Durham e-Theses - Durham University
Transcripción
Durham e-Theses - Durham University
Durham E-Theses A geographical study of the united nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus, 1964 - 1984 Grundy - Warr, Carl E. R. How to cite: Grundy - Warr, Carl E. R. (1984) 1964 - 1984, A geographical study of the united nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/7842/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 cs. c A GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THE UNITED NATIONS PEACEKEEPING FORCE I N CYPRUS. 1964 - T984. by CARL E.R. GRUNDY = WARR. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged An M.A. D i s s e r t a t i o n submitted to the U n i v e r s i t y o f Durham f o r t h e Degree o f Master o f A r t s . December T984. I h MAR 2003 F i g u r e s 0:1 and 0:2 show T u r k i s h mosques i n the Greek Cypriot Nicosia. q u a r t e r o f the o l d w a l l e d c i t y o f c e n t r a l F i g u r e 0:2 i l l u s t r a t e s the two main r e l i g i o n s o f Cyprus - a s m a l l mosque and C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h l o c a t e d around 8 October Square only metres from the Green L i n e . fifty B e f o r e the i n t e r - communal t r o u b l e s o f December 1963 - August T964 the two communities l i v e d s i d e - b y - s i d e of the i s l a n d . i n many p a r t s There a r e numerous p h y s i c a l r e m i n d e r s of t h i s i n s o u t h e r n Cyprus where i t i s not u n u s u a l to f i n d a T u r k i s h mosque i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y to a Greek Orthodox c h u r c h . r Pi<3 0:1 - 7' -Y i 0 IU •••• i ABSTRACT. The main aim o f t h i s s t u d y i s to examine the r o l e o f the U n i t e d N a t i o n s Peacekeeping F o r c e i n Cyprus i n r e l a t i o n to fundamental changes to t h e human and p o l i t i c a l geography o f the i s l a n d . to The p o l i t i c a l background t h e s e changes i s g i v e n some a n a l y s i s but the major f o c u s o f t h e study i s on the s p a t i a l a s p e c t s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t , and t h e problems c r e a t e d f o r c i v i l i a n l i f e by a r t i f i c i a l e t h n i c b a r r i e r s , barbed w i r e - f e n c e s , s e n t r y - p o s t s , r o a d b l o c k s , and o t h e r p h y s i c a l l i n e s the s e p a r a t i o n o f the Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s symbolizing 0 A f t e r a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n p r i o r to Independence, the c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s d i v i d i n g the two communities and r e s u l t i n g i n t h e formation of Turkish Cypriot enclaves are d i s c u s s e d . I n the l i g h t o f t h e s e major changes U.N.P.I.CYP. had to cope w i t h many c o m p l i c a t e d p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s on the ground r e l a t i n g to the s e p a r a t e de f a c t o t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n p a r t s o f the R e p u b l i c o f Cyprus by the Turkish Cypriots. T h i s study s t r e s s e s the economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n d u t i e s o f what i s b a s i c a l l y a m i l i t a r y peacekeeping f o r c e . out of I n carrying t h e s e d u t i e s t h e r e a r e many l i n k a g e s between the n o n - m i l i t a r y tasks U.N.F.I.CYP. and the human geography o f the i s l a n d , , Finally, the p e r i o d s i n c e the forming o f the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n line between the two communities i s c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l , and p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n to U.N.F.I.CYP.*s a c t i v i t i e s between t h e two Forward Defence L i n e s o f the N a t i o n a l Guard and T u r k i s h Army, i . e . i n the U.N.controlled Buffer Zone. The s t u d y then a t t e m p t s to draw some c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g the l i k e l y f u t u r e r o l e o f U.N.F.I.CYP., and to h i g h l i g h t the problems posed by t h e p o l i t i c a l deadlock between the two communities. There i s a l s o a s h o r t c o n c l u s i o n on the geography o f p e a c e k e e p i n g , which i s based e n t i r e l y on t h i s d e t a i l e d case study. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. I would l i k e to e x p r e s s my g r a t i t u d e to the f o l l o w i n g people f o r t h e i r h e l p i n my p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s work. To both my s u p e r v i s o r s — Mr M i c h a e l P. Drury f o r h i s encouragement, p r a c t i c a l c r i t i c i s m , and f o r h i s knowledge and l o v e o f C y p r u s . Dr. G e r a l d H. Blake f o r h i s f r i e n d l y support and c o n c e r n And to a t every stage o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n . I am a l s o i n d e b t e d to Mr J.D. Norton, l e c t u r e r i n T u r k i s h and D i r e c t o r o f the Centre f o r Middle E a s t e r n and I s l a m i c S t u d i e s , 1982-'83, whose k i n d a s s i s t a n c e i s most a p p r e c i a t e d . To a l l members o f U.N.F.I.CYP. who g e n e r o u s l y f i e l d r e s e a r c h i n A p r i l 1984. S p e c i a l thanks cooperated w i t h me during to Mr Stephen Whitehouse, U.N.P.I.CYP. Spokesman; Mr Gary S. Brown, S t a t i o n Commander, A u s t r a l i a n Federal P o l i c e ( A u s t . c i v . p o l . ) ; L t . Colonel Ferdinand Pelzer, Chief H u m a n i t a r i a n O f f i c e r ( U.N.F.I.CYP. ) ; S g t . Major Jones, Second B a t t a l i o n , The R o y a l A n g l i a n Regiment Officer, Contingent, ; and David B a y l i s , O p e r a t i o n s British S e c t o r Two : To Mr George K a r o u z i s , Head o f the Land C o n s o l i d a t i o n S e r v i c e ; Mr Andreas I . A r i s t i d e s , E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e , Department o f A g r i c u l t u r e ; and Mr Gregory Theophanides, A d m i n i s t r a t i o n O f f i c e r , M i n i s t r y o f t h e I n t e r i o r , Government o f C y p r u s . To Antonis Y. A n t o n i a d i s making my v i s i t and h i s f a m i l y f o r t h e i r k i n d n e s s and warmth, to Cyprus both memorable and e n j o y a b l e . To R i c h a r d N. S c h o f i e l d , J o n M i t c h e l l , Rosemary Stone, K l a u s D i e t e r Kreher, and Chng K i n Noi f o r t h e i r h e l p i n v a r i o u s ways during the l a t t e r s t a g e s o f the d i s s e r t a t i o n and f o r t h e i r f r i e n d l y F i n a l l y , s p e c i a l thanks encouragement. to my f a t h e r f o r i n t r o d u c i n g me to Cyprus and to my mother f o r h e r c o n s t a n t support. iii D CONTENTS D Page i Abstract Acknowledgements ii « iii Contents CHAPTER ONE : AIMS. APPROACH. AND INTRODUCTION TO THE CYPRUS PROBLEM. D D S e c t i o n One: Aims and Approach 1 S e c t i o n Two; The Cyprus Problem 5 (ii): D D Footnotes CHAPTER TWO The G e o p o l i t i c a l Dimension 9 I n t r a - Regional Level 9 The Super-Power L e v e l 13 The C o l o n i a l L e v e l 14 17 and R e f e r e n c e s : CONSTITUTIONAL C R I S I S AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOTS .. 20 ( i ) : The Independence C o n s t i t u t i o n . . . 20 DISTRIBUTION ( i i ) : Was t h e r e any g e o g r a p h i c a l b a s i s f o r bicommunalism and partition Footnotes D D D !• ? . .0.0.0 and R e f e r e n c e s 22 37 CHAPTER THREE : THE SPATIAL ASPECTS OF INTERCOMMUNAL CONFLICT AND THE FORMATION OF TURKISH CYPRIOT ENCLAVES 39 S e c t i o n One: The Outbreak o f Intercommunal Violence 39 S e c t i o n Two: " C o n f r o n t a t i o n L i n e s " and 43 Enclaves 43 0 ( i ) : The "Green L i n e " 45 (ii): D D G u e n y e l i - A g h i r d a E n c l a v e .... ( i i i ) : Refugee Movements and E n c l a v e Formation i n Other D i s t r i c t s .„ ( i v ) : The T u r k i s h Q u a r t e r s o f Famagusta, L a r n a c a , and Paphos. ( v ) : The B a t t l e f o r T y l l i r i a and the Kokklna E n c l a v e 52 58 59 iv S e c t i o n T h r e e ; The E x t e n t of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t T e r r i t o r i a l C o n t r o l , and the A r r i v a l o f U..N.F.I.CYP. S e c t i o n Four! U.N.F.I.CYP. and the P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus. 1964 - '74 F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s CHAPTER FOUR : S e c t i o n Two; 74 What i s Peacekeeping and What i s a Peacekeeping F o r c e ? 74 U.N.F.I.CYP.Vs Mandate ....„...„ 78 U.N.F.I.CYP. and t h e Use o f Force S e c t i o n Three; U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Composition and Deployment S e c t i o n Four; P o l i t i c a l Geography and F o r c e Deployment 86 U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Freedom o f Movement 95 97 PEACEKEEPING IN PRACTICE : S e c t i o n One; S e c t i o n Two; U.N.F.I.CYP.*s 100 P o l i t i c a l Background. August 1964 to November 1967 U.N.F.I.CYP.'a F i r s t (ii): 100 Phase. 1964 to November T967 (i): 82 85 FIRST DECADE. P a r t One 82 P h y s i c a l Geography and F o r c e Deployment ...... o Footnotes and R e f e r e n c e s CHAPTER F I V E : 65 71 PEACEKEEPING IN PERSPECTIVE S e c t i o n One; 60 Pacification Activities 102 ....... 102 Normalization A c t i v i t i e s Economic c o n d i t i o n s of the two communities 111 Economic Blockade 113 Freedom o f Movement 115 Civilian 118 Services 112 Agriculture 120 I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic activity 122 V U.N.F.I.CYP. measures to a s s i s t refugees P a r t Two 123 S e c t i o n T h r e e : P o l i t i c a l Background. November 1967 to J u l y 1974 S e c t i o n Four: (i): (ii): U.N.F.I.CYP.'s T25 Second Phase. November 1967 to J u l y 1974 .... 