
3. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will score significantly higher (p < .05) on
the close range speed shooting skill test from the AAHPERD-BST at the postintervention phase than participants in the relaxation intervention group.
13
4. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will have significantly lower (p < .05)
dribbling skill test scores from the AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than at
the pre-intervention phase.
5. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will have significantly lower (p < .05)
defensive skill test scores from the AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than at
the pre-intervention phase.
6. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group will have significantly higher (p < .05)
close range speed shooting skill test scores from the AAHPERD-BST at the postintervention phase than at the pre-intervention phase.
their three-point shooting scores at the post-intervention phase than participants in the
relaxation intervention group.
three-point shooting scores at the post-intervention phase than at the pre-intervention
phase.
the FSS – 2 at the post-intervention phase than participants in the relaxation intervention
group.
FSS – 2 scores at the post-intervention phase than at the pre-intervention phase.
14
Chapter 2
Literature Review
The following sections review a history of hypnosis, the use and research of hypnosis in sport
psychology, research involving the concept of flow, the similarities of hypnosis and flow, and
research that combines hypnosis and the state of flow.
Historical Overview of Hypnosis
A starting point in which to begin discussing the history of hypnosis is often an arbitrary one.
Many might start with the contribution made by Anton Mesmer and his success in bringing
hypnosis into its current place within the realm of science (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Dixon &
Laurence, 1992; Gould, 1988). Other notable figures would soon follow, such as Puysegur,
Liebeault, and Janet, to name a few (Dixon & Laurence, 1992). Pierre Janet is an important
person for this study due to his early work in dissociation theory (Hilgard, 1992). Moreover,
much like other topics in the field of psychology, the explanatory concepts appropriate to
hypnosis are a matter of discussion (Hilgard, 1973). In the past, the aforementioned predecessors
of hypnosis research debated over many of the same matters that divide the experimental
hypnosis community today. Indeed, throughout its history, most have agreed on the basic
observations of hypnosis; however, they have disagreed upon how to interpret the observations
(Kihlstrom, 1985). The current divisions of hypnosis research are much like the ones described
by Shor (1979) as the conflict between insufficient skepticism on the one hand, and a failure to
recognize that hypnosis offers something new to be discovered about the mind on the other. This
study is based upon Hilgard’s neodissociation theory of hypnosis.
The concept of hypnosis as a state of dissociation, defined as the splitting off of certain
mental processes from the main consciousness with various degrees of autonomy, has been
15
considered for more than a century (Charcot, as cited in Hilgard, 1992; Hilgard, 1986, 1992).
Janet is often credited with developing the concept of dissociation as systems of ideas that were
split off from the consciousness and exist only in the subconscious (Hilgard, 1992). These
systems of ideas were not available from the unconscious except through hypnosis (Hilgard,
1986). Hilgard’s theory of neodissociation, having roots within Janet’s work, takes the concept
of dissociation further. As Kihlstrom (1985) points out, many of the classic hypnotic phenomena
such as analgesia, motor automatisms, and amnesia, seem to support the concept of dissociation.
Neodissociation
Ernest Hilgard’s neodissociation theory is defined by several important characteristics. First,
it is assumed that our behavior is organized as a hierarchical series of subsystems of control that
carry out actions, such as habits, pain perception, attitudes, interests, or movement (Hilgard,
1986). Each subsystem has some degree of unity, persistence, and autonomy of function. Hilgard
(1994) contends there are lapses of consciousness in the control of such well-learned activities as
playing an instrument or driving a car, and that the actions can proceed with a bare minimum of
conscious control, remaining relatively self-sustained once they have begun. These subsystems
may at any one point be either latent or actuated. Latency refers to an inoperative or dormant
subsystem that is readily available to the person when called upon (Hilgard, 1994). An actuated
subsystem is one that has been called upon to function at that moment (Hilgard, 1994). Hypnotic
suggestion is one of the methods of actuating a specific set of subsystems (Hilgard, 1992). For
example, as the person reads this line, their subsystems of vision, memory, and word recognition
are being actuated, while subsystems such as pain perception or gross muscle movement may
remain latent.
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Next, a central control figure, known as the executive ego, initiates action sequences from
subsystems, in addition to performing monitoring functions of those sequences once they have
been actuated. According to Hilgard (1992), the executive ego is divided by mental processes
that are available to the conscious and those that are unavailable to the conscious, the
subconscious. Suggestions made during the altered state of hetero-hypnosis or self-hypnosis
operate at that part that is unavailable to the conscious in the executive ego. These suggestions
modify the control center, or executive ego, that hierarchically arranges these controls, thereby
taking some of the participant’s control function away and leaving some subsystems to become
dissociated from others (Hilgard, 1975, 1994). According to Hilgard (1992), during the normal
waking condition, the monitoring function is responsible for taking account of the information
that is available from the external world and the body. Having committed to the altered state of
hypnosis, the executive ego allows the monitoring function to relinquish some amount of critical
scanning of information, becoming fractionated during hypnosis. This partial fractionation of the
monitoring function allows the uncritical acceptance of a distorted reality to occur as though it
were undistorted (Hilgard, 1992). The monitor does not conduct reality tests it would normally
conduct. For example, during the ideomotor suggestion that the participant’s arm will become
stiff and cannot be bent (both sets of muscles contracting simultaneously), the monitoring
function doesn’t question the cause of the stiffness. In other words, suggestions during hypnosis
may change the normal hierarchical arrangement of various subsystems of central cognitive
control, thus causing the executive functions to recede (Hilgard, 1992). Meanwhile the
monitoring functions remain active but lack their normal criticalness, allowing distortions in
reality to occur (Kirsch & Lynn, 1995). Hypnotic suggestion is one of the methods for actuating
a specific set of subsystems (Hilgard, 1994).
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Hypnotic susceptibility and suggestion
Suggestion during a trance is a key component and characteristic of hypnosis that has been
known to exist for at least a century (Hilgard, 1973). Hypnotic suggestions may be defined as a
reaction that has a compulsive and automatic quality in response to an idea imparted by the
hypnotist, which may vary in modality and complexity (Heap, 1988).
Many examples of suggestion types exist. Ideomotor suggestions may include arm levitation
or postural sway. Sensory suggestions, like gustatory, olfaction, auditory, or visual experiences
may consist of the person not smelling a strong ammonia solution or experiencing a positive
hallucination, in which the hypnotized person recognizes something, a pesky mosquito for
example, that is not actually present, or a negative hallucination, in which the hypnotized person
does not see an object that is actually present. Still, other suggestions may alter the person’s
temporal experience such that time appears to move more quickly or slowly. Finally, an age
regression, where the participant is instructed to go back in time to relive an event more vividly,
is also a common suggestion (Heap, 1988).
A characteristic of hypnotic suggestions given by the hypnotist is that one’s abilities to
respond to them may differ. Among individuals there is a substantial continuum of hypnotic
involvement or responsiveness (Killeen & Nash, 2003). Some participants show little or no
response to hypnotic suggestion while others respond with ease. For example, a person may have
an excellent response to an ideomotor suggestion, but not to a suggested amnesia of events,
hallucination, or age regression. This continuum of ability to respond to different suggestions is
referred to as a person’s hypnotic susceptibility, and a number of standardized scales, which
provide a rank order of hypnotic features, have been developed to measure a person’s aptitude to
produce a hypnotic state (Weitzenhoffer, 1997, 2002). These scales were developed to determine
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the degree in which a person enters hypnosis and is involved in behaviors and experiences
characteristic of hypnosis (Perry, Nadon & Button, 1992). This also meant that researchers
interested in studying these characteristics, were now able to study the differences among the
population in their responsiveness to hypnotic suggestion (Weitzenhoffer, 1997).
Most scales, such as the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Forms A and B (SHSS:A;
SHSS:B; Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1959), the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility,
Forms A and B (HGSHS:A; HGSHS:B; Shor & Orne, 1962), or the Waterloo-Stanford Group C
Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC; Bowers, 1993, 1998) show essential similarity in
outcomes, having high reliability and correlations despite some differences in detail (Bowers,
1993; Council, 1999; Hilgard, 1973). In general, hypnotizability appears to be a stable trait with
some studies showing test-retest correlations as high as .71 over a 25 year period (Piccione,
Hilgard, & Zimbardo, 1989).
Among these, the SHSS:A, and B, and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C
(SHSS:C; Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962) have been extensively scientifically researched, and
the SHSS:C is largely considered to be the top instrument for evaluating hypnotizability
(Balthazard, 1993; Benham, Smith & Nash, 2002; Bowers, 1981; Hilgard, 1965; Nash, 2001;
Perry, Nadon, & Button, 1992). The SHSS:A,B,C, all 12-item measurements, were designed for
individual administration, take approximately one hour to administer, and have simplified
scoring systems consisting of individual items with progressively greater difficulty. However, in
research settings, larger numbers of participants are often necessary, and group administrations
of the hypnotizability scales were perhaps more advantageous and/or cost-effective for
researchers. This necessity for group administration instruments to determine hypnotic
susceptibility and facilitate sample selection, saw the development of additional scales to serve
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this purpose, such as the group scales developed at Harvard and the Waterloo-Stanford group
scale. Due to the advent of these group hypnotic susceptibility instruments, the SHSS:A and B
are no longer as commonly used for purposes of research (Perry, Nadon, & Button, 1992).
A relatively new scale, the WSGC is a group hypnotic susceptibility scale developed to
substitute for the individually administered SHSS:C. This new scale adds criterion validity to the
measurement of hypnosis abilities. The two scales are correlated at .85, and the WSGC’s internal
consistencies are comparable (high range of .81 using the KR 20).
Age regression
Age regression has been a familiar part of hypnosis for around a century (Hilgard 1973).
Regression, as Hilgard (1986) puts it, has many meanings, all of which imply a backward
movement in time for the participant. Most often seen in hypnosis is the suggestion that the
participant mentally go back in time to an event that they are encouraged to relive more vividly
(Kihlstrom, 1985). The adult participant is often regressed to childhood.
From the neodissociation perspective, the monitoring function, which is responsible for
absorbing information that is available from the body and external world in an altered state, is
partially fractionated during the age regression progress. The monitor’s partial fractionating
allows the uncritical acceptance of a distortion of reality to occur, as though undistorted, and not
making the normal reality tests (Hilgard, 1992). This allows the participant to regress to an
earlier point during their life.
Several important components are thought to exist during the process of age regression. First,
it appears that a temporary subtraction of memory occurs within the participant, where there is a
functional loss of knowledge acquired after the age targeted by the suggestion. Next, a
reinstatement is assumed to happen in which there is a developmental return to a previous mode
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of psychological functioning. Both components have not been adequately studied (Kihlstrom,
1985). Lastly, Weitzenhoffer (1989) stated age regression is clearly related to forgotten material.
This concept is sometimes known as revivification, the recovery of previously forgotten material,
or simple hypermnesia, the improvement of a person’s memory or recognition for events they
experienced previously while not in a hypnotic state (Kihlstrom, 1985; McConkey, 1992).
Of relevance to this study is the ability of age regression to evoke a previous experience. Age
regression is also important because performance enhancement or therapy with athletes
sometimes involves little more than helping them reconnect with facets of their performing
personality rendered inaccessible or dormant from their past, helping them regain images and
feelings of success (Edgette, 1998).
Post-hypnotic suggestion
Another important component of hypnotic suggestion is post-hypnotic suggestions, where
during hypnosis an idea is given to the person, for an event to occur later in their everyday
waking state (Heap, 1988).
Clearly stated by Weitzenhoffer (1989), a participant who is
presumably no longer hypnotized will, at the appearance of some signal or trigger, produce a
behavior that one would not ordinarily have expected. An example would be telling the
participant that their throat will be so irritated upon opening their eyes that they will feel a strong
urge to cough, thus doing so. Post-hypnotic suggestions are a familiar component of hypnosis,
having been known to exist for at least a century, and are often a key component of therapeutic
applications involving hypnosis (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Hilgard, 1973). Post-hypnotic
suggestion triggers may also be anything the hypnotist chooses, can be very subtle, and their
effectiveness has been shown to have a length of anywhere between 5 to 16 years, appearing to
obey the laws that also pertain to long term memory (Weitzenhoffer, 1989).
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Unestahl (1979) used post-hypnotic suggestions as a means for an individual to establish
immediate concentration and to elicit positive feelings. Unestahl’s use of posthypnotic
suggestion was based from a study using highly hypnotizable participants (N = 7), that found a
statistically significant increase in self-rating of well-being immediately after a posthypnotic
suggestion was triggered (Unestahl, 1974). He also found that suggestions given for a general
state, like an emotion or attitude, started with a very brief spontaneous trance, followed by a
period where the posthypnotic effects are working without the signs of a trance (Unestahl, 1973).
Unestahl (1983) further breaks down the type of triggers or cues one may utilize for posthypnotic suggestions into natural triggers or artificial ones. Natural triggers would consist of the
participant using something which is usually part of their normal routine as a cue, such as a
musician holding her instrument. An artificial trigger, which is not part of a normal routine for
the musician, would be a particular word or movement that is specifically chosen by that
participant to elicit the posthypnotic suggestion.
Hypnosis in Sport Psychology
The research and clinical areas in which hypnosis is used are numerous. Of interest here is its
utilization in the area of sport psychology, an arena in which it has a long and varied history.
Moll (1958) claimed that it was used as early as 1889, when hypnosis allowed a participant to
have strength that would have otherwise been impossible without it. More evidence of its early
clinical use involves a psychologist who successfully used it with professional baseball players
during the 1940’s (Tracy, 1951), in which he gives accounts of using hypnosis to strengthen
confidence, relieve pain, and enhance performance. Performance enhancement involving
hypnosis continues to be utilized by practitioners with numerous athletes in a wide variety of
sport and exercise settings and in a multitude of methods (Liggett, 2000).
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Despite the strong anecdotal evidence of hypnosis as a performance enhancement tool, as
well as its effects in other areas outside of sport and exercise psychology, it is surprising how
infrequently it is used by practitioners and athletes. This is especially interesting when one
considers how much could be at stake for an athlete to succeed. The margin of victory,
sometimes a mere one hundredth of a second, may be what separates the time necessary for a
gold medal versus failure to qualify for the event (Morgan, 2002). A recent study conducted by
Maniar and colleagues (Maniar, Curry, Sommers-Flanagan, & Walsh, 2001) employing NCAA
Division I athletes, asked which performance enhancement technique they most preferred to use
when preparing for competition. Overwhelmingly, the athletes chose goal setting and imagery,
while hypnosis was among the least preferred.
One of the reasons for this sparing use of hypnosis in sport psychology could be the many
misconceptions the general public and athletes more specifically have about hypnosis. Because
of the misconceptions and discrepancies inherent within the field of hypnosis itself, sport and
exercise psychologists themselves may shy away from using this technique. Empirical research
and reviews of the literature involving hypnosis as a performance enhancement tool do not
always convey confidence in its ability to improve an athlete’s capabilities.
Reviews and research were conducted in the utilization of hypnosis in performance
enhancement by Barabasz and Watkins (2005), Barber (1966), Gorton (1959), Hull (1933),
Johnson (1961), and Weitzenhoffer (1953). Some of the research findings are equivocal. In
several recent literature reviews of the field (Jacobs & Gotthelf, 1986; Onestak, 1991; Morgan,
1972, 1980, 1993, 2002; Taylor et al., 1993), for every study that shows hypnosis as beneficial in
increasing an athletes’ physical and motor performance or skill, there are just as many that fail to
support its effectiveness in the same area. As Onestak mentions (1991), much of the positive
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research results involve anecdotal or individual case history studies, and hence, are not
conducted using rigorous empirical methods. As the research moved to more empirically based
and standardized studies, the results sometimes failed to support the effectiveness of hypnosis in
performance enhancement.
There are many reasons for the discrepancies involving the different findings of empirically
based research. First, as the aforementioned reviews of literature discuss, there is a lack of
standardized procedures and there are many design problems inherent in much of the research in
this area (Onestak, 1991).
Also, as Jacobs and Gotthelf (1986) point out in their review,
participants involved in experimental studies may not have sufficient motivation to enhance their
performance, whereas the opposite is likely to be true of athletes involved in case studies, who
are generally more goal-oriented and have a decidedly stronger motivation. Onestak (1991) notes
that the programs specifically designed for athletes in case studies tend to be more individualized
for their benefit and focusing on their strengths, whereas those involved in experimental studies
are not. Indeed, studies have shown that the wording of hypnotic scripts is crucial and that small
differences in wording may significantly impact findings (Barabasz, 1990; Spiegel & Barabasz,
1988). Additionally, the participant’s basic ability to perform the researched tasks, especially
when involving motor skills, must be taken into consideration. Many experimental studies use
participants who are not proficient in the task involved, unlike case studies that use athletes
already adept at the required tasks (Onestak). For these reasons, the research involved in sport
psychology and hypnosis must carefully be reviewed before conclusions are developed,
regardless of which specific area in performance enhancement the study is involved.
Much like the disagreements that grip the field of hypnosis currently (i.e. state theories vs.
social psychological theories), these same discrepancies plague research involving its use in
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increasing the performance of athletes and exercisers. Also, like the number of disciplines in
which hypnosis is used, many investigations have been conducted in a wide array of areas
involving sport psychology. These include, yet are not limited to, muscular strength and
endurance, concentration, self-confidence, age regression, imagery or visualization enhancement,
relaxation and anxiety, and pain relief of minor injuries in athletes. Following is a more in depth
look at the major areas of interest by sport psychology researchers.
Strength and endurance
Many studies involving hypnosis in performance enhancement have focused on increasing
muscular strength and endurance in participants. Indeed, much of the early history of research
concerning hypnosis and performance enhancement centered on strength and endurance research
(e.g., Hottinger, 1958; Ikai & Steinhaus; Orne, 1959). The investigations utilized such tasks as
grip strength, arm muscle endurance, finger strength, elbow flexion strength, bicycling, vertical
jump, bench press, and treadmill running, among others (Onestak, 1991). Much of the research
here is equivocal in its findings. A good example of this is the work of Jackson, Gass, and Camp
(1979) in which they studied the improvement of endurance by having participants run on a
treadmill. They found that posthypnotic suggestion in a group of high susceptible participants
does produce a statistically significant improvement in endurance. Participants who were given
motivational suggestions during the waking state performed statistically significantly better as
well, and equal to the high susceptibles group.
The results of this study are a microcosm of the remainder of the research in the areas of
strength and endurance improvement. For every study that shows enhancement, (e.g., Howard &
Reardon, 1986; Hottinger, 1958; Ikai & Steinhaus, 1961; Ito, 1979; Roush, 1951) there are an
equal amount that show no improvement in strength and/or endurance (e.g., Albert & Williams,
25
1975; Levitt & Brady, 1964; Johnson & Kramer, 1961; London & Fuhrer, 1961). The literature
reviews on the subject find similar conclusions (Onestak, 1991; Morgan, 1993, 2002; Taylor et
al., 1993; Jacobs & Gotthelf, 1986). The one unequivocal conclusion found in regards to
affecting strength is that hypnotic suggestions designed to impair strength and/or endurance have
been consistently successful, as found by Morgan (2002), Albert and Williams (1975) and
Johnson, Massey and Kramer (1961).
