plan de mejoramiento de idiomas extranjeros

Transcripción

PLAN DE MEJORAMIENTO DE IDIOMAS EXTRANJEROS
(PROYECTO DE AREA)
INSTITUCIÓN TECNICA EDUCATIVA JUAN V
PADILLA
GRADOS: 6º ,7º ,8º,9º ,10º,11º
INTENSIDAD:3 HORAS SEMANALES
PROFESORES RESPONSABLES:
JUAN HIGGINS MOLINA
ETILVIA DOMÍNGUEZ
DILU FLOREZ
XIOMARA ILLUECA
MARIA T MOLINARES
VANESSA BELEÑO
RENATO SUAREZ
AÑO 2011
―METAMORFOSIS EN LA FORMACIÓN DEL INGLÉS‖
1. DESCRIPCIÓN
La presente propuesta tiene como objetivo hacer transversalidad curricular de la
enseñanza del inglés con otras áreas del plan de estudios donde se hace urgente la
formación de estas áreas en esta segunda lengua como es el caso de hotelería y Turismo,
corte y confección, modalidades que ofrece la institución desde que se inició como técnica
como lo contempla el P.E.I, también se busca hacer extensivo el bilingüismo a algunas
áreas del plan de estudios, entre esas ciencias sociales.
Se piensa que si los estudiantes son competentes en áreas como hotelería y turismo
y corte y confección igualmente el gobierno y el sector hotelero promueven la belleza
geográfico de la región Caribe del departamento del Atlántico, vendrán numerosos turistas,
especialmente de los Estados Unidos y se contará con jóvenes que poseen una formación
idónea en la lengua inglesa.
Se reitera que al hacer transversalidad del inglés con otras áreas del plan de estudios
para iniciar un proceso de implementación del bilingüismo, se está promoviendo el
mandato de las políticas del Ministerio de Educación Nacional llevadas a cabo a través de
la secretaría de Educación departamental del Atlántico, que desde hace varios años viene
fomentando la capacitación en inglés de sus profesores, quienes deben alcanzar el nivel B2
según el marco común europeo y propender que sus estudiantes obtengan el nivel B1 al
egresar de la educación media. Lo cual resulta reconfortante para el presente proyecto.
¿Cómo se hará para darle una mayor operatividad y funcionalidad a este proyecto?
Los profesores de la asignatura de inglés diseñarán un plan de aula que abarque la
educación básica primaria, secundaria y media, se considera que iniciar el proceso de
enseñanza del inglés tan sólo en la educación secundaria es desperdiciar el potencial que
tiene el estudiante de primaria, el niño en sus primeros años es más receptivo, se le facilita
la adquisición de un nuevo idioma, pues sus intereses, la motivación tanto extrínseca como
intrínseca están en su nivel más alto en sus primeros años de vida escolar. Como se ha
dicho, en la primera fase del proyecto se tomarán los referentes tanto geográficos, como
técnicos, sociales y culturales del inglés en lo relacionado con hotelería y turismo y corte y
confección; elaborando para tal fin instrumentos didácticos, documentos, cartillas, folletos,
y textos que coadyuven a la formación bilingüe en estas áreas del saber. Posteriormente se
procederá de igual forma en el área de las ciencias sociales.
Operatividad.
El plan de la propuesta debe proceder de la siguiente forma:
- Constitución de un ente coordinador del proyecto conformado de la siguiente
forma: Jefe de área, profesores de inglés, especialistas en las áreas temáticas aquí
consideradas: Hotelería y turismo, corte y confección y ciencia sociales.
- Constitución del grupo de docentes investigadores en inglés.
- Elaboración de los contenidos programáticos para los distintos grados.
- Organización de una intensidad horaria.
- Discusión y preparación del método que se considere más apropiado para la
enseñanza del inglés dentro de los marcos contextuales que aquí se están programando.
En primera instancia, con base a las observaciones hechas por el autor de este
proyecto, se concluyó que el enfoque comunicativo, resultó ser el más adecuado para la
enseñanza de una segunda lengua y por lo tanto debe prevalecer en la ejecución de las
actividades académicas porque los estudiantes demuestran a través de esta forma de
aprendizaje su competencias comunicativas y lecto-escriturales a la hora de producir en
forma oral y por escrito; sin desconocer la competencia gramatical, la cual es importante,
pero no al comienzo del proceso de enseñanza aprendizaje. Teniéndose en cuenta los
aportes de los profesores del área.
En cuanto a las debilidades de la institución, cuando se aplica el enfoque
comunicativo se presenta la necesidad de orientar al niño, para que pueda expresar
adecuadamente sus necesidades reales de comunicación en la lengua extranjera, es decir,
que sepa utilizarla en contexto. Es a partir de estas necesidades que el maestro puede
enseñar un contenido lingüístico según demandas gramaticales semánticas contextuales
específicas. Dada esta dificultad, se recurre más bien analizar la situación en que se
desarrolla el aprendizaje antes que suponer hipotéticas necesidades del niño, y se da
prioridad a procesos de estimulación y sensibilización, en especial con los niños más
pequeños, a partir de la identificación de los elementos de la lengua y de la cultura
extranjera presentes y diseminados en el contexto sociocultural en que se desenvuelve. Se
privilegia entonces el contacto y el descubrimiento de la lengua y la cultura antes que
perderse en la competencia de tipo gramatical; lo que conlleva a un desinterés hacia el
aprendizaje de las lenguas extranjeras.
- Realización de reuniones evaluativas con los profesores comprometidos en el
proyecto y elaboración de instrumentos evaluativos tanto para estudiantes como para los
docentes.
Idoneidad en la enseñanza
Los profesores deben ser lo más competente posible en la presentación de sus
saberes, es decir manejar una adecuada competencia cognitiva pedagógica, didáctica y
evaluativa en lo que respecta a la enseñanza del inglés para de esta forma poder alcanzar
una alta calidad en la formación de los estudiantes. Se hace énfasis al destacar que los
profesores de educación primaria deben ser tan competentes de los procesos significativos
del inglés, como los de la secundaria o tal vez mucho más, pues, el potencial cognoscitivo y
emocional del niño de pre-escolar debe ser aprovechado al máximo, para poder dejar
sentada bases solidas que le sirvan en la educación secundaria, es decir en la adolescencia,
etapa difícil de la vida en la cual el joven presenta muchos cambios que en algunos
estudiantes no le permiten concentrarse en el estudio y mucho menos en el inglés, la cual
sería una asignatura nueva, es decir un cambio más de los que tendrá que afrontar
fisiológica y emocionalmente.
DIDÁCTICA
El profesor hará uso de distintos tipos de instrumentos didácticos que estimulen la
adquisición de saberes y especialmente de medios tecnológicos.
Las observaciones previas de este proyecto demostraron que el manejo de
canciones, su comprensión, análisis e interpretación resultó ser una estrategia novedosa, las
canciones, además de ser útiles para la habilidad de la escucha, despiertan el interés y
producen alegría y el estudiante al estar alegre posee una mayor disposición hacia el
aprendizaje, sobre todo en la edad escolar cuando se tiene mucha energía, la cual debe ser
utilizada para buenos propósitos, de lo contrario el muchacho se le da por hacer lo
prohibido.
Es también novedoso que los estudiantes en compañía de sus profesores visiten
hoteles de la región Caribe con la debida autorización de sus administradores, buscando
interacción con turistas y por medio de entrevistas enriquezcan el proceso de enseñanza
aprendizaje del inglés.
2. OBJETIVOS
2.1. Objetivo General
Implementar un plan previo que permita la instauración del programa de
bilingüismo como política del Ministerio de educación Nacional a partir de las modalidades
hotelería y turismo, corte y confección y sociales en la institución Juan V Padilla.
2.2 Objetivos específicos
- Ofrecer al estudiante la oportunidad de aprender el inglés articulado con las
necesidades de la institución como son: corte y confección y hotelería y turismo y ciencias
sociales.
- Manejar las competencias comunicativas del inglés específicamente desde la
expresión oral y la escritura.
-Adquirir de un rico vocabulario técnico propio del turismo, las confecciones y las
ciencias sociales.
- Coadyuvar en la formación del estudiante Padillista a que sea competente dentro
de un marco bilinguista.
-Hacer uso de las canciones de lengua inglesa como estrategia para la adquisición
de esta segunda lengua.
3. Referente teórico
Se trata de mostrar seguidamente la forma como se sustentará la presente propuesta,
la cual debe tener como soporte los enfoques básicos en el marco teórico general del
presente trabajo.
La búsqueda que aquí se realizará tiende a la consecución de teorías actualizadas
que rompan con los esquemas librescos y repetitivos de la denominada pedagogía
tradicional.
En cuanto a lo pedagógico se tendrán en cuenta los criterios más relevantes a la hora
de enseñar lenguas con miras de hacer más dinámicas la presentación y adquisición de
saberes, tal como es el caso del llamado enfoque comunicativo, entendiéndolo como un
proceso dialógico flexible, en el cual los estudiantes tienen la oportunidad de indagar y
construir su propio conocimiento para lograr una idoneidad que articule un saber hacer en
una segunda lengua.
Por otra parte se tiende al logro de la transversalidad curricular tomando como
elemento transversal final la lengua inglesa y posteriormente basados en los programas de
hotelería y turismo, confecciones y ciencias sociales convertir este conjunto de saberes
manejados en la lengua española traducirlos e internalizarlos al Inglés y de esta manera
estar acorde con lo que el medio exige en la comunidad costera.
A continuación se muestran algunas posturas teóricas sobre cómo se puede llegar a
lo que aquí se tiene como propósito académico.
Larry Lynch señala lo siguiente: A Communicative Approach?
There are a variety of approaches to teaching English as a second or foreign
language. One aspect of English and foreign language teaching involves using a
Communicative Approach. But what exactly does using a communicative approach mean?
Well for me, a Communicative Approach to language teaching includes several
distinct aspects. We'll mention two of them here. Applying these aspects means that
language teaching and learning become far more than a series of grammar lessons and
vocabulary lists. For language teaching and learning to be truly communicative, it must not
only be in context, but used to convey ideas, preferences, thoughts, feelings and
information in a way that is addressed to reach others. Usually, I address communicative
language teaching through the use of two approaches:
- Content-Based Instruction (CBI)
- Task-Based language teaching (TBLT)
Tomado de La web
Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Larry_M._Lynch
En el anterior texto el profesor Lynch, autor ya mencionado presenta su perspectiva
acerca del enfoque comunicativo resaltando que en la enseñanza del inglés no basta con
aprender normas gramaticales y vocabulario sin contexto, sino que la adquisición de una
segunda lengua debe darse a partir de un verdadero proceso de comunicación donde la
persona pueda expresar sus ideas, preferencias, y sentimientos enmarcados dentro de una
relaciones interdisciplinarias contextualizadas, no solo dentro el contexto formal de la
lengua, sino también tener en cuenta todo el conjunto de circunstancias que implican una
verdadera comunicación como medio de satisfacción de las necesidades materiales y
espirituales del ser humano.
El planteamiento anterior siempre ha sido tenido en cuenta por el autor del presente
proyecto. Incluso con esta propuesta se piensa incentivar la creatividad de los estudiantes,
su sensibilidad social, su capacidad de emprendimiento porque la transversalidad curricular
del inglés está ligada a tres áreas que motivan al estudiante, pues la hotelería y turismo. Las
confecciones son fuente de empleo en la región noroccidental del departamento del
Atlántico.
Por lo tanto no basta con la gramaticalidad sino la acción discursiva en el contexto
en el caso de la hotelería el profesor creará situaciones reales de comunicación e igualmente
se hará uso de un vocabulario que responda a las condiciones contextuales donde se realice
la comunicación. Esta hecho exige por parte del profesor mucha dedicación y trabajo
investigativo de equipo para la realización de actividades que conlleven esta práctica.
Siguiendo con el proceder el enfoque comunicativo, Michael Canale- y Merril
Swain,(1996) esbozan en uno de sus artículos una serie de principios los cuales se tendrán
en cuenta en la propuesta, desde la perspectiva teórico-práctica del docente investigador de
este proyecto y su equipo de trabajo.
A continuación retomo los principios rectores para un enfoque comunicativo según
Canale y Swain.
La competencia comunicativa se compone al menos de competencia gramatical,
competencia sociolingüística y estrategias de comunicación, o lo que en adelante se llamará
competencia estratégica. No existen razones teóricas o empíricas para pensar que la
competencia gramatical resulte ni más ni menos crucial para lograr el éxito en la
comunicación que las competencias sociolingüísticas y estratégica. El primer objetivo de un
enfoque comunicativo deberá ser el facilitar la integración de estos tres tipos de
conocimiento y su adquisición por el aprendiz; tal resultado no parece que pueda obtenerse
mediante la priorización de una forma de competencia frente a las demás a lo largo del
programa de enseñanza.
Como bien se sabe las competencias son un saber hacer en contexto, en este caso lo
gramatical sería secundario sin desconocerlo. Se tendrá en cuenta que el estudiante
desarrolle sus habilidades comunicativas en lengua inglesa, teniendo en cuenta los
elementos teóricos de las áreas con las cuales se hace transversalidad para llevarlo a la
práctica en los contextos estratégicos.
Un enfoque comunicativo debe partir de las necesidades de comunicación del
aprendiz y dar respuesta a las mismas. Dichas necesidades deberán especificarse en
términos de competencia gramatical (por ejemplo, los niveles de corrección gramatical que
se precisan en la comunicación oral y escrita), competencia sociolingüística (por ejemplo,
necesidades referidas a la situación, al tema, a las funciones comunicativas y competencia
estratégica (por ejemplo, las estrategias de compensación que es preciso poner en juego
cuando se produce un fallo en una de las otras competencias). De acuerdo con
Widdowson(1990) (conversación personal), cabe esperar que las necesidades de
comunicación en cualquiera de estas áreas sean de dos tipos: primero aquéllas que son
relativamente fijas y terminales y segundo, aquéllas que son transitorias y provisionales ,
mutables en función de factores tales como la edad de los aprendices y la fase que recorren
en el proceso de aprendizaje lingüístico (para ampliar esta interesante discusión véase
Stern , 1979) . Resulta de particular importancia basar el enfoque comunicativo en las