127 Pacification Activities 129 Normalization A c t i v i t i e s 132 S e p a r a t e economic development . Freedom o f Movement 0 132 134 C i v i l i a n Services 136 Agriculture 137 I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic activity 138 The refugee problem, 1968 - '74 138 Some C o n c l u s i o n s : T968 to 1974 and the r o l e of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s CHAPTER S I X : 140 143 THE THIN BLUE LINE AND THE "ATTILA LINE" .. S e c t i o n One: 149 The Demographic and Economic Consequences o f P a r t i t i o n .... 150 The T u r k i s h 'Peacekeeping Operation or 'Invasion' 151 Demographic consequences and U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p o s i t i o n a f t e r the August 1 6 t h c e a s e - f i r e .... 156 Economic consequences 164 1 South ... 166 i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t North . 171 S e c t i o n Two: U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n 175 ( i): P a c i f i c a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s , 19741984 . 177 H u m a n i t a r i a n and Economic A c t i v i t i e s , 1974 - 1984 . . . , 180 i) (ii): The Greek C y p r i o t The promotion o f economic a c t i v i t y i n t h e U.N. B u f f e r Zone 0 o 182 vi I I S e c t i o n Three; Case Study - U.N.F.I.CYP. S e c t o r Two: BRIT.CON, I S e c t i o n Four: I Footnotes and R e f e r e n c e s CHAPTER SEVEN : I I Some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g U.N.F.I.CYP.'s second decade .. CONCLUSION : 191 193 POLITICAL IMPASSE AND U.N.F.I.CYP. TWENTY YEARS ON ....<, 197 211 The Geography o f Peacekeeping . I I 186 F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s ....» 2T4 Some n o t e s on primary s o u r c e s 216 BIBLIOGRAPHY 217 225 I I Order I 1. MAPS . FIGURES. F i g . 0:1 AND TABLES. Page Photograph o f a T u r k i s h mosque i n the Greek sector of central Nicosia ..<,.... 2. F i g . 0:2 T u r k i s h mosque and Greek c h u r c h I 3. Map. T:1 The p o s i t i o n of Cyprus i n r e l a t i o n to Turkey and Greece <,..<>....<> I 4. I 5. 1 1 e The d e c l i n e o f mixed c e n t r e s i n Cyprus, 1891 to T970 F i g . 2:T 6. Map. 2:1 23 The p r o g r e s s i v e s e g r e g a t i o n o f the C y p r i o t e t h n i c communities, 189T - 1970 „ 7. T a b l e 2:2 The Growth o f Greek Orthodox T a b l e 2:3 Map. 2:2 26 and Muslim communities i n Cyprus 8. 24 Suggested e t h n i c b o u n d a r i e s i n Cyprus p r i o r to the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n i n T974 9. i T a b l e 2:1 10 „. 28 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s by D i s t r i c t i n 1973 29 The d i s p e r s i o n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n T960 .. 30 vii TO. Table 2:4 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t ownerships 11. Map. 2:3 land ..„ 31 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriot ownerships i n c l u d i n g s t a t e l a n d T2. Table 2:5 Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t H o l d i n g s , 1960 ....... T3. Table 2:6 D i s t r i b u t i o n of holdings 14. Map.2:4 Karouzis Cyprus by D i s t r i c t map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t 32 33 33 „.... "regions" i n 36 .»..<, T5. Map. 3:1 The "Green L i n e " through the o l d c i t y o f N i c o s i a 44 16. Map. The Guenyeli 46 17. P i g . 3:1 T8, Table 3:2 . Block diagram o f the K y r e n i a - N i c o s i a Pass Population 3:1 - Aghirda Enclave d i s t r i b u t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t s .... 47 i n the K y r e n i a P l a i n and P e n t a d a k t y l o s „ 49 D e t a i l s o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t and Mixed v i l l a g e s i n T9. Table 3:2 50 the K y r e n i a P l a i n and P e n t a d a k t y l o s P a t r i c k map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d 20. Map. 3:3 in areas T970 „ 53 Kolodny map of T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s i n Cyprus i n 21 c Map. 3:4 1970 54 Turkish Cypriot enclaves 22. Map. 3:5 23. Map. 3:6 i n Paphos D i s t r i c t American map showing T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s P a t r i c k map showing T u r k i s h C y p r i o t 24. Map. 3:7 .... government o r g a n i s a t i o n , .. 55 63 local 66 T964 to 1974 U.N.P.I.CYP. S i z e and Composition, A p r i l 1964 to 25. 26. Table 4: t P i g . 4:1 May 1984 The s i z e o f U.N.P.I.CYP. i n r e l a t i o n to o t h e r 83 armed f o r c e s i n Cyprus i n June T972 I n i t i a l U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l 27. Map. 4:1 May 1964 84 boundaries, ....„ 87 U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l zones, December 1964 to 28. Map. 4:2 July 1965 91 U.N.P.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n a l zones, December 1965 .. 29. Map. 4:3 30. Map. 4:4 O f f i c i a l United N a t i o n s map of U.N.P.I.CYP. deployment i n November 1964. ( Taken from U.N. 92 1 viii I «. 93 o.... 94 Doc. S/6102, December 1964 ) 31o Map. 4:5 O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations map o f U.N.P.I.CYP. deployment i n December 1965. ( Taken from U.N. Doc. S/7001, December 1965 ) I 32. Map. 5:1 Chatos e n c l a v e and roads i n the r e g i o n 33. Map. 5:2 O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations map o f U.N.P.I.CYP. deployment i n December T968 ( Taken from 34. Map. 5:3 35. P i g . 6:1 36. Map. 6:1 37 o Map. 6:2 106 U.N. Doc. S / 8 9 H , December T968 ) . „ 131 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s i n the L e f k a Region . 135 T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y s l o g a n daubed on the T u r k i s h Cypriot s i d e of a w a l l along the Green L i n e . . . 149 T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y advance p o s i t i o n s J u l y August, T974 152 Giines P l a n f o i r T u r k i s h cantons proposed a t the Geneva C o n f e r e n c e i n August 1974 before the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n of the island I i n Cyprus, <,.... « o . 38. Map. 6:3 Denktas P l a n , Geneva, August 1974 39. Map. 6:4 D r u r y map 40. Tabl© 6:1 I Table 6:2 I 155 „...<, 158 H y p o t h e t i c a l Exchange o f P o p u l a t i o n s on the p r e s e n t s e p a r a t i o n l i n e 41. „ Area occupied - based .. .<,..<,.. o.... 0 Table 6:3 I Table 6:4 I T63-i D i s t r i b u t i o n of p r i v a t e l a n d by D i s t r i c t the T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n 43. Property land-use after .ooooo...... community before and a f t e r the T u r k i s h i n t e r - 44o Map. 6:5 163' ii The L o u r o u j i n a p e n i n s u l a b i s e c t i n g the o l d N i c o s i a - L a r n a c a road 1 45: P i g . 6:2 Showing 167 „ the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t g a i n s i n l e n g t h o f c o a s t l i n e a f t e r the T6 August c e a s e - f i r e o f '74 1 T63 * * of the T u r k i s h Cypriote vention 1 159 by the Turks b e f o r e and a f t e r the Turkish m i l i t a r y intervention 42. 154 showing demographic consequences o f the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n I ..<><,..<,, 46. Map. 6:6 O f f i c i a l U n i t e d Nations deployment i n June 1976 map 170 o f UoN.P.I.CYP. 176 ix 47. Map„ 6:7 N i c o s i a s i n c e 16 August U.N. 48. Map. 6:8 T974 - showing the B u f f e r Zone w i t h i n the o l d c i t y .... 179 U.N„P.I.CYP. Sector-Two. Showing p a r t o f the U.N. B u f f e r Zone T87 49. Map. 6:9 H y d r o l o g i c a l survey a r e a s i n Cyprus s i n c e '74. 50. Map. 7:1 T u r k i s h boundary proposed by Greek C y p r i o t s i n 1977 51. Map. 7:2 200 T u r k i s h proposed t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s i n r981 52. P i g . 7:T 190 202 Cartoon o f Rauf Denktas c u t t i n g a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t branch o f f the t r e e of Cyprus Geography 53. Map. 7:3 Political 54. Map. 7:4 O f f i c i a l United N a t i o n s map of U.N.F.I.CYP. deployment i Y 1984. ( Taken from U.N. Doc. n S/T6596, o f Cyprus, 1960 - 1984 206 ... 209 M a June 1984 ) 210 T h i s work i s d e d i c a t e d to the memory o f E r n e s t Joseph Woodhouse - my - 1905-1979. grandfather CHAPTER AIMS. APPROACH'. AND ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE T h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o two CYPRUS PROBLEM. sections. The first deals with the main aims and approach adopted i n t h i s s t u d y . The second gives d e t a i l s of the complexity of the Cyprus Problem as n e c e s s a r y background to the r e s t of the Section dissertation. One. The p r i n c i p a l aim of the d i s s e r t a t i o n i s to emphasize the aspects"" of the United Nations peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus. f a c t t h a t Cyprus i s an i s l a n d of o n l y 9,251 s q . km. o n l y 650 "geographical The w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of - 700,000 makes the i s l a n d a manageable s i z e f o r a d e t a i l e d study of t h i s type. The compact, e a s i l y d e f i n e d heterogenous space of the i s l a n d p r o v i d e s a v a l u a b l e " t e s t i n g ground" f o r a n a l y s i s of the s p a t i a l dimensions of intercommunal c o n f l i c t r o l e " of an i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping and "the interpositionary f o r c e between the p r o t a g o n i s t s . There have been o t h e r d e t a i l e d s t u d i e s of the United Nations F o r c e i n Cyprus ( U.N.F.I.CYP. ) o p e r a t i o n s , but none have f o c u s e d on the a s p e c t s of peacekeeping of Cyprus. i n r e l a t i o n to the p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l geography F o r i n s t a n c e , C h a r l e s C.Moskos, 1976, the m i l i t a r y s o c i o l o g y of peacekeeping, of n o n c o e r c i o n c a r r i e d out a study of a n a l y s i n g "whether the i m p e r a t i v e s and i m p a r t i a l i t y r e q u i r e a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l m i l t i a r y s o c i o l i z a t i o n and a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of s t a n d a r d organization." spatial (1) B r i g a d i e r Michael H a r b o t t l e , 1970, military examines the- o r g a n i s a t i o n and deployment of U.N.F.I.CYP. and p r o v i d e s i n s i g h t s into p a r