Pain relief
Numerous studies demonstrating the efficacy of hypnosis in ameliorating pain have been
conducted in an array of areas, including electric shock (Barabasz, 1982), cold pressor pain
(Freeman, Barabasz, Barabasz, & Warner, 2000; Miller, Barabasz & Barabasz, 1991), chronic
pain control in clinical settings (Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1989), and severely ill children
undergoing painful medical procedures (Smith, Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1996). According to
Barabasz and Watkins (2005), for conditions in which pain is prominent, hypnosis is a
commonly recognized treatment and practiced clinically by many physicians, dentists, and
psychologists properly trained in its techniques. Morgan (2002) also noted that the efficacy of
hypnosis in reducing pain has been widely recognized and documented. Hypnosis often reduces
or eliminates the necessity for pain relieving drugs, for instance during rehabilitation, surgical
procedures or long term acute and chronic pain conditions, and hence reduces the possibility of
side effects (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Liggett, 2000). However, there appears to be but one
comprehensive study involving sports medicine and the relief of ailments and injuries suffered
by athletes. Ryde (1964) successfully and effectively used hypnosis in the treatment of athletic
injuries, such as tennis elbow, shin splints, and sprains, among other minor sports related
conditions, such that he reportedly used only hypnosis and not conventional methods, unless it
26
was refused by the athlete. Ryde (as cited in Onestak, 1991) later conceded a more cautious
approach, reporting that hypnosis had indeed been very effective in his practice with sport
related minor injuries, but that more research of his technique’s effectiveness was needed. Taylor
et al. (1993) pointed out that many methodological problems in this research prohibit one from
making any firm conclusions. Also, Morgan (2002) pointed out that in Ryde’s work, there is no
evidence shown to suggest that hypnosis is any more effective than placebo. It has been shown
that placebos can be just as effective a treatment as morphine in anxious patients with moderate
pain (Morgan, 1972).
Imagery
The positive effects of imagery in improving an athlete’s performance have been well
established by the research (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Feltz & Landers, 1983; Liggett, 2000;
Murphy & Martin, 2002). Like enhancement of muscular strength and endurance, early research
on the ability of hypnosis to improve imagery and visualization was equivocal. This was due
largely to the lack of establishing sufficient hypnotic depth in many of the studies. However, as
Taylor et al. (1993) stated, the latest increasing body of research points to hypnosis having the
ability to enhance imagery. For example, much of the recent research has shown that hypnosis
enhances imagery, is in turn effective in enhancing performance when combined with imagery,
and in some studies, more so than if imagery is used alone (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Liggett,
2000; Liggett & Hamada, 1993; Lodato, 1990, 1991; McMaster, 1993; Robazza & Bortoli, 1994,
1995; Stanton, 1983; Taylor & Gerson, 1992; Ward, 1992). Research conducted by Barabasz
and colleagues (McAleney, Barabasz, & Barabasz, 1990; Wagaman, Barabasz & Barabasz,
1991; Barabasz, Barabasz, & Bauman, 1993) has demonstrated that restricted environmental
27
stimulation therapy (REST) also improves performance when combined with imagery in several
different sport environments.
It appears that hypnosis has the ability to increase the vividness and controllability of
imagery by reducing the external and internal disturbances one faces, thus enabling the person to
imagine performances skills the athlete has not yet mastered (Taylor & Gerson, 1992, Taylor et
al., 1993). Hypnosis-induced imagery allows the athlete to mentally practice performances that
cannot yet be accomplished physically, in a sense allowing the athlete to practice the
performance. As Taylor et al. (1993) stated, the athlete can enhance motor learning in this
method through low-level innervations that have been shown to occur in muscles during
imagery.
Anxiety/Arousal/Relaxation
Anxiety has been operationally defined by sport psychologists as an emotionally negative
state involving feelings of worry, nervousness, and apprehension as frequent characteristics that
is also associated with physiological arousal of the person’s body (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).
The blend of psychological and physiological activity in a person which varies at different times
on a continuum from intense excitement to sleep is known as arousal (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).
Arousal, unlike anxiety, is not associated automatically with negative feelings, as a person may
be aroused equally by either very bad or very good news. They are separate entities and a person
may differ in their respective levels of each one. For example, an athlete may have a high level
of physiological arousal in preparation for playing, but have little anxiety or worry about the
event. The importance for sport psychologists, soon to be discussed, is that, for an athlete to
perform at their best, neither arousal nor anxiety should be too high or too low.
Like the aforementioned effects of hypnosis involving pain relief, hypnosis has clearly been
28
shown to effectively reduce the state of debilitating anxiety of athletes prior to competition
(Krenz, 1984; Naruse, 1965; Pressman, 1979; Wojcikiewicz & Orlick, 1987). A matter of small
debate is the possibility that hypnosis, by reducing an athlete’s level of anxiety, is, thereby,
always enhancing the performance of that athlete. A problem with much of the empirical
research involving the lowering of anxiety and arousal levels of participants, then testing for
their concomitant improvement in a performance, is that the adjusting of these levels prior to a
given task does not always lend itself well to a “cookie cutter” approach. Referring to the
concept of the athlete’s “Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning” (IZOF), which has been well
established through research (Hanin, 1978, 2000; Morgan, 1993, 2002; Raglin, 1992), some of
the respective athletes involved in such studies may not benefit from having a reduction in
anxiety. Their IZOF, which can include both arousal and anxiety, prior to or during competition
may need to be high in comparison to other participants. An example given by Vanek (1970)
clearly illustrates the notion that an attempt to adjust an athlete’s IZOF should be handled with
caution and according to that individual’s needs. He described a case in which an Olympic
boxer was experiencing an anxiety attack prior to competition, the anxiety was relieved via a
relaxation method, and the boxer consequently lost the match to a rival he had previously
defeated on numerous occasions. Follow-up investigation later revealed that the boxer operated
best in this panic induced state and that such occurrences prior to boxing matches were very
common for him.
Therefore, the lowering of his anxiety level adversely affected his
performance, as may often occur in experimental studies in which every participant’s relaxation
level is increased, hence decreasing their anxiety prior to performance.
As Wojcikiewicz and Orlick (1987) stated in their study of hypnosis and its ability to
increase performance by reducing anxiety, many of the previous studies, including their own,
29
that have investigated relaxation concepts, “suffered from the weakness of...non-individualized
intervention” (p. 310). It appears that strategies are more effective when individualized
intervention techniques are utilized and the wording of instructions during hypnotic suggestion is
precise (Barabasz, 1990; Seabourne, Weinberg, Jackson, & Suinn, 1985; Spiegel & Barabasz,
1988). The correction of this error by subsequent studies may be the primary reason that much of
the research (Garver, 1977; Marcuse, 1965; Robazza & Bortoli, 1994, 1995) and reviews on the
literature of hypnosis and controlling anxiety and/or arousal levels in sport psychology (Jacobs &
Gotthelf, 1986; Krenz, 1986; Morgan, 1993, 2002; Taylor et al., 1993) is stated as having the
ability to enhance the performance of athletes. This may also be the reason why relaxation
techniques, with or without hypnosis, are often integrated into mental training packages (Patrick
& Hrycaiko, 1998; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001).
Concentration
Of interest to researchers studying hypnosis and performance enhancement is concentration
or increased focus. This is an especially effective skill for an athlete performing with a multitude
of distracters present (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). It appears to be a by-product of obtaining
optimal levels of arousal together with the increased vividness and control of imagery. Limited
research in this area has shown hypnosis to be successful in increasing an athlete’s ability to
focus or concentrate (Robazza & Bortoli, 1994, 1995; Schreiber, 1991), by possibly reducing the
external and internal disturbances faced while using imagery (Taylor & Gerson, 1992) or
performing. The paucity of research in the area of hypnosis and concentration is likely due to the
questions that remain unanswered. As Liggett (2000) states, the appropriate breadth of focus is
not the same in every sport, is not the same at all times within a sport, and like arousal levels, the
optimal focus level likely differs between players. This means that any interventions involved
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with athletes will need to be highly individualized, a notion that was only recently discovered.
Self-confidence, Self-concept, Self-efficacy
Self-confidence is an oft overlooked component of research and reviews involving hypnosis
and sport psychology. For some studies, self-confidence appeared to be increased by hypnosis or
was a major by-product where hypnosis was used for performance enhancement (Garver, 1977;
Howard & Reardon, 1986; Liggett, 2000; McMaster, 1993; Stanton, 1983). A review of the
literature involving self-efficacy by Gould, Hodge, Peterson, and Giannini (1989), found that
positive relationships generally exist between an athlete’s self-efficacy and motor performance,
and that more successful athletes exhibit a higher amount than do less successful ones. It is clear
to researchers, and those that participate in sport and exercise, that self-confidence plays a major
role in the performance and sport arena. The role of self-confidence is even more relevant when
one considers, as Fitts states (as cited in Howard & Reardon, 1986), that when two competing
individuals are equal in physical ability, the one with higher self-concept will perform better.
Howard and Reardon (1986) defined self-concept as, “an organizing superstructure giving
impetus and direction to our affective, physiological, and behavioral functioning” (p. 249), and
were able to enhance it considerably by using a combination of cognitive restructuring
techniques and hypnosis. Other researchers have discussed the increases in the self-confidence of
their participants as a by-product of the research conducted in enhancing visualization
(McMaster, 1993), arousal level (Garver, 1977), and visualization and age regression (Stanton,
1983). The common goals of hypnosis and performance enhancement that include, among
others, emphasizing improvements in techniques through visualization, reducing feelings of
anxiety, and using imagery to visualize performance success are common methods to increase
self-efficacy (Gould, et al., 1986). Also, as Liggett (2000) states, it is generally acceptable to
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include suggestions about self-confidence when working with athletes on other problems.
Age regression
Heightened recall associated with the hypnotic state has been used to analyze errors in sport
techniques, such as sprinting in track and a batter’s swing in baseball, and through age regression
techniques, retrieve repressed material (Onestak, 1991). Other researchers, as will be detailed in
later sections, have used age regression to relive an earlier success and optimal performance
(Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates & Maynard, 2000; Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001; Pates,
Oliver, et al., 2001). Regardless of the method, hypnosis can be an effective adjunct to normal
information gathering for the athlete, especially those that are not consciously aware of why their
performance is poor (Wolberg as cited in Taylor et al., 1993). Oft cited cases of hypnotic age
regression involve Johnson (1961 a,b) reporting successful treatments utilizing hypnosis to detect
errors in technique of a professional baseball player’s hitting, previously unattainable without the
hypnotic trance, and uncovering previously repressed material that was negatively affecting the
performance of a professional pitcher.
Flow
There are many areas within sport psychology and performance enhancement that have been
explored in depth, including goal setting, concentration skills, and optimum arousal levels.
Thoroughly researched, these techniques are applied by sports psychologists to assist athletes in
attaining the very difficult goal of flow.
Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000) initially introduced the concept of flow as it pertained to
enjoyment in a variety of areas of life. The state of flow was defined as a very enjoyable
psychological state, in which an individual experienced a holistic sensation when acting with
total involvement in a number of given activities (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000). The activities
32
could be playing an instrument, gardening, or painting. A critical precursor for obtaining flow
was that there must be a perceived balance between the challenge of the activity and the person’s
skill in that activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1990, 2000). An objective or realistic balance
between challenge and skill need not exist. As long as the participant at least perceives there to
be balance, flow will likely occur (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). This balance of challenge and skill
was also the primary dimension that Csikszentmihalyi relied upon to measure the occurrence of
flow (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Jackson & Eklund, 2002). Flow is also a state
of such focused concentration amounting to absolute absorption in a given activity that it
inherently creates a state of mind where optimal performances are capable of occurring
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Jackson et al., 2001). Jackson (2000) described flow as everything
being optimal, where the mind and body are in harmony, negative thinking and self-doubts are
absent, and functioning is enhanced.
Flow can occur in a number of different settings and, since the development of the concept,
has been explored in a variety of ways. The psychological literature contains research from
different areas including work and leisure (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000; Wells, 1988)
education (Carli, Delle Fave, & Massimini, 1988; Larson, 1988; Nakamura, 1988), everyday life
(Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) mental health (Massimini, Csikszentmihalyi, & Carli, 1987)
and creative achievement (Csikszentmihalyi, 1988b).
However, though the concept of flow has been in existence for almost thirty years, very little
research had been conducted utilizing flow in sport until the early 1990’s. The majority of
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975, 2000) original theory of flow was developed from his research
conducted with athletic events, like rock climbing and basketball, as well as playing chess,
dancing, surgery, and artistic contexts such as painting and music (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 1992,
33
2000). Indeed, Csikszentmihalyi’s original work in flow developed from these activities
consisted of nine dimensions. They include a perceived balance between challenge and skill, a
merging of action and actor, the presence of clear goals, the presence of unambiguous feedback,
total concentration and complete focus, a total sense of control, a loss of self-consciousness, a
transformation of time, and an autotelic experience. These dimensions are referred to and defined
in more detail in following paragraphs.
In addition, Csikszentmihalyi (1990) argued that certain environments, like that of sport, are
more likely to produce flow, and certain personal characteristics may help certain people achieve
flow more easily and more often. Since flow is associated with high levels of performance and a
very positive experience, it is surprising that more research had not been undertaken sooner.
With the application of flow and sport as a backdrop, much of the recent research surrounding
flow has focused upon discerning the athlete’s psychological antecedents that will make flow
attainment possible. In this regard, Csikszentmihalyi (1992) applauded efforts to return the focus
of flow to the athletic environment.
Antecedents to flow
Presenting a challenge to practitioners and researchers is how one achieves what many
athletes and coaches consider an elusive, yet highly sought after state in sport. Research has been
conducted to discern if there are identifiable psychological characteristics or antecedents which
may cause or lead to flow in athletes. Jackson’s (1992) qualitative investigation with 16 former
elite United States National Champion Figure Skaters was one of the first endeavors to ascertain
the factors perceived as important for athletes attaining flow in sport, factors that prevent flow
from occurring, and factors that disrupt flow once attained. The volunteer participants were nine
females and seven males that had competed at the international level, with seven earning medals
34
at either World Championships or the Olympics. Due to the study’s representation of elite level
athletes, with many years of experience, this sample offered a rich data source on flow states.
Participants were interviewed about an optimal skating experience then questioned
extensively about factors associated with achieving optimal or flow states during a performance.
In addition, a questionnaire to assess flow was utilized to provide a means of measuring the
degree of importance for each component of flow for the skaters. A limitation of the study was
that, though a coefficient alpha of .75 was obtained for this questionnaire, it was determined on a
very small sample. Also, only one sport was utilized, thus making it difficult to extrapolate the
findings of such an elite pool to other non-elite and less experienced athletes and to other sports
as well. Findings of this study are discussed below.
As a follow-up study, Jackson (1995) furthered the research by attempting to address some
limitations from previous investigations. This extension of research was done by studying the
factors that influence the occurrence of flow state in 28 elite athletes from seven different sports.
Similar to earlier research, Jackson (1995) hoped to discover if factors that facilitate, prevent, or
disrupt athletes in achieving the state of flow in figure skating also pertain to other sporting
environments. Volunteers from track and field, rowing, swimming, cycling, triathlons, rugby,
and field hockey were interviewed. Following this, inductive content analyses of the responses
were used from the 14 female and 14 male participants to determine factors influencing flow.
Both studies found that nine factors influenced the occurrence of flow. They are as follows:
pre-competitive and competitive plans and preparation, confidence and positive attitude, optimal
physical preparation and readiness, achieving optimal arousal levels before competition,
motivation to perform, the performance feeling good, focus, optimal environmental and
35
situational conditions, positive team play and interaction, and an experience factor (Jackson,
1992, 1995).
Extending these studies, qualitative research (Russell, 2001) conducted with forty-two
collegiate athletes representing five team sports and four individual sports found the same
antecedents as the Jackson (1992, 1995) studies. However, the Russell study also used
quantitative analysis from the Flow State Scale (FSS) developed by Jackson and Marsh (1996).
Russell (2001) used the FSS which showed that college athletes appear to have similar
experiences of flow states, regardless of gender or individual or team sport type.
The FSS itself was developed and validated by Jackson and Marsh (1996) to measure state
characteristics of flow in sport and physical activity settings. The nine dimensions of flow
presented by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) were represented in the nine scales of the 36-item
questionnaire. The items were developed based upon past investigations with flow from both
within and outside the sport setting. The FSS scales also derived from qualitative analysis of
interviews with elite athletes in a variety of sports and from quantitative analyses conducted as
part of the Jackson and Marsh study. Participants for this study were 394 athletes from the
United States (N = 244) and Australia (N = 150), representing 38 total nationalities, and varying
in age from 14 to 50. A total of 41 different sports and physical activities were represented,
including basketball, track and field, field hockey, hiking, aerobics, and jogging. The participants
had been involved in their chosen sport or activity from 1 to 37 years (M = 9.7 years) with 71%
participating in their event for over five years.
The study found good support for the underlying theoretical and conceptual structure of the
flow construct. Evidence from a confirmatory factor analysis found high indexes of goodness of
fit (NNFIs of .904). The nine dimensions displayed high intercorrelations and factor loadings,
36
suggesting clear and distinct dimensions measuring the unitary construct of flow.
There were several limitations to the study. A retrospective approach was taken to the study,
in which participants were asked to respond to the questionnaire based upon a previous flow
experience that stood out for them. This may have been more useful than asking the participants
to complete the FSS immediately after an event in which they may or may not have experienced
flow. However, the researchers are then relying on the participants to recall events that, given the
average number of years of involvement in their respective sport or activity, may have occurred
many years ago. Some of the participants had only been participating in their respective sports or
activities for one year, which means their exposure to flow, and thus possibly their ability to
adequately answer the questionnaire based from past personal experience, may have been
severely restricted. The FSS was also designed to be given to a person immediately after a
performance to assess the flow state characteristics of that performance, but was never done
during this study.
Subsequent research utilizing the FSS has shown that the instrument displays acceptable
internal consistency, with estimates of the nine subscales using Cronbach’s alpha showing all
coefficients to be greater than .70 (p < 0.01), with the exception of transformation of time (0.65)
(Vlachopoulos, Karageorghis, & Terry, 2000).
The relatively low factor loadings on
transformation of time items resulted in a low internal consistency, which suggests questionable
items.
Due to the difficulties of the original version of the FSS and the measurement of some of the
flow dimensions, such as loss of self-consciousness and the transformation of time, item
modifications were made and researched in a two-part study that developed the FSS – 2 (Jackson
& Eklund, 2002). The FSS – 2 was the same as the FSS in design and in a majority of the 36
37
questions. The researchers, attempting to assess the usefulness of a few new items for the FSS –
2, made changes to one question from the loss of self-consciousness scale and two items from
the time transformation scale. A total of five new items were designed and researched in the
2002 study.
The first part of the study used 391 participants, ranging in age from 17 to 72 years. For
eligibility, the participants had to partake in a physical activity on a regular basis for at least
twice a week. The activities were varied and ranged from highly competitive sports, such as
rugby, track and field, and swimming, to exercise activities, such as weight training and touch
football. The FSS – 2 was given to participants to complete after completing their main event.
Some questionnaires were distributed and completed immediately after an event and some were
given to the participants to take with them to their activity for them to complete after their event.
The average time elapsed from completion of the event to completion of the questionnaire was
24.6 minutes.
Part two of the study, designed to cross validate the results from part one to ensure that the
results were not sample-specific, consisted of 422 participants who ranged in age from 16 to 82
years. The eligibility requirements were the same as part one, as were the types of activities in
which the participants were involved. The FSS – 2 was either distributed and completed
immediately after an event or given to the participants to take with them to their activity for them
to complete after their event. The average elapsed time from completion of the event to
completion of the questionnaire was 24.8 minutes.
From these two subsequent studies investigating the FSS – 2, Jackson and Eklund (2002)
reported similar findings to that of the FSS, providing further evidence of the robustness of the
38
Flow State Scale – 2… (i.e., strong support for both a 9-first order factor model and a higher
order model with a global flow factor).
Among the limitations of the two-part study was the fact that the researchers ultimately had
no control over when many participants actually completed the questionnaire. The questionnaire
was also given to participants after completing an activity in which they may not have
experienced a state of flow, and then promptly asked the participants to respond to their justcompleted flow experience. Establishing whether participants in a wide range of physical
activities experienced flow or not prior to having them complete the questionnaire, then
statistically examining their results may be best suited for determining if the FSS – 2 measures
what the researchers hope it measures, or more specifically, the nine characteristics of flow.
While these studies demonstrate what athletes perceive to be helpful in achieving a flow
state, they are primarily qualitative in nature and lack empirical evidence of antecedents. The
limited empirical investigations conducted on psychological correlates of flow attainment
demonstrate the youth of this field and research. Empirical research of psychological correlates
facilitating flow show equivocal results.