variedades de la lengua que el aprendiz se va a encontrar con mayor probabilidad en el
marco de situaciones comunicativas reales; también es decisivo considerar los niveles
mínimos de competencia gramatical y sociolingüística que los hablantes nativos suponen en
un hablante extranjero en tales situaciones y que se espera que la mayor parte de los
aprendices de la lengua consigan alcanzar (acerca de este último punto, véase Van Ek ,
1976) . Munby (1978) y Richterich (1973) han sugerido métodos para proceder al análisis
de las necesidades comunicativas (sobre este tema, véanse asimismo las obras de Sampson,
1978, Savard, 1978 y Tough, 1977).
Reiterando que la principal preocupación de esta investigación es que el estudiante
desarrolle en su mente unidades comunicativas contextualizadas basadas en las
transversalidad y en el conocimiento de hotelería y turismo, confecciones y ciencias
sociales.
El estudiante de una segunda lengua ha de gozar de oportunidades para interactuar
con hablantes de dicha lengua plenamente competentes en intercambios significativos, es
decir, de responder a necesidades comunicativas auténticas en situaciones reales. Este
principio supone un reto notable para los diseñadores de programas y para los profesores ,
pero encuentra un fuerte apoyo en la distinción teórica entre competencia comunicativa y
actuación comunicativa. Por lo demás, esto tiene consecuencias , no sólo en relación con
las actividades de clase, sino también con la evaluación .J.B.Carroll (1961) ya reclamaba
hace tiempo unos contextos comunicativos más realistas para las pruebas (es decir , para la
actuación ) en los siguientes términos:
Si se evalúa tan sólo un aspecto cada vez, se viene normalmente a conceder más
tiempo para la reflexión que el que se otorgaría en una situación comunicativa normal, por
muy rápido que se proceda a presentar los elementos puntuales de la prueba (1961:34).Oller
(en prensa) manifiesta un punto de vista similar. Por su parte, Clark (1972) ha puesto de
relieve los inconvenientes de medir las destrezas de comunicación por medio de pruebas
indirectas (por ejemplo, pruebas escritas) y el recurso a procedimientos de correlación.
Afirma este autor:
"Las pruebas indirectas del dominio del idioma no ofrecen ocasión para que el
alumno ponga en acción su competencia lingüística en situaciones reales de comunicación.
A pesar de que puedan mantener una correlación positiva con las pruebas directas desde un
punto de vista estadístico, las pruebas escritas, así como las pruebas grabadas de
comprensión y producción orales y sistemas de medición similares, de ningún modo
pueden tener el mismo valor psicológico para el alumno que las primeras , ni tampoco su
efecto formativo. Aunque sólo sea por tal motivo, la aplicación de una prueba directa del
dominio de las destrezas comunicativas en una o más ocasiones a lo largo del recorrido de
aprendizaje del alumno constituiría un empeño que valdría la pena" (Clark, 1972: 132).
Por nuestra parte, pensamos que la exposición del alumno a situaciones de
comunicación realistas resultará crucial si nuestro deseo es que la competencia
comunicativa le lleve a lograr la confianza en la comunicación.
El anterior principio es de gran validez y se necesita la participación de las
autoridades especializadas en turismo para que promuevan esta actividad en los países de
habla inglesa.
Sobre todo en las fases iniciales del aprendizaje de una segunda lengua, se deberá
hacer un uso óptimo de aquellos aspectos de la competencia comunicativa que el alumno
haya ya adquirido a través de la apropiación y del uso de su lengua materna y que resulten
coincidentes con las destrezas comunicativas que se precisan para dominar la segunda
lengua. Resulta particularmente importante que aquellos aspectos más caprichosos y menos
universales de la comunicación en la segunda lengua (por ejemplo, determinados rasgos del
código gramatical) se presenten y practiquen en el contexto de otros aspectos más
sistemáticos y universales de la misma (por ejemplo, las condiciones fundamentales para
hacer una petición de manera apropiada o las normas discursivas básicas implicadas en el
acto de saludar a un igual).
El objetivo primordial de un programa de instrucción en una segunda lengua con
una orientación comunicativa deberá ser el proporcionar a los alumnos la información, la
práctica y buena parte de la experiencia necesaria para abordar sus necesidades de
comunicación en el idioma. Además, su formación acerca del lenguaje (así, por ejemplo, la
enseñanza de las categorías gramaticales, las funciones comunicativas del lenguaje, las
condiciones para un uso apropiado de la lengua, las reglas del discurso, los distintos
registros) deberá producirse con ocasión de su formación escolar en la lengua materna
(aunque no de manera exclusiva). Igualmente, también se instruirá a los alumnos acerca de
la cultura de la segunda lengua fundamentalmente (aunque no exclusivamente) como parte
del programa de Ciencias Sociales, todo ello con vistas a proporcionarles el conocimiento
sociocultural acerca de la segunda lengua que les sea suficiente para permitirles inferir las
connotaciones y valores sociales implícitos en los enunciados (para una discusión más
amplia de estos aspectos, véase Widdowson, 1978). Existe también la opinión de que un
enfoque interdisciplinar en el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa puede abrir el
camino (y quizá incentivar: véase Savignon, 1972) a un estudio sostenido de la lengua
(véase al respecto Van Ek, 1976).
Es importante la teoría de Lev Vigotzky en cuanto al aprendizaje significativo
postulado en el que concibe que todos los procesos psicológicos superiores (comunicación,
razonamiento, lenguaje) se adquieren primero en un contexto social y luego se internalizan
por el uso de un comportamiento cognitivo en un contexto social.
Esta afirmación permite proponer una escuela como centro de construcciones de
saberes en un contexto social que incide determinantemente en el proceso de aprendizaje.
Al respecto, Zubiría dice que la teoría del aprendizaje significativo ofreció un gran aporte a
la educación al establecer la diferencia conceptual entre enseñanza y aprendizaje. Gracias a
esta diferencia, se ha podido reconocer la poca viabilidad que tendría el aprendizaje por
descubrimiento.
Esta consideración hace pensar que la escuela tiende hacia una pedagogía
problematizante que facilita el pensamiento crítico y genera potencialidades humanas y
económicas en el hombre. Las investigaciones muestran que los estudiantes aprenden una
asignatura en diferentes proporciones y con niveles diferentes de competencias. Los
instructores no pueden ser ajenos a las diferencias en las habilidades y experiencias que
traen los estudiantes en el salón de clase, pero se es responsable de su motivación para que
ellos lleguen a involucrarse en su propio aprendizaje.
Si se entiende el aprendizaje ―como un proceso activo de trasladar nuevos
conocimientos, comprensión y habilidades en conductas‖, se acepta el punto de vista de los
investigadores que defienden que el individuo al participar en una tarea de aprendizaje, éste
se realiza más rápidamente y se retiene por mucho más tiempo si se presenta en formas
preferidas por el alumno. Esto es lo que se denomina ―estilo de aprendizaje individual‖.
Teniendo en cuenta que cada persona tiene diferentes formas de aprender, es bueno
adoptar estrategias que convengan con el medio en que se desenvuelve la persona.
Haciendo un análisis de esta situación, el profesor Ignacio Palacio propone en su teoría que
―pueden aprender los profesores de Inglés de sus estudiantes, ya que constantemente se
enriquecen por el contacto directo con los estudiantes, quienes están ensayando diferentes
perspectivas y formas de ver las cosas‖.
Por esta razón se puede indicar que los estudiantes aprenden actitudes hacia el
inglés y hacia la clase de inglés, y si son positivas o negativas, de esta manera valoran su
importancia. La motivación de los estudiantes depende de muchos aspectos, como los que
se enumeran a continuación:
Si ellos aprenden justamente lo que se requiere, porque les gusta para obtener mejor
trabajo, porque les gustaría comunicarse con otras personas de otros países, por les gustaría
viajar.
Consideración de la necesidad de textos, del material de aprendizaje preferido, del
gusto por un glosario del vocabulario al final de cada unidad, las clases de temas que
prefieren en los libros.
Las actividades para el aprendizaje, las que encuentran más interesantes y
funcionales, el porcentaje de interés que despiertan los dictados, los escritos, escucha de
grabaciones, ejercicios de pronunciación, tareas orales, videos presentados, etc.
Las diferentes formas de interacción en el aula de clases, si les gusta trabajar en
parejas, en grupos pequeños o grandes o en forma individual.
La importancia de las cuatro habilidades del lenguaje: intereses para escuchar,
hablar, leer y escribir.
Las preferencias respecto a los sistemas y métodos de evaluación, momento
preferido para ser evaluados y modos de evaluación: por medio de la auto evaluación,
proyectos, trabajos de grupo o individualmente.
Los propósitos del desempeño del profesor y del estudiante, cómo se sienten los
estudiantes frente al profesor en la clase, aspectos que pueden ser mejorados, papel activo o
pasivo del estudiante.
El uso de las estrategias de aprendizaje y habilidades para el estudio, la conciencia
de las propias habilidades para el aprendizaje, clases de estrategias que se prefieren usar,
uso de estrategias de aprendizaje.
Estas situaciones deben ser tenidas en cuenta para tener una mejor comprensión de
lo que los estudiantes quieren y necesitan. Así, mediante este proceso, cada profesor puede
convertirse en el investigador de su propia clase y se obtendrían grandes logros.
Dependiendo de las ayudas educativas utilizadas en la clase y del proceso de
enseñanza que se aplique, como también de los aspectos mencionados anteriormente de
Ignacio Palacio Martínez, después de realizar un minucioso trabajo de investigación sobre
los intereses y necesidades de los estudiantes, se puede alcanzar un proceso de enseñanzaaprendizaje eficaz en cualquier institución educativa, ya que se tiene un punto de vista
global del trabajo en la clase.
4. PRINCIPIOS DE LA PROPUESTA
En lo relacionado con la legalidad se puede decir que Colombia es un estado social
de derecho, donde prima el bienestar de la persona humana, en el cual las personas deben
ser respetadas en su integridad, en este caso específico lo relacionado con la educación a la
cual se le considera un servicio público. En esta dirección el artículo 67 de la CPC señala
La educación es un derecho de la persona y un servicio público que tiene una función
social; con ella se busca el acceso al conocimiento, a la ciencia, a la técnica, y a los demás
bienes y valores de la cultura.
La educación formará al colombiano en el respeto a los derechos humanos, a la paz
y a la democracia; y en la práctica del trabajo y la recreación, para el mejoramiento cultural,
científico, tecnológico y para la protección del ambiente.
El Estado, la sociedad y la familia son responsables de la educación, que será
obligatoria entre los cinco y los quince años de edad y que comprenderá como mínimo, un
año de preescolar y nueve de educación básica.
La educación será gratuita en las instituciones del Estado, sin perjuicio del cobro de
derechos académicos a quienes puedan sufragarlos. Corresponde al Estado regular y ejercer
la suprema inspección y vigilancia de la educación con el fin de velar por su calidad, por el
cumplimiento de sus fines y por la mejor formación moral, intelectual y física de los
educandos; garantizar el adecuado cubrimiento del servicio y asegurar a los menores las
condiciones necesarias para su acceso y permanencia en el sistema educativo.
La Nación y las entidades territoriales participarán en la dirección, financiación y
administración de los servicios educativos estatales, en los términos que señalen la
Constitución y la ley.
Por lo antes dicho toda persona tiene derecho a ser educada en la mejor forma
posible y por consiguiente es un gran beneficio la adquisición de una segunda lengua como
lo plantea este proyecto para poder desempeñarse mejor en la vida. Además la ley 115 de
1994, ley general de la educación establece unos fines muy específicos para la educación
colombiana en lo relacionado con una educación de un alto nivel de competencia. Por tanto
la implementación de un sistema bilingüe en el colegio Juan V Padilla tiende al logro de
una mayor cualificación de los jóvenes estudiantes de esta institución educativa.
En cuanto al valor que se le debe dar a la adquisición del inglés este surge de la gran
importancia que ha tomado esta lengua a nivel económico y político en el mundo
globalizado actual.
El uso del inglés a través de su tranversalidad curricular con relación a la hotelería y
turismo, corte y confección y ciencias sociales contribuye al desarrollo de la región Caribe
del departamento del Atlántico en lo económico y también facilita el logro de mejores
niveles de vida las nuevas generaciones.
El proyecto se trata de implementar a nivel local usando técnicas pedagógicas
modernas como lo es el caso del enfoque comunicativo que tan buenos resultados ha tenido
en el aprendizaje de una segunda lengua.
CRONOGRAMA
Se desarrollarán cuatro unidades una para cada período escolar, es decir, los
contenidos están organizados de tal manera que cubran los cuatro períodos del año; así:
Enero 25 a Abril 13 unidad Nº 1, Abril 13 a Junio 18 unidad Nº 2, Julio 19 a Septiembre 15
unidad Nº 3 y Septiembre 16 a Dic 10 unidad Nº 4.
ESTANDARES
EN
EL
CONTEXTO
DEL
PROGRAMA
NACIONAL
DE
BILINGÜISMO.(MARCO COMÚN EUROPEO)
Descripción
A
1
Es capaz de comprender y utilizar expresiones cotidianas de
uso muy frecuente, así como frases sencillas destinadas a satisfacer
necesidades de tipo inmediato.
Usuario
Básico
Puede presentarse a sí mismo y otros, pedir y dar información
personal básica sobre su domicilio, sus pertenencias y las personas
que conoce.
Puede relacionarse en forma elemental siempre que su
interlocutor hable despacio y con claridad y esté dispuesto a
cooperar.
A
2
Es capaz de comprender frases y expresiones cotidianas de
uso muy frecuente relacionadas con áreas de experiencia que le
son especialmente relevantes(información básica sobre sí mismo y
su familia, compras, lugares de interés, ocupaciones)
Sabe comunicarse a la hora de llevar a cabo tareas simples y
Usuario
cotidianas que no requieran más que intercambios sencillos y
Básico
directos de información sobre cuestiones que le son conocidas o
habituales.
Sabe describir en términos sencillos aspectos de su pasado y
su entorno, así como cuestiones relacionadas con sus necesidades
inmediatas.
B
B1
Es capaz de comprender los puntos principales de textos
claros y en lengua estándar si tratan sobre cuestiones que le sean
conocidas, ya sea en situaciones de trabajo, de estudios o de ocio.