t i c u l a r i n c i d e n t s from the s t a n d p o i n t of a former c h i e f - o f - s t a f f of the F o r c e , 1966-68. Another-comprehensive and c r i t i c a l account U.N.F.I.CYP. i n i t s f i r s t of decade i s p r o v i d e d by James A.Stagenga, q u e s t i o n s whether or not the U.N. Force helped to " f r e e z e and who perpetuate" an anomalous and dangerous patchwork p a r t i t i o n between the communities. (2 Other s t u d i e s have c o n c e n t r a t e d on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l dimension of United Nations peacekeeping and the i n t r i c a c i e s o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s mandate, comparing i t to o t h e r United Nations peacekeeping v e n t u r e s . ( 3 ) L i t t l e attempt i s made i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n to make comparisons w i t h or g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s about i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping a s a means o f r e g u l a t i n g c i v i l war o r intercommunal c o n f l i c t i s not being situations. U.N.P.I.CYP. used a s a 'model' f o r f u t u r e peacekeeping v e n t u r e s , some u s e f u l l e s s o n s have a l r e a d y been l e a r n t from the Cyprus regarding although operation such c r i t i c a l f a c t o r s a s mounting and forming an i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping f o r c e , f i n a n c i n g i t , i t s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e arrangements and l o g i s t i c a l support machinery. As Stagenga p o i n t s o u t : - " U.N.P.I.CYP. was t a i l o r e d to cope w i t h Cyprus c r i s i s than to conform to any s t a n d a r d pattern or doctrine rather derived from U.N.E.P. o r O.N.U.C.',' two e a r l i e r peacekeeping f o r c e s . ( 4 ) I n so f a r a s t h e r e may be s i m i l a r i t i e s between the s i t u a t i o n i n Cyprus and o t h e r s t a t e s t o r n by i n t e r - e t h n i c , r e l i g i o u s , o r t r i b a l antagonisms combined w i t h r e g i o n a l f o r c e s a c t i n g c e n t r i f u g a l l y to s p l i n t e r the s t a t e s , U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e x p e r i e n c e s may provide valuable information a s to the^ e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t h i r d party i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t situations. Such l e s s o n s may be p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p l i c a b l e to t h i r d c o u n t r i e s where the n e g a t i v e weaker than "the m u l t i t u d e Cyprus i s s h a r e d a n t i c o l o n i a l aspects of nationalism are of p a r t i c u l a r i s t tendencies'.' ( 5 ) by Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , y e t due to a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c e n t r i f u g a l f a c t o r s they p e r c e i v e d space d i f f e r e n t l y and mutually their exclusive g e o p o l i t i c a l goals. combination o f t h e s e g o a l s and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l / m i l i t a r y helped The world shared The initiatives to f u n d a m e n t a l l y a l t e r the p o l i t i c a l and human geography o f C y p r u s . m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f t h i s took p l a c e i n 1974 w i t h the complete most dramatic s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities i n t o mono-ethnic a r e a s d i v i d e d by a de f a c t o boundary. The- s p a t i a l a s p e c t s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t an understanding and r e s u l t i n g changes t a o f U.N.P.I.CYP. deployment, o p e r a t i o n s , achievements, and the c o n s t r a i n t s working a g a i n s t " a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s " a s - 3 - envisaged by e i t h e r community and by U.N.P.I.CYP., a l l of whom had d i f f e r e n t p e r c e p t i o n s of the s i t u a t i o n and of why the Force was c r e a t e d . Richard Patrick's r e s e a r c h on the g e o g r a p h i c a l a s p e c t s of intercommunal c o n f l i c t , i . e . "the l o c a t i o n a l a s p e c t s of each i n c i d e n t , where i t o c c u r r e d and why, how the l o c a t i o n a f f e c t e d each i n c i d e n t and v i c e v e r s a , where- r e f u g e e s went, the l o c a t i o n a l consequences of both e v a c u a t i o n and r e c e p t i o n v i l l a g e s and t h e i r economies", ( 6 ) h i g h l i g h t e d the s i g n i f i c a n c e of the s p a t i a l environments of each community. F o r - i n s t a n c e , the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e c r e a t e d t h e i r own space by forming p r o t e c t e d e n c l a v e s and q u a r t e r s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of the i s l a n d , which l e f t the map of Cyprus dotted w i t h " i s l a n d s " of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l f o r o v e r a decade, December 1963 to J u l y 1974. I n t h i s way the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a l t e r e d t h e i r ' s p a t i a l environments, became i n c r e a s i n g l y c u t - o f f from the Greek C y p r i o t s , and i n t r o v e r t e d i n t h e i r s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y c o n f i n e d s t r o n g h o l d s which t h e i r l e a d e r s were determined to h o l d onto r a t h e r than l e t them f a l l undpr the i n f l u e n c e of the Cyprus Government. On the o t h e r hand the Greek C y p r i o t s m a i n t a i n e d c o n t r o l of o v e r n i n e t y per cent of the t e r r i t o r y of Cyprus, remained r e l a t i v e l y comfortable i n t h e i r economic p r o s p e r i t y , and were unable o r u n w i l l i n g to e n t e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a r e a s , a l l of which produced a dangerous complacency about the p l i g h t of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s and the p o l i t i c a l deadlock. The " i s o l a t e d s t a t e " of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community tended to enhance the p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s and phobias s e p a r a t i n g t h e two communities. From the above comments i t can be i n f e r r e d t h a t the " b u f f e r " of U.N.F.I.CYP. i n m a i n t a i n i n g accepted s t a t u s quo p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s and on the i s l a n d s p l i t cease-fire lines, the by intercommunal s t r i f e , h e l p e d to c o n s o l i d a t e a de f a c t o s e p a r a t i o n of the two t h i s context activities main C y p r i o t much of t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s devoted communities. In to:- ( T ) U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r o l e as a " b u f f e r f o r c e " between the b e l l i g e r e n t s . ( 2 ) I t s e f f o r t s to break down the b a r r i e r s s e p a r a t i n g Greek from T u r k i s h Cypriot island. by a t t e m p t i n g to " n o r m a l i z e " socio-economic c o n d i t i o n s i n the - 4 - (3) An a n a l y s i s o f t h e f o r c e s b e h i n d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f d i s t i n c t community- defined behavioural environments i n o r d e r t o determine o t h e r c e n t r i f u g a l and c e n t r i p e t a l t e n d e n c i e s o t h e r t h a n t h o s e e m a n a t i n g f r o m U.N.F.I.CYP.'s (4) activities. An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e numerous d i s t r i b u t i o n a l i n e q u a l i t i e s not arising f r o m t h e h e t e r o g e n o u s space o f t h e i s l a n d b u t f r o m " m a n - c r e a t e d space", and U.N.P.I.CYP.'s r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e p r o b l e m s . Twice" i n t h e l a s t two decades Cyprus has undergone m a j o r changes i n i t s p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y , c r e a t i n g massive s o c i o - e c o n o m i c , demographic and political f o c u s on t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o b l e m s upheavals. This study w i l l caused by a r b i t r a r y e t h n i c d i v i d i n g l i n e s drawn a c r o s s t h e l a n d s c a p e o f C y p r u s , such as t r u n c a t e d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , d i s r u p t e d f r e e d o m o f movement, d i v i d e d a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e s and t h e d i s r u p t i o n o f l a n d - u s e , m i s a l l o c a t i o n of economic r e s o u r c e s , w e l f a r e f a c i l i t i e s , movement o f goods and p e o p l e , c o n s t r a i n t s on human^and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r a c t i o n / cooperation. As R i c h a r d P a t r i c k o b s e r v e d :" The p r o c e s s e s o f c o n f l i c t a l t e r t h e phenomenal e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h and upon w h i c h t h e y a c t . Geographers have t r a d i t i o n a l l y been i n t e r e s t e d i n such r e s u l t s as boundary changes, population migrations, resource r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , s h i f t s o f l o c a t i o n s , a l t e r a t i o n s t o spheres o f i n f l u e n c e g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g o u r f o c u s has been on how c o n f l i c t the — affects s p a t i a l p a t t e r n o f phenomena; w h i c h , f o r v a r i o u s r e a s o n s , we v i e w as s i g n i f i c a n t . " ( 7 ) Two b r o a d p e r i o d s w i l l 1974 be c o v e r e d i n d e t a i l , t o 1984. F o r t h e f i r s t 1964 t o J u l y T974 and J u l y decade o f U.N.P.I.CYP. p e a c e k e e p i n g I w i l l q u e s t i o n t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e F o r c e may have h e l p e d t o p r o t e c t a s e p a r a t i s t movement i n Cyprus by c a r r y i n g o u t i t s d i v e r s e a c t i v i t i e s as ( i ) an i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y f o r c e , and ( i i ) a c o m m u n i c a t i o n b r i d g e between