In a study designed to examine the possible psychological correlates of flow, Jackson,
Kimiecik, Ford, and Marsh (1998) had older (over age 25) athletes (N = 213) complete
dispositional questionnaires prior to competing at an international sport competition. The masters
level competitors first completed, among others, the Sport Motivation Scale (SMS) developed by
Pelletier et al., (1995). This is a questionnaire designed to assess the athlete’s intrinsic or
extrinsic motivation level, similar to the autotelic dimension of flow. Following results of
previous research (Jackson, 1995; Jackson & Roberts, 1992), participants were next asked to rate
their perceived sport ability on two, 10-point Likert questions. One measured ability from a
39
normative perspective, while the other evaluated ability from a personal perspective. The two
items were significantly correlated (r = .77) and the average of the two was taken as a measure of
the participants’ perceived sport ability. The Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS), developed by Smith,
Smoll, and Schutz (1990), assessed concentration disruption, somatic anxiety, and worry.
Finally, the Trait Flow Scale (TFS), based upon the nine dimensions of flow espoused by
Csikszentmihalyi and Jackson (1999), was given to assess the overall frequency in which athletes
perceived flow experiences during their sport. The trait focused TFS scale was developed by
Jackson and Marsh (1996) and was based on the FSS, which focuses on state measures.
After these assessments were completed, the participants were then asked to complete three
more measures as soon after their competition as possible. These included two 11-point Likert
scale questions designed to rate how challenging the event was for them and how skilled they
were in the event, derived from the Experience Sampling Form by Csikszentmihalyi and Larson
(1987). They also asked the participants to complete two 11-point Likert scale questions to
determine their perceived success in the event they just completed. Finally, the participants
completed the FSS, to determine the degree of flow experienced during the last event in which
they participated.
The results showed that perceived ability seems to be crucial for facilitating flow states, a
finding that supports previous research (Jackson, 1995; Jackson & Roberts, 1992). The authors
hypothesized that those who believe in their abilities are more likely to experience a balance
between challenge and skills more often and thus meet a requirement for attaining flow. The
study also showed a negative relationship between anxiety and flow, as Csikszentmihalyi’s
(1975, 2000) flow model and qualitative research by Jackson (1992, 1995) would suggest. Thus,
anxiety is counterproductive to flow states and optimal experiences. Similar to the autotelic
40
aspect of Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975, 2000) dimensions of flow, this study also discerned that
intrinsic motivation, the engaging in an activity because of the pleasure associated with the
activity itself, was also a statistically significant psychological correlate.
There were limitations to this study. The sample of participants was limited to older athletes
(over age 25), and the researchers had no control over when the athletes actually took the state
assessments after their competition. Furthermore, the instruments used to assess the athlete’s
perceived sport ability, success, challenge of the event, and skill involved may not have been
robust enough or psychometrically sound to accurately measure this information. Also, from a
cognitive standpoint, a respondent will likely have a difficult time processing a 10- or 11- point
anchored Likert scale. The researchers also acknowledged that the concept of flow does not lend
itself well to empirical testing, and that a variety of methods, quantitative and qualitative, are
necessary to continue the advancement of knowledge in the attainment of flow (Jackson,
Kimiecik, Ford, & Marsh, 1998).
A study by Stein, Kimiecik, Daniels, and Jackson (1995) also attempted to discern
psychological antecedents of flow. Focusing on recreational athletes in a tennis tournament, a
college activity course in basketball, and older-adult golfers of average ability, this three part
study investigated three potential antecedents to flow, such as goals, competence, and
confidence. Results showed that there was no relationship between a high level of competence
of participants and the existence of stated goals to the state of flow. The lone significant finding
suggested that a high level of confidence had only a weak relationship to the participants
experiencing flow. However, the study also demonstrated that optimal experience and flow does
occur for recreational participants.
Limitations of this study may have negatively influenced the results. For one, the researchers
41
utilized the Experience Sampling Method (ESM) procedure for obtaining data. The ESM, which
is designed to randomly assesses a person’s subjective experience while they are actively
involved in the activity or environment, was originally developed by Larson and
Csikszentmihalyi (1983) to periodically assess for flow in everyday life. Therefore, it involved
interrupting the activity of the participants to fill out a questionnaire concerning their thoughts
and feelings, possibly disrupting flow. The golf portion design of the study also eliminated the
randomness aspect of the ESM, as the participants new beforehand when they were to be
assessed. This study also addressed the need for better techniques in obtaining pertinent
information for flow antecedents (Stein et al., 1995).
Prevention, disruption, controllability of flow
As alluded to earlier, while attempting to discern the psychological antecedents that would
improve one’s chances of achieving flow, researchers were also exploring concepts that prevent
athletes from attaining flow or that may disrupt flow once it occurs. In Jackson’s (1992, 1995)
aforementioned qualitative study with 28 elite athletes in seven different sports, the
characteristics or situations that prevented flow were studied. Also, once in flow, the factors that
disrupt athletes enough to lose this state were investigated as well. From her interviews, it was
found that nine dimensions prevent flow, including: non-optimal physical preparation and
readiness, non-optimal environmental and situational conditions, lacking confidence or a
negative attitude, inappropriate focus, problems with pre-competitive preparation, a lack of
motivation, non-optimal arousal level, negative team play and interaction, and performance
going poorly.
The six characteristics that disrupt flow are similar to the aforementioned factors. They
include: problems with environmental and situational conditions, problems with physical
42
readiness or physical state, problems with team performance or interactions, inappropriate focus,
performance errors or problems, and doubting or placing pressure on oneself (Jackson, 1992,
1995).
Though there were a few minor differences found in the study concerning factors that prevent
or disrupt flow from occurring within collegiate athletes, Russell (2001) primarily discovered
similarities with the previous findings related to flow. While a majority of the research has been
conducted on what components will facilitate the attainment of flow, the information about what
prevents and disrupts it is also very pertinent to this study. It is not only necessary to be familiar
with that which can facilitate an athlete’s chance of attaining flow, for they may in fact all be
present. If, however, several of the factors which inhibit or disrupt flow are present as well, the
chances of attaining flow will be considerably diminished, as supported by previous studies
(Jackson 1992, 1995; Russell, 2001).
Research has also been conducted on athletes’ and their perceived ability to control the
attainment of this goal during practice or competition. In Jackson’s (1995) study with elite
athletes in seven sports, it was reported that 79% of the athletes perceived flow to be a
controllable state, while 21% said that it was an occurrence that just happened. Yet, in Jackson’s
(1992) study of elite figure skaters, 81% said they did not experience flow very often, thus
demonstrating its elusiveness. One reason hypothesized by Jackson for this high number was that
the athletes only reported their personal best performances, and did not include other
performances that included flow in a lesser extent or intensity. Indeed, flow experiences are said
to occur on a continuum of intensity, from relatively minor occurrences, micro-flow, to the peak
experiences of amazing human accomplishments, macro-flow, that occur less often
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000; Jackson, 1992, 2000). In Russell’s (2001) qualitative study with
43
less elite collegiate participants, he reported the percentage of athletes indicating flow as a
controllable state was only 64%. The difference between the results of these studies may be
explained by the higher skill levels elite athletes have, perhaps allowing them to enter and
experience flow states more often (Jackson, 1995).
Flow in Sport – Similarities with Hypnosis
In addition to the primary rule of a perceived skill and challenge balance, Csikszentmihalyi
(1975, 2000) described eight other dimensions or characteristics common with being in the state
of flow. Subsequent qualitative and quantitative research, some involving sport, has supported
these dimensions (Jackson, 1996, 2000; Jackson & Marsh, 1996). Jackson (1996) conducted an
in-depth
qualitative investigation
with
the primary
purpose being
to
examine if
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) model of flow was applicable to elite level athletes’ experiences
(Jackson, 1996). Participants were from seven separate disciplines of sport, which included track
and field, rowing, swimming, cycling, triathlon, rugby, and field hockey. This study
operationally defined elite level as participation at an international level in the person’s chosen
sport. Additionally, all 28 athletes involved in the study had at least finished with a top ten
placement in international competition. Four athletes from each sport were interviewed about
their perceptions of flow during performances of their sport.
The participants were initially asked to describe an experience while participating in their
events that stood out as being above average, such as an experience that was very rewarding and
in which they were totally absorbed. An additional tool used was to read three quotes illustrating
flow, to help the athletes understand what was being asked for or react to as a comparison to
their own experience. After this initial discussion, athletes were next asked a series of questions
about flow. Questions specifically included what the most distinguishing characteristics of the
44
experience were and what the athlete was most aware of during the state of flow.
Analysis of the 295 responses to questions about what athletes experienced during a very
rewarding event in which they were totally absorbed revealed a high degree of association with
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) theory of flow. Thus, this study supported that the optimal state of
flow, with its nine dimensions, is experienced by elite athletes (Jackson, 1996). Based upon
Jackson’s (1996) research, in combination with Csikszentmihalyi’s (1990) psychological
research on flow, the nine dimensions found to relate to athletes experiences with this state are as
follows: a perceived balance between challenge and skill, a merging of action and actor, the
presence of clear goals, the presence of unambiguous feedback, total concentration and complete
focus, a total sense of control, a loss of self-consciousness, a transformation of time, and an
autotelic experience. The definitions of these are described in detail below.
Similar to the dimensions in the state of flow is a concept in sport psychology developed by
Unestahl (1979, 1983, 1986, 1995) and known as the Ideal Performance State (IPS). IPS is
partially defined as when an athlete performs at their best and partially through its similar
characteristics with the state of hypnosis. The IPS is described by Unestahl (1979, 1983) as
having many striking similarities to the hypnotic state. They include having an altered state of
consciousness similar to hypnosis, an increase of focus and concentration on task-relevant
stimuli, a dissociated state from everything but the task-relevant stimuli, sometimes having
amnesia of the past events, and changes in perception such as time slowing down, nonexistence
of pain and an effortlessness in actions (Unestahl, 1979, 1983).
The following paragraphs describe in detail the nine dimensions of flow in sport as outlined
by the psychological literature on flow, and by studies conducted with flow in the sport
environment. In addition, concepts that are similar to both flow and the dissociative aspects of
45
hypnosis are also elaborated upon, as set forth by Unestahl (1979, 1983). Hypnosis effects are
described using Hilgard’s neodissocation theory (Hilgard, 1992, 1994).
Challenge and skill balance
Tantamount for flow to occur is the balance between challenge and skill that must be
perceived by the individual. It is argued that both must be at high levels, with the challenges
coming in a variety of forms, including technical, mental, and physical (Csikszentmihalyi &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1988; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi
(1999) stress that what a person believes their skills are ultimately determines their experience
more than will their actual abilities. If the challenges are perceived to be greater than the skills
one has, anxiety will occur and prevent the person from attaining flow. Likewise, if one’s
perceived level of skill is higher than the challenge at hand, boredom will ensue, once again
preventing flow. When the person’s perceived challenges and skills are matched, yet less than
that person’s average experiences, then apathy is said to occur (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). As
Kimiecik and Jackson (2002) state, the quality of experience is typically most optimal in flow,
less than optimal in boredom and anxiety, and least optimal in apathy.
However, there is research that has shown the condition in which skills are above average
and challenge below average, a condition supposed to produce boredom, does not produce
boredom. In one component of a three part study investigating the psychological antecedents of
flow in recreational sport, 17 male golfers were used as participants (Stein et al., 1995). The
players were an average age of 65, had been playing for 33 years, and played three to four days
per week. The participants answered a brief quantitative questionnaire immediately after playing
a demarcated hole of golf that measured, among other concepts, the challenges, their skills, and
enjoyment and satisfaction for that particular hole. The participants completed this routine once
46
during the first nine holes of a total of eighteen and once on the last nine holes, thus twice per
round of golf. The participants provided their thoughts and feelings after a total of 208 holes
played.
The study found that the participants’ quality of experience when the perceived skill level
was viewed as greater than the challenge was equal to that when conditions were right for flow
to occur. In this specific example, the golfers often participated in good-natured competition that
involved small bets per hole and per round, bragging rights for the day, and positive social
comparison among playing partners. Hence, having skills greater than the challenge of a hole
could potentially create a low score, enjoyment, and money. It was thus hypothesized that
situations where skills outweigh challenges are enjoyable during competition because good
performance is practically guaranteed (Stein, et al., 1995). Similar results were found in Moneta
and Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996) study in the perceived challenges and skills on the quality of
subjective experience. They also found that high skill/low challenge situations were found to be
as optimal for the participant, if not more so as high skill/high challenge situations (Moneta &
Csikszentmihalyi, 1996). Clearly more research is needed in this area. However, despite the
equivocal findings showing differences between skill and balance, all of the studies supported
the need for a high perceived skill.
Action and actor merge
The second dimension of flow is the merging of action and actor, where the person simply
becomes one with the activity and everything becomes automatic (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990;
Kimiecik & Jackson, 2002). In theory, the person is so focused that they cease to be aware of
themselves as separate from the action and a feeling of oneness with the action ensues. For
athletes, the predominant feeling is one of automaticity and unity with the environment, where
47
movements and actions are effortless and spontaneous. This unified consciousness, perhaps one
of the most telling aspects of flow as shown by its frequent mention by athletes in studies, is one
reason for the development of the term “flow” (Jackson, 2000; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi,
1999). Athletes often report they are floating or flowing, and that they feel a sense of lightness
and ease of movement as they experience the changed perceptions of their body in space
(Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Noteworthy is the ease in which an event is accomplished,
even for those participating in grueling, stamina driven events where experiencing pain is
typical. Yet, athletes describe moments when they are able to ignore the pain or turn it into
ecstasy during flow (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Similar to this ability of increasing
pain tolerance during flow, the success of hypnosis in alleviating pain in participants has been
addressed here and is well documented in the literature (for a review, see Hilgard & Hilgard,
1983). The Hilgards (as cited in Barabasz & Watkins, 2005) state that the pain may be recorded
at the covert or unconscious level, but the person does not feel pain at the overt or conscious
level. From a neodissociation perspective, the pain stimuli may only be perceived by the
dissociated part of the executive ego, the part unavailable to the person’s consciousness. The
executive ego could also dissociate that subsystem containing pain, placing it in a latent stage.
Clear goals and unambiguous feedback
Frequently discussed concurrently are the separate concepts of clear goals and unambiguous
feedback, as the former allows the latter to be possible (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Jackson, 2000).
Goal setting, an important aspect of psychological skills training technique, provides one with
active direction and helps provide focus (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). As Jackson (2000)
described it, during flow there is clarity about what needs to be accomplished by awareness of
the right actions. The unambiguous, immediate feedback of one’s successful actions are seen,
48
which, in turn, provide a clear idea of the next actions that are necessary. This creates an
unending cycle of specific goals and clear feedback, which is easily provided in sport as an
athlete can immediately discern if their goals are being met through a number of potential
sources of feedback (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). The goals may be either predetermined
or developed while engaging in an activity and better allow the person to become totally
immersed or engaged in the activity (Kimiecik & Jackson, 2002).
Concentration/Focus
Next, a total concentration and complete focus on the task at hand is often perceived as the
clearest indication of being in flow, and is mentioned most often by athletes (Jackson, 2000;
Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999; Kimiecik & Jackson, 2002). Total absorption on the activity
is allowed to happen by clear goals, clear feedback, and challenges and skills being heightened
and balanced (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). All distractions
become nonexistent or are kept to a minimum, with only a select range of information that is
pertinent to the activity being permitted into an athlete’s awareness. This is not to say that focus
must be narrow. As Liggett (2000) pointed out, the appropriate breadth of focus is not the same
in every sport, is not the same at all times within a sport, and the optimal focus level likely
differs between players. For example, as Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) stated, many
athletic events, such as basketball, hockey, and middle-distance track races require that the
person be hyper-aware of where competitors and teammates are. The athlete can include this in
the realm of focus while remaining aware of the big picture while in flow. It is normally difficult,
especially for athletes during competitions, to sustain this type of concentration for long periods
of time; however flow allows this to occur with effortlessness (Jackson, 2000).
Hypnosis is a state sometimes defined as an increase in concentration (Unestahl, 1979). It is
49
also a widely held belief that during the state of hypnosis, the participant’s attention is reduced
and concentrated or focused upon a narrow range of stimuli, such as the hypnotist’s voice or a
feeling in some part of their body (Shor, 1959). The focus of attention narrows from the broad
area typically found in the waking state. As Kihlstrom (1985) pointed out, the mere induction of
hypnosis typically emphasizes the focusing of attention. Aforementioned research has shown
that hypnosis can increase an athlete’s ability to focus, and has prevented stimuli from producing
electrophysiological responses in others due to the increase in focusing ability (Robazza &
Bortoli, 1994, 1995; Schreiber, 1991; Spiegel et al., as cited in Taylor et al., 1993). From a
neodissociation perspective, the executive ego or central control structure may relax, thus
allowing the subsystem of focus to be actuated by the hypnotist’s suggestion. The subsystems
involving other more broad ranges of attention are left as latent subsystems.
Sense of control
Another domain of flow is that of the overwhelming sense of control one has during a
performance or the ability to exercise control especially in difficult situations (Csikszentmihalyi,
1990; Jackson, 2000). This is also said to occur without the worry of losing control or the fear of
failure. Often, difficult situations faced by downhill skiers descending mountains at lifethreatening speeds or race car drivers risking wrecks that could literally kill them, are undertaken
with an ease that belies the actual difficulty of the task they are performing. Athletes often refer
to having the ability to do no wrong. This empowerment is overwhelming, which in turn releases
a sense of power, confidence, and calm (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
Loss of self-consciousness
The loss of self-consciousness dimension that occurs during flow is defined as a
transcendence of ego, where the performer no longer worries about how they are perceived by
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others (Jackson, 2000; Kimiecik & Jackson, 2002). No self-consciousness exists, resulting in the
athlete feeling one with the environment. Because there is no room for self-concern or selfdoubt, the person can be completely absorbed by the activity (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi,
1999). This state does not imply a loss of awareness, as awareness is actually heightened through
increase in concentration. Some athletes allude to this component as doing things instinctively or
naturally (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). This is, however, one component of flow that has
not fared as well as others during research. Qualitative studies showed that the loss of selfconsciousness was not as universally endorsed as the other components (Jackson, 1992, 1996),
while quantitative research also failed to show that it related well with the other components
(Jackson & Marsh, 1996; Kowal & Fortier, 1999; Vlachopoulos & Karageorghis, 2000).
Unestahl (1979) described this dimension in hypnosis as the other side of increased
concentration, in which dissociation or inattentiveness occurs for stimuli outside of the narrow
focus of the hypnotized person. Neodissociation theory holds that one loses self-consciousness
during hypnosis due to a cognitive subsystem carrying out a habitual action sequence.
Simultaneously, the executive ego has limited involvement with the subsystem, for the task is
indirectly self-monitored once it is activated. Jackson (2000) stated that while in flow, the
athlete’s evaluative ego recedes. This may occur as a process of the monitoring function
becoming relaxed while in the altered state of flow, much like hypnosis. During the waking state,
this is similar to arriving at a habitual location in one’s automobile and not remembering the
process of navigating.
Hilgard discussed lapses in consciousness in the activation of well-learned habits, such as
driving a car or playing an instrument, as a type of dissociation. This concept is also important
for the athlete. The activation of habitual cognitions and movements are important and
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commonplace in skills involved with sports. Any conscious thoughts allowed to enter the mind
will disturb and decrease results (Unestahl, 1973). For example, it would be detrimental for a
hitter in fast-pitch softball to think about the mechanics of her swing while the pitch is coming.
The fraction of a second the hitter has to decide will not allow it. The swing must be a finely
tuned, well practiced motor skill already, thus allowing the hitter to focus solely on the softball,
and permitting the swing motion to come instinctively. The hitter must lose self-consciousness
regarding all other matters in order to be successful. A different type of event, long distance
running, is also discussed as having a common occurrence of loosing self-consciousness, albeit
not due to time limited decision making (Callen, 1983).