Sabe desenvolverse en la mayor parte de las situaciones que
Usuario
pueden surgir durante el viaje por zonas donde se utiliza la lengua.
Dependiente
Es capaz de producir textos sencillos y coherentes sobre temas
que le son familiares o en lo que tiene interés personal.
Puede describir experiencias, acontecimientos, deseos y
aspiraciones, así como justificar brevemente sus opiniones o
explicar sus planes.
B
B2
Es capaz de entender las ideas principales de textos complejos
que traten de temas tanto concretos como abstractos, incluso si son
de carácter técnico, siempre que estén dentro de su campo de
especialización.
Usuario
Dependiente
Puede relacionarse con habitantes nativos con un grado
suficiente de fluidez y naturalidad de modo que la comunicación se
realice sin esfuerzo por parte de los interlocutores.
Puede producir textos claros y detallados sobre temas
diversos, así como defender el punto de vistas sobre temas
generales, indicando los pros y los contras de las distintas opciones
Es capaz de comprender una amplia variedad de textos
extensos y con ciertos niveles de exigencia. Así como reconocer en
ellos sentidos implícitos.
Sabes expresarte de forma fluida y espontánea sin muestras
Usuario
muy evidentes de esfuerzos para encontrar la expresión adecuada.
Competente
C
1
Puede hacer un uso flexible y efectivo del idioma para fines
sociales, académicos y profesionales.
Puede producir textos claros , bien estructurados y detallados
sobre temas de cierta complejidad , mostrando un uso correcto de
los mecanismo de organización
ESTANDARES MÍNIMOS PARA EL INGLES
SEXTO GRADO
- Formula preguntas en lengua extranjera para solicitar información básica cotidiana.
- Emplea apropiadamente expresiones de uso común en lengua extranjera.
- Expresa en lengua extranjera sus deseos y planes.
- Lee y comprende instrucciones y secuencias de procesos simples como búsqueda de
lugares, manejo de equipos, órdenes de restaurantes, recetas.
- Utiliza la lengua extranjera para describir oralmente.
SEPTIMO, OCTAVO Y NOVENO GRADO
- Usa la lengua extranjera para describir y analizar diferentes contextos culturales, en
contraste con el propio.
- Interpreta y analiza códigos y formas de expresión de la información de las nuevas
tecnologías, otorgada en otro idioma.
- Hace interpretaciones de situaciones, comentarios y diálogos que se difunden en el
idioma extranjero, a través de diferentes medios de comunicación.
- Utiliza la lengua para describir en forma oral y escrita acontecimientos del pasado,
del presente y del futuro próximo.
- Expresa ideas y sentimientos en lengua extranjera.
- Lee y comprende instrucciones y secuencias simples de procesos en lengua
extranjera, como manuales para el manejo de equipos.
- Narra eventos en lengua extranjera en forma oral y escrita, a partir de los
conocimientos adquiridos en otras disciplinas.
- Encuentra el significado básico de textos literarios, periodísticos, tecnológicos y
científicos.
- Participa en actividades lúdico-sociales como la correspondencia, intercambio de
material informativo con personas de la lengua extranjera.
DÉCIMO Y UNDÉCIMO
- Reconoce en la superación de la barrera del idioma, como un facilitador del proceso
de interculturalidad que se evidencia cuando desarrolla actividades socio-culturales,
manifiesta intereses particulares, hace proyecciones laborales y personales.
- Interpreta y analiza códigos y formas de expresión de la formación de un idioma
extranjero, de acuerdo con los avances científicos y tecnológicos.
- Analiza críticamente información que se difunde en otro idioma por los diferentes
medios de comunicación.
- Utiliza el idioma extranjero para narrar y describir en forma oral y escrita
acontecimientos del pasado, del presente y del futuro.
- Comprende e infiere información de textos científicos, tecnológicos, literarios,
periodísticos.
- Analiza y sigue instrucciones y secuencias de procesos en lengua extranjera.
Crea textos en otro idioma para la realización participación en actividades culturales,
lúdicas y sociales.
- Descubre en lengua extranjera características físicas, sociales y culturales de su
región y del país y las compara con las del otro país.
- Manifiesta educación entre el gesto, la modulación de la voz y lo que se expresa
oralmente en un idioma extranjero.
- Reconstruye y reseña en lengua extranjera, información emitida por los medios de
comunicación.
-
Participa en actividades lúdicos sociales y académicas, como correspondencia,
tertulias, seminarios, concursos.
BASIC CONTENTS
SIXTH DEGREE
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.
1.11.
1.12.
1.13.
1.14.
1.15.
1.16.
1.17.
1.18.
1.19.
1.20.
1.21.
1.22.
1.23.
1.24.
1.25.
1.26.
1.27.
1.28.
Tourism
Be: Present simple pag 2,3,4,5, 80, 81 book prac gram
Structure(Design)
Health and safety
Song
Present simple pag 6,7,8,9,64, 65 book prac gram
I’m alive (Celine Dion’s song)
Where, when, why, how, who , what, which pag 66,67,68,69 book prac gram
The hotel industry.
Present continuous pag 10.11,12,,13 book prac gram
Colombia (social Studies)
Present simple and present continuous exrcises pag 14 and 15 book prac gram
Designing HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_design" a
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_design"collection
Hotel jobs daily
Nouns verbs and adjectives pag 60,61 book prac gram
Designing a garment
Geography of Colombia.
Daily duties
Imperative
Etymology of Colombia
My heart will go on (Celine Dion’s song)
4History
There or It/they pag 122, 123 book prac gram
My, your, mine, yours pag 124, 125 book prac gram
Test A pag 18 and 19
Be in past pag 20 and 21,22,23 book prac gram
Environmental issues in Colombia
Past of the verbs (regular verbs)Pag 22 book Practice grammar)
SEVENTH DEGREE
1.1 Car hire
1.2 How long, how far, how often…? book prac gram
1.3 Past continuous(Pag 24 Prac gram)
1.4 History of Colombia
1.5 Myself , yourself pag 126
1.6 Ready to wear(design)
1.7 Past simple and Past continuous (20 Regular and 20 Irregular verbs)(prac
grammar pag 26,27
1.8 Type of food
1.9 Subject, verb and object Pag 62, 63 book prac gram
1.10
Independence from Spain
1.11
Describing food
1.12
Present perfect pag 28 prct gram)
1.13
Types of fashion (design)
1.14
Song
1.15
Complaining about food.
1.16
Plan a holliday
1.17
This , that, thse, those,pag 114, 115 book prac gram
1.18
Post- indepence and republicanism
1.19
Song
1.20
What ...Like? Pag 72, 73 book prac gram
1.21
Write a letter of apology.
1.22
Haute couture (design)
1.23
Adjectives,Pag 142, 143,144, 145 book prac gram
1.24
Comparison nd superlatives pag 148,149, 154, 155, 156,157 book
prac gram
1.25
Too and enough pag 150 book prac gram
1.26
So and suchPag 152 and 153 book prac gram
EIGHT DEGREE
1.1 Cruises
1.2 Past simple Pag22, 23 book pract gramm
1.3 The new Colombian constitution
1.4 Song
1.5 Who told you? Pag 74, 75 book prac gram
1.6 Japanese fashion design
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
Past continuous pag 24, 25
Government
Ready to wear (design)
Past simple or past continuous pag 26, 27 Book pract gram
Cabin facilities
Administrative divisions
Present perfect pag 28,29, 30, 31, 32, 33book prac gram
Song
Mass market (design)
On safari
Write a letter of apology
Used to pag 42 book prac gram
Conference equipment
Song
Countable and uncountable nouns 116, 117
A, some, any, no pag 118, 119 book prac gram
Create a tourism development plan
Income(design)
Foreign affairs(Social studies)
Plan a tour
Whose is this?- It’s Jhon’s pag 76, 77 book prac gram
NINTH DEGREE
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Apply for a job
Past simple or present perfect pag 34. book prac gram
The future of our planet Pag 8 and 9(horizons 3)
Be going to pag 46,47 book prac gram
Will pag 48,49 book prac gram
Will or be going to Pag 50,51 book prac gram pag 56,57 book prac
gram
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
Present continuous for the future Pag 52,53 book prac gram
Defense (social studies)
Present perfect continuous pag 36, 37 book prac gram
Song
Questions tags Pag 78, 79 book prac gram
When , before, after,until pag 54, 55 book prac gram
Sell tours
Test C Future pag 58, 59 book prac gram
Present perfect simple or present perfect continuous
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
I might go and work for Greenpeace pag horizons 3
Listening 8 pag 15Horizons 3
Past perfect pag 40,41 book prac gram
Fashion education (design)
Politics
Test B pag 44 book prac gram
You mustn’t spend all your time on the net Pag 16 horizons 3
Listening 10 pag 17 horizons 3
Winter holidays
Speaking pag 22horiz 3
Reading “A school for the future” pag 23Hor 3
Currencies
Song
Areas of fashion design (design)
If I save enough money pag 26 horizons 3
Listening and read pag 28Horizons 3
What’s a mouse for? Pag 30 hor 3
Reading “my life changed forever pag 32 33 hor 3
Check in/ out
Direct and indirect objects pag 128,129 book prac gram
Economy (social studies)
Speaking pag 32 hor 3
Reception
He might be tall, dark and handsome pag 34 Hor 3
Listening and reading pag 36 hor 3
Reading pag 40, 41hor 3
I couldn’t find a job pag 46 hor 3
Listening 31 pag 47 hor 3
Thanksgiving pag 24 hor 3
TENTH DEGREE
1.1 Complaints and no –shows.
1.2 What were you doing?pag 48 hor 3
1.3 Reading pag 52 hor 3
1.4 Reading and speaking about it pag 54 hor 3
1.5 Listening and read pag 57 hor 3
1.6 Speaking pag 60 hor 3
1.7 How long have you been travelling? Pag 64 hor 3
1.8 Tourism in Colombia (social studies)
1.9 Write a letter of apology
1.10 Are you good at talking to people? Pag 66, 67 hor 3
1.11 Pag 68 hor 3
1.12 Speaking pag 70
1.13 So am I, I am too, Neither am I, Pag 82, 83 book prac gram
1.14 Fashion design around the world
1.15 Top business award for unteachable dyslexic pag 61hor 3
1.16 Demographics(social studies)
1.17 Billing and payment.
1.18 Can, can’t, could, couldn’t, May, must, mustn’t, should, pag 86, 88,
89, 90, 91, 98, 99 book prac gram
1.19 I’ve started to make friends here pag 72 hor 3
1.20 Song
1.21 Have to pag 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97
1.22 Transportation in Colombia (social studies)
1.23 Listening and read pag 74 hor 3
1.24 Hotel services.
1.25 Game let’s play head to head pag 99 hor 3
1.26 Ethnic groups in colombia (social studies)
1.27 American fashion design
1.28 Song
1.29 Indigenous people
1.30 Reception and congresses.
1.31 The restaurant.
1.32 Song
1.33 Biofuels (social studies)
1.34 Drinks, bars and pubs.
1.35 British fashion design
1.36 New trends in eating habits and catering.
1.37 Something,anybody, nothing pag 134, 135 book prac gram
1.38 Every, each, one, another, other, others pag 136 book prac gram
1.39 All, most, some, none, Pag 138, 139 book prac gram
ELEVENTH DEGREE
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.38
The kitchen.
A,an , the pag 108, 109, 110, 111 book prac gram
I kept putting on weight pag 10, 11 hor 4
Read and speaking pag 12 hor 4
Popular cultura(social studies)
Plural nouns one, onespag 112, 113
French fashion design
Listening pag 14 hor 4
Phobias pag 18 hor 4
I wish and weren’t afraid of flying pag 20 hor 4
Stress pag 24
Pag 130-134 book prac gram( A lot of, lots of, a little, a few)
Writing pag 25 hor 4
Speaking pag 25hor4
Subject and object pronouns Pag 120, 121
Reading pag 26
I’ d like to have a tattoo done pag 28,29 hor 4
You should see a doctor pag 30 hor 4
Listening 24 pag 32 hor 4
Listening pag 34 hor 4
Colombia (Social studies)
Song
To tattoo pag 34 hor 4
You really like her, don’t you? Pag 36 hor 4
She said she really like you pag 38 hor 4
Listening 33 pag 39
Song pag 42 hor 4
Reading women talk, men talk pag 44 hor 4
Write a letter pag 46
You should have been more careful pag 48 hor 4
Reading and listening pag 54 and 55 hor 4
Inmigrants group social studies
Food processing and cooking.
Hygiene and nutrition.
I wish I hadn’t left home pag pah 56 hor 4
Reading pag 58 hor 4 pag 59
Pag 60 hor 4
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
•
Red nose day pag 62 hor 4
Listen and read pag 66 hor 4
Pag 70 hor 4 Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns
Reading 2 who are british? Pag 72 hor 4
I’m used to studing eight hours a day pag 74 hor 4
Globalisation pag 80 hor 4
Italian fashion design
Impact arm conflict of civilians(social studies)
Song
Mass market
Health care in colombia
Purchasing and storage.
Accounting and profits.
Song
Education in Colombia (social studies)
Advertising and training.
Festivals in colombia(Social studies)
Swiss fashion design
Staff and training.
Contenido de turismo (Tourism Vocabulary)
1.29.
1.30.
1.31.
1.32.
1.33.
1.34.
1.35.
1.36.
1.37.
1.38.
1.39.
1.40.
1.41.
1.42.
1.43.
1.44.
1.45.
Tourism
Health and safety
The hotel industry.
Hotel jobs daily
Daily duties
Car hire
Type of food
Describing food
Complaining about food.
Plan a holliday
Write a letter of apology.
Cruises
Cabin facilities
On safari
Conference equipment
Create a tourism development plan
Plan a tour
1.46.
1.47.
1.48.
1.49.
1.50.
1.51.
1.52.
1.53.
1.54.
1.55.
1.56.
1.57.
1.58.
1.59.
1.60.
1.61.
1.62.
1.63.
1.64.
1.65.
Apply for a job.
Sell tours
Winter holidays
Currencies
Check in/ out
Reception
Complaiints and no –shows.
Billing and payment.
Hotel services.
Reception and congresses.
The restaurant.
Drinks, bars and pubs.
New trends in eating habits and catering.
The kitchen.
Food processing and cooking.
Hygiene and nutrition.
Purchasing and storage.
Accounting and profits.
Advertising and training.
Staff and training.
Fashion design
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
"Fashion house" redirects here. For other uses, see Fashion house (disambiguation).
Finale of fashion show, 2009
Fashion
design is
the art of
the
application
of design and aesthetics or
natural
beauty
toclothing and accessories. Fashion design is influenced by cultural and social attitudes, and
has varied over time and place. Fashion designers work in a number of ways in designing
clothing and accessories. Some work alone or as part of a team. They attempt to satisfy
consumer desire for aesthetically designed clothing; and, because of the time required to bring a
garment onto the market, must at times anticipate changing consumer tastes. Some designers
in fact have a reputation which enables them to set fashion trends.
Fashion designers attempt to design clothes which are functional as well as aesthetically pleasing.
They must consider who is likely to wear a garment and the situations in which it will be worn.
They have a wide range and combinations of materials to work with and a wide range of colors,
patterns and styles to choose from. Though most clothing worn for everyday wear fall within a
narrow range of conventional styles, unusual garments are usually sought for special occasions,
such as evening wear or party dresses.
Some clothes are made specifically for an individual, as in the case of haute couture. Today, most
clothing is designed for the mass market, especially casual and every-day wear.
Contents
[hide]

