Chapter XII: Spain
Transcripción
Chapter XII: Spain
CHAPTER XII Spain VICTOR GARCIA HOZ EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH in Spain prior to 1956 was summarized in Reυìsta Española de Pedagogía (1958). This chapter concentrates on research published since that review. An exhaustive listing of educational publications in Spain was offered each December by the journal Bordón (1956, 1957, 1958, 1959, 1960). Bibliographies were published on specific subjects, such as scholastic and professional orientation (Alcaraz Lledo, 1 9 5 9 ) ; bibliographical selection and orientation (Tutor, 1960a) ; educational psychology (Garcia Yague, 1958); and family education (Tutor, 1960b). Philosophical and Historical Literature The increasing complexity of educational problems, combined with the application of new educational-research techniques to only parts of these problems, has produced fragmented work which is difficult to systematize. As a result, an increasing amount of attention has been devoted to finding a systematic approach to educational problems. Garcia Hoz (1960) developed the principles of such a systematic approach, which takes the characteristics of the human being as its starting point. The principles resulted from some years of reflection and from interchanges of points of view among those working at the Instituto de Pedagogía del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Institute of Pedagogy of the Superior Council of Scientific Investigation). Redondo (1959) wrote a rigorous philosophical investigation of education viewing communication as the central phenomenon in the educational process. It included a historical study of the evolution of Western thought from the Hellenic mind through existentialism. The author considered both cognitive and affective aspects of communication and included not only communication with others, but also communication with one's self (which in the American literature would be referred to as development of the self-concept). Redondo suggested four means by which self-knowledge is gained: reflection (introspection), the experiencing of one's activities, examination of one's behavior and works, and the perceptions others hold of one. Redondo examined communications with others by starting with the mediating role of three categories of symbols: (a) words, (b) gestures in sign language, and (c) acts and works. He noted some of the conditions necessary to communication, concentrating particularly on the intention 347 REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Vol. XXXII, No. 3 of the initiator of the message to communicate and the intention of the receiver to understand. Historical investigations centering around the Colegios Mayores, which gave life to the Spanish universities, are gaining new vigor today (Ajo G. Sainz de Zuñiga, 1958; Simon Diaz, 1959; Febrero, 1960). The first volume of a fundamental history of education by Galino Carrillo (I960) was published. The volume, which was limited to the ancient and middle ages, included several representative cultures and began with the history of each of the cultures (largely old Eastern ones). The author described the development of education, more through religion, politics, and folklore than through schools. This opens a wide area to investigation, since the school, particularly as a pervasive influence, is a relatively late comer on the educational scene. The author argued that education, perceived as assimilation of the standards and styles of life of the adults of the culture by the younger generation, appears in all societies regardless of how primitive they are. Educational Psychology The relation of psychology to methods of teaching appeared to be an attractive field to the studious. Palmes (1958) contributed to knowledge of how an understanding of the pupil is fundamental to a determination of his educational treatment. Sanchez Jimenez (1961) emphasized techniques of diagnosis and control in contributing to the same topic. Ercilla (1958) studied the adaptation of standardized tests from other countries to the Spanish environment. Garmendia de Otaola (1959) studied the use of the Szondi Test in the diagnosis of complex personality problems. Pinillos (1960) studied the reliability and validity of the C.E.P. Personality Questionnaire. Garcia Hoz (1961) and Garcia Manzano and others (1959) described the validation and standardization of tests designed for guidance purposes. Rodriguez (1959) published an important study of the aesthetic value of infants' plastic creations. Through studying children's art in several countries, the author developed an understanding of these works as an expression of the infant's mind and drew implications for infants' education. Diaz Arnal (1959) also studied art, but concentrated on the possibilities of drawing for diagnosis and treatment of the mentally handicapped. The author contrasted drawings of the mentally handicapped with drawings of children of normal intelligence, noting the extent to which normals were better able to express dynamic ideas with much greater reality and lively expression, despite limitations in artistic skill. The mentally handicapped students' drawings were duller than those of normals. They included reminiscences of experience, but were less lively intellectually. The drawings also showed the desolation that prevails in the psyche of many normal 348 June 1962 SPAIN children living in orphanages, where they are deprived of the affective tone which gives warmth and life. Educational Sociology Although few published works were concerned with the study of social factors relating to education, those which did appear were largely of an introductory nature (Garcia Hoz, 1959; Fraga, 1959). Bousquet (1960) studied some of the political and economic factors of education. Montoya (1961) examined the educational possibilities of Moreno's sociogram, for which the data were gathered by interviews rather than questionnaires. Garcia Hoz (1959) described the development of paidocenosis, a new concept to facilitate the study of the different influences on education. Paidocenosis, derived from the Greek words meaning "to teach" and "common," refers to the whole series of educational stimulations that attempt to develop a particular way of living and reacting in the pupil. Some experiences disappear with the passing of time, leaving little trace behind. Others continue to work in exceptionally deep ways—a conversation, a perusal, a word of courage, or a scolding which we know "we will remember forever." Paidocenosis considers experiences lying between these extremes which, joined with other stimulations, form a series or a constellation to make up the educational process. Thus, each family or group of playmates can be considered, from the educational point of view, as a series of stimulations leading to the development of particular behaviors different from other families or other groups of playmates. The influence of paidocenosis does not appear as specific learnings or particular features of the personality; its influence, which is deeper and more difficult to