Time transformation
The transformation of time, often a controversial domain of flow, involves a loss of sense of
the normal passage of time, in either direction (Jackson, 2000). During qualitative research in
which athletes were interviewed by Jackson (1992, 1996), and in other quantitative research
(Jackson & Marsh, 1996), this dimension could either speed up for the athlete or, interestingly
enough, slow down for others. However, these studies could not discern a universal endorsement
of this transformation as this particular concept of flow was the least mentioned. Meanwhile,
quantitative research showed that time transformation did not relate well to the previously
discussed flow dimensions either (Brewer et al., 1991; Kowal & Fortier, 1999; Vlachopoulos &
Karageorghis, 2000). Csikszentmihalyi (1990) did say that time transformation may not always
occur in flow, especially given that many events like surgery and especially athletic competition,
require that participants maintain a constant awareness and management of time paramount to
their success. This would make the dimension of time transformation very difficult for a person
in flow to experience. The equivocal nature of research involving time transformation and loss of
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self-consciousness does not necessarily mean they are irrelevant. Results by studies may simply
show that these components are less important to some sport participants than others of the flow
dimensions (Jackson & Marsh, 1996). Whether this is due to the importance of time management
of some events or the necessity to be self-conscious and aware of one’s body and its position in
other events has yet to be determined. Further research in time transformation and loss of selfconsciousness dimension is necessary before any conclusions may be drawn.
Fairly common to hypnotic states is the alteration of time. Many who experience hypnosis
perceive that time passes rather quickly while they are in this state. Similar to the concept of a
loss of time by hypnotized people is that of the temporary loss of memory, or amnesia. In this
context, amnesia is defined as the person’s failure to remember events that occurred while
hypnotized, following a suggestion of this nature, and sometimes without a suggestion necessary.
Hilgard (1994) discusses the commonplace occurrence of people forgetting some of the details of
what happened during hypnosis, after they were given the suggestion that they would experience
amnesia upon returning to a non-hypnotized state. In a study conducted with college students,
approximately 25% displayed amnesia in response to suggested material while in a hypnotic
state (Kirsch, Silva, Comey, & Reed as cited in Kirsch & Lynn, 1998). Unestahl (1979) stated
that this is similar to what happens with athletes after an optimal performance, in that many
forget aspects of the performance. Neodissociation theory approaches this phenomenon as some
of the material being recorded in the memory subsystem, yet not available to the person’s
conscious part of the executive ego for recall (Hilgard, 1994). This is similar to the process that
occurs during the tolerance of pain by the hypnotized person.
Autotelic experience
The last important component of flow is that of the autotelic experience, which is defined as
53
an activity that is done for its own sake because it provides its own reward of intrinsic enjoyment
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000; Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). This dimension is the end
product of those previously mentioned, for when all the positives emerge, the result is an
experience that is very enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Jackson,
2000). Flow is an experience that is such a positive subjective state that the person, in theory,
desires to perform the activity again and again (Kimiecik & Jackson, 2002). This feeling also is
described by athletes as feeling no pain, feeling strong, enjoying the effort, and having an endless
supply of energy (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999).
The aforementioned nine dimensions are important characteristics of the flow state. They are
also concepts that can be manipulated by athletes, coaches and sport psychologists such that the
athlete’s chances of experiencing flow, or setting the stage for flow to occur, are improved
(Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). As previously mentioned, the environment of sport is likely
to produce flow, and certain characteristics may help athletes achieve flow more easily and more
often (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Even though psychological antecedents have been supported to
set the stage for flow to occur, no characteristics have demonstrated the ability to allow athletes
opportunities to control the occurrence of flow.
Hypnosis and Flow Research – Preliminary studies
Research combining any form of hypnosis with facilitating and controlling flow or optimal
experience is sparse. Grove and Lewis (1996) investigated hypnotic susceptibility, prior
experience, and heart rate as possible correlates to flow-like states during noncompetitive
exercise over a period of six weeks. Participants (N = 96) were volunteers from circuit training
classes at a university gymnasium. The sample consisted of 30 men and 66 women, with 55% of
the participants having taken part in regular circuit training for more than six months, thus
54
making this the group with prior experience. To measure hypnotic susceptibility at the outset of
the study, the 24-item Wickram Experience Inventory (WEI) was used. The WEI items focus on
correlates of hypnotizability such as absorption, dissociation, sleep and dream familiarity,
openness to experience, sensory vividness, and the ability to relax, and the items have been
shown to discriminate between individuals high in hypnotic susceptibility and those who are not
(Wichramasekera, 1985, 1988).
The hypnotic susceptibility factor had two levels, high
susceptibility (upper 40% of the WEI distribution) or low hypnotic susceptibility (lower 40% of
the WEI distribution). Prior experience also had two levels, less than six months or greater than
six months. The circuit training classes lasted about 45 minutes and combined anaerobic and
aerobic activity. Twice during the training exercise, after the first approximately 15 and 30
minutes, the participants completed a questionnaire and a heart rate check. The questionnaire
used was a subset of 10 items selected from the Privette Experience Questionnaire (PEQ),
designed to evaluate various aspects of flow-like states and using a combination of qualitative
and quantitative procedures. The subset of questions were chosen due to their direct reference to
well-documented characteristics of flow states, such as joy, clear focus, playfulness, time
distortion, freedom from restrictions, intentionality, absorption, responsibility, spontaneity, and
intrinsic motivation. The volunteers were asked to indicate the extent these qualities described
their exercise experience within the last 10 minutes. Responses were made on five-point bipolar
scales anchored by strongly agree and strongly disagree. Participants measured their heart rate by
using a 10-second check of the carotid or radial pulse each time the questionnaire was completed
and wrote this value on the questionnaire sheet.
Results showed that from the first time participants were administered a flow scale after 15
minutes of exercise, with a second administration at 30 minutes, flow-like states increased for all
55
participants, F(1,77) = 9.20, p < .003. Follow-up analysis suggested that low-susceptibility
participants (lower 40% of the WEI distribution) exhibited a trend toward increased flow ratings
between the early and late assessments, but that high-susceptibility participants (upper 40% of
the WEI distribution) showed a greater magnitude of change than their counterparts, F(1,77) =
43.28, p < .0005.
There were limitations to this study. First, the authors did not report any apriori criteria (i.e.
psychometric properties) for selecting the 10 items form the 42-item PEQ inventory. Second,
due to the fact that the 10 item scale measures subjective states (i.e. joy, playfulness, intrinsic
motivation), it may be important to consider the extent the participants enjoyed or were
intrinsically motivated by certain designated aerobic and anaerobic activities as this may have
changed depending on the specific activities. Also, expectancy effects of the participants may
have also influenced the results.
Based upon the notion that hypnosis and motor performances share common skills that may
be modified through training, Robazza and Bortoli (1994, 1995) investigated hypnosis and
improving performance. The case study involved the participant, an archer, being hypnotized
before and/or during practice with a technique called active-alert hypnosis. This technique
emphasized induction of hypnosis, in which suggestions of alertness, readiness, and physical
activity replaced suggestions of relaxation and drowsiness, and thus did not lower arousal levels
for the athlete. For 20 weeks during practice, the archer was active-alert hypnotized through
exercises aimed to improve body awareness and imagery during stance, and focusing during the
draw and aim phase. A dissociative state was emphasized such that the archer moved freely
without conscious control of the draw and aim movement. Before and during shooting, various
sensory channels were involved to induce hypnosis. For example, the archer was asked to pay
56
attention to somatic perceptions, visualize the whole shot process using multiple senses, and
focus on the aiming point. Traditional hypnotic techniques were used after practice to establish
connections between this phase and the active-alert phases of hypnosis, allowing the athlete to
achieve mental skills for sport and hypnosis.
The whole treatment phase strategy comprised (a) during stance, a short version of bodily
check-up, focusing on the target, multisensory imagery of the shoot, and mental repetition of the
word “calm,” (b) during draw and aim, automatic monitoring of sight-target alignment,
bowstring contact on the face, bow and arm position, and (c) after release and follow through,
evaluation of the result and the whole strategy. Eight shooting tests were carried out, two before
treatment to establish a baseline with the remaining six during treatment. The six treatment phase
tests took place at least two weeks apart. Each test consisted of 30 shots at a distance of 25
meters. The sum of scores, variable errors, and total errors were calculated.
Results of the study suggested that the procedures were helpful in increasing the archer’s
shooting performance (Robazza & Bortoli, 1995). Limitations existed in that there was only one
participant, and the setting for the experiment was not controlled. Using a single-subject multiple
baseline across individuals design, the archer also carried out only two baseline trials, while the
intervention phase consisted only of six trials. In addition, this pre-post, one case study lacks
statistical sophistication because of the simplicity of the design, and concurrent with this, had
inherent threats to internal validity and lacks external validity (Campbell & Stanley, 1961).
Unestahl – Inner Mental Training
Only a series of studies conducted by Pates and colleagues has explored the effects of
hypnosis improving the attainment of flow states, and thus performance, in an athletic skill
(Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates & Maynard, 2000; Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001; Pates,
57
Oliver, et al., 2001). These studies were based upon Unestahl’s (1979, 1983, 1986, 1995) work
with athletes, hypnosis, mental training, and the aforementioned IPS theory in which optimal
performance is similar in many respects to the dissociative state of hypnosis.
A mental skills training program, Inner Mental Training (IMT), was developed by Unestahl
(1986, 1995) with the primary focus being to enhance the possibility of athletes achieving and
developing control over IPS.
The program involves such sport psychology standards as
concentration skill development, goal setting, imagery, and arousal control with relaxation
techniques, and was one of the first training programs to utilize multiple performance
enhancement techniques. In addition, all of these mental skills are taught while the athlete is
hypnotized or self-hypnotized. An important component of the IMT program is post-hypnotic
trigger techniques utilized by athletes during training and competition to assist them in
developing instant concentration and in reaching their idyllic arousal state.
Empirical results demonstrate IMT’s effectiveness with athletes. In Straub’s (1989) study,
college aged men and women participated in one of five conditions. These conditions consisted
of three different mental training program groups with minimal physical practice, a physical
practice only group, and a control group. Results on dart throwing performance showed that the
IMT program significantly differed from the control group, and equaled the performance of the
physical practice only group despite its participants having a minimal amount of physical
practice. The IMT program was the only mental training program to do this. IMT was also
utilized by the 1980 Swedish Olympic athletes (Unestahl, 1983). Demonstrating the success of
posthypnotic suggestion and the IMT program overall, only one third of the Sweden Olympic
team had the training, while more than half of the Swedish finalists in the Olympics and two
thirds of the medalists had this training. Unestahl (1983) readily admits that this success rate,
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besides being related to the IMT program, may also be due to an over-representation of gifted
athletes in the group. Nonetheless, there is strong enough evidence to support further research
into the effects of hypnosis improving athletic performance.
Building upon the work of Unestahl’s (1979, 1983, 1986, 1995) IPS theory, the Pates et al.
studies (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates & Maynard, 2000; Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001;
Pates, Oliver, et al., 2001) were the first to utilize hypnosis as a means of inducing flow. This
series of four investigations were very similar to each other and involved the effects of hypnotic
intervention on flow states and golf or basketball performance.
Pates et al. Studies
The first of the series of studies by Pates et al. (Pates & Maynard, 2000) investigated golfchipping performance.
The participants were three male golfers, all aged 21 years, with
handicaps ranging from 24 to 18. The volunteers also had at least six years of playing
experience, previous experiences with flow, and attained performance levels higher than their
handicaps indicated. They also had no previous experience with training methods in hypnosis.
The golfers agreed not to practice or enter competitions involving golf for the duration of the
study.
A single-subject multiple baselines across individuals research design was used to examine
the effects of a hypnosis intervention on the dependent variables of flow states and golf-chipping
performance. This design was used to examine whether behavior could be reversed, meaning
“turned on or off” using trigger control techniques. The design also required the assessment of a
stable baseline performance on the dependent variable of golf-chipping or a trend in the opposite
direction of the change anticipated when the treatment was introduced to each golfer. The first
baseline was assessed over seven trials, and when a stable performance was achieved, the
59
hypnotic intervention was introduced. The intervention phase also consisted of seven trials.
After this phase, a second baseline assessment phase involving seven trials was used.
The two dependent variables for the study were golf-chipping shot performance and the
frequency and intensity of flow reported by the participants. Golf-chipping was used because the
golfers were familiar with the technique involved and it was an important component of their
performance. Additionally, it was a closed motor skill, meaning the environment does not
change and the performer can plan the movement well in advance. The performance of the golf
shot was assessed by measuring the distance the ball finished from the hole. Flow state intensity
and frequency analysis was assessed by using the FSS. The 36-item questionnaire was given to
each participant immediately after each of the twenty-one total trials.
A Practical Assessment Questionnaire (PAQ) was also administered after each trial to
determine the internal experience of each player across baseline and treatment sessions, and to
provide information about effectiveness of the intervention. Questions included: “How did you
feel during the performance? What were you thinking during the performance? Were there any
outside thoughts distracting you? Did you use the trigger? Did you experience any problems?
Were you satisfied with the results following the intervention? Were the procedures acceptable
to you? What was the effect of the intervention? What were your general beliefs about your
performance? How much effort did you put into today’s performance?”
To maximize effort and motivation, along with providing conditions normally experienced
during competition, a prize was awarded to the player displaying the best average performance
score for the 21 trials. The researchers did not state the nature of the prize. The site of the
competition was a specially prepared, flat, outdoor golf course with a target green and fairway.
The scoring system was explained to the golfers, and prior to each trial they were allowed 10
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practice attempts to familiarize themselves with the course. A shot was then performed by each
person from 20 meters away and the results measured. The golfer with the closest shot began the
next round of attempts. A total of 12 shots were completed for each trial, with a mean score
determined for each performance trial. The FSS and PAQ were administered after each trial.
Reliability of performance observations was assessed by comparing the judgments of two
independent observers measuring the target distances simultaneously.
The hypnosis training of the participants began after the completion of the first baseline and
consisted of three stages. The first stage involved encouraging the golfer to sit comfortably
while focusing on breathing deeply and releasing air slowly while counting backwards from the
number 10. Then a fifteen minute session with a progressive muscle relaxation (PMR) technique
developed by Jacobsen (1938) was given that involved tensing and relaxing parts of their body
while deeply inhaling. This technique, as noted by Barabasz and Watkins (2005), was developed
to teach patients how to lower their blood pressure before the advent of pharmacological
treatments. Suggestions to contrast differences between tense and relaxed muscles were also
given.
The second stage consisted of an Ericksonian technique of hypnosis known as the staircase
induction, in which the players imagined a journey down a flight of 20 stairs. At the bottom of
the stairs they were told they would see a door, and beyond it they would see a comfortable chair
in a room. They were then asked to sit in the chair, focusing on a small movie screen with
images displayed. The participants were encouraged to direct their attention to relaxing images,
such as a warm comfortable beach or the sensation of floating in water. During this process,
suggestions were used to reinforce the experience of PMR and deep breathing.
The last phase involved giving suggestions for the participant to regress and remember an
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optimal performance and a state of flow. They were asked to include visual, auditory, tactile,
olfactory, and gustatory memories of this experience. After a memory was produced, a posthypnotic trigger, a personal choice of music, was next introduced so an association would
develop between the trigger and the variables responsible for and emotions that stem from their
optimal performance. The participants were then asked to imagine a climb up the stairs, slowly
come out of their hypnotized state, and resume their waking state, feeling refreshed and alert.
After this, the players were asked to access the ideal performance state by using the trigger, a
technique shown to be effective in recalling a desired feeling state (Hammond, 1990; Unestahl,
1973). Training was considered complete upon the players’ reporting an emotion, normally
associated with their optimal performance state, that could be experienced when they
remembered the music trigger. The participants then practiced the aforementioned techniques by
listening to an audio tape recording of the initial live session every day over a seven day interval
before the trial phase was to begin. The golfers were contacted daily to ensure they were
listening to the tape.
Following this training, the intervention phase started in which the players were to imagine
the music trigger with each shot. It is important to note that during the actual performance trial
participants were not hypnotized, but simply using the trigger conditioned to elicit their
emotional state during a previous optimal performance state. Throughout the intervention the
tapes were listened to every day until this phase was terminated. In total, one live session and
seven taped sessions were used prior to the intervention and 35 tape sessions were used during
the intervention phase itself. Prior to the second baseline, the tapes were retrieved from the
players and they were asked to perform their shots without using the trigger. Confirmation that
the trigger was not used during the second baseline was obtained by questionnaire.
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The internal experience of each participant (i.e., feelings, thoughts, and cognitions) was
assessed by asking each participant to complete a PAQ after each trial. Data were recorded as
ratings and summed for analysis by comparing ratings on the baseline trials with those on
treatment trials. Players were also given a social validation questionnaire upon completion of the
study to provide information on the importance of the study and the effectiveness of the
intervention. Questions here included: “Did you perceive the golf task to be important? Were
the procedures of the study acceptable? Are you satisfied with the results?”
The performance scores obtained from the participants were plotted according to the
accuracy of their attempts. Via visual inspection of the data, the researchers used the following
criteria to establish the occurrence of a significant experimental effect: (a) when baseline
performance was stable or in the opposite direction to that predicted for the treatment, (b) the
greater the number of times that an effect was replicated both within and across subjects, (c)
fewer overlapping data points between baseline and treatment phases, (d) the sooner the effect
was observed following the introduction of the treatment, and (e) the greater magnitude of the
effect judged relative to baseline. An effect was considered to have occurred when at least one of
the criteria had been reached.
Each player showed an increase in performance accuracy, suggesting the intervention
consistently improved golf-chipping scores. Player 1 improved from a mean of 260 cm during
baseline to a mean of 170 cm during the intervention. Player 2 improved from a mean of 300 cm
during baseline to a mean of 190 cm during intervention. Player 3 improved from a mean of 360
cm to 240 cm during the intervention. In baseline 2, the scores for Players 1 and 2 returned to
levels similar to those prior to the intervention. Player 3, however, did not return to baseline 1
levels, and it appears he retained the effect of the intervention throughout baseline 2.
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Concerning the FSS, two players had an increase in scores after the hypnotic intervention,
suggesting the intervention increased the intensity of the experience of flow. Player 1’s mean
score of 135 during baseline 1 improved to 146 during the intervention. Player 3’s scores
improved from a mean of 141 to 152 during the intervention. Upon receiving the intervention,
Player 2’s scores on the FSS decreased from a mean of 123 during baseline 1 to 113 during the
intervention. Scores for each player during baseline 2 indicated no effect of the intervention, as
all showed decreased mean scores on flow throughout baseline 2 relative to the intervention
scores.
The PAQ responses indicated that each player had used the trigger and that the intervention
improved their performance. The players also stated that they felt more relaxed, confident, in
control, and were better able to concentrate during the task. The players reported being satisfied
with the results of the intervention and recognized more consistent play on the social validation
questionnaire.
The limitations of the study included a possibility of experimenter and participant bias, as
neither party was blind to the expected outcome. Regarding the PAQ and social validation
questionnaire administered, participants may have exhibited a social desirability bias that was
not taken into consideration. The items of the social validation questionnaire, for example, may
have induced this bias because they specifically asked about the appropriateness or acceptability
of the interventions. There is the possibility of a Hawthorne effect (Drew, 1976), as well, in
which a change in performance occurs merely as a function of participating in a study, especially
in a single-subject design. The experiment also utilized a rudimentary, basic design that does not
allow statistical comparisons between or within groups by using correlations, analysis of
variance, or a comparison of means. Instead, the data are “visually inspected” and this criterion
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is used to establish occurrence of an effect. From a methodology standpoint, this is not a
rigorous enough procedure to establish the occurrence of an experimental effect. Thus, the
conclusion that the hypnosis intervention consistently improved performance may not be
warranted. The researchers contacted the participants asking if the intervention tapes were
listened to, yet did not actually monitor the participants while they listened to the tapes. Also,
the researchers did not state the amount of time that elapsed between the final shots taken and the
administration of the FSS and other questionnaires, nor did they consider the amount of time that
elapsed between the present study and each participant’s past experience of flow or an ideal
performance. This interval that exists for each player is a variable that may affect the outcome of
the interventions. Additionally since the investigation consisted of interventions during practice
only, there is the prospect that the increase will not generalize to competitive situations. The
study used questionnaires to obtain qualitative information concerning the perceived
effectiveness and importance of the intervention, as well as the internal experience of each
player, such as their “thoughts, feelings, and cognitions.” The data were analyzed by comparing
the comments obtained in the baseline sessions to the comments obtained during the
intervention, yet no mention is made of exactly how this information was analyzed.