1 Structure

2 Designing a garment

3 History

4 Types of fashion
o
4.1 Haute couture
o
4.2 Ready-to-wear
o
4.3 Mass market

5 Income

6 Fashion education

7 Areas of fashion design

8 Star system

9 World fashion industry
o
9.1 American fashion design
o
9.2 British fashion design
o
9.3 French fashion design
o
9.4 Italian fashion design
o
9.5 Swiss fashion design
o
9.6 Japanese fashion design
o
9.7 Indian fashion design

10 Fashion design terms

11 See also

12 References

13 Bibliography
Structure
Fashion designers can work in a number of ways. Fashion designers may work full-time for one
fashion company, known as 'in-house designers' which owns the designs. They may work alone
or as part of a team. Freelance designers work for themselves, selling their designs to fashion
houses, directly to shops, or to clothing manufacturers. The garments bear the buyer's label.
Some fashion designers set up their own labels, under which their designs are marketed. Some
fashion designers are self-employed and design for individual clients. Other high-fashion
designers cater to specialty stores or high-fashion department stores. These designers create
original garments, as well as those that follow established fashion trends. Most fashion
designers, however, work for apparel manufacturers, creating designs of men’s, women’s, and
children’s fashions for the mass market. Large designer brands which have a 'name' as their
brand such as Calvin Klein, Gucci, or Chanel are likely to be designed by a team of individual
designers under the direction of a designer director.
Designing a garment
Fashion designers work in different ways. Some sketch their ideas on paper, while others drape
fabric on a dress form. When a designer is completely satisfied with the fit of the toile (or
muslin), he or she will consult a professional pattern maker who then makes the finished,
working version of the pattern out of card. The pattern maker's job is very precise and
painstaking. The fit of the finished garment depends on their accuracy. Finally, a sample
garment is made up and tested on a model to make sure it is an operational outfit.
History
Fashion design is generally considered to have started in the 19th century with Charles Frederick
Worth who was the first designer to have hislabel sewn into the garments that he created.
Before the former draper set up his maison couture (fashion house) in Paris, clothing design and
creation was handled by largely anonymous seamstresses, and high fashion descended from
that worn at royal courts. Worth's success was such that he was able to dictate to his customers
what they should wear, instead of following their lead as earlier dressmakers had done. The
term couturier was in fact first created in order to describe him. While all articles of clothing from
any time period are studied by academics as costume design, only clothing created after 1858
could be considered as fashion design.
It was during this period that many design houses began to hire artists to sketch or paint designs for
garments. The images were shown to clients, which was much cheaper than producing an
actual sample garment in the workroom. If the client liked their design, they ordered it and the
resulting garment made money for the house. Thus, the tradition of designers sketching out
garment designs instead of presenting completed garments on models to customers began as
an economy.
Types of fashion
The garments produced by clothing manufacturers fall into three main categories, although these
may be split up into additional, more specific categories:
Haute couture
Main article: Haute couture
Until the 1950s, fashion clothing was predominately designed and manufactured on a made-tomeasure or haute couture basis (French for high-fashion), with each garment being created for a
specific client. A couture garment is made to order for an individual customer, and is usually
made from high-quality, expensive fabric, sewn with extreme attention to detail and finish, often
using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. Look and fit take priority over the cost of
materials and the time it takes to make.
Haute couture
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This
article needs
additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may
be challenged and removed.(December 2009)
Pierre Balmain adjusting a dress on model Ruth Ford in 1947 (Photographed by Carl Van Vechten).
Haute couture on the runway, by Christian Lacroix.
Haute couture (French for "high sewing" or "high dressmaking"; pronounced: [ot kutyʁ], English
pronunciation: /ˌoʊt
kuːˈtʊər/) refers to the creation of exclusive custom-fitted clothing. Haute
couture is made to order for a specific customer, and it is usually made from high-quality,
expensive fabric and sewn with extreme attention to detail and finished by the most experienced
and capable seamstresses, often using time-consuming, hand-executed techniques. Couture is
a common abbreviation of haute couture and refers to the same thing in spirit.[1]
It originally referred to Englishman Charles Frederick Worth's work, produced in Paris in the midnineteenth century.[2] In modern France, haute couture is a "protected name" that can be used
only by firms that meet certain well-defined standards. However, the term is also used loosely to
describe all high-fashion custom-fitted clothing, whether it is produced in Paris or in
other fashion capitals such as Milan, London, New York, Tokyo and Madrid.
The term can refer to:

the fashion houses or fashion designers that create exclusive and often trend-settingfashions

the fashions created
Contents
[hide]

1 Legal status
o
1.1 Members of the Chambre Syndicale de la Haute Couture

2 History

3 See also

4 References

5 External links
Legal status
In France, the term haute couture is protected by law and is defined by the Chambre de commerce
et d'industrie de Paris based in Paris, France. Their rules state that only "those companies
mentioned on the list drawn up each year by a commission domiciled at the Ministry for Industry
are entitled to avail themselves" of the label haute couture. The criteria forhaute couture were
established in 1945 and updated in 1992.
To earn the right to call itself a couture house and to use the term haute couture in its advertising
and any other way, members of the Chambre syndicale de la haute couture must follow these
rules:

Design made-to-order for private clients, with one or more fittings.

Have a workshop (atelier) in Paris that employs at least fifteen people full-time.