t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s a t a t i m e o f l i t t l e o r no p r o g r e s s i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s t o w a r d s a s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m . p e r i o d d e a l s s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h t h e consequences The second o f and p e a c e k e e p i n g c r e a t e d by an e n f o r c e d a r t i f i c i a l d i v i s i o n o f a s m a l l i s l a n d . problems Particular - 5 - attention w i l l be g i v e n t o t h e p e c u l i a r g e o g r a p h i c a l United Nations B u f f e r Zone, u t i l i z i n g and recent f i e l d w o r k observations i n t e r v i e w s w i t h U.N.P.I.CYP. p e r s o n n e l . p o l i t i c a l and s p a t i a l s t a l e m a t e will problems o f t h e F i n a l l y , the current be d i s c u s s e d i n r e l a t i o n to the c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e o f a U.N. F o r c e i n C y p r u s . S e c t i o n Two: The Cyprus P r o b l e m . " Cyprus was t h e c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r i n a l o n g Turko-Greek s t r u g g l e and d i s e n t a n g l e m e n t , attitude and t h e T u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' s t o i t was c o n c e r n e d w i t h s e c u r i t y f e a r s as much as w i t h t h e T u r k i s h m i n o r i t y : f e a r s d a t i n g f r o m previous T u r k o - G r e e k e n c o u n t e r s . . . a s w e l l as t h e n i g h t m a r e e n c i r c l e d by a c o a l i t i o n o f p a n - H e l l e n i s m o f being and Great Powers such as B r i t a i n , France o r R u s s i a . " ( 8 ) " The Cyprus P r o b l e m ( s ) must n o t be v i e w e d s i m p l y as 'a p r o b l e m o f Greeks and T u r k s ' . Nor i s i t t r u e t o say ' t h a t b u t f o r - t h e i n f l u e n c e o f B r i t a i n and l a t e r t h e U.S.A. t h e Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d t o t h i s day be living t o g e t h e r i n harmony.'" ( 9 ) " C l e a r l y , b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s were u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f o u t s i d e f a c t o r s o v e r w h i c h t h e y had v e r y l i t t l e there i s every i n d i c a t i o n t h a t , d i v o r c e d from political influence; the- w i d e r a r g u m e n t , harmony c o u l d have p r e v a i l e d . " (TO) These t h r e e - q u o t a t i o n s , s e e m i n g l y c o n t r a d i c t o r y , a r e t a k e n t h r e e e x p e r t s on d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s illustrate from o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m , and t h e y the- c o m p l e x i t y o f t h i s m u l t i f a c e t e d i s s u e . Indeed i t is u s e f u l t o l o o k a t t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m f r o m v a r i o u s l e v e l s and perspectives. ( i ) I n t e r c o m m u n a l C o e x i s t e n c e and C o n f l i c t . The i s l a n d o f Cyprus i s s h a r e d by two m a j o r c o m m u n i t i e s — t h e Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , f o r m i n g about 80 and 18 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n respectively. There a r e a l s o s m a l l numbers o f M a r o n i t e s , more r e c e n t l y , Lebanese. A r m e n i a n s , and To a l a r g e e x t e n t t h i s b i p a r t i s a n p o p u l a t i o n i s 1 - 6 - t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m . Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r a l , r e l i g i o u s and l i n g u i s t i c b a c k g r o u n d s w h i c h h e l p e d t o f o s t e r d i v e r s e n a t i o n a l i s m s , a p o l a r i z a t i o n o f community p o l i t i c s and a s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i t i e s . S t r e s s i n g t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two ' C y p r i o t ' c o m m u n i t i e s has l e d some^ a u t h o r i t i e s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t " t h e T u r k s and t h e Greeks c a n n o t , g e t on t o g e t h e r ". ( 1 T ) I f t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s o r so a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n i s o l a t i o n many o b s e r v e r s w o u l d p r o b a b l y a g r e e w i t h such a s t a t e m e n t . B u t as C h r i s t o p h e r H i t c h e n s , 1984, p u t s i t :- " I n order to c r i t i c i z e this t r i t e i s the psychological counterpart and c y n i c a l v i e w , w h i c h • o f p a r t i t i o n , one has t o wage a b a t t l e a g a i n s t amnesia." ( T 2 ) T h i s means t a k i n g a w i d e r v i e w o f C y p r u s ' h i s t o r y and t h e development o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t i n Cyprus. P r i o r - t o t h e I n d e p e n d e n c e C o n s t i t u t i o n t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s were d i s t i n g u i s h e d along r e l i g i o u s r a t h e r than r a c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s $ 3 ) a was s i m p l y an a d h e r e r t o O r t h o d o x C h r i s t i a n i t y and a " T u r k " an of Islam. Bicommunal d e f i n i t i o n s were o f f i c i a l l y enshrined "Greek" upholder i n Article Two o f t h e 1960 C o n s t i t u t i o n w h i c h s t a t e s :" . . . t h e Greek Community c o m p r i s e s a l l c i t i z e n s o f t h e R e p u b l i c who a r e o f Greek o r i g i n and whose m o t h e r t o n g u e i s Greek o r who a r e members o f t h e Greek O r t h o d o x C h u r c h ; the Turkish Community c o m p r i s e s a l l c i t i z e n s o f t h e R e p u b l i c who a r e o f T u r k i s h o r i g i n and whose m o t h e r tongue i s T u r k i s h o r who 1 s h a r e t h e T u r k i s h c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o r who a r e M u s l i m s ; C i t i z e n s o f t h e Republic provisions who do n o t come w i t h i n ( these ) . . . s h a l l , w i t h i n t h r e e months...opt t o belong t o e i t h e r t h e Greek o r T u r k i s h community." ( 1 4 ) These c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o v i s i o n s e n c o u r a g e d e t h n i c p o l a r i z a t i o n and t h e development o f community c o n s c i o u s n e s s as opposed t o a C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l consciousness. The p r o v i s i o n s e f f e c t i v e l y i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d political d i v i s i o n s t h a t were t a k i n g p l a c e as a r e s u l t o f t h e Independence Movement. F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e Greek C y p r i o t s h a d f o r g e d t h e i r sentiments w i t h demands f o r E n o s i s ( U n i o n w i t h G r e e c e ) . anticolonial E n o s i s was - 7 - more t h a n an e x p r e s s i o n o f P a n - H e l l e n i s m t o Greek C y p r i o t s , as P e t e r L o i z o s e x p l a i n s , " i t was some k i n d o f s e a r c h f o r a l l i e s , r o o t s , and d i g n i t y by c l a i m i n g a c o n n e c t i o n t o a more p r e s t i g i o u s c u l t u r e - , t h a t o f m a i n l a n d Greece". ( 1 5 ) W i t h t h e - g r o w t h o f t h e E n o s i s s t r u g g l e ^ ther T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s became i n c r e a s i n g l y c o n c e r n e d t h a t s h o u l d t h e i s l a n d become a n o t h e r ' d i s t a n t p r o v i n c e o f Greece t h e y w o u l d be e i t h e r e x p e l l e d f r o m C y p r u s , o r become an u n d e r p r i v i l e g e d and d o w n t r o d d e n m i n o r i t y w i t h i n G r e a t e r Greece. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s became more aware o f t h e i r e t h n i c i d e n t i t y , v u l n e r a b l e m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i n C y p r u s , and more v o c i f e r o u s i n p u s h i n g f o r t h e i r r i g h t s i n Cypriott a f f a i r s . B r i t a i n a c t i v e l y encouraged t h i s p o l i t i c i z a t i o n o f communal d i f f e r e n c e s and used the' T u r k i s h m i n o r i t y t o p r o p up t h e c o l o n i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . (T6) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were even used as a u x i l i a r y p o l i c e men i n t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t E.O.K.A. ( E t h n i k i O r g a n o s i s K y p r i o n A g o n i s t o n — N a t i o n a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f Freedom F i g h t e r s ) i n t h e l a t e - • F i f t i e s , w h i c h caused i n t e r c o m m u n a l b l o o d s h e d . As M i c h a e l A t t a l i d e s p o i n t s o u t :- The r e a l intercommunal r o o t s l e v e l when k i l l i n g b i t t e r n e s s o n l y extended started." Before the outbreak o f intercommunal (T7) v i o l e n c e i n the late-T950s there had been a h i g h degree o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e r e l a t i o n s i n C y p r u s . (T8) i n economic and c e r t a i n On ritual I f one goes back t o t h e Ottoman p e r i o d b e f o r e t h e development o f Greek n a t i o n a l i s m t h e i p w e r e few s i g n s o f communal a n i m o s i t y . t o the grass widespread t h e c o n t r a r y , d i s t i n c t i o n s between "Greeks" and " T u r k s " were o f t e n b l u r r e d by i n s t a n c e s o f i n t e r m a r r i a g e , and a number o f c o n v e r s i o n s f r o m C h r i s t i a n i t y t o I s l a m . v i l l a g e s o f Greek-speaking Muslims. T h e r e were even w h o l e Many C y p r i o t s b o r e the- nickname o f Linobambaki ( Linen C o t t o n ) , s i g n i f y i n g a l s o s e v e r a l mixed peasant substantial t h e i r "mixed" o r i g i n s . There r e v o l t s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o h i g h e r t a x e s imposed by t h e Church o r Ottoman G o v e r n o r . U n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s t h e r e was (T9) much c o o p e r a t i o n i n s o c i o - e c o n o m i c thff o r d i n a r y p e o p l e n e v e