For
example, was the information coded, if so how and by how many raters, and how was it analyzed
beyond this? Finally, as the sample size of this study is particularly small (N = 3), group based
and controlled empirical investigations may contribute to these findings.
The series of four studies by Pates et al. were very similar and therefore, for purposes of
brevity, the remaining three studies and their respective differences from the first study will be
the primary topics of review.
The second study (Pates, Oliver, et al., 2001) examined the effects of hypnosis on flow states
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and performance on golf-putting in five male competitive participants. The golfers had handicaps
ranging from 24 to 11, at least four years of competitive playing experience, and no experience
with hypnosis training. The golfers also had previous experiences of flow, and agreed not to
practice or enter competitions involving golf for the duration of the study.
A single-subject multiple baseline across individuals design was used to examine the effects
of a hypnosis intervention on the dependent variables of flow states and golf-putting
performance. This type of design allowed participants to serve as their own source of control for
the experiment. The design also required the observation of baseline performance and treatment
phase for each of the golfers with the length of pre-intervention baseline increasing for each
succeeding player. The intervention was introduced when a stable baseline or a trend in the
opposite direction of the change anticipated became evident for each participant. Sequential
application of the intervention was applied until all participants received it. Participant 1 had a
baseline phase of four trials and an intervention phase with seven trials, Participant 2 had five
baseline and six intervention trials, Participant 3 had six baseline and five intervention trials,
Participant 4 had seven baseline and four intervention trials, and Participant 5 had eight baseline
and three intervention trials.
The two dependent variables for the study were golf-putting performance and the frequency
and intensity of flow experienced by the participants. The putting task consisted of 11 trials for
each participant, with 10 putts for each trial form a distance of four meters. All trials were started
after each golfer has completed 20 practice putts to familiarize themselves with the speed, pace,
and condition of the carpet green. Measuring the distance the ball finished from the center of the
hole assessed the performance of the golf shot. Putting performance was measured by calculating
the average radial error score for the 10 putts. Flow state intensity and frequency analysis was
66
assessed by using the FSS. The 36-item questionnaire was given to each participant immediately
after each of the eleven total trials.
As in the previous study, a PAQ was also administered after each trial to determine the
internal experience of each player across baseline and treatment sessions, and to provide
information about effectiveness of the intervention. Upon completion of the study, participants
were given a social validation questionnaire which used the same questions as the first study.
consisted of similar stages as the previous study. There was a difference in the third stage,
however, which involved giving suggestions for the participant to regress and remember their
best competitive performance. After a memory was produced, a post-hypnotic natural trigger, the
grip of the putter, was next introduced so an association would develop between the trigger and
the variables responsible for and emotions that stem from their optimal performance.
After this, the players were asked to access the ideal performance state by using the trigger, a
1973). Training was considered complete when the players felt that an experience of their best
performance was under trigger control.
The hypnosis intervention was administered to the players in a small, quiet room and lasted
about 40 minutes. The participants then practiced the aforementioned techniques by listening to
an audio tape recording of the initial live session every day over a seven-day interval after the
baseline trial and before the trial phase was to begin. To ensure they were listening to the
recording, the tape was played with the participant and experimenter present. Therefore, one live
session and seven taped sessions were used prior to the intervention trials. Following this
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training, the intervention phase started in which the players were to imagine the trigger with each
shot.
The performance scores obtained from the participants were again plotted according to the
accuracy of their attempts. The researchers also used visual inspection of the data to establish
the occurrence of a significant experimental effect.
After the intervention, all players experienced an immediate performance effect with no
overlapping data points between the baseline and the intervention phase. Player 1 improved
from a mean of 28 cm during the baseline to a mean of 12 cm during the intervention, Player 2
from 25 cm to 17 cm during intervention, Player 3 from 28 cm to 17 cm, Player 4 from a mean
of 24 cm to 18cm, and Player 5 improved from a mean of 26 cm to 19 cm during intervention.
These results suggest that each player improved putting performance accuracy after the hypnosis
intervention.
The players also experienced an immediate flow effect with no overlapping data points
between baseline and intervention phase. Specifically, Player 1 improved from a mean FSS
score of 114 during baseline to a mean of 155 during the intervention, Player 2 went from a
mean of 110 to 136, Player 3 increased from 131 to 148, Player 4 improved from a mean of 114
to 138, and Player 5 form 134 to 172.
The PAQ was also administered after the study in which all participants indicated that they
felt more relaxed, confident, and focused when compared to the baseline. Also, three of the five
golfers indicated they had reduced concerns about performing and more control over their
putting stroke. The social validation questionnaire revealed that all participants reported they
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were satisfied with the results of the intervention and realized it helped their putting
performance.
The limitations of this study were very similar to the first, yet there were other shortcomings
here as well, as this study differed in several, small components. For example, the researchers
did not state the amount of time that elapsed between the final shots taken and the administration
of the FSS and other questionnaires, nor did they consider the amount of time that has elapsed
between the present study and each participant’s past experience of flow or an ideal
performance. This interval that exists for each player is a variable that may affect the outcome of
the interventions. Also, the researchers reported that “a favorable social validation
assessment…provided further support for the intervention effect,” yet there is a scarcity of actual
results or statements reported to substantiate this statement.
The next study involving the effects of hypnosis on peak performance states investigated
basketball jump- and set-shooting performance (Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001). The participants
were three male community college basketball players, aged between 17 and 19 years, who were
competing in a basketball league. The volunteers were starters with at least six years of
competitive basketball playing experience.
A single-subject replication-reversal ABA design was used to examine the effects of
hypnosis intervention on the dependent variables of jump- and set-shooting performance. This
design was used to examine whether or not behavior could be reversed using trigger control
techniques.
The design required the establishment of a stable baseline assessment on the
dependent variable or a demonstration of a trend in the opposite direction of the change
anticipated when the treatment was introduced to each participant. Baseline assessment involved
eight trials and occurred over a period of approximately four weeks. When a baseline became
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apparent for each player, the treatment was introduced. The baseline and intervention phase had
equivalent intervals, with eight trials taking place over four weeks.
Following withdrawal of the intervention, the baseline phase was reinstated. This second
baseline also involved eight trials over four weeks. All trials were initiated about one hour prior
to a competition and took place on the participants’ home court. The jump- and set-shooting
tasks were presented to the participants in random sequence.
For set-shooting, the participants stood on the free throw line and shot 20 set shots. The
jump-shooting task required the player to run from left to the right side of the court, stopping to
shoot outside of the basketball key approximately level with the free throw line until a total of 20
shots were performed. Each of these were recorded on a point system that consisted of: 1 for a
backboard and out or a complete miss, 2 for a rim and out, 3 for backboard and in, 4 for a rim
and in, and 5 for a clean basket. Performance was measured by summing the scores for 20 shots.
Reliability of the performance observations was assessed by comparing the judgments of two
independent observers, simultaneously measuring the target behaviors. The assessment occurred
prior to the study and the result of the correlation for both set- and jump-shooting was found to
be 1.00.
consisted of the same three stages as the previous two studies. In the third stage, suggestions
were again given to help players regress, and remember a polysensory experience of their best
performance. They were asked to include visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory
memories of their best performance from an internal perspective.
Each of the participant’s best performance was conditioned to be released by a trigger. To
achieve this, the players were asked to choose a word they felt described their ideal performance
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state. Suggestions were given to enable the use of the work as a trigger for accessing the optimal
performance state at a future time. The participants were then asked to climb the stairs, slowly
come out of their hypnotized state, and resume their waking state, feeling refreshed and alert.
Once the players re-acclimatized to the environment they were asked to access their ideal
performance state by using their triggers. Training was complete when they felt that an
experience of their best performance was under trigger control.
The hypnosis intervention was administered to the players in a small, quiet, and comfortable
room and lasted about an hour. The participants then practiced the aforementioned techniques by
listening to an audio tape recording of the initial live session every day over a seven day interval
between the first baseline and intervention phase of the study. The players were contacted daily
to ensure they were listening to the tape. Following this training, the intervention phase started in
which the players were to use the trigger word each time they took a shot. Throughout the
intervention the tapes were listened to everyday until this phase was terminated.
Before the second baseline was initiated the tapes were retrieved from the players. In every
session of the second baseline the players were instructed to perform the shooting tasks without
using the triggers. Confirmation that the triggers were not used during the second baseline was
obtained from a follow-up questionnaire.
The internal experience of each player was monitored by asking each to complete a PAQ
after each testing session that permitted an ongoing assessment of the quality of the participants’
feelings, thoughts, and cognitions across the baseline and treatment sessions. The questions here
differed slightly from previous questionnaires, and the data was measured using a Likert scale
and analyzed by comparing the scores obtained in the baseline sessions to the scores obtained in
the treatment sessions. Questions included: “How did you feel during the performance? What
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were you thinking during the performance? Were there any outside thoughts distracting you?
How confident were you with regard to performing? Did you experience feelings of calm? Did
you experience feelings of strength? Did you experience feelings of vitality? Did you feel
relaxed? Did you experience narrowed attention? Were you focused on the task? Did you use
the trigger?
Did you experience any problems?
Did you use the trigger to enhance
performance?”
Upon completion of the study, participants were given a social validation questionnaire
which used the same questions as the previous studies. The performance scores obtained from
the participants were again plotted according to the accuracy of their attempts. The researchers
also used visual inspection of the data to establish the occurrence of a significant experimental
effect.
During the intervention phase each player improved their jump-shooting performance during
the two baseline phases. This finding indicates that the intervention led to an increase in
performance for all participants. Player 1 had an increase from 50 during the first baseline to a
mean of 59 during the intervention. Player 2 increased from 67 during the first baseline to a
mean of 83, and Player 3 increased from a mean of 54 during the first baseline to a mean of 64
during the intervention. In the post-intervention phase each of the player’s performance scores
returned to similar level as those prior to the intervention, thus indicating that the effect of the
intervention was not demonstrated in the second baseline phase.
During the intervention phase each player improved their set-shooting performance during
the two baseline phases. This finding again indicates that the intervention led to an increase in
performance for all participants. Player 1 had an increase from 64 during the first baseline to a
mean of 80 during the intervention. Player 2 increased from 71 during the first baseline to a
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mean of 83, and Player 3 increased from a mean of 47 during the first baseline to a mean of 54
during the intervention. The number of overlapping data points between the intervention and
baseline two for each participant was negligible, indicating that the effect of the intervention was
not demonstrated in the second baseline phase of the study.
The interview data collected after each trial indicated that the players had used the triggers,
felt the intervention was useful in keeping them focused, confident, and relaxed, and gave them
stronger feelings of self-confidence, more positive thoughts, and were less distractible during the
tasks. Also, all players reported that the intervention had enabled them to experience feelings and
thoughts associated with their peak performance. All participants reported they felt more calm,
relaxed, focused, stronger, and full of vitality during the intervention. Participants 2 and 3 felt
that time slowed down. All participants reported they were satisfied with the results of the
intervention and realized it helped them be more consistent players.
The limitations of this study were very similar to the previous ones, yet there were other
shortcomings here as well, as this study differed in several, small components. For example, the
researchers contacted the participants asking if the intervention tapes were listened to, yet did not
actually monitor the participants while they listened to the tapes. Also, the researchers did not
state the amount of time that elapsed between the final shots taken and the administration of the
FSS and other questionnaires, nor did they consider the amount of time that has elapsed between
the present study and each participant’s past experience of an ideal performance. This interval
that exists for each player is a variable that may affect the outcome of the interventions. The
study used questionnaires to obtain qualitative information concerning the perceived
effectiveness and importance of the intervention, as well as the internal experience of each
player, such as their “thoughts, feelings, and cognitions.” The data were analyzed by comparing
73
the Likert scale scores obtained in the baseline sessions to those obtained during the intervention,
yet no mention is made of exactly how this information was analyzed. For example, was the
information coded, if so how and by how many raters, and how was it analyzed beyond this?
Also, there is no mention of whether or not the players were allowed to practice shots during the
experiment.
The last study involved the performance enhancement of three-point shooting performance in
basketball players (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002). The participants were five male collegiate
basketball players from northern England, aged between 19 and 23 years old, with at least seven
years of competitive basketball playing experience, and no experience with hypnosis. A singlesubject multiple baselines across individuals design was used to examine the effects of hypnosis
intervention on the dependent variables of flow states and shooting performance. The
experimenters recorded each three-point attempt on the same five point scale system used for the
previous study. The reliability of the performance observation was assessed by the same means
as the previous study and also resulted in a correlation of 1.00 for the scores of the two
independent observers.
The performance was measured by summing the scores for ten attempts per trial.
Information on the intensity and frequency of the flow state experienced was assessed by the
FSS. The 36-item questionnaire was given to each participant immediately after each of the
eleven intervention trials.
The intervention phase began after a stable baseline or a trend toward the opposite direction
of the change anticipated became apparent for each player. This ranged from a four trial baseline
to an eight trial baseline. Next, based from Unestahl’s (1979, 1983) premise that flow is similar
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to the dissociative experience during hypnosis, there were three treatment phases involving
hypnosis.
The first two stages of hypnosis training were similar to those of the previous studies. The
third stage involved giving suggestions for the participant to regress and remember their best
competitive performance. They were asked to include visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and
gustatory memories of this experience. This was based from research demonstrating that
hypnosis-induced imagery has been shown to increase the person’s controllability and vividness
of imagery (e.g., Liggett & Hamada, 1993; Taylor & Gerson, 1992). Hypnosis research has also
shown to increase a person’s ability to concentrate (e.g., Schrieber, 1991, Spiegel, as cited in
Taylor et al., 1993). Hypnosis has, therefore, shown the ability to increase imagery and focusing
skills.
After a memory was produced, a post-hypnotic trigger, a basketball, was next introduced so
an association would develop between the trigger and the variables responsible for and emotions
that stem from the optimal performance. This is supported from research showing post hypnotic
suggestions as having the ability to produce a behavior one would not normally expect (e.g.,
Erickson & Erickson, 1941; Unestahl, 1973, 1974). The participants were then asked to climb the
stairs, slowly come out of their hypnotized state, and resume their waking state, feeling refreshed
and alert. After this, the players were asked to access the flow state by using the trigger, a
1973). Training was considered complete upon the players reporting an emotion, normally
associated with their flow state, could be experienced when they remembered the basketball
trigger.
The participants then practiced the aforementioned techniques by listening to an audio tape
75
recording of the initial live session every day over a seven day interval before the shooting trial
phase was to begin. Therefore, the players listened to a total of eight sessions. To ensure
participants listened to the audio tapes, the players were contacted and asked to listen to them in
a room in the presence of an experimenter. After each performance trial, flow and the internal
experience of each player were assessed using the FSS and PAQ. The internal experience of
each player was monitored by asking participants to complete the PAQ after each testing session
that permitted an ongoing assessment of the quality of the participants’ feelings, thoughts, and
cognitions across the baseline and treatment sessions. The data was analyzed by comparing the
scores obtained in the baseline sessions to the scores obtained in the treatment sessions.
Questions on the PAQ were the same as the first study.
Also, upon completion of the study, participants were given a social validation questionnaire
designed to provide information on the importance of the study and effectiveness of the
intervention, and used the same questions as the previous studies.
The performance scores obtained from the participants were again plotted according to the
accuracy of their attempts. The researchers also used visual inspection of the data to establish
the occurrence of a significant experimental effect.
The results showed that for each participant, the hypnosis intervention led to an increase in
performance accuracy of three-point shooting. Player 1 improved form a mean of 30 during the
first baseline to a mean of 36 during the intervention phase, Player 2 went from a mean of 29 to
39 during the intervention phase, Player 3 improved from 31 to 39, Player 4 from 27 to 35, and
Player 5 from 28 to 36 during the intervention phase. This finding suggests that the hypnosis
intervention consistently improved three-point shooting performance.
The hypnosis intervention also led to an increase in flow state scores for every participant,
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which suggests that the hypnosis intervention increased the intensity of each player’s experience
of flow. Player 1 improved from a mean flow score of 130 during baseline to a mean of 144
during the intervention, Player 2 went from a score of 147 to 164 during the intervention, Player
3 from 119 to 171, Player 4 from 114 to 142, and Player 5 increased his mean score of 134 to
155. The social validation questionnaire results indicated that the players felt more relaxed,
calm, composed, in control, and confident when compared to baseline phase.
The limitations of this study were very similar to the previous ones, yet there were other
shortcomings here as well, as this study differed in some components. For example, the
researchers again did not state the amount of time that elapsed between the final shots taken and
the administration of the FSS and other questionnaires, nor did they consider the amount of time
that has elapsed between the present study and each participant’s past experience of flow or an
ideal performance. Also, it is stated that the players were instructed to “imagine the trigger
(basketball), each time they attempted a shot.” This could be problematic for two reasons. First,
the players are instructed to “imagine” the basketball while they are simultaneously holding a
basketball preparing to shoot. Second, in the sport of basketball players continuously see the ball
during competition. Therefore, how does this affect the trigger of imagining a basketball?
Conclusion
The preceding review of the literature has shown the recent trends in regards to hypnosis,
hypnosis in sport, recent research directions concerning the state of flow, and areas of similarity
between flow and hypnosis.
Psychological characteristics that help a person attain flow have been an area of growing
research, in addition to the area of sport psychology in general. Hypnosis has been shown to be a
safe, reliable and legal technique in enhancing the performance of athletes. As more research is
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conducted surrounding flow in sport and hypnosis, a better understanding of them as separate
entities, as well as their inherent similarities will follow. Also, no known formula or
psychological antecedent exists to allow an athlete the controllability of the state of flow. What
remains at issue is the ability of hypnosis and hypnotic techniques to help the athlete direct flow.
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Chapter 3
Methodology
Participants
An initial pool of male participants (N = 43) were volunteers from physical education and
sport psychology classes, intramural participants, and students using the recreation center on the
University of California at Davis (UCD) campus. Participants averaged 23.3 years of age and
ranged from 19 to 30 years of age. To be included in the sample, the participants met the
following criteria: (a) had at least three to four years of interscholastic high school basketball
playing experience, (b) were at least 18 years of age, or no more than 30 years of age at the time
of participation, as this helped limit the time elapsed from their last flow experience, (c) had
experience prior to the beginning of the study with the state of flow or a flow-like experience, as
delineated on the Demographic and Information Form (see Appendix A), (d) had no experience
with hypnosis, (e) were in good physical and mental health, (f) agreed to document, in hours per
week, the amount of time spent in practice or competition for the duration of the study, and (g)
did not currently use psychotropic or recreational drugs.
A Kavussanu, Crew, and Gill (1998) study investigating free-throw shooting, screened
participants to include only those who were at an intermediate level (shooting at least a .30
percentage from the free-throw line). An inverse relationship exists in basketball shooting, in
which the greater the distance from which a player attempts a shot, the lower their success rate.
The present study opted to use three-point shooting as a skill test due to the higher level of
difficulty involved from being further from the basket. With this in consideration, and similar to
the Kavussanu, et al. (1998) study, participants in this study were required to perform at a lower
minimum shooting percentage of .15 over one trial period consisting of 30 three-point shot
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attempts before being admitted to the study. Two participants were excluded due to the inability
to meet the shooting percentage criteria. A total of 10 volunteers withdrew, leaving 31
participants that completed the study.
During their participation in the study, all participants were asked to monitor the number of
hours per week they participated playing basketball outside of the study, including practice and
competition. Participants recorded outside basketball activity in logs, which were reviewed and
recorded prior to each trial session. For the pre-intervention phase of the study, the hypnosis
group averaged 2.4 hours per week participating in basketball, the relaxation group 2.81 hours
per week. During the post-intervention phase, the hypnosis group averaged 1.73 hours per week
and the relaxation group 1.63 hours per week.