Each season (i.e., twice a year), present a collection to the Paris press, comprising at least thirty-five
runs/exits with outfits for both daytime wear and evening wear.
However, the term haute couture may have been misused by ready-to-wear brands since the late
1980s, so that its true meaning may have become blurred with that of prêt-à-porter (the French
term for ready-to-wear fashion) in the public perception. Every haute couture house also
markets prêt-à-porter collections, which typically deliver a higher return on investment than their
custom clothing[
Falling revenues have forced a few couture houses to abandon their less profitable couture division
and concentrate solely on the less prestigious prêt-à-porter. These houses, such as Italian
designer Roberto Capucci, all of whom have their workshops in Italy, are no longer
considered haute couture.
Many top designer fashion houses, such as Chanel, use the word for some of their special
collections. These collections are often not for sale or they are very difficult to purchase.
Sometimes, "haute couture" is inappropriately used to label non-dressmaking activities, such as
fine art, music and more.[3]
Ready-to-wear
Main article: Ready-to-wear
Ready-to-wear clothes are a cross between haute couture and mass market. They are not made for
individual customers, but great care is taken in the choice and cut of the fabric. Clothes are
made in small quantities to guarantee exclusivity, so they are rather expensive. Ready-to-wear
collections are usually presented by fashion houses each season during a period known
as Fashion Week. This takes place on a city-wide basis and occurs twice a year.
Mass market
Main article: Mass market
Currently the fashion industry relies more on mass market sales. The mass market caters for a wide
range of customers, producing ready-to-wear clothes in large quantities and standard sizes.
Inexpensive materials, creatively used, produce affordable fashion. Mass market designers
generally adapt the trends set by the famous names in fashion. They often wait around a season
to make sure a style is going to catch on before producing their own versions of the original look.
In order to save money and time, they use cheaper fabrics and simpler production techniques
which can easily be done by machine. The end product can therefore be sold much more
cheaply.
There is a type of design called "kutch" design originated from the German word "kitschen" meaning
"ugly" or "not aesthetically pleasing."Kitsch can also refer to "wearing or displaying something
that is therefore no longer in fashion." Often, high-waisted trousers, associated with the 1980s,
are considered a "kitsch" fashion statement.[1]
Income
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent
a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and
discuss the issue on the talk page. (December 2010)
Median annual wages for salaried fashion designers were $61,160 in May 2008. The middle 50
percent earned between $42,150 and $87,120. The lowest 10 percent earned less than
$32,150, and the highest 10 percent earned more than $124,780.. Median annual earnings were
$52,860 (£28,340) in apparel, piece goods, and notions - the industry employing the largest
numbers of fashion designers.[2]
Fashion education
A classroom filled with sewing machines andmannequins.
A student fashion show, 2007
There are a number of well known art schools and design schools world wide that offer degrees in
fashion design and fashion design technology. Some colleges also offer Masters of Fashion
courses. Though it is not a requirement to have a Masters level, it is recommended by those
already working in the industry to study at this level. The most notable of design schools in
Europe include Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design, London College of
Fashion,University of Westminster and Kingston University in London, Limerick School of Art
and Design and the National College of Art and Design in Ireland, Edinburgh College of
Art inScotland, Istituto Marangoni and Politecnico of Milan in Milan, the European third level
education chain, Istituto Europeo di Design, University Iuav of Venice, the Fashion Federation
PARIS] European Fashion Accreditation, Antwerp Fashion Academy in Belgium. There
isParsons The New School for Design, Fashion Institute of Technology and the Pratt
Institute inNew York City. Elsewhere in the United States there is the Savannah College of Art
and Design, Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in Los Angeles, School of the Art
Institute of Chicago and Columbia College Chicago in Chicago. The National Institute of Fashion
Technologyin India, Shih Chien University in Hong Kong, RMIT University in Melbourne, Fu Jen
Catholic University in Taiwan and the Asian University chain, Raffles College of Design and
Commerce, all have reputable fashion design courses.
The only Ivy League University having a Fashion Design undergraduate program is Cornell
Universityin Ithaca, NY. The program is offered by the department of Fiber Science & Apparel
Design]. Cornell University also offers the only Ph.D. program in apparel design in the United
States. The program is intended to address the needs of academia, industry and research by
considering apparel design as an applied science that embraces design, technology, physical
sciences, the humanities and social sciences in order to meet the human needs for clothing.
There are many universities that offer fashion design throughout the United States. The major
incorporating fashion design may have alternative names like Apparel and Textiles or Apparel
and Textile Design and may be housed in departments such as Art and Art History or Family
and Consumer Studies.
]Areas
of fashion design
(that is, has regular buyers and is well-known by both the trade and the public), it may decide to
expand into a new area. If the firm has made a name for the clothes it already produces, this
helps to sell the new line. It is usually safest for a company to expand into an area similar to the
one it already knows. For example, a designer of women's sportswear might expand into men's
sportswear. The chart below shows the areas in which many designers choose to specialize.
Area
Brief
Market
Women's Day wear
Practical, comfortable, fashionable
Haute couture, ready-towear, mass market
Women's
wear
Glamorous, sophisticated, apt for the occasion
Women's Lingerie
Glamorous, comfortable, washable
Haute Couture, readyto-wear,
mass
market
Men's Day wear
Casual, practical, comfortable
Tailoring,
ready-towear, mass market
Men's Evening wear
Smart, elegant, formal, apt for the occasion
Tailoring,
ready-towear, mass market
Kidswear
Trendy or Classy,
functional
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Girls' Wear
Pretty, colorful, practical, washable, inexpensive
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Teenager Girl Wear
Colorful,comfortable,glamorous,pretty,
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Sportswear
Comfortable,
practical,
washable, functional
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Evening
practical,
washable,
well-ventilated,
Knitwear
Right weight and color for the season
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Outerwear
Stylish, warm, right weight and color for the
season
Ready-to-wear,
market
mass
Bridal wear
Sumptuous, glamorous, classic
Accessories
Striking, fashionable
File:Lt6.jpg:
Latoya Walker for 'Lost in Translation' collection 2008
]Star
system
Designers work within a hierarchical system.
"The designers are most stratified in the French system of fashion [...] Fashion ensures the
functioning of a system of dominant and subordinate positions within a social order. Fashion is
ideological in that it is also part of the process in which particular social groups, in this case elite
designers, establish, sustain and reproduce positions of power and relations of dominance and
subordination. The positions of dominance and subordination appear natural and legitimate, not
only to those in positions of dominance, but also to those in subordinate positions. Fashion and
the medium of fashion, that is clothing, offer means to make inequalities of socioeconomic status
appear legitimate, and, therefore, acceptable."[3]
A "mythical conception of a designer as a 'creative genius' disconnected from social conditions"[4] is
central for the working of the fashion system and for the reproduction of fashion as ideology.
Creativity is socially constructed and not an innate given, i.e. many may be gifted but no one can
become a famous designer without being legitimized by the fashion system and its
gatekeepers.[5]
The star system is as essential for the fashion industry as for any Culture industry. "Genre and the
star system are attempts to produce something analogous to brand names in cultural industries.
[...] Stars are indispensable because it is part of the ideology of creativity that creative works
must have an identifiable author."[6]
World fashion industry
Fashion today is a global industry, and most major countries have a fashion industry. Some
countries are major manufacturing centers, notablyChina, South Korea, Spain, Germany, Brazil,
and India. Five countries have established an international reputation in fashion: France, Italy,
theUnited Kingdom, the United States, and Japan.
]American
fashion design
The majority of American fashion houses are based in New York, although there are also a
significant number in Los Angeles, where a substantial percentage of high fashion clothing
manufactured in the US is actually made. There are also burgeoning industries
in Miami,Chicago and especially San Francisco. American fashion design is dominated by a
clean-cut, urban, casual style; reflecting the athletic, health-conscious lifestyles of American citydwellers. A designer who helped to set the trend in the United States for sport-influenced day
wear throughout the 1940s and 50's was Claire McCardell. Many of her designs have been
revived in recent decades.
[British
fashion design
London has long been the capital of the UK fashion industry and has a wide range of foreign designs
which have integrated with modern British styles. Typical British design is smart but innovative
yet recently has become more and more unconventional, fusing traditional styles with modern
techniques.
]French
fashion design
Most French fashion houses are in Paris, which is the capital of French fashion. Traditionally, French
fashion is chic and stylish, defined by its sophistication, cut, and smart accessories. Although
the Global Language Monitor placed it 3rd in the Media, after Milan and New York, French
fashion is internationally acclaimed and Paris remains the symbolic home of fashion.
Italian fashion design
Milan is
Italy's
capital
of
fashion.
Most of
the
older
Italian
couturiers
are
in Rome.
However, Milan and Florence are the Italian fashion capitals, and it is the exhibition venue for
their collections. Italian fashion features casual elegance and luxurious fabrics.
Swiss fashion design
Most of the Swiss fashion houses are in Zürich. The Swiss look is casual elegant and luxurious.
Japanese fashion design
Most Japanese fashion houses are in Tokyo. The Japanese look is loose and unstructured (often
resulting from complicated cutting), colours tend to the sombre and subtle, and richly textured
fabrics. Famous Japanese designers are Yohji Yamamoto, Kenzo, Issey Miyake (masterful
drape and cut), and Comme des Garçons 's Rei Kawakubo, who developed a new way of cutting
(comparable to Madeleine Vionnet's innovation in the 1930s).
[edit]Indian
fashion design
Most of Indian fashion designers are born from bollywood industry.Fashion design from the south
has also reached out pretty well.
Fashion design terms

A fashion designer conceives garment combinations of line, proportion, color, and texture. While
sewing and pattern-making skills are beneficial, they are not a pre-requisite of successful fashion
design. Most fashion designers are formally trained or apprenticed.

A pattern maker (or pattern cutter) drafts the shapes and sizes of a garment's pieces. This may be
done manually with paper and measuring tools or by using an AutoCAD computer software program.
Another method is to drape fabric directly onto a dress form. The resulting pattern pieces can be
constructed to produce the intended design of the garment and required size. Formal training is
usually required for working as a pattern marker.

A tailor makes custom designed garments made to the client's measure; especially suits (coat and
trousers, jacket and skirt, et cetera). Tailors usually undergo an apprenticeship or other formal
training.

A textile designer designs fabric weaves and prints for clothes and furnishings. Most textile
designers are formally trained as apprentices and in school.

A stylist co-ordinates the clothes, jewelry, and accessories used in fashion photography and catwalk
presentations. A stylist may also work with an individual client to design a coordinated wardrobe of
garments. Many stylists are trained in fashion design, the history of fashion and historical costume,
and have a high level of expertise in the current fashion market and future market trends. However,
some simply have a strong aesthetic sense for pulling great looks together.

A fashion buyer selects and buys the mix of clothing available in retail shops, department stores and
chain stores. Most fashion buyers are trained in business and/or fashion studies.

A seamstress sews ready to wear or mass produced clothing by hand or with a sewing machine,
either in a garment shop or as a sewing machine operator in a factory. She (or he) may not have the
skills to make (design and cut) the garments, or to fit them on a model.

A teacher of fashion design teaches the art and craft of fashion design in art or fashion school.

A custom clothier makes custom-made garments to order, for a given customer.

A dressmaker specializes in custom-made women's clothes: day, cocktail, and evening dresses,
business clothes and suits, trousseaus, sports clothes, and lingerie.

An illustrator draws and paints clothing designs for commercial use.

A fashion forecaster predicts what colours, styles and shapes will be popular ("on-trend") before the
garments are on sale in stores.

A model wears and displays clothes at fashion shows and in photographs.

A fit model aids the fashion designer by wearing and commenting on the fit of clothes during their
design and pre-manufacture. Fit models need to be a particular size for this purpose.

A fashion journalist writes fashion articles describing the garments presented or fashion trends, for
magazines or newspapers.

An alterations specialist (alterationist) adjusts the fit of completed garments, usually ready-to-wear,
and sometimes re-styles them. NOTE: despite tailors altering garments to fit the client, not all
alterationists are tailors.

An Image Consultant, wardrobe consultant or fashion advisor recommends styles and colors that are
flattering to the client.
Colombia (pronounced /kəˈlʌmbiə/ (
listen)), officially the Republic of Colombia (Spanish: República
de Colombia, pronounced [reˈpuβlika ðe koˈlombja] (
listen)), is a constitutional republic in
northwestern South America. Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela[7] and Brazil;[8] to the
south by Ecuador and Peru;[9] to the north by the Caribbean Sea; to the northwest by Panama; and to
the west by the Pacific Ocean. Colombia also shares maritime borders with Venezuela, Jamaica,
Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[10][11] With a population of over
45 million people, Colombia has the 29th largest population in the world and the second largest in
South America, after Brazil. Colombia has the third largest population of any Spanish-speaking
country in the world, after Mexico and Spain.
The territory of what is now "Colombia" was originally inhabited by indigenous people including the
Muisca, Quimbaya, and Tairona. The Spanish arrived in 1499 and initiated a period of conquest and
colonization creating the Viceroyalty of New Granada (comprising modern-day Colombia,
Venezuela, Ecuador, the northwest region of Brazil and Panama) with its capital in Bogotá.[12]
Independence from Spain was won in 1819, but by 1830 "Gran Colombia" had collapsed with the
secession of Venezuela and Ecuador. What is now Colombia and Panama emerged as the Republic of
New Granada. The new nation experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858),
and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before the Republic of Colombia was finally declared
in 1886.[2] Panama seceded in 1903 under pressure to fulfill financial responsibilities towards the
United States government to build the Panama Canal.
Colombia has a long tradition of constitutional government. The Liberal and Conservative parties,
founded in 1848 and 1849 respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the
Americas. However, tensions between the two have frequently erupted into violence, most notably in
the Thousand Days War (1899–1902) and La Violencia, beginning in 1948. Since the 1960s,
government forces, left-wing insurgents and right-wing paramilitaries have been engaged in the
continent's longest-running armed conflict. Fuelled by the cocaine trade, this escalated dramatically in
the 1980s. Nevertheless, in the recent decade (2000s) the violence has decreased significantly. Many
paramilitary groups have demobilized as part of a controversial peace process with the government,
and the guerrillas have lost control in many areas where they once dominated. [2] Meanwhile
Colombia's homicide rate, for many years one of the highest in the world, almost halved between
2002 and 2006.[13] 2009 and 2010 saw an increase in the urban homicide rate, particularly in the city
of Medellín, attributed to gang warfare and paramilitary successor groups. [14][15][16] According to the
Maplecroft research institute, in 2010 Colombia had the world's sixth highest risk of terrorism.[17][18]
Colombia is a standing middle power[19] with the fourth largest economy in Latin America. However,
inequality and unequal distribution of wealth are still widespread. [20] In 1990, the ratio of income
between the poorest and richest 10 per cent was 40-to-one. Following a decade of economic
restructuring and a recession, this ratio had climbed to 80-to-one in the year 2000.[21] By 2009,
Colombia had reached a Gini coefficient of 0.587, which was the highest in Latin America. [22]
According to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "there has been
a decrease in the poverty rate in recent years, [but] around half of the population continues to live
under the poverty line" as of 2008-2009.[23] Official figures for 2009 indicate that about 46% of
Colombians lived below the poverty line and some 17% in "extreme poverty". [24][25]
Colombia is very ethnically diverse, and the interaction between descendants of the original native
inhabitants, Spanish colonists, Africans brought as slaves and twentieth-century immigrants from
Europe and the Middle East has produced a rich cultural heritage. This has also been influenced by
Colombia's varied geography. The majority of the urban centres are located in the highlands of the
Andes mountains, but Colombian territory also encompasses Amazon rainforest, tropical grassland
and both Caribbean and Pacific coastlines. Ecologically, Colombia is one of the world's 17
megadiverse countries (the most biodiverse per unit area). [26]
Contents
[hide]