r f i n d i n g i t d i f f i c u l t to l i v e the i s l a n d , p l a c e s o f work, v i l l a g e s , c o f f e e s h o p s , and suburbs, life, together, to share wedding festivities. W o r k i n g - c l a s s members o f b o t h communist-led Pan-Cypriot Labour F e d e r a t i o n T u r k i s h members b e f o r e (P.E.O.), w h i c h h a d 4,000 t h e Turks formed " s e p a r a t i s t " t r a d e unions i n response t o intercommunal Professor c o m m u n i t i e s j o i n e d the- conflict. C o u f o u d a k i s , 1 9 7 6 , t r i e d t o a n a l y s e ""the dynamics o f p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n and d i v i s i o n i n C y p r u s " . He h i g h l i g h t e d some i m p o r t a n t i n t e r n a l a»\d e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s leading t o t h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e communities. One o f t h e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s d u r i n g Ottoman r u l e was t h e r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f t h e O r t h o d o x Church u n d e r t h e M i l l e t into system, t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e Archbishop " t h e u n c h a l l e n g e d spokesman i n p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , e d u c a t i o n a l and r e l i g i o u s a f f a i r s o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t community."' ( 2 0 ) D u r i n g the a n t i - c o l o n i a l movement t h e c a l l f o r E n o s i s was "spearheaded by O r t h o d o x c h u r c h men, p a s s i o n a t e l y r i g h t - w i n g , and l a c k i n g i n s i g h t i n t o T u r k i s h thinking." ( 2 T ) Another^ s o u r c e o f d i v i s i o n was t h e s e g r e g a t e d educational s y s t e m , w h i c h s t r e n g h e n e d community t i e s t o t h e i r "mother l a n d s " , Cypriot respective and f o s t e r e d t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f e t h n i c d i f f e r e n c e s . As> P a t r i c k o b s e r v e d :" T h i s system o f e d u c a t i o n has n o t o n l y p r o d u c e d strong Greek and T u r k i s h p a t r i o t i s m r a t h e r t h a n any sense o f C y p r i o t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , b u t i t has a l s o m a i n t i n e d and emphasized t h e v i l l a i n o u s r o l e s i n t o w h i c h Greeks and T u r k s have h i s t o r i c a l l y c a s t each o t h e r . " ( 2 2 ) Economic d i s p a r i t i e s between t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s were a n o t h e r s o u r c e o f communal s e p a r a t i o n . potential A t I n d e p e n d e n c e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had an a v e r a g e p e r c a p i t a income some t w e n t y p e r cent b e l o w t h a t o f Greek C y p r i o t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , most o f t h e i s l a n d ' s l u c r a t i v e b u s i n e s s e s were i n Greek h a n d s . These d i s p a r i t i e s were m a i n l y due t o s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s as opposed t o any p o l i c y o f " e x p l o i t a t i o n " by Greek C y p r i o t s . (23) Unfortunate- l y t h e s e economic d i f f e r e n c e s were t o be "used" by t h e l e a d e r s o f both communities i n order t o achieve t h e i r separate p o l i t i c a l goals after December 1963. H i t h e r t o e x t e r n a l causes o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriots - Have- o n l y been h i n t e d a t , b u t one c o m m e n t a t o r has put 9 - t h e y w i l l now be g i v e n more w e i g h t , f o r as i t — At a l m o s t e v e r y s t a g e i n t h e drama...the weaknesses o r e r r o r s o f C y p r i o t s were e x p l o i t e d o r compounded by intervention." (24) Others also s t r e s s the m a n i p u l a t i o n o f and by i n t e r e s t e d o u t s i d e powers as b e i n g interference i n Cypriot the p r i c i p a l f a c t o r i n "the movement t o w a r d p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n on t h e i s l a n d " . (25>) Greek T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p h o b i a s a b o u t each o t h e r have n o t o n l y been by i n t e r n a l external affairs gradual and intensified p o l i t i c a l r i v a l r i e s b u t by t h e complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s internal and ( i i ) The G e o p o l i t i c a l D i m e n s i o n o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m . Cyprus has of e x t e r n a l power p o l i t i c s . an a d v a n t a g e o u s p o s i t i o n a t t h e e a s t e r n m o s t end of the Mediterranean, near the t r o u b l e d Levant, a valuable p o s i t i o n f o r " a l l f o r m s o f advance, economic, m i l i t a r y and cultural." (26) The s t r a t e g i c p o s i t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d i s l a r g e l y t h e cause o f o u t s i d e ^ i n t e r f e r e n c e i n Cypriot a f f a i r s . are at v a r i o u s The l i n k a g e s between Cyprus and Graeco-Turkish R i v a l r y . d e f i n i n g t h e c h i e f p r o t a g o n i s t s i n Cyprus as thff Turkish Nation t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m becomes one r e g i o n a l r i v a l r y between Greece and d e f i n e d as a g r o u p o f p e o p l e who cultural external intprests levels. Intra-Regional Level: By vested heritage Turkey. feel element o f the I n t h i s context As R i c h a r d Greece- a r e i n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e systems o v e r l a p p i n g boundaries." For intra- "Nation" Patrick of s e v e r a l connected t h e Greek and Turkish could conflict National (27) t h r e e hundred years ( f r o m 157T t o 1878) Cyprus was p a r t of" t h e Ottoman E m p i r e , a l t h o u g h t h e m a j o r i t y o f i t s p o p u l a t i o n were Greek settlers. from Nevertheless, is explains community b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p r o t a g o n i s t s , t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m be v i e w e d as o n l y one and t h e m s e l v e s l i n k e d by a common (hence t h e E n o s i s Movement). ^ I f T u r k e y and t h e Greek N a t i o n the time o f the f i r s t influx of Turkish 10 I I I I I LU 1 a <BS3 UJ I 1 S CQ Yi 3> CO & B I a <V7 / I J / E DC LU f 18 !? f UJ 0 I I I I I GttfCf Muslims r f r o m t h e m a i n l a n d t h e seeds o f " C y p r u s s c o n t i n u i n g conflict between a Greek C h r i s t i a n m a j o r i t y and a T u r k i s h M u s l i m m i n o r i t y were sown. (n."U27) I n 182T, t h e m a i n l a n d Greeks r o s e a g a i n s t " their T u r k i s h o v e r l o r d s , m o t i v a t e d by t h e " M e g a l i I d e a " o r G r e a t I d e a H e l l e n i s m , i . e . t h e l i b e r a t i o n o f a l l Greeks e v e r y w h e r e of and, u l t i m a t e l y , t h e r e c o v e r y o f C o n s t a n t i n o p l e as t h e c a p i t a l o f a u n i f i e d and r e s u r g e n t B y z a n t i n e E m p i r e . the F o l l o w i n g a R u s s o - T u r k i s h war i n T u r k s handed Cyprus o v e r - t o F r i t a i n i n r e t u r n f o r a d e f e n c e ment. On t h e day B r i t i s h r u l e began, J u l y 8, 1878, t h e new H i g h Commissioner was welcomed by t h e B i s h o p o f C i t i u m , who t o Greece as an inducement agree- British expressed hope t h a t Cyprus w o u l d soon be r e u n i t e d w i t h "Mother Greece". B r i t a i n o f f e r e d Cyprus 1877 I n T915 to that country to e n t e r war on t h e s i d e o f t h e A l l i e s a g a i n s t Germany, A u s t r i a , Hungary and T u r k e y . A t h e n s r e f u s e d t h e o f f e r , d e c i d i n g to remain n e u t r a l . A f t e r t h e r i s e o f Kemal A t l / a t u r k , t h e f o u n d e r o f modern T u r k e y , was t h e s i g n i n g o f t h e T r e a t y o f Lausanne i n J u l y r e d r a w i n g o f t h e Greaco-Turkish boundary creating — "a there 1923, w h i c h l e d t o a and an exchange o f p o p u l a t i o n s , l i n e a r i n t e r f a c e between two s t a t e s i n t h e f o r m o f a b o u n d a r y w h i c h p r o m i s e d t o be s t a b l e because i t was by b o t h p a r t i e s and was m o s t l y drawn t h r o u g h sea, because m i n o r i t i e s were l a r g e l y c l e a r e d f r o m t h e agreed and territories which i t separated." (28) As B r i a n B e e l e y , 1977, p o i n t s out; t h i s T r e a t y m e r e l y s h i f t e d the- l o c a t i o n of a p o t e n t i a l l y h o s t i l e i n t e r f a c e t o t h e Aegean and t o C y p r u s , officially became a "Crown C o l o n y " i n 1925. The which drawing o f the boundary i n T h r a c e and t h e e a s t e r n Aegean A c h i e v e d t h e s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f Greeks and T u r k s c o n s i d e r e d v i t a l W i t h i n Cyprus to s t a b i l i t y a t the p o l i t i c a l t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s d e v e l o p e d p o l a r i z e d p o l i t i c a l p u l l e d by t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e "mother l a n d s " . TakBim ( i . e . interface. positions T u r k i s h C y p r i o t demands f o r P a r t i t i o n ) were* s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h e p o l i t i c a l and s u p e r i o r i t y o v e r ' Greece i n the? e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n and b y i t s p r o x i m i t y t o Cyprus. (29) To- the- l a r g e r p o w e r s , Greece and T u r k e y , military closeCyprus - 12 - became an i m p o r t a n t t e r r i t o r i a l / s t r a t e g i c issue c o n n e c t e d w i t h an i n c r e a s i n g l y s i g n i f i c a n t resource-cum-boundary d i s p u t e Sea. S i n c e 1'923 t h i s sea has v i r t u a l l y c o m p l e t e d i n 1947 w i t h t h e a n n e x a t i o n I s l a n d s o n l y afew k i l o m e t r e s f r o m been sc "Greek Lake", a p r o c e s s t o Greece o f t h e Dodecanese the Turkish coastline. o v e r t h e Aegean has m u l t i p l i e d w i t h t h e d