Experimental Design
This study utilized a pretest-posttest, between and within group design with volunteer
participants. The present study had one independent variable with two levels which consisted of
a hypnosis intervention group and a relaxation intervention group. There were five dependent
variables used, which consisted of three components from the American Alliance for Health,
Physical Education, Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills Test (AAHPERD-BST), the
dribbling, defensive, and close range speed shooting skill tests, as well as a three-point shooting
performance skill, and the Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2).
Instrumentation
Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC)
The WSGC (Bowers, 1998) was given to obtain a measure of each person’s hypnotizability.
The WSGC is a hypnotic susceptibility group scale developed to substitute for the individually
administered Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C; Weitzenhoffer &
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Hilgard, 1962). It adds criterion validity to the measurement of hypnosis abilities with the two
scales being correlated at .85. The WSGC’s internal consistencies are comparable (high range of
.81 using the KR 20). The WSGC was used to allow for group administration to minimize the
time involved with individual administration.
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills
Test (AAHPERD-BST)
The AAHPERD-BST (AAHPERD, 1984; Hastad & Lacy, 1998; Kirkendall, Gruber, &
Johnson, 1987) was selected as it contains important all-around components of the sport,
including dribbling, passing, defensive, and close range speed shooting skills, and the
participants were familiar with the skills involved. The AAHPERD-BST is also a wellconstructed, norm-referenced basketball skills test for males (Kirkendall, Gruber, & Johnson,
1987). The test was normed on 10,000 students from four age groups: elementary, junior high,
high school, and college, and reliability and content, construct, and concurrent validity results
provided adequate substantiation of it as being a reliable and valid instrument (Kirkendall, et al.,
1987). The passing component of the AAHPERD-BST was not administered due to the
confinements of the gymnasium used. Directions for administering and scoring the components
used from the AAHPERD-BST can be found in Appendix C.
Three-point shooting skill
Three-point shooting performance was selected as another task, as it is an important
component of the sport and the participants would be familiar with the skill involved. The task
required the participants to run/dribble starting from the right side of the three-point line moving
to the left side of the three-point line, stop and shoot outside of the college basketball three-point
arc at a predetermined area marked with tape. This area was approximately level with the free
81
throw line. After the shot attempt on the left side of the court, the participants would run/dribble
from the left to the right side of the three-point line, stop and shoot from behind the college
basketball three-point arc at a predetermined area marked with tape approximately level with the
free throw line on the right side of the court. Participants went between these two spots clearly
marked with tape, shooting five attempts from each side, until a total of 10 three-point shots were
performed. Participants had a total of 90 seconds to finish the trial.
The experimenters recorded each three-point shot attempt on a modified five-point scale
scoring system developed by Pates and colleagues (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates,
Maynard, et al., 2001). The scoring system consisted of:
1 point – ball hitting backboard and rim and coming out
– ball missing backboard and rim
2 points – ball hitting backboard and going in
3 points – ball hitting rim and coming out
4 points – ball hitting rim and going in
5 points – ball hitting net only and going in
The participant received fewer points for the ball hitting the backboard and going in than the
ball hitting the rim and coming out. As the rim is the target for a player attempting a three-point
shot, a ball hitting the rim and coming out is closer to their ultimate target than the backboard.
Shot attempts that hit the rim and backboard simultaneously were scored as a three.
Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2)
Information on the intensity and frequency of the flow state experienced by each participant
was assessed using the FSS – 2 (Jackson & Eklund, 2002). Internal consistency for the FSS – 2
has shown to be acceptable with a mean coefficient alpha = .85 (Jackson & Eklund, 2002). A
single, global FSS – 2 score was calculated for participants in this study due to the contention by
Jackson (1999) that a multidimensional approach tends to reveal incomplete information
concerning the total experience of flow for athletes. A subsequent study (Jackson & Eklund,
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2002) used a confirmatory factor analysis and found the global FSS – 2 score fits the data
adequately with NNFIs and CFIs above .910 and RMSEA < .05. The current study found the
reliability coefficient for the pre-intervention FSS – 2 was Cronbach’s alpha = .95. The reliability
coefficient for the post-intervention FSS – 2 was Cronbach’s alpha = .96.
Apparatus
The basketballs used for this study were five Wilson National Collegiate Athletic Association
“Solution” official composite indoor game basketballs. Three mechanical digital stopwatches
made by Sportline were used to time the participants. Equipment used for the study also included
six 12-inch vinyl soccer training cones, blue masking tape, and a Stanley tape measure. A
standard basketball court, complete with a goal, backboard, and a basketball lane was also used.
Three standard Wilson green tennis balls were used for the WSGC administrations.
Procedures
Prior to the study beginning, independent observers received specific training in scoring
methods for the AAHPERD-BST and three-point shooting performances. The training consisted
of reviewing written instructions for the skills tests, answering questions from the independent
observers, then comparing scores on practice sessions with the AAHPERD-BST components and
three-point shooting trials. Following the training and to ensure the independent observers were
scoring consistently, an agreement index was calculated and resulted in over 90% agreement for
the AAHPERD-BST and three-point shooting skill, which exceeds adequate standards (Gay,
1990). The scores of the three-point shooting and AAHPERD-BST were then measured by
comparing the scores of at least two independent observers simultaneously observing the
performances.
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Participant recruitment
UCD students participating in intramural basketball competition, using the recreation center
on campus, or enrolled for courses in physical education or in sport psychology were approached
and given cursory information about the study. The researcher briefly presented himself to
possible participants as a current Sport Psychology Intern at UCD conducting a study on
basketball performance for his doctoral dissertation. The students were invited to volunteer for
participation in the study. Those interested in participating were given a “Demographics and
Information Form” (see Appendix A) in which they provided their name and current contact
information along with other information pertinent to the study. Participants were ensured that
this information would remain in a secured location for the duration of the study, that access to it
would be limited to this researcher only, and that it would be destroyed seven years after the
completion of the study per APA requirements. Participants were also informed that they could
terminate their participation at any time (see Institutional Review Board - Informed Consent,
Appendix B). Participants were provided with contact information to access the services of the
Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) at UCD should they feel the need to address any
adverse reactions associated with their participation in this study.
Potential participants were then contacted and asked to attend a group meeting held in a
gymnasium on the UCD campus. The meeting was designed to clarify and explain the purposes
and expectations of the study, and answer any questions. The meeting also served as an
orientation session to debunk myths concerning hypnosis, explain the concepts of flow, and give
them the opportunity to decline participation in the study. This information was read from a
standardized form. A copy of the Informed Consent Form (see Appendix B) to sign was given to
the participants should they meet criteria necessary for the study and choose to participate.
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Participants were also instructed to avoid discussing their participation in this study with
anyone but the researcher until the study concluded. Participants were informed about a
debriefing session at the end of the study in which the specifics and results of the research would
be provided to them. Questions participants may have about the design of the study would be
answered during the debriefing session.
After all the players had met the initial criteria for being included and agreed to be in the
study, the participants were next required to perform at a minimum shooting percentage of .15
over 30 shot attempts to meet the three-point shooting criteria.
The participants, upon meeting all criteria, then scheduled a time and date to be given the
WSGC (Bowers, 1998). All hypnotizability scale administration took place in a quiet room at
CAPS on the UCD campus and lasted about 90 minutes. Participants were matched within a
scoring range of +/- 1 based upon their WSGC scores and then randomly assigned to one of two
intervention groups. This matching procedure was adopted out of the need to prevent the
possibility that a majority of high scoring (e.g., 10) or low scoring (e.g., 2) WSGC participants
were in one treatment group. The possible scoring range on the WSGC is between 0 and 12.
Participants then were provided times and dates for sessions to attend in which they began
the basketball skills tests and completed the FSS – 2, all of which were administered in Hickey
Gymnasium on the UCD campus.
At the start of the pre-intervention sessions, participants were given approximately 10
minutes to warm-up before the actual basketball skill testing started. The method of warm-up
was left to the discretion of each participant, e.g., stretching, running, shooting, etc. Participants
first completed a trial run on all components of the AAHPERD-BST to familiarize themselves
with the skills involved. Participants then completed in sequential order the three separate skills
85
of the AAHPERD-BST, consisting of the dribbling skill test, defensive skill test, and close range
speed shooting skill test. Directions for administering and scoring each basketball skill test used
can be found in Appendix C. The result of each participant’s score was recorded as their
respective pre-intervention performance measure on components of the AAHPERD-BST.
Next, the participants completed the three-point shooting skill. Participants first completed a
trial run on the three-point shooting drill to familiarize themselves with the skills involved. The
performance was measured by summing the scores for 10 attempts. The result of each
participant’s score was recorded as their pre-intervention measure on three-point shooting.
Information on the intensity and frequency of flow was next assessed using the FSS – 2
(Jackson & Eklund, 2002). All 36-item FSS – 2 measures were administered within one minute
of participants completing the three-point shooting portion of the basketball skill testing.
The completion of one dribbling, defensive, and close range speed shooting component from
the AAHPERD-BST, one three-point shooting skill, and one FSS – 2 constituted 1 of 10 total
trials each participant was to complete during the pre-intervention phase. The 10 trials were
completed over a 21-day period.
Upon completion of the pre-intervention phase, the participants next started either the
hypnosis intervention or the relaxation intervention, based upon their previously determined
WSGC hypnotizability scores.
Independent variable – First level – Hypnosis intervention group
Those participants in the hypnosis group started the intervention within a few days after the
completion of the pre-intervention basketball skills tests and FSS – 2 administrations. All
hypnosis interventions took place in a quiet room at CAPS on the UCD campus and lasted about
one hour. Based on Unestahl’s (1979, 1983) premise that flow is similar to the dissociative
86
experience during hypnosis, there were three treatment phases involving hypnosis.
The first stage involved encouraging the player to sit comfortably in a relaxed position and
recall the last experience they had with the state of flow. The first portion of the SHSS:C
(Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard, 1962), a hypnotic induction technique using a common passive
muscle relaxation method in which participants progressively relax parts of their body while
breathing deeply, was then given. This technique often allows easier entry into hypnosis and
assists in preparing those participants that are initially tense and resistant, helping them to relax
and facilitate their entry into a hypnotic state (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005).
The second stage consisted of using a hypnosis technique in which the players imagined a
journey down a staircase. At the bottom of the staircase they were told they could see a beach
with a comfortable chair. They were then asked to sit in the chair and relax. The participants
were encouraged to direct their attention to relaxing images, such as feeling the breeze and
hearing the ocean on the beach. During this process, suggestions were used to reinforce the
experience of relaxation, deep breathing, and the use of imagery.
The last stage involved giving suggestions for the participant to regress and remember the
last performance in which they experienced flow or an ideal performance. They were asked to
include visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and memory of this experience. This was
based from research demonstrating that hypnosis-induced imagery has been shown to increase
the person’s controllability and vividness of imagery (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005, p.411 - 440;
Liggett & Hamada, 1993; Taylor & Gerson, 1992) and to increase a person’s ability to
concentrate (e.g., Schrieber, 1991, Spiegel, as cited in Taylor et al., 1993).
After a memory was produced, a post-hypnotic suggestion, referred to as a “trigger” to the
athletes, of holding the basketball in each participant’s natural jump-shooting position, was next
87
introduced so an association would develop between the post-hypnotic suggestion or trigger and
the variables responsible for and emotions that stem from their optimal performance.
The participant was then asked to imagine climbing the staircase, slowly coming out of their
hypnotized state, and resume their waking state, feeling refreshed and alert. After this, the player
was asked to access the flow state by using the trigger, a technique shown to be effective in
recalling a desired feeling state (Hammond, 1990; Unestahl, 1973).
The hypnosis intervention was individually administered to each person in the hypnosis
intervention group a total of six times before the post-intervention phase began. During the postintervention performance trials participants were not hypnotized, but simply using the posthypnotic suggestion or trigger conditioned to elicit their emotional state during a previous flow
state performance. The post-intervention phase began after the six hypnosis intervention sessions
were completed.
Independent variable – Second level – Relaxation intervention group
The relaxation intervention group received a similar treatment as the hypnosis group’s first
stage only, which involved encouraging the player to sit comfortably while focusing on breathing
deeply and releasing air slowly. A session lasting about thirty minutes and using a common
passive muscle relaxation technique, modified from Jacobsen’s (1938) progressive muscle
relaxation (PMR) technique, was given that involved progressively relaxing parts of their body
while breathing deeply (Bourne, 2000). This relaxation technique, used extensively and well
received with athletes at Washington State University, was designed to help athletes reduce
anxiety or arousal levels, such that they may better control their individual zone of optimal
functioning (IZOF), as levels outside this may be detrimental to their performance (Hanin, 1978,
2000; Morgan, 1993, 2002; Raglin, 1992). Similar to the hypnosis intervention group, the
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relaxation treatment participants received six sessions involving breathing and relaxation
sessions. The post-intervention phase began after the six relaxation sessions were completed.
Upon ending the hypnosis and relaxation interventions, both groups participated in 10 postintervention AAHPERD-BST trials, three-point shooting trials, and completed the FSS – 2 in the
same manner in which they completed the pre-intervention trials to complete the study.
89
Chapter 4
Results
Prior to conducting analyses, all data were screened for accuracy of data entry and missing
values by reading output data aloud to an assistant who checked each data entry. The data were
replaced by using the mean imputation. Inspection of z scores indicated no outliers (e.g. +/- 3
SD). All data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.
Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC) scores, which has a
scoring range of 0 to 12, were given to all participants. The WSGC mean of the hypnosis
intervention group was 4.07, with scores ranging from 1 to 9 (SD = 2.12). The WSGC mean of
the relaxation intervention group was 3.88, with a range of scores from 0 to 9 (SD = 2.42).
Hypnotizability scores for both groups were gathered at the lower end of the hypnotizability
scale (median = 4, mode = 4).
The study consisted of one independent variable with two levels, a hypnosis intervention
group and a relaxation intervention group. The outcome (dependent variables) measures were
dribbling skills, defensive skills, and close range speed shooting skills components of the
American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills
Test (AAHPERD-BST)., their three-point shooting ability, and the Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS –
2).
Analyses of covariance (ANCOVA) were used to statistically control for differences in the
groups at pre-intervention. Table 1 (p. 90) shows the means and standard deviations at pre- and
post-intervention for the hypnosis and relaxation intervention groups.
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Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations for Intervention Groups – On Pre- and Post- intervention
Outcome Measures
Hypnosis Group
Measure
Pre
Relaxation Group
Post
Pre
M
SD
M
SD
Dribble Skill1
14.65
.67
14.18
.54
Defense Skill1
16.60
1.15
16.18
Speed
Shooting Skill2
24.51
2.44
Three-point
Shooting2
35.57
133.91
FSS – 2
1
M
Post
SD
M
SD
15.83
.97
15.72
.91
1.00
17.31
1.47
17.28
1.31
25.71
1.72
23.86
2.35
24.83
2.16
2.64
36.16
1.91
34.14
2.76
33.83
2.71
13.38
138.45
12.13
134.13
16.52
135.98
13.05
Lower numbers indicate more proficient scores in seconds. 2 Higher numbers indicate more proficient scores in
points.
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Hypothesis One
It is important to note that a more proficient score in the dribbling skills test would actually
be a lower score, as participants attempted to lower or decrease their times measured in seconds
in the skill. Therefore, the first hypothesis predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention
group would score significantly lower on the dribbling skill test component of the AAHPERDBST at the post-intervention phase than participants in the relaxation intervention group.
An ANCOVA was conducted with the intervention groups as the IV (i.e. hypnosis and
relaxation groups), the post-intervention dribbling skill score as the DV, and pre-intervention
dribbling skill score as the covariate. The results of the ANCOVA are presented in Table 2 (p.
92). The ANCOVA shows a significant difference between the groups in dribbling scores,
F(1,28) = 16.03, p = .001. The strength of the association between intervention groups and
dribbling scores was modest. The partial eta squared was at .36, meaning the intervention group
variable accounted for 36% of the variance. The hypnosis group produced lower scores at postintervention than the relaxation group after controlling for the pre-intervention dribbling skill
score differences. Hypothesis one was supported.
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Table 2
Analysis of Covariance for Post-intervention Scores Between Groups – Dribbling Skill
Source
Between Groups
Covariate
Error
p
n2
16.03
.001
.36
123.24
.001
.82
SS
df
MS
F
1.74
1
1.74
13.42
1
13.42
3.05
28
.11
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Hypothesis Two
Similar to hypothesis one, a more proficient score in the defensive skills test would actually
be a lower score, as participants attempted to lower or decrease their times measured in seconds
in the skill. Therefore, hypothesis two predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention
group would score significantly lower on the defensive skill test component of the AAHPERDBST at the post-intervention phase than participants in the relaxation intervention group. An
ANCOVA was conducted with the intervention groups as the IV, the post-intervention defensive
skill score as the DV, and pre-intervention defensive skill score as the covariate. The results from
the ANCOVA are presented in Table 3 (p. 94). The results show a significant difference
between the groups in the defensive scores, F(1,28) = 8.20, p = .008. The strength of the
association between the intervention groups and the defensive skill scores was small to modest,
however, with partial eta squared at .23. Therefore, the intervention group variable accounted for
23% of the variance. After controlling for the differences on pre-intervention defensive skill
scores, the hypnosis group produced lower scores at post-intervention than the relaxation group.
Hypothesis two was supported.
94
Table 3
Analysis of Covariance for Post-intervention Scores Between Groups – Defensive Skill
Source
Between Groups
Covariate
Error
SS
df
MS
F
p
n2
1.95
1
1.95
8.20
.008
.23
32.82
1
32.82
137.75
.001
.83
6.67
28
.24
95
Hypothesis Three
The third hypothesis predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention group would
score significantly higher on the close range speed shooting skill test component of the
AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than participants in the relaxation intervention
group. The speed shooting skill component was measured in points scored. ANCOVA was next
conducted with the intervention groups as the IV, the post-intervention close range speed
shooting skill score as the DV, and pre-intervention close range speed shooting skill score as the
covariate. The results from the ANCOVA did not show a significant difference in the scores
between the groups in close range speed shooting scores, F(1,28) = 2.15, p = .15. The results
suggest that the hypnosis group did not produce higher scores than the relaxation group at postintervention after controlling for the pre-intervention close range speed shooting skill scores.
Hypothesis three was not supported.
Hypotheses Four, Five, Six
As previously mentioned, a more proficient score in dribbling and defensive scores would
mean a decrease in the magnitude of the score measured in seconds, as participants attempted to
lower or decrease their times in the two skills. Therefore, hypothesis four predicted that
participants in the hypnosis group would have significantly lower dribbling skill test scores from
the AAHPERD-BST at post-intervention phase than at pre-intervention phase, while hypothesis
five predicted that participants in the hypnosis group would have significantly lower defensive
skill test scores from the AAHPERD-BST at post-intervention phase than at pre-intervention
phase. Additionally, hypothesis six predicted that the AAHPERD-BST close range speed
shooting skill test scores of the participants in the hypnosis group would be significantly higher
at the post- intervention phase than the pre-intervention phase, as a more proficient result on this
96
skill test means an increase in scores. The speed shooting skill component was measured in
points scored.
To test these hypotheses, within group paired sample t-tests were conducted to compare the
pre- to post-intervention scores for the dribbling skill test, the defense skill test, and the close
range speed shooting skill test of the AAHPERD-BST. At post-intervention participants in the
hypnosis group produced significantly lower dribbling skill scores, t(14) = 5.07, p < .001 (twotailed) lower defensive skill scores, t(14) = 2.78, p < .05 (two-tailed), and significantly higher
close range speed shooting skill scores, t(14) = -3.92, p < .01 (two-tailed) than at preintervention. The t-test summary is presented in Table 4 (p. 97). These results suggest that the
hypnosis group was able to produce significantly lower scores at post-intervention on the
dribbling and defensive skill components of the AAHPERD-BST, and produce significantly
higher scores at post-intervention on the close range speed shooting skill. Hypotheses four, five
and six were supported.