1 Etymology
2 Geography
o 2.1 Environmental issues
3 History
o 3.1 Pre-Columbian era
o 3.2 Spanish discovery, conquest, and colonization
o 3.3 Independence from Spain
o 3.4 Post-independence and republicanism
4 Government
o 4.1 Administrative divisions
o 4.2 Foreign affairs
o 4.3 Defense
o 4.4 Politics
5 Economy
o 5.1 Tourism
o 5.2 Transportation
o 5.3 Biofuels
6 Demographics
o 6.1 Ethnic groups
o 6.2 Indigenous peoples
o 6.3 Immigrant groups
o 6.4 Impact of armed conflict on civilians
o 6.5 Religion
o 6.6 Health
7 Education
8 Culture
o 8.1 Popular culture
o 8.2 Cuisine
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
13 Related information
Etymology
The word "Colombia" comes from Christopher Columbus (Spanish: Cristóbal Colón). It
was conceived by the Venezuelan revolutionary Francisco de Miranda as a reference
to all the New World, but especially to those territories and colonies under Spanish
and Portuguese rule. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of
1819, formed out of the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modernday Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador).[27]
In 1835, when Venezuela and Ecuador broke away, the Cundinamarca region that
remained became a new country — the Republic of New Granada. In 1858 New
Granada officially changed its name to the Grenadine Confederation, then in 1863
the United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name — the
Republic of Colombia — in 1886.[27]
Geography
Main article: Geography of Colombia
See also: Natural regions of Colombia and Geology of Colombia
Sierra Nevada del Cocuy.
Chicamocha canyon in the Department of Santander.
Geography of Colombia
Colombia is bordered to the east by Venezuela and Brazil; to the south by Ecuador and Peru; to the north
by Panama and the Caribbean Sea; and to the west by Ecuador and the Pacific Ocean. Including its
Caribbean islands, it lies between latitudes 14°N and 5°S, and longitudes 66° and 82°W.
Part of the Ring of Fire, a region of the world subject to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, Colombia is
dominated by the Andes mountains. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the south-western departments
of Cauca and Nariño) these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges):
the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the
Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena river valleys (to the west and east
respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira and Armenia ; and the
Cordillera Oriental, extending north east to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá,
Bucaramanga and Cúcuta. Peaks in the Cordillera Occidental exceed 13,000 ft (3,962 m), and in the
Cordillera Central and Cordillera Oriental they reach 18,000 ft (5,486 m).[28] At 8,500 ft (2,591 m),
Bogotá is the highest city of its size in the world.
East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of the Orinoco River basin, and, in the far south east,
the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands comprise over half Colombia's territory,
but they contain less than 3% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 20% of the
population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists
of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which
includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the Guajira
Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de
Baudó mountains, are covered in dense vegetation and sparsely populated. The principal Pacific port
is Buenaventura.
Colombian territory also includes a number of Caribbean and Pacific islands.
Environmental issues
Main article: Environmental issues in Colombia
The environmental challenges faced by Colombia are caused by both natural and human hazards. Many
natural hazards result from Colombia's position along the Pacific Ring of Fire and the consequent
geological instability. Colombia has 15 major volcanoes, the eruptions of which have on occasion
resulted in substantial loss of life, such as at Armero in 1985, and geological faults that have caused
numerous devastating earthquakes, such as the 1999 Armenia earthquake. Heavy floods both in
mountainous areas and in low-lying watersheds and coastal regions regularly cause deaths and
considerable damage to property during the rainy seasons. Rainfall intensities vary with the El NiñoSouthern Oscillation which occurs in unpredictable cycles, at times causing especially severe
flooding.
Human induced deforestation has substantially changed the Andean landscape and has started to creep into
the rainforests of Amazonia and the Pacific coast. Deforestation is also linked to the conversion of
lowland tropical forests to oil palm plantations. However, compared to neighbouring countries rates
of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low.[29] In urban areas, the use of fossil fuels, and
other human produced waste have contaminated the local environment. Demand from rapidly
expanding cities has placed increasing stress on the water supply as watersheds are affected and
ground water tables fall. Nonetheless, Colombia has large reserves of freshwater and is the fourth
country in the world by magnitude of total freshwater supply. [30]Participants in the country's armed
conflict have also contributed to the pollution of the environment. Illegal armed groups have
deforested large areas of land to plant illegal crops, with an estimated 99,000 hectares used for the
cultivation of coca in 2007,[31] while in response the government has fumigated these crops using
hazardous chemicals. Insurgents have also destroyed oil pipelines creating major ecological
disasters[citation needed].
History
Main articles: History of Colombia and Timeline of Colombian history
Villa de Leyva
Pre-Columbian era
Approximately 10,000 BC, hunter-gatherer societies existed near present-day Bogotá (at "El Abra" and
"Tequendama") which traded with one another and with cultures living in the Magdalena River
Valley.[32] Beginning in the first millennium BC, groups of Amerindians developed the political
system of "cacicazgos" with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. Within Colombia,
the two cultures with the most complex cacicazgo systems were the Tayronas in the Caribbean
Region, and the Muiscas in the highlands around Bogotá, both of which were of the Chibcha language
family. The Muisca people are considered to have had one of the most developed political systems in
South America, after the Incas.[33]
Spanish discovery, conquest, and colonization
Attack on Cartagena de Indias
Spanish explorers made the first exploration of the Caribbean littoral in 1499 led by Rodrigo de Bastidas.
Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Nuñez de Balboa started
the conquest of the territory through the region of Urabá. In 1513, he was the first European to
discover the Pacific Ocean, which he called Mar del Sur (or "Sea of the South") and which in fact
would bring the Spaniards to Peru and Chile.
Alonso de Lugo (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1500. Santa Marta was
founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Gonzalo Jiminez de Quesada led an expedition to the
interior in 1535, and founded the "New City of Granada," the name soon changed to "Santa Fé de
Bogotá." Two other notable journeys by Spaniards to the interior took place in the same period.
Sebastian de Belalcazar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali in 1536 and Popayan in
1537; Nicolas Federman crossed Llanos Orientales and went over the Eastern Cordillera. [34]
The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the Chibchan and Carib, currently
known as the Caribbean people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare and alliances, while
resulting disease such as smallpox, and the conquest and ethnic cleansing itself caused a demographic
reduction among the indigenous people. [35] In the sixteenth century, Europeans began to bring slaves
from Africa.
Independence from Spain
Main article: Colombian Declaration of Independence
Francisco de Paula Santander, Simón Bolivar and other heroes of the Independence of
Colombia in the Congress of Cúcuta.
Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements
under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall
situation. The last one which sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810,
following the independence of St. Domingue in 1804 (present-day Haiti), who provided a nonnegligible degree of support to the eventual leaders of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar and Francisco de
Paula Santander.
A movement initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against
the viceroyalty, led to the independence of Cartagena in November 1811. This led to the formation of
two independent governments which fought a civil war, a period known as La Patria Boba. The
following year Nariño proclaimed the United Provinces of New Granada, headed by Camilo Torres
Tenorio. Despite the successes of the rebellion, the emergence of two distinct ideological currents
among the liberators (federalism and centralism) gave rise to an internal clash between these two, thus
contributing to the reconquest of territory by the Spanish, allowing restoration of the viceroyalty
under the command of Juan de Samano, whose regime punished those who participated in the
uprisings. This stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a
successful rebellion led by Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The proSpanish resistance was finally defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in
Venezuela.
The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia organized as a union
of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela (Panama was then an integral part of Colombia). The Congress
of Cucuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. The first President of Colombia was
the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, and Francisco de Paula Santander was Vice President. However,
the new republic was very unstable and ended with the rupture of Venezuela in 1829, followed by
Ecuador in 1830.
Post-independence and republicanism
Main articles: La Violencia, El Bogotazo, National Front (Colombia), and Colombian armed
conflict (1964–present)
The Gran Colombia
Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of Venezuela and Quito (today's Ecuador) in
1830. The so-called "Department of Cundinamarca" adopted the name "Nueva Granada", which it
kept until 1856 when it became the "Confederación Granadina" (Grenadine Confederation). After a
two-year civil war in 1863, the "United States of Colombia" was created, lasting until 1886, when the
country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained between the
bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the
Thousand Days civil war (1899–1902).
This, together with the United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama
Canal construction and control) led to the separation of the Department of Panama in 1903 and the
establishment of it as a nation. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years
after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and
Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty. Colombia was
engulfed in the Year-Long War with Peru over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas
Department and its capital Leticia.
Soon after, Colombia achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody
conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia
("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties,
which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer
Gaitán on April 9, 1948. This assassination caused riots in Bogotá and became known as El Bogotazo.
The violence from these riots spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000
Colombians.
From 1953 to 1964 the violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas
deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under
the military junta of General Gabriel París Gordillo.
After Rojas' deposition the two political parties Colombian Conservative Party and Colombian Liberal
Party agreed to the creation of a "National Front", whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties
would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by an alternating conservative and liberal
president every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices.
The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute
far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end,
the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results
decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems
continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, ELN and M-19 to fight the
government and political apparatus. These guerrilla groups were dominated by Marxist doctrines.
Emerging in the late 1970s, powerful and violent drug cartels further developed during the 1980s and
1990s. The Medellín Cartel under Pablo Escobar and the Cali Cartel, in particular, exerted political,
economic and social influence in Colombia during this period. These cartels also financed and
influenced different illegal armed groups throughout the political spectrum. Some enemies of these
allied with the guerrillas and created or influenced paramilitary groups.
The Colombian armed forces around the dead body of the notorious drug lord Pablo Escobar.
The new Colombian Constitution of 1991 was ratified after being drafted by the Constituent Assembly of
Colombia. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights. The
new constitution initially prohibited the extradition of Colombian nationals, causing accusations that
drug cartels had lobbied for the provision; extradition was allowed again in 1996 when the provision
was repealed. The cartels had previously promoted a violent campaign against extradition, leading to
many terrorist attacks and mafia-style executions. They also tried to influence the government and
political structure of Colombia through corruption, as in the case of the 8000 Process scandal.
In recent years, the country has continued to be plagued by the effects of the drug trade, guerrilla
insurgencies like FARC, and paramilitary groups such as the AUC, which along with other minor
factions have engaged in a bloody internal armed conflict. President Andrés Pastrana and the FARC
attempted to negotiate a solution to the conflict between 1999 and 2002. The government set up a
"demilitarized" zone, but repeated tensions and crisis led the Pastrana administration to conclude that
the negotiations were ineffectual. Pastrana also began to implement the Plan Colombia initiative, with
the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong anti-narcotic strategy.
During the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, the government applied more military pressure on the FARC and
other outlawed groups. After the offensive, which was supported by foreign aid provided by the
United States, many security indicators improved. Reported kidnappings showed a steep decrease
(from 3,700 in the year 2000 to 172 in 2009 (Jan.-Oct.)) and so did intentional homicides (from
28,837 in 2002 to 15,817 in 2009, according to police, while the health system reported a decline
from 28,534 to 17,717 during the same period). Kidnappings suffered a steady decline for almost a
decade until a 2010 increase saw 280 cases reported between January and October, most of which
were concentrated in the Medellín area.[36] [37][38][39] According to official statistics, guerrillas were
reduced from 24,000 fighters in 2002 to 9,500 in 2010. [40] While rural areas and jungles remained
dangerous, the overall reduction of violence led to the growth of internal travel and tourism after
security conditions improved.[41]
The 2006–2007 Colombian parapolitics scandal emerged from the revelations and judicial implications of
past and present links between paramilitary groups, mainly the AUC, and some government officials
and many politicians, most of them allied to the governing administration. [42]
Government
Main article: Government of Colombia
See also: Colombian Constitution of 1991
GOVERNMENT
The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential representative democratic
republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. In accordance with the principle of separation of
powers, government is divided into three branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch and
the judicial branch.
Nariño Palace, presidential residence.
The head of the executive branch is the President of Colombia who serves as both head of state and head
of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected
by popular vote to serve four-year terms and is currently limited to a maximum of two such terms
(increased from one in 2005). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department
governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as
corregidores or corregimientos.
The legislative branch of government is composed by the Senate and the House of Representatives. The
102-seat Senate is elected nationally and the Representatives are elected by every region and minority
groups.[43] Members of both houses are elected two months before the president, also by popular vote
and to serve four-year terms. At the provincial level the legislative branch is represented by
department assemblies and municipal councils. All regional elections are held one year and five
months after the presidential election. The judicial branch is headed by the Supreme Court, consisting
of 23 judges divided into three chambers (Penal, Civil and Agrarian, and Labour). The judicial branch
also includes the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also
provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity
of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the
judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 2005 has been applied through
an adversarial system.
Administrative divisions
Main articles: Departments of Colombia and Municipalities of Colombia
See also: List of cities in Colombia and Corregimientos of Colombia
Click on a department on the map below to go to its article.
Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá
also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into
municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided
into corregimientos. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly
elected to four-year terms. Each municipality is headed by a mayor and council, and each
corregimiento by an elected corregidor, or local leader.
In addition to the capital nine other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities),
on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta,
Cúcuta, Popayán, Bucaramanga, Tunja, Turbo, Buenaventura and Tumaco. Some departments have
local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and
municipalities are near each other (for example in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments
have a low population and there are security problems (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada),
special administrative divisions are employed, such as "department corregimientos", which are a
hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento.
Foreign affairs
Main article: Foreign relations of Colombia
See also: Diplomatic missions of Colombia
Colombian Embassy in Paris.
Former President of Colombia Álvaro Uribe being presented with the Presidential Medal of
Freedom by former President of the United States George W. Bush.
The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President of Colombia and managed by the Minister of
Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents and is also represented in
multilateral organizations at the following locations:






Brussels (Mission to the European Union)
Geneva (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other international organizations)
Montevideo (Permanent Missions to the Latin American Integration Association and
Mercosur)
Nairobi (Permanent Missions to the United Nations and other international organizations)
New York (Permanent Mission to the United Nations)
Paris (Permanent Mission to UNESCO)