i s c o v e r y i n t h e seabed. i n t h e Aegean The r i v a l r y o f o i l and gas d e p o s i t s I n 1973/74 T u r k e y made u n i l a t e r a l d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f a c o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f b o u n d a r y i n t h e Aegean by g r a n t i n g e x p l o r a t i o n c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e T u r k i s h P e t r o l e u m Company — an a c t i o n w h i c h b r o u g h t Greece and Turkey close t o war i n 1^976. Ankara* w o u l d l i k e a Median L i n e established i n t h e Aegean t o a l l o w T u r k i s h e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e e a s t e r n h a l f o f i t , b u t the^ Greeks a r e u n w i l l i n g t o l o s e access t o l a r g e p a r t s o f t h e seabed or t o a l l o w Greek I s l a n d s t o be t u r n e d i n t o zone. "enclaves" w i t h i n a Turkish (30) I n t h e summer o f T974 T u r k e y i n t e r v e n e d i n Cyprus f o l l o w i n g a Greek coup a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y the^ i s l a n d was d i v i d e d . Turkish' propaganda e x p r e s s e s h e r f e a r s : " T u r k e y was b e i n g e n c i r c l e d ; Greece was t r y i n g t o make t h e Aegean a Greek Lake. U n i o n o f Cyprus w i t h Greece w o u l d c o m p l e t e t h e c i r c l e . . . t h e T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f Cyprus w o u l d be f o r c e d o u t . . . " (3T) S i n c e t h a t p a r t i t i o n many Greek C y p r i o t s a r e w e l l aware o f t h e i r " m i n o r i t y status" i n the eastern M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e g i o n and a r e w o r r i e d t h a t one day the Turks w i l l t o annex t h e whole i s l a n d . attempt t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m t h u s r e p r e s e n t s ( 3 2 ) I n many a "'double m i n o r i t y p r o b l e m " . C y p r i o t s have been w o r r i e d a b o u t t h e i i r m i n o r i t y p o s i t i o n w i t h i n and domination Turkish Cyprus by t h e Greeks, whereas w i t h t h e w e i g h t o f T u r k e y a t t h e i r backs t h e Greek C y p r i o t s a r e a " s t r a t e g i c m i n o r i t y " . past respects Unfortunately, the h i s t o r y o f G r a e c o - T u r k i s h r i v a l r y has proved t h a t t h e r e a d j u s t m e n t o r c r e a t i o n o f de f a c t o p o l i t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s o r e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s has merely s h i f t e d t h e arena o f c o n f l i c t existence r a t h e r than solved it, and t h e o f such a p h y s i c a l p a r t i t i o n i n Cyprus has n o t e r a s e d t h e - 13 - p o s s i b i l i t y o f a Graeco-Turkish war over the The Super-Power- L e v e l island. : Cyprus a n d N.A.T.O. C y p r u s , l i k e Lebanon, h a s s u f f e r e d f r o m i t s g e o p o l i t i c a l T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t , one position. o f Washington's c o n c e r n s h a s been t o m a i n t a i n s t a b i l i t y i n t h e e a s t e r n f l a n k o f N.A.T.O., o v e r r i d i n g any c o n c e r n f o r C y p r i o t i n d e p e n d e n c e o r C y p r i o t a s p i r a t i o n s . As A d a l b e r t W e i n s t e i n p u t s i t :- " How does i t happen t h a t t h i s e c o n o m i c a l l y meaningless and m i l i t a r i l y n o n - e x i s t e n t s m a l l Cyprus w i t h i t s 650,000 i n h a b i t a n t s have such an i n f l u e n c e on t h e w o r l d scene ? The answer i s s i m p l e . anchored a i r c r a f t Geographically i t i s a securely c a r r i e r a t the i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t o f t h e l i n e s o f t e n s i o n o f the g r e a t n u c l e a r powers. " ( 3 3 ) The B r i t i s h Sovereign Base A r e a s , D h e k e l i a their original faction — Suez, J o r d a n , and A k r o t i r i , no l o n g e r that o f safeguarding British control serve over and I r a q , b u t t h e y a r e k e y bases c o n t r o l l e d by an i m p o r t a n t member o f N.A.T.O., a l t h o u g h n o t d i r e c t l y u n d e r N.A.T.O. command. U n i t e d S t a t e s s t r a t e g i s t s v i e w Cyprus as a base f o r e a r l y - w a r n i n g installations and P r i o r t o ther f o r a e r i a l s u r v e i l l a n c e o f the A r a b - I s r a e l i c o n f l i c t . T974 coup d'e'tat a g a i n s t P r e s i d e n t M a k a r i o s W a s h i n g t o n were c o n c e r n e d about the i s l a n d ' s independent, non-aligned s t a t u s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n view o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l a r g e s t p o l i t i c a l p a r t y i n Cyprus was A.K.E.L., t h e C y p r i o t communist p a r t y , w h i c h was t o t a l l y a g a i n s t any- s o l u t i o n b i n d i n g tVi*t Cyprus t o N.A.T.O. GivenVthe U n i t e d S t a t e s has s e v e r a l m i l i t a r y p l u s the S i x t h F l e e t i n the Mediterranean was a r e a , Cyprus u n d e r M a k a r i o s seen as a p o t e n t i a l "Cuba i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n " , ( 3 4 ) p o i n t has l e d numerous academic o b s e r v e r s bases, Such a s t a n d - t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p l a y e d on i n t r a - r e g i o n a l r i v a l r i e s and i n t e r c o m m u n a l conflict i n o r d e r t o produce a s i t u a t i o n more f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e N.A.T.O. A l l i a n c e . Cyprus became a " t a c t i c a l pawn" r a t h e r t h a n an i n d e p e n d e n t " c o u n t r y w i t h a complex i n d i v i d u a l i t y . " (35) As P o l i v i o s P o l y v i o u , 1980, points out, once t h e T u r k s h a d l a n d e d s u b s t a n t i a l m i l i t a r y f o r c e s i n Cyprus i n J u l y - T974, " A m e r i c a n p o l i c y tilted T u r k e y a s i t was t h o u g h t T4 - decisively that and c o n s c i o u s l y i n favour o f o n l y i n t h i s way c o u l d l o s s e s N.A.T.O. be m i n i m i z e d a n d A m e r i c a n s t r a t e g i c Some c o m m e n t a t o r s h a v e gone e v e n f u r t h e r directed in the tragic the island, of N.A.T.O. with Level interests : Britain's Cyprus' s t r a t e g i c anticolonial of i t s northern part that headquarters, o f the Western d e f e n s i v e Strategic Interests system i n the region.(37) and 'Divide and R u l e ' . i m p o r t a n c e to B r i t a i n r e a c h e d i t s peak d u r i n g t h e 1954, t h e i s l a n d t h e 1950s. Following became B r i t a i n ' s and a base to p r o t e c t vital the evacuation Middle E a s t o i l supplies. tide of Enotist Throughout t h e c o l o n i a l sentiment period, h e l p e d t o p r o p up t h e c o l o n i a l effectively neutralized atives amongst G r e e k 1 8 7 8 - T960, administration. by a c o a l i t i o n i n the Legislative Council. t h e Cyprus movement. riots i n T931. ( 3 8 ) L i t t l e consciousness. I n fact, and T u r k i s h policies were represent- sentiments and t h e p r o - E n o s i s repression after- pro-Enosis w a s done t o p r o m o t e C y p r i o t t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s w e r e - national treated as "a natural horizontal d e v e l o p e d b e t w e e n t h e two c o m m u n i t i e s u n d e r t h e O t t o m a n E m p i r e " were broken. Crisis to counter underestimated the e x t e n s i o n o f G r e e c e a n d t h e Ottoman T u r k s r e s p e c t i v e l y . . . t h e bonds t h a t Question Cypriots. Greek C y p r i o t s B r i t a i n also T h i s was d e m o n s t r a t e d by p o l i t i c a l strategic 'divide and r u l e ' of B r i t i s h s t r e n g t h o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l i s t military These e n c o u r a g i n g T u r k e y ' s i n v o l v e m e n t , w h i c h was a move d e s i g n e d rising rebellion for-ming a p a r t i t i o n c o n c e r n s provoked Anthony Eden to " i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z e " the States u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a k e y member movement i n C y p r u s d u r i n g Suez, i n J u l y by the United the Junta-backed intervention (36) safeguarded." Some W a s h i n g t o n s t r a t e g i s t s may h a v e v i e w e d t h i s r e s u l t a s being i n the best Colonial to suggest e v e n t s o f 1974, s u p p o r t i n g Cyprus and t h e T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y of interests within (39) point was r e a c h e d i n t h e T 9 5 0 s when t h e a g i t a t i o n d e t e r m i n a t i o n and f o r E n o s i s for self- r e a c h e d a c l i m a x u n d e r two c h a r i s m a t i c A r c h b i s h o p M a k a r i o s and C o l o n e l George G r i v a s . I n April leaders, 1 9 5 5 , E.O.K.A. - 15 - ( i . e . E t h n l k i Organosis Kyprion Agoniston. N a t i o n a l O r g a n i e a t i o n o f Freedom F i g h t e r s ) s t a r t e d i t s campaign o f s a b o t a g e a g a i n s t t h e B r i t i s h . I n T956 M a k a r i o s was d e p o r t e d , s u p p o s e d l y f o r c o m p l i c i t y w i t h E.O.K.A. At t h e end o f 1956 B r i t a i n a t t e m p t e d a s e t t l e m e n t drawn up by L o r d Radcliffe. He p r o p o s e d t h a t f o r e i g n a f f a i r s , d e f e n c e , i n t e r n a l s e c u r i t y s h o u l d r e m a i n w i t h t h e G o v e r n o r , whereas i n o t h e r m a t t e r s C y p r i o t s s h o u l d be g r a n t e d maximum s e l f - g o v e r n m e n t i m m e d i a t e l y . I n a c t u a l f a c t t h e Greek C y p r i o t s were o f f e r e d more power t h a n e v e r b e f o r e , b u t t h e y r e j e c t e d the p r o p o s a l s s i n c e no m e n t i o n was made o f s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . I n the House o f Commons, t h e C o l o n i a l S e c r e t a r y , Lennox-Boyd, made t h e f i r s t p u b l i c reference t o p a r t i t i o n , arguing t h a t the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would choose t o j o i n T u r k