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Table 4
Within Group Paired Sample T-test – Hypnosis Intervention Group
Pre-intervention
AAHPERD-BST
Post-intervention
M
SD
M
SD
Dribble Skill1
14.65
.67
14.18
.54
Defense Skill1
16.60
1.15
16.18
1.00
2.78*
Speed
Shooting Skill2
24.51
2.44
25.71
1.72
-3.92**
1
t
5.07***
Lower numbers indicate more proficient scores in seconds. 2 Higher numbers indicate more proficient
scores in points.
*p < .05, two-tailed. **p < .01, two-tailed. ***p < .001.
98
Hypothesis Seven
This hypothesis predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention group would have
significantly higher three-point shooting scores at the post-intervention phase than participants in
the relaxation intervention group. The three-point shooting was measured by points. To test
hypothesis seven, a one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted with the
intervention groups as the IV, the post-intervention phase three-point shooting score as the DV,
and pre-intervention three-point shooting score as the covariate. The results from the ANCOVA
are presented in Table 5 (p. 99). The results show a significant difference between groups in
three-point shooting scores, F(1,28) = 6.62, p = .016. The strength of the association between the
intervention groups and the three-point shooting scores was small, with partial eta squared at .19.
Therefore, the intervention group variable accounted for 19% of the variance. The results suggest
that after controlling for the pre-intervention three-point shooting score differences, there still
was a significant difference between groups. Hypothesis seven was supported.
99
Table 5
Analysis of Covariance for Post-intervention Scores Between Groups – Three-Point Shooting
Source
Between Groups
Covariate
Error
SS
df
MS
F
p
n2
12.19
1
12.19
6.62
.016
.19
109.38
1
109.38
59.38
.001
.68
51.58
28
1.84
100
Hypothesis Eight
The eighth hypothesis predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention group would
have significantly higher three-point shooting scores at the post-intervention phase than at the
pre-intervention phase of the study. The three-point shooting was measured by points. To test
this, a within group paired samples t-test was conducted to compare the pre- to post-intervention
scores for three-point shooting. The t-test revealed no significant difference, t(14) = 1.17, p =
.26. The eighth hypothesis, therefore, was not supported.
Hypothesis Nine
Hypothesis nine predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention group would score
significantly higher on the FSS - 2 at the post-intervention phase than participants in the
relaxation intervention group. A one-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was conducted
with the intervention groups as the IV, the post-intervention FSS - 2 score as the DV, and preintervention FSS - 2 score as the covariate. The results from the ANCOVA did not show a
significant difference between the groups in the FSS – 2 scores, F(1,28) = .87, p = .36. The
findings indicate that after controlling for the pre-intervention FSS - 2 score differences, there
was no significant difference between groups. Hypothesis nine was not supported. Hypnosis was
no better than the relaxation group at getting participants into flow, as measured by the FSS – 2.
Hypothesis Ten
The tenth hypothesis predicted that participants in the hypnosis intervention group would
have significantly higher FSS – 2 scores at the post-intervention phase than the pre-intervention
phase. To test this, a within group paired sample t-test was conducted to compare the pre- to
post-intervention FSS – 2 scores, which revealed no significant difference, t(14) = -1.84, p = .09.
These findings suggest that the hypnosis intervention group was not able to produce significantly
101
higher scores from pre- to post-intervention on the FSS – 2. Therefore, hypothesis ten was not
supported.
These results fail to support hypotheses nine and ten. The hypnosis intervention did not
significantly produce higher FSS – 2 scores nor did it enhance an athlete’s ability to attain the
state of flow as measured by the scale.
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Chapter 5
Discussion
The results of this study suggested that participants receiving the hypnosis intervention were
able to demonstrate significantly higher all-around basketball performance skill scores at postintervention than participants receiving the relaxation intervention as measured by the dribbling
and defensive skill components of the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills Test (AAHPERD-BST) and three-point shooting.
Additional findings of the study also indicated that participants who were exposed to the
hypnosis intervention significantly enhanced their all-around basketball performance scores, as
measured by dribbling, defense, and close range speed shooting skill components of the
AAHPERD-BST at the post-intervention phase than at the pre-intervention phase. Results of the
study, however, did not demonstrate that a significant difference occurred between or within
groups on flow state measure.
Upon initial inspection, the AAHPERD-BST differences in the dribbling and defensive skills
may appear minimal. However, as these skills are scored using tenths and hundredths of a
second, a statistically significant score may initially appear unimportant. However, to use an
example, in norms conducted by AAHPERD (1984) on male college students, a .6 second lower
score for the dribbling skill test is the difference between scoring in the 75th percentile group and
the 95th percentile group. In the sport of basketball a player being a few tenths of a second
quicker is important and often may be the difference between a collegiate level athlete and a
professional level athlete.
The basis of this study is founded on the distinctive characteristics of Ernest Hilgard’s (1973,
1986, 1992, 1994) neodissociation theory of hypnosis and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi’s (1975,
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2000) theory of flow. This study is further founded on Unestahl’s (1979, 1983) concept of an
Ideal Performance State (IPS). In developing the IPS, partially defined as when an athlete
performs at their best and partially through the characteristics IPS shares with the state of
hypnosis, Unestahl (1979, 1983) outlined the similarities that exist between flow and hypnosis.
These parallels include having an altered state of consciousness, an increased focus and
concentration on task-relevant stimuli, a dissociated state from all but the task-relevant stimuli,
sometimes having amnesia of the past events, and changes in perception such as time slowing
down, the nonexistence of pain and an effortlessness in actions. For a thorough review of these
hypnotic characteristics see Barabasz and Watkins (2005).
The findings of the present study partially support previous research that found hypnosis to
be an effective tool for enhancing an athlete’s performance (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates
& Maynard, 2000; Pates, Maynard, et al., 2001; Pates, Oliver, et al., 2001). The results of the
study, however, did not support previous research that found hypnosis to be an effective tool for
enhancing an athlete’s ability to attain the state of flow (Pates, Cummings, et al., 2002; Pates &
Maynard, 2000; Pates, Oliver, et al., 2001).
Previous research exploring the effects of hypnosis enhancing performance and the
attainment of flow states has failed to address several important limitations. The present study
attempted to use a more rigorous methodological procedure to establish the occurrence of an
effect. Specifically, the present study allowed for the statistical comparisons between and within
groups by using comparisons of means in analyses of covariance and paired-sample t-tests. The
hypnosis group intervention consisted of a hypnotic induction technique, a hypnotic deepening
technique, regression to a previous experience in which the participant experienced a state of
flow, and a post-hypnotic suggestion technique. An extensively trained researcher performed all
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hypnosis interventions in-person during individual sessions. Participants in the hypnosis group
were compared to participants in the relaxation group, who were administered a common
progressive muscle relaxation exercise similar to that administered during the hypnosis induction
and to Jacobsen’s (1938) technique. The present study also limited the amount of time that
elapsed between the participants completing the basketball trials and the administration and
completion of the flow state scale.
Hypnosis and Flow Similarities
The hypnosis intervention group demonstrated significantly better dribbling and defensive
skill scores, as well as three-point shooting scores than the relaxation intervention group. The
positive results of this study further add to the literature that hypnosis, as a performance
enhancement tool, appears to be an effective technique. The findings are also of importance to
those sport psychologists and athletes interested in enhancing performance through the use of
safe, legal, accessible, and minimally time consuming techniques. The present study did not
methodologically address the potential underlying mechanisms at work. This may be an
important area for further investigation. However, there are some plausible explanations for the
findings of the study based upon the theoretical bases of both hypnosis and flow.
On the basis of the neodissociation theory of hypnosis and the concept of flow, the present
study generated hypotheses about the potential ability of a hypnosis intervention to significantly
enhance an intermediate level basketball player’s ability to attain the state of flow. Further, flow
has been described as a state of mind in which optimal performances are capable of occurring
and functioning is enhanced (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990; Jackson, 2000; Jackson et al., 2001). Flow
experiences are also said to occur, at times, with peak experiences of amazing human
accomplishments (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000; Jackson, 1992, 2000). Therefore, as flow was
105
often associated with higher levels of performance and positive experiences, further hypotheses
developed. These hypotheses predicted that the hypnosis intervention would produce
significantly better scores for an intermediate level basketball player’s all-around basketball
playing skill as well as their three-point shooting ability.
Two primary findings of Unestahl’s also helped develop the aforementioned hypotheses. The
first recognized the similar characteristics between hypnosis and the state of flow (Unestahl,
1979, 1983). For example, a number of theories, not surprisingly, have been proposed to explain
hypnosis (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). However, as Barabasz and Watkins state (2005), most
agree that hypnosis may be viewed as an altered state of consciousness. The same may be said
for the flow state (Csikszentmihalyi, 1975, 2000). Also, much like flow, “hypnosis is
characterized by the person’s ability to sustain a state of attention, receptive, intense focal
concentration with diminished peripheral awareness,” (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005, p. 76). Both
may occur in an alert individual, with the capacity for intense involvement on a single point in
space and time, attending only to a given task while simultaneously freeing themselves from
distraction (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). Another hypnotic phenomenon, similar to the
experience of those in flow, is the apparent ability of hypnotized persons to experience greater or
lesser amounts of experiential time within a given period of “real” time (Barabasz & Watkins,
2005). A typical characteristic of those deeply hypnotized is the apparent spontaneous, usually
partial amnesia for that which has transpired while in the hypnotic state, as well (Barabasz &
Watkins, 2005). This also is an experience frequently reported by those in flow (Jackson, 1995).
For a full review of the many types of hypnotic phenomena that may occur, see Barabasz and
Watkins (2005).
The second finding from Unestahl (1979, 1983) involved using regression and post-hypnotic
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suggestion techniques of hypnosis. In age regression, closely related to hyperamnesia, a reexperience seems to occur with the emotions and motor movements that are presumed to have
accompanied the original event (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). As discussed in Chapter 2, posthypnotic suggestions occur when, during hypnosis, an idea is given to the person for an event to
occur later in their everyday waking state at the appearance of some signal or trigger (Heap,
1988; Weitzenhoffer, 1989). Unestahl (1973) found that post-hypnotic suggestions started with a
very brief spontaneous trance, followed by a period in which the posthypnotic effects are
working without the signs of hypnosis. The post-hypnotic suggestion has then briefly recalled the
state of hypnosis such that participants will experience the dissociative reactions associated with
hypnosis, which are similar to the feelings involved with flow. The hypnosis intervention for the
current study utilized the hypnotic techniques of regression and post-hypnotic suggestion.
The participants in this study did not score significantly higher on the FSS – 2 at postintervention. However, the elevated FSS – 2 scores of the hypnosis intervention group, more
than a standard deviation above a mid-range score of 108, indicated they were already
experiencing flow-like characteristics. The hypnosis group then may have experienced
characteristics of flow, and thus performed better, but did not demonstrate significantly higher
flow state scores. Therefore, the positive results found for the hypnosis intervention groups’
ability to perform significantly better in some basketball skill tests might be attributed to the
shared characteristics between hypnosis and flow, due to the post-hypnotic suggestion having
briefly recalled the shared characteristics of flow and hypnosis.
Flow State Scale – 2
Determining if participants were in the state of flow proved difficult due to limitations
regarding the FSS – 2. First, to interpret the FSS – 2 for the present study, a global flow construct
107
approach was used which received satisfactory psychometric support (Jackson & Eklund, 2002;
Marsh & Jackson, 1999). There is, however, no cutoff score or range of scores to determine if
the participant is in a state of flow or not. According to the FSS – 2 manual, those participants
that give strong endorsements of the scales above the “mid-range” (108) are endorsing an
experience where flow-like attributes existed (Jackson & Eklund, 2004). As the athlete’s score
increases, scale interpretation allows a researcher to determine only that an athlete had more of a
flow-like experience. What cannot be determined, however, is whether a participant was in the
state of flow or not.
Second, the mean FSS – 2 scores were relatively high for both groups at pre- and postintervention. As all the mean scores were higher than a mid-range score of 108, it may be said
that participants experienced flow-like attributes before intervention trials began. Scores that are
initially high would then make any further significant increase in scores more difficult to produce
and detect.
Third, questions surrounding the reliability of the FSS – 2 may have also been a factor in the
failure to find a significant difference in scores. Because the FSS – 2 is a recently developed
scale, initial tests of reliability have not yet been completed. For example, currently there is no
data on test – retest reliability of the scale, which may provide more information regarding the
test and its ability to measure actual state characteristics of flow. The limitations concerning the
FSS – 2 mentioned here hinder the drawing of conclusions regarding if athletes were actually in
the state of flow, as well as the possible enhanced performances capable of occurring when
athletes were in flow.
An interesting point considered by Spiegel (2005) about hypnosis and flow is if a person is
able to actually perceive their experience of flow. As Spiegel states (2005), “The very focus of
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the hypnotic state in the central percept may hamper or eliminate the type of superordinate
awareness that is required to make an accurate observation of being in that state, as in states of
flow (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991)” (p.32).
Post-hypnotic Suggestion
Another possible basis for higher performance scores involving hypnosis and flow involves
the post-hypnotic suggestion given to participants in the hypnosis intervention. As Barabasz and
Watkins state (2005) hypnosis is a physiological state that can be induced where behavioral,
perceptual, affect, and cognitive changes are possible. These suggestions administered under
hypnosis have the ability to occur posthypnotically (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005). The suggestion
for this study stated that when the participants assumed their own natural shooting position, with
the basketball in their hands, they would experience the feelings of being in flow similar to a
previous experience of flow. The participants then, due to the post-hypnotic suggestion, may
have experienced flow-like characteristics because they recalled and had these same feelings.
Therefore, the results that found the hypnosis intervention groups’ ability to perform
significantly better in some basketball skill tests could be attributed to the effects of the posthypnotic suggestion recalling the feelings of being in flow, in which optimal performances also
usually occur. However, the aforementioned limitations regarding the FSS – 2 make discerning
whether significantly higher performance scores in basketball were due to participants being in
flow difficult.
Hypnosis and Performance Enhancement Skills
An alternative possibility for the significant differences found within the hypnosis group preand post-intervention performance scores, as well as the significant differences found between
the hypnosis and relaxation groups post-intervention performance scores, may be the
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components of performance enhancement the hypnosis intervention participants received. For
example, the researcher used a hypnotic deepening technique that helped with imagery skills,
such that participants could gain from the many benefits of imagery (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005;
Feltz & Landers, 1983; Liggett, 2000; Murphy & Martin, 2002). Hypnosis is also believed to be
a state of deep concentration, another component in which performance enhancement specialists
do a significant amount of work with athletes (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Robazza & Bortoli,
1994, 1995; Schreiber, 1991). The hypnosis intervention group then could gain from the benefits
of an improved ability to focus. Also, remembering and reliving a time in which the athlete
experienced an optimal performance, as studies have shown would also likely enhance the
participant’s self-confidence (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Gould, et al., 1986; Stanton, 1983).
Any one of the aforementioned speculated explanations would seem enough to account for
the findings in which participants in the hypnosis group demonstrated significantly better scores
at post-intervention on the dribbling and defensive skill components of the AAHPERD-BST, as
well as three-point shooting scores, than the relaxation group. The three speculated operating
mechanisms would also explain the results that found the hypnosis group had significantly better
scores in dribbling, defensive, and speed shooting skills of the AAHPERD-BST at postintervention than at the pre-intervention phase. Indeed, it may have been that the enhanced
overall basketball performance scores seen at post-intervention occurred due to either of the
aforementioned methods operating alone or to the interaction of the separate effects.
For sport psychologists, the positive findings suggest that the hypnosis techniques, combined
with other performance enhancement techniques used in this study, are effective at producing
enhanced performance scores in basketball skills. It is also probable that these hypnosis
techniques may be generalized to other sports, as well. The positive results of this study also
110
serve to reiterate the additional benefits that hypnosis can provide to sport psychologists and the
athletes with whom they work.
Hypnotizability Levels
A significant limitation to this study, and a possible explanation for the results that showed
that participants in the hypnosis group scored no higher on the FSS – 2 at post-intervention than
relaxation group participants, was the low hypnotizability levels of hypnosis group participants.
Components of the hypnosis intervention in this study revolved around the hypothesized ability
of participants to age regress to a previous experience of flow, as well as use a post-hypnotic
suggestion to recall the feelings of flow. Each are considered more difficult suggestions which
assumes the individual will score in the midrange or better. Yet the hypnosis groups responded in
the predicted directions and the relaxation group did not.
Only five participants in the hypnosis group exhibited the ability to age regress on the
Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC), while three demonstrated
the ability to use the post-hypnotic suggestion, which likely limited their ability to effectively use
either technique. This may have proved detrimental to the results of the study. If these hypnotic
components were inaccessible for a participant due their inability to use them, that person would
not have the hypnotic capacity to allow for sufficient use of the extensively documented benefits
of hypnosis. The inability of participants to fully use these components likely hindered them
from significantly raising their FSS – 2 scores. Further research would address this matter and
ensure that participants are able to make use of the aforementioned techniques.
Further complicating matters were concerns regarding the WSGC group hypnotizability
scales. It has been noted (e.g., Register & Kihlstrom, 1986) that rather than genuine hypnotic
responsiveness taking place, group administrations may be more likely to elicit compliance from
111
participants. However, the opposite may be true, as well. Participants may also refrain from
giving genuine hypnotic responses in a group setting for fear of appearing foolish in front of their
athlete peers. This was evident to the researcher, as it was commonplace for participants to look
at their cohort members during the eye closure induction of the WSGC as well as during the
administration of the 12 hypnotic suggestions of the WSGC.
In his work with athletes, Unestahl (1979) used post-hypnotic suggestion with highly
hypnotizable participants as a means for an individual to establish immediate concentration and
to elicit positive feelings. This use of post-hypnotic suggestion was based from previous research
using highly hypnotizable participants that found a statistically significant increase in the rating
of well-being immediately after a post-hypnotic suggestion (Unestahl, 1974). Similar to the work
of Unestahl, future hypnosis research might then involve participants with higher hypnotizability
levels that could fully utilize the benefits of these supported hypnosis techniques.
Exacerbating matters were two additional concerns that likely influenced the hypnotizability
scores from the group administration. First, the use of an individually administered hypnosis
scale allows rapport to be achieved more easily than a group hypnosis scale. The lack of rapport
building then may also have negatively impacted the hypnotizability scores. Second, there
appeared to be frequent underreporting of completed suggestions by the participants. This
experimenter observed scorable responses to test suggestions yet the participants failed to score
them as positive. It seems very likely that given these actions, the hypnotizability scale data
should not be used to interpret the positive findings for the hypnosis group as being due to
something other than hypnosis per se.
Neodissociation Theory
Participants in the hypnosis group appeared to be no better than participants in the relaxation
112
group at enhancing their FSS – 2 scores or ability to attain flow. Results also showed that the
hypnosis group did not have higher scores on the FSS - 2 from the pre- to post-intervention
phase.
As previously mentioned, a person who experiences the state of flow often has optimal
performances and enhanced functioning. Given this information, how were some of the hypnosis
intervention group’s basketball performances significantly better at post-intervention, yet their
FSS – 2 scores were not significantly higher at post-intervention along with these enhanced
performances? Just as the exact basis by which hypnotic interventions enhanced basketball
performance is not known, exact reasons for the intervention’s failure to produce significantly
higher FSS – 2 scores, and thereby enhance an athlete’s ability to attain flow are not known.
Delving into Hilgard’s neodissociation theory to search for reasons why FSS – 2 scores were not
significantly higher in the current study may provide some insight.
Hilgard (1986, 1994) stated that an actuated subsystem is a subsystem that has been called
upon to function at that moment in time, and is responsible for carrying out such actions as
habits, pain perception, attitudes, interests, or movement. Further, Hilgard (1994) contends there
are lapses of consciousness in the control of well-learned activities, like playing an instrument or
driving a car, and that the actions can proceed with a bare minimum of conscious control. The
well-learned actions can remain relatively self-sustained once they have begun due to some
degree of unity, persistence, and autonomy of function of that subsystem. The executive ego,
which controls and monitors these subsystems once they have been actuated, is then able to
relinquish control and monitoring functions of these well-learned activities. The relaxing of the
executive ego and its functions allows the subsystems, such as playing an instrument, to be put
on a sort of automatic pilot, provided the activity is a well-learned one. The relaxing of functions
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would then also free the executive ego to control and monitor other functions or subsystems, as
well.