Rome (Permanent Mission to the Food and Agriculture Organization)
Washington, D.C. (Permanent Mission to the Organization of American States)
The foreign relations of Colombia are mostly concentrated on combating the illegal drug trade, the fight
against terrorism, improving Colombia's image in the international community, expanding the
international market for Colombian products, and environmental issues. Colombia receives special
military and commercial co-operation and support in its fight against internal armed groups from the
United States, mainly through Plan Colombia, as well as special financial preferences from the
European Union in certain products.
Colombia was one of the 12 countries that joined the UNASUR when it was created. UNASUR is
supposed to be modeled like the European Union having free trade agreements with the members,
free movement of people, a common currency, and also a common passport. Colombia as well as all
the other members of UNASUR have had some problems with the integration due to the 2008 Andean
diplomatic crisis.
Colombia is a member of the Andean Community of Nations and the Union of South American Nations.
Colombians need tourist visa for 180 countries[44] and do not need tourist visa for 15 countries. [45]
Defense
Main article: Military of Colombia
Colombian Navy ARC Almirante Padilla (FM-51) frigate.
The executive branch of government has responsibility for managing the defense of Colombia, with the
President commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian
Air Force; and the Colombian National Armada. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie,
operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each
of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the national intelligence agency,
the Administrative Department of Security.
The National Army is formed by divisions, regiments and special units; the National Armada by the
Colombian Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the
Naval Force of the South, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation and the Specific Command of San
Andres y Providencia; and the Air Force by 13 air units. The National Police has a presence in all
municipalities.
Politics
Main article: Politics of Colombia
See also: Elections in Colombia and List of political parties in Colombia
Colombian National Capitol.
For over a century Colombian politics were monopolized by the Liberal Party (founded in 1848 on an
anti-clerical, broadly economically liberal and federalist platform), and the Conservative Party
(founded in 1849 espousing Catholicism, protectionism, and centralism). This culminated in the
formation of the National Front (1958–1974), which formalized arrangements for an alternation of
power between the two parties and excluded non-establishment alternatives (thereby fueling the
nascent armed conflict).
By the time of the dissolution of the National Front, traditional political alignments had begun to
fragment. This process has continued since, and the consequences of this are exemplified by the
results of the presidential election of 28 May 2006, which was won with 62% of the vote by the
incumbent, Álvaro Uribe. President Uribe was from a Liberal background but he campaigned as part
of the Colombia First movement with the support of the Conservative Party, and his hard line on
security issues and liberal economics place him on the right of the modern political spectrum[citation
needed]
.
In second place with 22% was Carlos Gaviria of the Alternative Democratic Pole, a newly formed social
democratic alliance which includes elements of the former M-19 guerrilla movement. Horacio Serpa
of the Liberal Party achieved third place with 12%. Meanwhile in the congressional elections held
earlier that year the two traditional parties secured only 93 out of 268 seats available.
Despite a number of controversies, most notably the ongoing parapolitics scandal, dramatic improvements
in security and continued strong economic performance have ensured that former President Álvaro
Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 85%,
according to a poll in July 2008.[46] However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred
from seeking re-election in 2010. The Colombian Congress, with overwhelming support of the
Colombian people, had attempted to hold a referendum allowing a vote that would overturn the 2term limit for presidents, but this attempt was ruled unconstitutional by the Colombian constitutional
court on February 27, 2010. President Uribe stated that he respects the decision, one that cannot be
appealed.
On presidential elections performed as of May 30, 2010 people voted 46% [47] for the former Minister of
defense Juan Manuel Santos for being the president from 2010 to 2014, but according to the current
laws, since he does not have 50% of the votes, there was a second round on June 20, 2010 against the
second most voted candidate, Antanas Mockus with 21%.[47] The winning candidate was Juan Manuel
Santos, who became Colombia's president beginning on August 7, 2010.
Economy
Bogota D.C., Colombia's largest city, and financial heart; one of the most influential cities in
Latin America.
Main article: Economy of Colombia
See also: Agriculture in Colombia
Headquarters of the Banco de la República in Bogotá.
In spite of the difficulties presented by serious internal armed conflict, Colombia's market economy grew
steadily in the latter part of the twentieth century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an
average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999
(the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery from that
recession was long and painful. However, in recent years growth has been impressive, reaching 8.2%
in 2007, one of the highest rates of growth in Latin America. Meanwhile the Colombian stock
exchange climbed from 1,000 points at its creation in July 2001 to over 7,300 points by November
2008.[48]
According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2010 Colombia's nominal GDP (PPP) was
US$429.866 billion (28th in the world and third in South America). Adjusted for purchasing power
parity, GDP per capita stands at $7,968, placing Colombia 82nd in the world. However, in practice
this is relatively unevenly distributed among the population, and, in common with much of Latin
America, Colombia scores poorly according to the Gini coefficient, with UN figures placing it 119th
out of 126 countries. In 2003 the richest 20% of the population had a 62.7% share of
income/consumption and the poorest 20% just 2.5%, and 17.8% of Colombians live on less than $2 a
day.[49]
GDP growth 2001–2007.
Government spending is 37.9% of GDP.[2] Almost a quarter of this goes towards servicing the country's
relatively high government debt, estimated at 52.8% of GDP in 2007.[2][49] Other problems facing the
economy include weak domestic and foreign demand, the funding of the country's pension system,
and unemployment (10.8% in November 2008). [48] Inflation has remained relatively low in recent
years, standing at 5.5% in 2007.[2]
Historically an agrarian economy, Colombia urbanised rapidly in the twentieth century, by the end of
which just 22.7% of the workforce were employed in agriculture, generating just 11.5% of GDP.
18.7% of the workforce are employed in industry and 58.5% in services, responsible for 36% and
52.5% of GDP respectively.[2] Colombia is rich in natural resources, and its main exports include
petroleum, coal, coffee and other agricultural produce, and gold.[50] Colombia is also known as the
world's leading source of emeralds,[51] while over 70% of cut flowers imported by the United States
are Colombian.[52] Principal trading partners are the United States (a controversial free trade
agreement with the United States is currently awaiting approval by the United States Congress),
Venezuela and China.[2] All imports, exports, and the overall balance of trade are at record levels, and
the inflow of export dollars has resulted in a substantial re-valuation of the Colombian peso.
Economic performance has been aided by liberal reforms introduced in the early 1990s and continued
during the presidency of Álvaro Uribe, whose policies included measures designed to bring the public
sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP. In 2008, The Heritage Foundation assessed the Colombian
economy to be 61.9% free, an increase of 2.3% since 2007, placing it 67th in the world and 15th out
of 29 countries within the region.[53]
Meanwhile the improvements in security resulting from President Uribe's controversial "democratic
security" strategy have engendered an increased sense of confidence in the economy. On 28 May
2007 the American magazine BusinessWeek published an article naming Colombia "the most extreme
emerging market on Earth".[54] Colombia's economy has improved in recent years. Investment soared,
from 15% of GDP in 2002 to 26% in 2008. private business has retooled. However unemployment at
12 % and the poverty rate at 46% in 2009 are above the regional average. [55]
According to a recent World Bank report, doing business is easiest in Manizales, Ibagué and Pereira, and
more difficult in Cali and Cartagena. Reforms in custom administration have helped reduce the
amount of time it takes to prepare documentation by over 60% for exports and 40% for imports
compared to the previous report. Colombia has taken measures to address the backlog in civil
municipal courts. The most important result was the dismissal of 12.2% of inactive claims in civil
courts thanks to the application of Law 1194 of 2008 (Ley de Desistimiento Tácito). [56]
Tourism
Main article: Tourism in Colombia
Cartagena de Indias, one of the most popular touristic destinations in the country
For many years serious internal armed conflict deterred tourists from visiting Colombia, with official
travel advisories warning against travel to the country. However, in recent years numbers have risen
sharply, thanks to improvements in security resulting from President Álvaro Uribe's "democratic
security" strategy, which has included significant increases in military strength and police presence
throughout the country and pushed rebel groups further away from the major cities, highways and
tourist sites likely to attract international visitors. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen
from 0.5 million in 2003 to 1.3 million in 2007, [57] while Lonely Planet picked Colombia as one of
their top ten world destinations for 2006. [58] Colombia Minister for Industry, Trade and Tourism Luis
Guillermo Plata said his country had received 2,348,948 visitors in 2008. He expected 2,650,000
tourists for 2009.[59][60]
In November 2010 the U.S. State Department travel warning for the country stated that security conditions
had improved significantly in recent years and kidnappings had been noticeably reduced from their
previous peak, but cautioned travelers about continuing terrorist threats and the dangers of common
crime, including hostage-taking. Rising murder rates in Cali and Medellín were also highlighted and
U.S. citizens were urged to travel between cities by air instead of using ground transportation.[61]>
Fortifications of
the old city of
Cartagena,
one of the
seven
UNESCO
World
Heritage
Sites
of
Colombia.
Arrecifes beach in
the Tayrona
National
Natural Park,
one of the
main
ecotourist
destinations.
Downtown
Bogotá.
Archipelago
of
San Andrés,
Providencia
and
Santa
Catalina.
Pueblito
Paisa.
(Medellin)
The
"Eje
Cafetero"
Riohacha night.
Santa Cruz de
Mompox.
Cali night.
La
Candelaria,B
ogota's
historical
district.
Popular tourist attractions include the historic Candelaria district of central Bogotá, the walled city and
beaches of Cartagena, the colonial towns of Santa Fe de Antioquia, Popayán, Villa de Leyva and
Santa Cruz de Mompox, and the Las Lajas Sanctuary and the Salt Cathedral of Zipaquirá. Tourists are
also drawn to Colombia's numerous festivals, including Medellín's Festival of the Flowers, the
Barranquilla Carnival, the Carnival of Blacks and Whites in Pasto and the Ibero-American Theater
Festival in Bogotá. Meanwhile, because of the improved security, Caribbean cruise ships now stop at
Cartagena and Santa Marta.
The great variety in geography, flora and fauna across Colombia has also resulted in the development of
an ecotourist industry, concentrated in the country's national parks. Popular ecotourist destinations
include: along the Caribbean coast, the Tayrona National Natural Park in the Sierra Nevada de Santa
Marta mountain range and Cabo de la Vela on the tip of the Guajira Peninsula; the Nevado del Ruiz
volcano, the Cocora valley and the Tatacoa Desert in the central Andean region; Amacayacu National
Park in the Amazon River basin; and the Pacific islands of Malpelo and Gorgona. Colombia is home
to seven UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
Transportation
Medellin Metro
El Dorado International Airport.
Rush Hour in a Bogota Freeway.
Transmilenio.
Main article: Transport in Colombia
Colombia has a network of national highways maintained by the Instituto Nacional de Vías or INVIAS
(National Institute of Roadways) government agency under the Ministry of Transport. The PanAmerican Highway travels through Colombia, connecting the country with Venezuela to the east and
Ecuador to the south.
Colombia's main airports are El Dorado International Airport in Bogotá, Jose Maria Cordova International
Airport in Medellin, Alfonso Bonilla Aragon International Airport in Cali, Ernesto Cortissoz
International Airport in Barranquilla, Matecaña International Airport in Pereira, and Rafael Nuñez
International Airport in Cartagena. El Dorado International Airportis the busiest airport in Latin
America based upon the number of flights and the weight of goods transported. [62] Several national
airlines (Avianca, AeroRepública, AIRES, SATENA and EasyFly, ), and international airlines (such
as Iberia, American Airlines, Varig, Copa, Continental, Delta, Air Canada, Spirit, Lufthansa, Air
France, Aerolíneas Argentinas, Aerogal, TAME, TACA, JetBlue Airways, LAN Airlines) operate
from El Dorado. Because of its central location in Colombia and America, it is preferred by national
land transportation providers, as well as national and international air transportation providers.
Urban transport systems have been developed in Bogotá and Medellín. Traffic congestion in Bogotá has
been greatly exacerbated by the lack of rail transport. However, this problem has been alleviated
somewhat by the development of the TransMilenio Bus Rapid System and the restriction of vehicles
through a daily, rotating ban on private cars depending on plate numbers. Bogotá's system consists of
bus and minibus services managed by both private- and public-sector enterprises. Since 1995
Medellín has had a modern urban railway referred to as the Metro de Medellín, which also connects
with the cities of Itagüí, Envigado, and Bello. An elevated cable car system, Metrocable, was added in
2004 to link some of Medellín's poorer mountainous neighborhoods with the Metro de Medellín. A
bus rapid-transit system called Transmetro, similar to Bogotá's TransMilenio, will begin operating in
Barranquilla by late 2007. Cali's streets remain under construction as a new public-transit system
called the Massive Integration of the West is being built.
Biofuels
Colombia is discussing current trends and challenges as well as recent international developments in the
biofuels sector with the intention of contributing to the development of a sustainable and competitive
biofuels strategy for Colombia and the region. [63]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Colombia
See also: List of Colombian Departments by population
With an estimated 46 million people in 2008, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin
America, after Brazil and Mexico. It is also home to the fourth-largest number of Spanish speakers in
the world after Mexico, the United States, and Spain. It is slightly ahead of Argentina. The population
increased at a rate of 1.9% between 1975 and 2005, predicted to drop to 1.2% over the next decade.
Colombia is projected to have a population of 50.7 million by 2015. These trends are reflected in the
country's age profile. In 2005 over 30% of the population was under 15 years old, compared to just
5.1% aged 65 and over.
The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast. The nine eastern
lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 3% of the population
and a density of less than one person per square kilometer (two persons per square mile).
Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-twentieth century,
and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population
increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to 60% in 1975, and by 2005 the figure stood at 72.7%. [49][64]
The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8
million today. In total thirty cities now have populations of 100,000 or more. As of 2010 Colombia
has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated up to 4.5 million
people.[65][66]
Ethnic groups
Afro-Colombian woman in Cartagena
The census data in Colombia does not record ethnicity, other than that of those
identifying themselves as members of particular minority ethnic groups, so overall