e y i f g i v e n s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n . Meanwhile t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a d o p t e d T a k s i m ( P a r t i t i o n ) as a c o u n t e r - s l o g a n t o E n o s i s . On a v i s i t t o T u r k e y i n 1*957 Dr Kiicuk, T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r , commented t h a t Ankara would c l a i m n o r t h e r n Cyprus. - The off murder o f a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u x i l i a r y p o l i c e m a n a s e r i e s o f s e r i o u s intercommunal clashes, causing C y p r i o t s t o e v a c u a t e homes and v i l l a g e s . the i n 1957 t r i g g e r e d some T u r k i s h I n r e s p o n s e t o E.O.K.A. a t t a c k s T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f o r m e d t h e i r own d e f e n c e o r g a n i s a t i o n c a l l e d T.M.T. ( i . e . T u r k Mudafa T e s k i l a t (40) ) , a p a r a m i l i t a r y f o r c e a s s i s t e d by A n k a r a . Apart from p r o v o k i n g intercommunal e m n i t y E.O.K.A. h a d f o r c e d B r i t a i n t o r e t h i n k i t s Cyprus s t r a t e g y . As R o b e r t Stephens p u t i t :" W i t h 28,000 B r i t i s h t r o o p s t i e d down c h a s i n g t h r e e h u n d r e d E.O.K.A. t e r r o r i s t s , a military In was liability." mid-1'958 A r c h b i s h o p prepared two o r Cyprus h a d become (4T) Makarios i n d i c a t e d f o r the f i r s t t o f o r g o E n o s i s and s e t t l e f o r i n d e p e n d e n c e . t i m e t h a t he He was c o n c e r n e d t h a t p a r t i t i o n w o u l d e i t h e r be imposed by B r i t a i n o r won by the Turks i n a c i v i l ment was r e a c h e d . little war should B r i t a i n leave before^ a guaranteed A t t h e same t i m e B r i t a i n d e c i d e d Cyprus was no l o n g e r c r u c i a l t o h e r s t r a t e g i c settle- that sovereignty requirements. over - T6 - F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e was c o n c e r n o v e r t h e g r o w i n g r i f t w i t h i n N.A.T.O. between Greece and T u r k e y o v e r C y p r u s . A l l t h e s e f a c t o r s l e d t o t r i p a r t i t e t a l k s between B r i t a i n , Greece and T u r k e y c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e Z u r i c h - L o n d o n Agreements o f F e b r u a r y 1959. Although Archbishop M a k a r i o s and a l a r g e d e l e g a t i o n f r o m Cyprus were p r e s e n t a t t h e s e t a l k s t h e p r o v i s i o n s were imposed f r o m o u t s i d e Cyprus by t h e t h r e e i n t e r e s t e d p o w e r s . Thus t h e C y p r i o t l e a d e r s were p r e s e n t e d w i t h a f a i t a c c o m p l i , a s e t t l e m e n t t h e y were o b l i g e d t o a c c e p t . Unfortunately f o r C y p r i o t u n i t y n e i t h e r E n o s i s n o r T a k s i m were dead, b o t h p o l i c i e s reemerged a f t e r I n d e p e n d e n c e . For a more t h o r o u g h u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f t h e Cyprus Problem the r e a d e r s h o u l d c o n s u l t t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y a t the back. p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n i s o n l y i n t e n d e d as a summary o f some o f t h e s t r a n d s o f t h e P r o b l e m and n o t a d e f i n i t i v e account. The~ major - 17 - F o o t n o t e s and References. (1) Moskos.C.C.Jnr. 1976, Peace s o l d i e r s : the sociology o f a United Nations m i l i t a r y force. ( Chicago University Press ) , p.35. (2) Stagenga,J.A. 1968, The U n i t e d N a t i o n s F o r c e i n C y p r u s . ( Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y Press ) . (3) Luard.E. ( E d i t o r ) , 1972, The i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n o f c i v i l w a r s . ( New York U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s ) ; R i k h y e , H a r b o t t l e , & Egge, 1974, The t h i n b l u e l i n e :international p e a c e k e e p i n g and i t s f u t u r e . ( Y a l e University Press ) Adams,T.W. & C o t t r e l l , A . J . 1968, 'American f o r e i g n p o l i c y and the- U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i n C y p r u s ' , i n O r b i s , v o l . T 2 , n o . 2 ( summer T968 ),pp.490 - 503. (4) Stagenga, op. c i t . . r e f e r t o ch.4. (5) Stagenga,J.A. 1970, 'U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g : t h e Cyprus v e n t u r e ' i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Peace R e s e a r c h . V o l . 7 ( 1 9 7 0 ) , p.12. (6) P a t r i c k , R . A . 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t . 19631971 . ( U n i v e r s i t y o f W a t e r l o o , Canada ) , r e f e r to t h e Forward. (7) ibid., p.411. (8) Stephens,R. T966, Cyprus a p l a c e o f arms, power p o l i t i c s and e t h n i c 1 conflict i n the eastern Mediterranean. ( P a l l Mall ) , q u o t e d i n M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, 1976, p.3. (9) L o i z o s , P . 1976, i n M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30.Cyprus. P a r t 2. (TO) Drury.M.P. J a n u a r y T977, 'Western C y p r u s : Two decades o f population u p h e a v a l , T956 - 1976', p a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers Annual C o n f e r e n c e , J a n u a r y 1977. (1T) O b e r l i n g . P . 1982, The Road t o B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , see c h a p t e r s 10 & 1 1 . (12) H i t c h e n s . C . 1984, C y p r u s . ( Q u a r t e t Books ) , p.27. (13) F o r more on t h e d i s t i n c t i o n s between o r d e f i n i t i o n s o f 'Greek O r t h o d o x ' and 'Muslim' r e f e r t o S t . J o h n - J o n e s , 1983, The P o p u l a t i o n o f Cyprus. ( U n i v e r s i t y o f London, I n s t i t u t e o f Commonwealth S t u d i e s , 23 ) . (1-4) The Cyprus C o n s t i t u t i o n , H.M.S.O. Cmnd. 1093, R e p r i n t e d 1964. (15) L o i z o s . P . T976, M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , o p . c i t . . p. 1 2 . (16) O t h e r c o l o n i a l powers i n t h e r e g i o n have used m i n o r i t y g r o u p s i n t h i s way. Syria, F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e F r e n c h used t h e Druzes and t h e A l a w i i n t h e B e r b e r s i n t h e Maghreb, and t h e C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e Lebanon. - T8 - The B r i t i s h had p r e v i o u s l y used t h e A s s y r i a n s i n I r a q . R e f e r t o : A t t a l i d e s . M . 1976, ' R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n Greeks and T u r k i s h Cypriots i n P e r s p e c t i v e ' , i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography. P r o c e e d i n g s ( Cyprus Geographi c a l A s s o c i a t i o n , 27 - 29 Feb., N i c o s i a ) , p.58. (17) i b i d . , p.59. (18) i b i d . . p.56. (19) Drury.M.P. Jan.1977, op. c i t . and a l s o r e f e r t o : t K y r r i s . C . 1976, ' S y m b i o t i c e l e m e n t s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e two communities o f Cyprus', i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l op. Symposium, c i t . . p.130. He a r g u e s t h a t t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l " s y m b i o s i s " was " t h e most v a l u a b l e v i c t i m o f t h e v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n o f T u r k i s h chauvanism t o t h e Greek C y p r i o t s • a n t i - c o l o n i a l s t r u g g l e . " p.150. (20) C o u f o u d a k i s , V . 1976, 'The Dynamics o f P o l i t i c a l P a r t i t i o n and D i v i s i o n i n M u l t i e t h n i c and M u l t i r e l i g i o u s S o c i e t i e s — The Case o f C y p r u s ' , i n Essays on t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t , ( e d . C o u f o u d a k i s ) , ( P e l l a P u b l i s h i n g Co., New York ) , p.3T. (2T) L o i z o s . P . T976, M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op. clt. (22) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.13. (23) i b i d . . p.15. (24) H i t c h e n s . C . op. c i t . . p.159. (25) C o u f o u d a k i s , V . 1976, op. c i t . . pp.33 - 39. (26) Drury.M.P. 1981, 'The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f C y p r u s ' , i n Change and Development i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t , ( e d i t o r s , C l a r k e Bowen-Jones (27) & ) , (Methuen), p.291. Patrick,R.Ac. op. c i t . . p.327. n.b. see a l s o Stephens,R. i n B r i t i s h E m p i r e Magazine. 1973, p.2578. (28) Beeley.B.W. 1978, 'The G r e e k - T u r k i s h b o u n d a r y : c o n f l i c t at the i n t e r f a c e ' , i n I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers Transactions ( New s e r i e s , v o l . 3 , no.3 ) , (29) ibid., p.351. (30) R e f e r t o : Blake,G.H. 1'981, ' O f f s h o r e p o l i t i c s and r e s o u r c e s i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t ' , i n Change and Development , op. c i t . , pp.124 - 128. and R o z a k i s . C . L . 1975, 'The G r e e k - T u r k i s h d i s p u t e o v e r t h e Aegean continental s h e l f . Rhode I s l a n d , Law o f t h e Sea I n s t i t u t e , Paper no.27, pp.1-17. (31) This quotation i s from a booklet e n t i t l e d 'The F a c t s on t h e T u r k i s h I n t e r v e n t i o n i n C y p r u s ' , p r e p a r e d by a p r i v a t e g r o u p o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n 1974. (32) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, T984 e d i t i o n , C y p r u s , p . 1 5 . (33) W e i s t e i n . A . 1974, 'Zyperns S t r a t i g i s c h e Bedeutung', i n F r a n k f u r t e r Allegemeine Zeitung. (34) 19 J u l y 1974. R e f e r t o : A t t a l i d e s . M . 1"979, C y p r u s . ( Q P r e s s L t d . , E d i n b u r g h ) , p.121. He q u o t e s f r o m t h e W a s h i n g t o n P o s t . 