Applying these concepts of neodissociation theory, in which the control and monitoring
functions of the executive ego are relinquished for well-learned subsystems, might explain some
findings of the present study. For example, results suggested that the hypnosis intervention group
produced significantly better scores in their dribbling and defensive skill scores at postintervention than the relaxation intervention group. Neodissociation theory might also explain
the results in which participants in the hypnosis group had significantly better scores from pre- to
post-intervention dribbling and defensive skill scores. For the intermediate level athletes
involved in this study these skills are simple and well-learned enough for the actuated subsystem
to run itself, without the controlling and monitoring functions. The executive ego, now released
from the need to monitor and control the well-learned subsystem of defensive movement, for
example, then allowed the athlete to focus on other minute aspects of skill involved in the drill
that enabled them to enhance their performance.
However, what if the subsystem involved is not a “well-learned” activity? What if the skill
involved is complicated or the intermediate level athlete has not practiced it enough? A skill not
well learned would then, according to neodissociation theory, not free the executive ego from the
responsibility of controlling and monitoring this actuated subsystem. Further, the attention
provided this not well-learned actuated subsystem would diminish the executive ego and its
ability to monitor other functions or subsystems of a more complicated activity, such as threepoint shooting. For example, there are a myriad of intricate mechanisms involved in successfully
completing a three-point shot (e.g., body squared to the rim, proper leg lift, correct focus on the
target, full extension of the arm and wrist, proper finger and hand placement on the ball, correct
114
amount of strength used from the arm and wrist, etc.) The same mechanisms are used in close
range speed shooting.
Speculating from the neodissociation perspective, the complicated skill of three-point
shooting, for example, would need to be a well-learned subsystem that allows the executive ego
to relinquish control and monitoring functions. Limiting the executive ego’s ability to monitor
other subsystems that may also be involved in attempting a three-point shot would then diminish
that player’s ability to focus on other minute aspects of skill involved in the drill that would
allow them to enhance their performance. For example, the athlete attempting a three-point shot
during this study must also consider distractions, complications involved in the surrounding
environment, or contend with conditions in which the player is attempting the long-range shot
(e.g., lighting of the gym, time remaining to complete the drill, others observing the participant
during the drill, and visual and auditory distractions in the environment). All of these conditions
were common distractions for participants completing drills.
Therefore, possibly due to the participants involved with the current study primarily having
an intermediate basketball ability level, their lower levels of skill or lack of practice time for the
more complicated skills may have not allowed for the actuated subsystem of three-point or close
range speed shooting to be released by the executive ego. The executive ego would then not be
able to focus on other aspects involved with the drill, thus limiting the participant’s ability to
achieve flow or produce a significantly better performance in the complex skill activity. The
difficulty lower skill level athletes may have in releasing the executive ego from a complicated
subsystem, thus preventing them from entering flow involving such activities, corresponds with
previous studies in which it was found that higher skill levels in elite athletes perhaps allows
them to enter and experience flow states more often (Jackson, 1995).
115
To summarize, the neodissociation component of releasing control and monitoring functions
of the three-point shooting or speed shooting subsystem may be lacking due to the complexity
involved in the skill in relation to the ability levels of participants in this study. The dribbling and
defensive skills, conversely, involve less complex activity and also resulted in significant
differences. This would seem to explain the mixed results found in this study involving the speed
shooting skill scores and the three-point shooting scores. It could also possibly account for the
lack of significantly higher scores found at post-intervention for the FSS – 2.
Importance of Findings
The findings of the present study may be important for several reasons. First, the positive
results found for enhancing performance add to the substantial literature involving the benefits of
hypnosis in general, sport psychology in specific. Hypnosis as a method for performance
enhancement is severely under utilized in the sport environment, indicating a substantial research
to practice gap. Reasons for the sparing use could be due to misconceptions that athletes and
sport and exercise psychologists have about hypnosis. This under utilization occurs despite the
numerous researchers and studies that have shown the abilities of hypnosis to enhance an
athlete’s performance.
Also, flow is a highly sought after state by athletes at every level due to its association to
high levels of performance and enhanced functioning. Despite the sport providing an ideal
setting for flow to occur, it has proved to be an ever-elusive one for athletes. Methods that might
enhance one’s ability to attain flow will be an important breakthrough. Perhaps enough promise
was demonstrated in this study to warrant further investigation and help close the research to
practice gap of hypnosis.
Second, the hypnosis group in this study, as part of the hypnosis intervention, received
116
interventions which consisted of several components of performance enhancement skills. These
techniques, such as improving the ability to focus, improving the ability to use imagery, and
improving self-confidence have been found to be effective for increasing performance in
previous research (Barabasz & Watkins, 2005; Gould, et al., 1986; Liggett, 2000; Schreiber,
1991).
Further, the benefits of simultaneously using hypnosis, including age regression and posthypnotic suggestion, with these techniques is demonstrated by the positive findings of enhanced
performance in this and previous studies. The techniques were also safe, accessible, minimally
time consuming, professionally delivered, and within the legal and ethical guidelines for use.
Thus, sport psychologists are provided here with another tool to use with athletes at all levels,
and one that combines several important components of sport psychology into one technique.
Third, as the concept of flow continues to grow and expand in the literature, more than just
athletes will become interested in flow. Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000) initially introduced the
state of flow as it pertained to enjoyment in a variety of areas of life and defined it as a very
enjoyable psychological state, in which an individual experienced a holistic sensation when
acting with total involvement in a number of given activities. These activities could be many
things. Indeed, Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 2000) developed the original theory of flow from
research in such events as playing chess, dancing, surgery, and different artistic contexts such as
painting and music, as well as athletic events. Since the development of the flow concept, the
psychological literature contains research from diverse areas. Many aspects of life can benefit
from the focus and absolute absorption involved with an activity, creating a state of mind where
optimal performances and enjoyable experiences occur. Therefore, any research on such a
117
concept, which could positively influence people in so many different areas, would thus be
important.
Limitations
As in all research that involves experimental studies the internal validity may be high.
However, due to the fact that it is an experimental study, the results found here may not
generalize to normal basketball performances. Steps in the present study attempted to improve
the external validity of the results. For example, using the dribbling, defensive, and close range
speed shooting skill components in the AAHPERD-BST, in addition to the three-point shooting,
ensured that several aspects encompassing the experience of playing basketball were being
considered. These skills include, among others, rapidly shooting, agility, basketball handling
ability, and defensive movement (Hastad & Lacy, 1998; Kirkendall, Gruber, & Johnson, 1987).
While it is hoped the results will generalize to the sport of basketball, future research has yet to
be conducted in a competition setting.
Another limitation to the study is that the results may lack generalizability to the competitive
environment of basketball or other sports. The lack of a competition component is a common
limitation in sport psychology research and this study did not address this component, as well.
Shooting, defending, or dribbling in a game situation where there is no opponent or time pressure
to be considered is rare, as was the case in the basketball skill tests conducted here. This lack of
generalizability detracts some from the external validity of the findings.
Some sampling concerns present limitations for the present study. Participants of the study
were recruited using convenience sampling and therefore may not be truly representative of the
population in general. Due to this apparent non-representative sample, the results of the study
may not generalize to lower or higher skill level athletes, or other forms of sport.
118
Due to the drop out of some participants, the sample size was lower than anticipated, which
might have caused the results to be under-powered. This possibility may have also limited the
ability to detect significant differences in the study. The low participant number would also
reflect poorly when considering generalizability, as it may not adequately address the wide range
of possibilities provided by a larger sample.
None of the participants were actively competing in collegiate level basketball, thus causing
them to have different priorities than a college level player. For example, the primary focus for
participants centered upon academics, versus the motivation of a college basketball player, which
may also include helping the team win or regaining their starting position. This, in turn, meant
the motivation level for most of the participants was lower than would be hoped for by the
researcher which may have negatively affected the study.
The design of the basketball skill tests in this study involved participants frequently starting,
stopping, and waiting for others. If a participant experienced flow, this frequent stopping likely
limited their ability to maintain the flow state. A better design would be to have participants
continue through all four skills, without stopping until all skills are completed. The participant
would complete the FSS – 2 afterward. This would limit the amount of time a participant waited
and perhaps lost the state of flow.
Future Research
The statistically significant results found here warrant further investigation into the ability of
the specific hypnosis techniques used in this study to enhance performance. Further research
using these hypnosis techniques, either in basketball or other sport environments, seems
warranted to shed further light on the effects of hypnosis on sports performance.
Of interest for future research may be to determine what possible underlying mechanism is
119
responsible for producing the positive results found in this study. If this mechanism can be found
and isolated, then more research may follow that focus and expand upon this specific component.
With the underlying mechanism found, perhaps further research will be able to enhance the
chances of attaining flow.
Future research may also use rigorous methodological procedures to establish the occurrence
of an effect with athletes currently involved in more formal competitive settings. With more to
gain from the performance enhancement techniques involved the motivation of elite level
participants may not be of concern. Researchers may also include a self-report measure to
determine the participant’s level of commitment or level of effort for future studies. The level of
motivation may then be factored into the statistical analysis allowing for comparisons between
those high and low in motivation.
This study lacked a competitive component and, therefore, the question still remains as to
whether the positive results found here will generalize to a competitive environment for athletes.
Future research should address this component and introduce, in some manner, a competition
among the participants completing the basketball skill tests.
Conclusion
The results from the present study found that participants in the hypnosis intervention group
scored significantly higher than the relaxation intervention group at post-intervention in
dribbling and defensive skill scores from the AAHPERD-BST, and in three-point shooting
scores. Participants in the hypnosis intervention group also performed significantly better at postintervention than at pre-intervention in the dribbling, defensive and speed shooting skill
components of the AAHPERD-BST. Results did not demonstrate that a significant difference
occurred between or within groups regarding flow state scores.
120
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139
Appendix A
Demographic and Information Form
Age
Gender
Year in School
Years of Interscholastic High School Basketball Playing Experience
Years of Total Competitive Basketball Playing Experience
Do You Have Experience with Hypnosis?
Yes
No
Are You Currently Using Any Prescription Medications?
Yes
No
Are You Currently Under the Care of a Physician and/or
a Mental Health Professional?
Yes
No
Rate Your Ability as a Three-point Shooter:
1
Poor
2
3
4
5
Average
6
7
Excellent
Indicate Last (approximate month/year) Flow or Flow-like Experience:
(Flow - a very enjoyable psychological state in which a person experiences a holistic
sensation when acting with total involvement in an activity; a state of such focused
concentration amounting to absolute absorption in a given activity that it inherently creates a
state of mind where optimal performances are capable of occurring and usually do;
where the mind and body are in harmony, negative thinking and self-doubts are absent, and
functioning is enhanced (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 2000; Jackson, 2000; Jackson et al., 2001))
140
Appendix A - Continued
Contact Information
Name:
Preferred method to be reached:
Phone #:
E-mail address:
Phone
E-mail
141
Appendix B
INFORMED CONSENT
The information in this consent form is provided so that you can decide whether you wish to
participate in the study. The purpose of this study is to determine the effects of hypnosis on flow
and in the performance enhancement of basketball skills. The Institutional Review Board of
Washington State University and the University of California at Davis have approved the
participation of volunteers for this research.
Prior to being admitted to this study, participants will be asked to pass a screening test of
three-point shooting ability. As this is a hypnosis study, your hypnotic capacity will be assessed
by a standardized test of hypnotizability. Participating in these scales will involve relaxation
instructions and the opportunity to see how you respond to hypnosis. Participation will also
involve age regression. Age regression involves imagining that you are back at certain ages and
describing where and what you are doing at that time. You will be informed about hypnosis and
have an opportunity to have all your questions answered. The amount of time for this task will
be approximately one hour. All hypnotic inductions will be performed by an advanced graduate
student trained in hypnosis.
Upon admission to the study, participants will complete pre-intervention phase basketball
skills, three-point shooting and all around basketball skills as measured by the American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance – Basketball Skills Test
(AAHPERD-BST) and flow states, as measured by the Flow State Scale – 2 (FSS – 2). Upon
completion of this, they will be divided, using their Waterloo-Stanford Group C Scale of
Hypnotic Susceptibility (WSGC) scores, into two groups, a hypnosis intervention group and a
relaxation exercise group.
The hypnosis group will receive a relaxation induction of hypnosis (the first portion of the
Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C), followed by a staircase to a beach
deepening technique, and asked to remember a previous experience of flow or an optimal
performance in basketball, and involve a post-hypnotic suggestion to help them recall this event
in detail and at will.
The relaxation group will receive training in a progressive muscle relaxation technique,
designed to help athletes reduce anxiety or arousal levels, such that they may better control their
individual zone of optimal functioning (IZOF), as levels outside this may be detrimental to their
basketball skills performance. Both groups will then be asked to complete post-intervention
phases of three-point shooting, AAHPERD-BST, and the FSS – 2, with both utilizing their
training techniques.
You will have the opportunity to ask questions at any time and seek further information
about the procedures or the results of the study. We will inform you should we become aware of
any new information which might affect your decision to participate in the study.
Data obtained will be coded and maintained in a locked confidential file in the investigator’s
office. Confidentiality will be maintained. In any research reports, participants will be listed
only by number code.
The risks of hypnosis are considered minimal with normal university student volunteers.
142
Benefits of participating in this hypnosis study may be a new experience in hypnosis, a better
understanding of how you respond to hypnosis, as well as a feeling of relaxation. You may also
feel different temporary experiences happening with your body such as heaviness, increased
swallowing or a temperature change. You may also temporarily experience an imagined event.
However, should a counseling session be needed it will be made available, through the services
of the Counseling and Psychological Services (CAPS) at University of California at Davis. You
may choose to not answer any questions asked of you, as well as end your participation in the
study at any time without penalty. If during the course of the study or thereafter you wish to
discuss your participation in or concern regarding this study you may contact Brian Vasquez at
530-297-5759, or Arreed Barabasz at 509-335-8166.
I certify that I (a) have at least three to four years of interscholastic high school basketball
playing experience, (b) am between the ages of 18 and 30 years old at the time of participation,
as this will help to limit the time elapsed from my last flow experience, (c) have experience prior
to the beginning of the study with the state of flow or a flow-like experience, as delineated on the
Demographic and Information Form, (d) have no experience with hypnosis, (e) am in good
physical health, (f) am not currently in counseling nor have been previously for any
psychological disorder (g) agree to document, in hours per week, the amount of time spent in
practice or competition for the duration of the study, and (h) do not currently use psychotropic or
recreational drugs. The requirements have been explained to me and my questions have been
answered. I understand I am free to ask additional questions, choose not to answer any questions
asked, and/or withdraw from the experiment at any time without penalty. You will receive a
copy of this form which you should keep for your records.
Thank you for your time,
_____________________________
Brian Vasquez, Graduate student in Counseling Psychology, 530-297-5759
I have read the above comments and agree to participate in this experiment. I give my
permission under the terms outlined above. I understand that if I have any questions or concerns
regarding this project I may contact the principle investigator Brian Vasquez at 530-297-5759 or
the faculty advisors, Dr. Kristee Haggins at 530-752-0871 or Dr. Arreed Barabasz at 509-3358166 or 208-301-3818. I may also contact the WSU Institutional Review Board at 509-335-9661
or the UC Davis Institutional Review Board at 916-734-6866 if I have any questions concerning
participant rights.
Signature
Print Name
Phone
E-mail Address
Date
143
Appendix C
AAHPERD-BST Administration and Scoring
Speed Spot Shooting.
The purpose of the speed spot shooting test item was to measure skill in rapidly shooting
from specified floor locations and, to a certain extent, agility and ball handling. Standard
equipment for this item included a standard inflated basketball, standard goal, stopwatch, and
tape for marking floors. For this test five floor markers (two feet long and one inch wide) were
placed on the floor. The distances for spots B, C, and D were measured 15 feet from the center of
the backboard; spots A and E were measured 15 feet from the center of the basket (see Figure
C1).
The administration of this test is conducted in three, one-minute trials. The first will be a
practice trial and the next two will be recorded for scoring. The performer will stand behind any
marker and on the signal, “Ready? Go!” the performer will shoot, retrieve the ball, and dribble to
and shoot from another designated spot. One foot must be behind the marker during each
attempt. A maximum of four lay-up shots will be attempted during each trial, but no two may be
in succession. The performer will attempt at least one shot from each designated spot.
Rule infractions will be penalized as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
For ball-handling infractions (traveling, double dribble, etc.), the shot following the
violation will be scored as 0 points.
If two lay-up shots are made in succession, the second lay-up will be scored as 0
points.
If more than four lay-ups are attempted, all excessive lay-ups will be scored as 0
points.
If the subject fails to shoot from each of the five designated spots, the trial will be
repeated.
Two points are awarded for each basket made, including lay-ups. One point is awarded for an
unsuccessful shot that hits the rim. Final score will be the total points from the two trials.
144
Figure C1. AAHPERD-BST – Speed Spot Shooting Skill Test.
145
Dribbling Skill Test
The purpose of the control dribbling skill test item is to measure skill in handling the
basketball while the body is moving. Standard equipment will include an inflated basketball, six
vinyl soccer training cones, and a stopwatch. An obstacle course marked by the six cones will be
set up in the free throw lane of the court.
Three timed trials will be administered with the first as a practice trial and the last two scored
for the record. With the basketball, the performer will start on his nondominant-hand side of
Cone A. At the signal, “Ready? Go!” the performer will dribble with the nondominant-hand to
the nondominant-hand side of Cone B. The performer will then proceed to follow the course
using whatever hand is deemed appropriate until the finish line is crossed by both feet (See
Figure C2).
1. For ball-handling infractions (traveling, double dribble, etc.), the trial will be stopped,
the participant will be returned to the starting point, and the trial will be restarted.
2. If the performer or the ball fail to remain outside the cone (including dribbling the
ball either inside or over the cone), the trial will be stopped, the participant will be
returned to the starting point, and the trial will be restarted.
3. If the subject looses control of the ball and fails to begin at the point in the course
where control is lost, the trial will be stopped, the participant will be returned to the
starting point, and the trial will be restarted.
The score for each trial will be the elapsed time required to legally complete the course.
Scores will be recorded to the nearest .10 of a second for each trial and the final score will be the
sum elapsed time of the two trials.
146
Figure C2. AAHPERD-BST – Dribbling Skill Test.
147
Defensive Skill Test
The purpose of the defensive movement skill test is to measure performance of basic
defensive movement. Standard equipment will include a stopwatch, standard basketball lane,
and tape for marking change-of-direction points. The test perimeters will be marked by the free
throw line, the boundary line behind the basket, and the rebound lane lines, which will be
marked into sections by a square and two lines. Only the middle line (rebound lane marker) will
be a target point for this test. Additional spots outside the four corners of the area will be marked
with tape at points A, B, D, and E (See Figure C3).
There will be three trials to the test with the first being a practice trial and the last two being
scored for the record. The performer will start at point A and face away from the basket. On the
signal, “Ready? Go!” the performer will slide to the left without crossing his feet and continue to
Point B, touch the floor outside the lane with the left hand, execute a drop-step, slide to Point C,
and touch the floor outside the lane with the right hand. The performer will continue the course
as diagrammed. Completion of the test will occur when both feet cross the finish line.
1. If the performer crosses his feet during the slide or turns and runs, the trial will be
stopped, the participant will be returned to the starting point, and the trial will be
restarted.
2. If the performer’s hand fails to touch the floor outside the lane, the trial will be
stopped, the participant will be returned to the starting point, and the trial will be
restarted.
3. If the performer executes the drop-step before his/her hand touches the floor, the trial
will be stopped, the participant will be returned to the starting point, and the trial will
be restarted.
The score for each trial will be the elapsed time required to legally complete the course.
Scores will be recorded to the nearest .10 of a second for each trial and the sum elapsed time of
the two trials will be the final score.
148
Figure C3. AAHPERD-BST – Defensive Skill Test.

THE EFFECTS OF HYPNOSIS ON FLOW AND IN THE

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