delineate, affects the whole personality. In a sense, every paidocenosis is a social environment or community permanently influencing those involved in it. The family, the school, the profession, and the nation can be considered as paidocenosis (Garcia Hoz, 1960). Methods of Teaching Work in the area of teaching methods centered on the teaching of language and mathematics. Studies of vocabulary in the teaching of reading, which have a certain tradition in Spain, have been carried to the point of describing the specific vocabulary used at different stages of life (Serrano Vaquero, 1957). Perez Vazquez (1958) studied the relationship between the commonly used vocabulary and a specific one; in this instance, that of history. Palau (1960) contributed one of the series of studies initiated by the emphasis on the eradication of illiteracy in Spain. An investigation was begun of the use of the child's intuitive notions to initiate mathematics teaching until the formation of what might be more properly considered mathematical thought. The leader of this work in 349 REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Vol. XXXÏÏ, No. 3 Spain, Puig Adam (1960), unfortunately disappeared, but his work was edited last year. Teaching calculation has been studied very carefully by Junquera Mune (1961) in a voluminous work. Guidance In Spain the concept of guidance is increasing in both importance and scope. It is perceived as a means through which students should come to know themselves so that they may be better adjusted to society and can contribute to the social life. Two bibliographies in the field of guidance, those of Alcaraz Lledo (1959) and Tutor (1960b), have already been mentioned. Mallart (1959) continued the study of certain problems in which psychotechniques, professional orientation, professional study, and certain work opportunities are reciprocally interrelated. A series of interesting investigations from the point of view of Roman Catholic guidance were gathered together by Valencia (1958). School Administration Investigations of the Instituto Nacional de Estadística (National Institute of Statistics) continued to be the best source of facts and statistics on Spanish education. The Institute published studies of the general statistics of education in Spain (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1958) and specialized studies of primary education (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1959a) and higher education (Presidencia del Gobierno, 1959b). The higher-education study showed the absolute and relative increase in both teaching staff and pupils, noting especially the increasing role of women. Male students increased two-thirds since 1940 (from 31,000 to 52,000), while female students increased almost three times (from 4000 to 12,000). Male teachers increased one and a half times (from 1800 to 4400), while female teachers increased six times (from 66 to 3 9 4 ) . Garcia y Garcia (1958) studied the secondary-school inspection which has recently been organized in Spain. Family Education There have been several investigations in this area, probably due to the influence of international organizations for the protection of children, which have highlighted the influence of the family in education and the damage to the child's development that results in deficiencies in family life. Bibliographies by Garcia Yague (1958) and Tutor (1960a) gave evidence of this concentration of effort. Sanchez Vizcaino (1961) studied the problem of family maladjustments and noted the influence of conjugal harmony on family life. One of the most important works in this area was by Tusquets (1958), who dealt with the question of family influence on 350 June 1962 SPAIN education under four headings (historical, ethical, psychological, and methodological) and treated each with the careful documentation and brave judgment that distinguish him. Among others, he dealt with such questions as these: (a) What basis has the assertion by one of our wellknown authors that the horde existed before the family and the club before the home? (b) To what extent are psychiatric methods applicable to the familial institution? (c) How should parents use their authority? Two Important Areas of Investigation Among the most important works being carried on by the Instituto de Pedagogía del Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (Institute of Pedagogy of the Superior Council of Scientific Investigations) are two which will be briefly described: the systematic historical work and the studies of language. The problem of systematizing the study of educational problems is an old question for the Institute staff. The two usual ways of arranging educational questions and studies have been carefully examined: the alphabetical form used mainly by encyclopedias of education and the systematic one which attempts to order educational doctrine according to the relations among the different educational questions. Despite the interest which an alphabetical inventory of educational knowledge might hold, it seemed more useful to undertake the problem of systematization. After many meetings, the Institute group arrived at a classification of educational problems which has a double utility. On one hand, it has served as a plan for the systematic classification of educational documents, and, on the other, it has served to establish the general lines along which systematic work in the educational sciences may be planned. Of the systematic studies stemming from this classification system, those most advanced are in the area of historical research; one of these, by Galino Carrillo (1960), has already been published. Though this volume was conceived within the classical system, which orders educational problems chronologically and geographically, a new arrangement will be forthcoming which should allow the study of each of the principal educational subjects through different times. The studies of language that were initiated in 1943 aimed at an exhaustive study of the sociological, psychological, and pedagogical aspects of language. Initial studies concentrated on the quantitative, sociological, and psychological aspects. Teaching methods have been the subject of many studies published in Revista Española de Pedagogía and in Bordón. These studies permitted the development and validation of tests of vocabulary necessary to the research. Vocabulary has also been used in the study of various personality aspects, using the technique of word qualification to study emotional-sentimental reaction. Studies of social diagnosis through language have also been initiated but are still in an embryonic state. 351 REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Vol. XXXII, No. 3 Bibliography AJO G. SAINZ DE ZUÑIGA, C. M. Hίstorίa de las Unίversidades Hίspάnίcas (History of the Spanish Universities). Tomo II. Avila: Centro de Estudios e Investigaciones Alonso Madrigal, 1958. ALCARAZ LLEDO, M. JOSEFA. "Bibliografía sobre orientación escolar y profesional" (Bibliography on Scholastic and Professional Orientation). 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