percentages are essentially estimates from other sources and can vary from one to
another.[67] According to the CIA World Factbook, the majority of the population
(58%) is Mestizo, or of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry. Approximately
20% of the population is of European ancestry (predominantly Spanish, partly
Italian, Portuguese, and German). The CIA World Factbook also states that 14% of
Colombia's total population is of mixed African and European ancestry, with 3%
being of mixed African and Amerindian ancestry, and 4% having primarily African
ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians comprise only 1% of the population.[2] Other
sources claim that up to 29% of Colombians (13 million people) have some African
ancestry.[68]
The overwhelming majority of Colombians speak Spanish (see also Colombian
Spanish), but in total 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue
database, of which 80 are spoken today as living languages. Most of these belong to
the Chibchan, Arawak and Cariban linguistic families. The Quechua language,
spoken in the Andes region of the country, has also extended more northwards into
Colombia, mainly in urban centers of major cities. There are currently about 500,000
speakers of indigenous languages.[69]
Indigenous peoples
Main article: Indigenous peoples in Colombia
The Wayuu represent the largest indigenous ethnic group in Colombia. [70]
Before the Spanish colonization of what is now Colombia, the territory was home to a
significant number of indigenous peoples. Many of these were absorbed into the
mestizo population, but the remainder currently represents over eighty-five distinct
cultures. 567 reserves (resguardos) established for indigenous peoples occupy
365,004 square kilometres (over 30% of the country's total) and are inhabited by
more than 800,000 people in over 67,000 families. [71] The 1991 constitution
established their native languages as official in their territories, and most of them
have bilingual education (native and Spanish).
Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu,[72] the Arhuacos, the Muisca, the
Kuna, the Paez, the Tucano and the Guahibo. Cauca, La Guajira and Guainia have
the largest indigenous populations.
The Organización Nacional Indígena de Colombia (ONIC) is an organization
representing the indigenous peoples of Colombia, who comprise some 800,000
people or approximately 2% of the population. The organization was founded at the
first National Indigenous Congress in 1982.
In 1991, Colombia signed and ratified the current international law concerning
indigenous peoples, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.[73]
Immigrant groups
Main article: Immigration to Colombia
The first and most substantial wave of modern immigration to Colombia consisted of
Spanish colonists, following the arrival of Europeans in 1499. However a low
number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and, in smaller numbers, Poles,
Lithuanians, English, Irish and Croats during and after the Second World War.
Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent
immigrants from the Middle East. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian
Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese and
Arabs, Sephardi Jews, Roma. There are also important communities of Chinese and
Japanese.
Black Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early
in the sixteenth century and continuing into the nineteenth century. Large AfroColombian communities are found today on the Caribbean and Pacific coasts. The
population of the department of Chocó, running along the northern portion of
Colombia's Pacific coast, is over 80% black.[74]
Impact of armed conflict on civilians
Around one third of the people in Colombia have been affected in some way by the
ongoing armed conflict. Those with direct personal experience make up 10% of the
population and many others also report suffering a range of serious hardships.
Overall, 31% have been affected on a personal level or as a result of the wider
consequences of the conflict.[75]
During the 1990s, an estimated 35,000 people died as a result of the armed conflict.[76]
Trade unions in Colombia are included among the victimized groups with over 2,800
of their members being murdered between 1986 and 2010.[77]
Religion
Día de las Velitas, (Little candles' day) one of the traditional holidays in
Colombia. It is the Christmas opening day of the country
The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious
statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various
studies, more than 95% of the population adheres to Christianity,[78] the vast majority
of which (between 81% and 90%) are Roman Catholic. About 1% of Colombians
adhere to indigenous religions and under 1% to Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and
Buddhism. However, despite high numbers of adherents, around 60% of respondents
to a poll by El Tiempo reported that they did not practice their faith actively. [79]
While Colombia remains an overwhelmingly Roman Catholic country, the Colombian
constitution guarantees freedom and equality of religion. [80] Religious groups are
readily able to obtain recognition as organized associations, although some smaller
ones have faced difficulty in obtaining the additional recognition required to offer
chaplaincy services in public facilities and to perform legally recognised
marriages.[79]
Health
Main article: Health care in Colombia
Life expectancy at birth in 2005 was 72.3; 2.1% would not reach the age of 5, 9.2%
would not reach the age of 40.[49] Health standards in Colombia have improved
greatly since the 1980s. A 1993 reform transformed the structure of public healthcare funding by shifting the burden of subsidy from providers to users. As a result,
employees have been obligated to pay into health plans to which employers also
contribute. Although this new system has widened population coverage by the social
and health security system from 21 percent (pre-1993) to 56 percent in 2004 and 66
percent in 2005, health disparities persist, with the poor continuing to suffer
relatively high mortality rates. In 2002 Colombia had 58,761 physicians, 23,950
nurses, and 33,951 dentists; these numbers equated to 1.35 physicians, 0.55 nurses,
and 0.78 dentists per 1,000 population, respectively. In 2005 Colombia was reported
to have only 1.1 physicians per 1,000 population, as compared with a Latin
American average of 1.5. The health sector reportedly is plagued by rampant
corruption, including misallocation of funds and evasion of health-fund
contributions.[81]
Education
Main article: Education in Colombia
The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a
preschool academy until age 6 (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación
básica) is compulsory by law. [82] It has two stages: Primary basic education
(Educación básica primaria) which goes from 1st to 5th grade and usually it
encompasses children from 6 to 10 years old, and Secondary basic education
(Educación básica secundaria), which goes from 6th to 9th grade. Basic education is
followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that
comprehends 10th and 11th grade. It may have different vocational training
modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, etc.) according to the
curriculum adopted by each school. However in many rural areas, teachers are
poorly qualified, and only the five years of primary schooling are offered. The
school year can extend from February to November or from August to June, and in
many public schools attendance is split into morning and afternoon "shifts", in order
to accommodate the large numbers of children.[83]
After the successful completion of all the basic and middle education years, a highschool diploma is granted. The high-school graduate is known as a bachiller,
because secondary basic school and middle education are traditionally considered
together as a unit called bachillerato (6th to 11th grade). Students in their final year
of middle education take the ICFES test in order to gain access to Superior education
(Educación superior). This superior education includes undergraduate professional
studies, technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and postgraduate studies.
Bachilleres (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career
program offered by a university; these programs last up to 5 years (or less for
technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate
studies), even up to 6–7 years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there
is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a
university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or
technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a
(professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to
practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs,
students are required to take the SABER-PRO test in their final year of
undergraduate academic education.[84]
Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2006 was
4.7% — one of the highest rates in Latin America — as compared with 2.4% in
1991. This represented 14.2% of total government expenditure.[49][85] In 2006, the
primary and secondary net enrollment rates stood at 88% and 65% respectively,
slightly below the regional average. School life expectancy was 12.4 years. [85] A
total of 92.3% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate,
including 97.9% of those aged 15–24, both figures slightly higher than the regional
average.[85] However, literacy levels are considerably lower in rural areas. [86]
Education in Colombia
Ernesto
Guhl
library in the
National
University
of
Colombia. The
National
University is the
largest state-run
university
in
Colombia.
National University
of Colombia.
Culture
"Neomundo"
in
Bucaramanga
Universidad
Externado
Colombia
Bogotá
de
in
National University
of Colombia in
Medellin
Universidad de los
Andes
in
Bogotá
Main article: Culture of Colombia
See also: Festivals in Colombia and Music of Colombia
Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent,
and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American,
Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern
influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in
Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and
other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression.
Historically, the country's imposing landscape left its various regions largely isolated
from one another, resulting in the development of very strong regional identities, in
many cases stronger than the national. Modern transport links and means of
communication have mitigated this and done much to foster a sense of nationhood,
but social and political instability, and in particular fears of armed groups and
bandits on intercity highways, have contributed to the maintenance of very clear
regional differences. Accent, dress, music, food, politics and general attitude vary
greatly between the Bogotanos and other residents of the central highlands, the
paisas of Antioquia and the coffee region, the costeños of the Caribbean coast, the
llaneros of the eastern plains, and the inhabitants of the Pacific coast and the vast
Amazon region to the south east.
Colombians
dancing Salsa
Fiesta in Palenque.
Afro-Colombian
tradition from
San Basilio de
Palenque,
a
Masterpiece of
the Oral and
Intangible
Heritage
of
Humanity since
2005.
Festival of
Flowers
Medellín,
Antioquia.
the
in
Colombians in the
Carnival
of
Barranquilla
Gabriel
García
Márquez
A "Chiva" in New
York city
Shakira
Juan
Pablo
Montoya
Sofia Vergara
Camilo Villegas
Juanes
An inheritance from the colonial era, Colombia remains a deeply Roman Catholic
country and maintains a large base of Catholic traditions which provide a point of
unity for its multicultural society. Colombia has many celebrations and festivals
throughout the year, and the majority are rooted in these Catholic religious
traditions. However, many are also infused with a diverse range of other influences.
Prominent examples of Colombia's festivals include the Barranquilla Carnival, the
Carnival of Blacks and Whites, Medellín's Festival of the Flowers and Bogotá's
Ibero-American Theater Festival
The mixing of various different ethnic traditions is reflected in Colombia's music and
dance. The most well-known Colombian genres are cumbia and vallenato, the latter
now strongly influenced by global pop culture. A powerful and unifying cultural
medium in Colombia is television. Most famously, the telenovela Betty La Fea has
gained international success through localized versions in the United States, Mexico,
and elsewhere. Television has also played a role in the development of the local film
industry.
As in many Latin American countries, Colombians have a passion for football. The
Colombian national football team is seen as a symbol of unity and national pride,
though local clubs also inspire fierce loyalty and sometimes-violent rivalries.
Colombia has "exported" many famous players, such as Freddy Rincon, Carlos
Valderrama, Iván Ramiro Córdoba, and Faustino Asprilla. Other Colombian athletes
have also achieved success, including Formula 1 Racing's Juan Pablo Montoya,
Major League Baseball's Edgar Rentería and Orlando Cabrera, and the PGA Tour's
Camilo Villegas.
Other famous Colombians include the Nobel Prize winning author Gabriel García
Márquez, the artist Fernando Botero, the writers Fernando Vallejo, Laura Restrepo,
Álvaro Mutis and James Cañón, the musicians Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and
Juan Garcia-Herreros, and the actors Catalina Sandino Moreno, John Leguizamo,
Catherine Siachoque and Sofía Vergara.
The cuisine of Colombia developed mainly from the food traditions of European
countries. Spanish, Italian and French culinary influences can all be seen in
Colombian cooking. The cuisine of neighboring Latin American countries, Mexico,
the United States and the Caribbean, as well as the cooking traditions of the country's
indigenous inhabitants, have all influenced Colombian food. For example, cuy or
guinea pig, which is an indigenous cuisine, is eaten in the Andes region of southwestern Colombia.
Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse
cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people,
have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government
through the Ministry of Culture.
Popular culture
Main article: Colombia in popular culture
The depiction of Colombia in popular culture, especially the portrayal of Colombian
people in film and fiction, has been asserted by Colombian organizations [87][88][89]
and government to be largely negative and has raised concerns that it reinforces, or
even engenders, societal prejudice and discrimination due to association with narcotrafficking, terrorism and other criminal elements, and poverty.[90] These stereotypes
are considered unfair by many Colombians.[91][92] The Colombian government
funded the "Colombia es Pasión" advertisement campaign as an attempt to improve
Colombia's image abroad, with mixed results.[93][94]
Cuisine
Main article: Cuisine of Colombia
Dishes & drinks from Colombia
Aguardiente.
Sancocho
mondongo.
de
Ajiaco.
Tamal.
Bandeja Paisa.
Arepa.
Colombia's cuisine, influenced heavily by the Spanish and Indigenous populations, is
not as widely known as other Latin American cuisines such as Peruvian or Brazilian,
but to the adventurous traveler there are plenty of delectable dishes to try, not to
mention fruits, rum, and especially Colombian coffee.
List of songs
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•
Crazy – Aerosmith
Barbye Girl- Aqua
Raindrops keep falling- B. J. Thomas.
Show me the meaning of being lonely- Backstreets Boys.
Because I love you.
Sometimes – Britney Spears.
Baby one more time.- Britney spears.
All by myself. Celine Dion.
Because you love me.- Celine Dion.
My heart will go on.- Celine Dion.
Believe- Cher.
I need to know – Mark Antony.
I will survive – Gloria Gaynor.
You’ve got a friend – James Taylor.
I can see clearly now. Jimmy Cliff.
La isla bonita- Madonna.
Like a virgin- Madonna.
Like a prayer.- Madonna.
All I want for Christmas.-Maria Carey.
Beat it. – Michael Jackson.
Thriller- Michael Jackson.
To be with you.- Mr Big.
Wild world. Mr Big.
Don’t speak- No doubt.
Please don’t go. – No Mercy.
Sounds of silent – Paul Simon
Please don’t go- no mercy.
I’ll be there for you.- Rembrants.
It must have been love.- Roxete.
Let it be –Beattles
Everything I do it do it for you- Brian Adams
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I’m alive - Celine Dion
I drove all night- Celine Dion
Sacrifice- Elton Jhon
Because you love me –Celine Dion
Yesterday – Paul Mcarney.
If I were a boy – Beyonce
Red red winw- UB40
Another day in Paradise- Phil Collins
Father and son – Cat stevens
Angels – Robbie Williams.
I don’t want to miss a thing-Aerosmith.
When you’re gone- avril
Thank you –dido
I turn to you Christina Aguilera.
I will always love you – whitney Houston
Californication Red hot chill peppers.
Material girl –Madonna..
Uptown girl-Billy Joel
Carry you on- James blunt
Everyday –Phill Collins
All my life- Aaron Neville and Linda Ronstadt
Groovy kind of love- Phill Collins
-

plan de mejoramiento de idiomas extranjeros

Transcripción

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