3 March 1964, " . . . t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f M a k a r i o s t o C a s t r o goes beyond t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y b o t h wear b e a r d s . H e e d l e s s o f consequences each has f l o u t e d t h e i n t e r e s t o f o t h e r s , and each has a p p e a r e d t o be t h e p r i s o n e r o f more e x t r e m e factions." (35) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . (36) P o l y v i o u . P . G . 1980, C y p r u s : C o n f l i c t and N e g o t i a t i o n . p.163. 1960 - 1980. ( D u c k w o r t h ) , p.20T. (37) One n o t a b l e r e c e n t example i s t h e book by C h r i s t o p h e r H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . , i n w h i c h he a r g u e s " t h a t t h e r e was c o l l u s i o n u n e v e n l y matched and d i f f e r e n t l y m o t i v a t e d f o r c e s , who r e a s o n s d i s l i k e d an i n d e p e n d e n t C y p r u s " , pp.164 - 165. (38) Stephens,R. 1966, (39) C o u f o u d a k i s . V . 1976, (40) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , 1984, op. c i t . . (41) Stephens,S. 1973, B r i t i s h Empire Magazine op. c i t . . pp.60 - 120. op. c i t . . p.33. p.7. , p.2596. 1984, between f o r varying - CHAPTER On 14 TURKISH March 1971, - TWO CONSTITUTIONAL C R I S I S GREEK AND 20 AND THE GEOGRAPHICAL D I S T R I B U T I O N CYPRIOTS. President Makarios s t a t e d i n a public broadcast "' C y p r u s i s a G r e e k I s l a n d . o f h i s t o r y and taken it At a press Cypriot i t as conference leader, on this community little during on the the questions criteria de (i) The The Independence reasons f o r the London A c c o r d s laid Treaty absolute this the of 1960 see that Turkish two save ) from f u t u r e h a r a s s m e n t . " (2) reconciliation This Chapter C o n s t i t u t i o n , and just any how concentrates (ii) intermixed different Cyprus from Greek C y p r i o t s , geographical basis f o r was and a communities. the i s only to Enosis first military square of Guarantee, Constitution. the enabling 99 and Republic are The well Zurich- C o n s t i t u t i o n and drew :- o v e r two uphold Cypriot a skeleton outline. b a s i c framework o f Establishment, Treaty intervene proviso the so totalling ( 2 ) Under the could to c o l l a p s e of sovereignty Dhekelia, , the separation w i l l 'Sixties. t h e r e was international treaties ( 1 ) The hand Constitution. documented e l s e w h e r e three the the we v i e w s e a c h community adopted ( 3 ) , Independence s e p a r a t i o n " of have :- f a c t o s e p a r a t i o n of T u r k i s h "geographical dawn shall until moved t o w a r d s p o l i t i c a l i n order whether o r not Island, we T972, R a u f D e n k t a s opposite decade o f the and We :- (T) ( Turkish Cypriot b o t h s i d e s had c o l l a p s e of geographical before Greek the forever. Island of geographical r e v e a l the turbulent ( i ) the undivided b l u n t l y commented Both statements how Greek 22 F e b r u a r y short Greek from remain Greek a wholly an I t was o v e r to Mother G r e e c e . " "...nothing and i t shall i t over as preserve OF the Britain bases, to retain Akrotiri and miles. Britain, independence Greece, or of Turkey Cyprus with T a k s i m were p r o h i b i t e d , and to the restore up - - 21 ( 3 ) The T r e a t y o f A l l i a n c e p r o v i d e d 9 5 0 t r o o p s a n d ' t u r k e y 6 5 0 t r o o p s on I I n d e p e n d e n c e was three years suffered paralysis. The Constitution rights proved but the a constitutional crisis and virtual preserve to be The was for The instance, civil gave Cypriots powers out "ethnic and Turkish safeguard Vice-President foreign affairs, had defence, claimed cent that the of or Constitution them and ident should i m p o s e d on be subject Kuijuk p r o p o s i n g implemented into a state Turkish the ruled rather by who C h r i s t m a s week to the Cypriot Cypriot t h e i r numbers. than "majority r a t i o s were per cent to of a l l the~ relating enhance along bicommunal Makarios argued he on the that to be as for scene the for Turkish unacceptable "co-founders" of Ankara h a s t i l y the If Republic to the rejected intercommunal Cypriot with Vice-Pres- the w h i c h was idea the transformed principles, the lines, a l t e r a t i o n s would have s e t t i n g the thus consultation wrote to inter- (6) group. Turkish Another example were people without treated unfair, B i c o m m u n a l i s m was revision. Therefore a minority and Turkish Cons^ution. to the two the wanted 1963 the c o n s t i t u t i o n based President the majority than as Makarios' proposals, (5) level. t h i r t e e n amendments t o suggested Cypriots Republic of only organ of separation". was political into Cypriot moreover, nothing municipalities organized territorial the which did legitimized of to thirty internal security. at the the ethnic army p o s t s ; communal c o o p e r a t i o n ""thereby b e c o m i n g Turkish veto powers o v e r a l l l e g i s l a t i o n in a Constitution separate that first governmental polarizing were e n t i t l e d to f o r t y per Cypriot Republic's balances written a l l proportion argued Cypriots service posts; of station b a l a n c e " BC h i g h e r p r i o r i t y Greek C y p r i o t s instutionalized checks b i c o m m u n a l i s m and Greek granted Constitution rule".(4) August a major c e n t r i f u g a l force community l e a d e r s h i p s . "minority" on complex s y s t e m of to could 1'960, gained 16 that Greece Cyprus. withdrawal clashes from Government. Turkish Cypriot leaders have susequently drawn a t t e n t i o n to the activities - of the M i n i s t e r of circulated whereby the the Interior, Akritas Plan. Polykarpos Yorgadis, This plan of s e l f - d e t e r m i n a t i o n to i f Turkish Cypriots resisted they E.O.K.A. men took o v e r from the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s who to Peter "...the were to were the by hostilities...This It It military led directly of groups Cypriot political (ii) Was there any every to to the that urban there c e n t r e s had Cypriots record as f o r such attacks an m i s t a k e was event Greek (7) ex- on occurrence. of to form intercommunal extremists' to provoke claims partition. (8) up para- c o n s t i t u t i o n a l deadlock, an outbreak of their mutually exclusive- that b a s i s f o r b i c o m m u n a l i s m and i n every were of a dramatic the District only inhabited villages was of cent i n which 1*960, i t was " In essentially the G r e e k and village ( 25,000 i n no Michael ) of the ethnic ratio thus 'normal' to and towns the one population. the monoglot six district and ( refer d e c l i n e i n the e v e n p r i o r t o D e c e m b e r 1'963. seven per town and 11'4 " m i x e d " v i l l a g e s mixed p o p u l a t i o n s , was the and Turkish often in (9) form a m a j o r i t y there f partition ... f r u i t - c a k e i n which were m i x e d up street." Independence five force. both communities b u i l t villages In to survival geographical ethnographical currants Turkish suggested A " s e c r e t army" o f intercommunal v i o l e n c e . . . " argue been d e s c r i b e d " an all to to owing uBe goals. Cyprus has At gave f u e l i n a n t i c i p a t i o n of v i o l e n c e , and I t also organizing T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were going s e e m s more a c c u r a t e steps :- most s e r i o u s T u r k i s h the of s u b d u e d by broke out. armed g r o u p s f o r p r o t e c t i o n i n t h e that be themselves preparing Loizos clandestinely C o n s t i t u t i o n and Enosis. to politicians who down a s e r i e s achieve 2T D e c e m b e r i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e According lays G r e e k s w o u l d make a d j u s t m e n t s concept that On the the - 22 Table region It is 2.1 did fell rural below Paphos population 2:1. inhabit a village quarters the mixed Drury found i n the total ), interesting number o f mono-religious." ethnic to which (TO) were clearly define - 23 - TABLE 2.1 THE DECLINE OF MIXED COMMUNITIES IN CYPRUS, 1891-1970 Date Total Villages 1891 702 342 114 346 49.4% 1931 694 358 84 252 36.3% 1960 623 392 117 114 18.3% 1970 602 444 no 48 7.9% Sources: Greek Cypriot Turki sh Cypriot Mixed Villages M.R.G. Report, , 1976, No.30, Cyprus, p.28. P a t r i c k , R. 1976, p.12. i see Fig. 2:1 I Mixed as percentage of t o t a l - 24 - P.G_ I S ! PROGRESSIVE SEGREGATION OF THE CYPRIOT ETHNIC COMMUNITIES, 1891-1970 Totals 702 694 623 602 1S91 1931 1960 1970* (* based on field research) Census Years PATRICK ' 76 Greek-Cypriot Turk-Cypriot Mixed A centre was considered to be mixed if ten or more people of a second ethnic group were residents. If the centre's total population was l e s s than 100, the minority ethnic group had to comprise at least 10% of that total. - though b o u n d a r y - l e s s . segregation and Villages increasing Geographical of the turned backing In an into article of C y p r i o t ' s and was entitled the of British partition Turkish T977, argues of one of contact." was (1T) mooted i n P a r l i a m e n t the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i t h geographically justifiable ', A l e x a n d e r 2.1. Definition the suggested ). He the or ( half "population close Six ) Nevertheless, the United from to Greek the exchange of 40,000 T u r k s actual coast ) ( half (T2) numbers o f d i s p l a c e d through cent of the Kucuk p r e s e n t e d Mediator, s e p a r a t i o n of under United They c l a i m e d m i l e s o r 38 p e r Fazil Nations proposed a d i v i d i n g east. involve from T u r k i s h territory." I n T965 D r "voluntary exchange" of people T,084 s q u a r e to for a geographical the n o r t h w e s t e r n definition exchange-" f o l l o w i n g t h e T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n ( R e f e r to Chapter had " the Greek p o p u l a t i o n of Cyprus ) from Greek are extremely boundary suggestion w i l l a g a i n s t about in :- same number o f T u r k s the T u r k i s h p o p u l a t i o n t o Famagusta? i n t h e concluded involve a population of exercise the T u r k i s h distribution and the Turks by of the boundary a c c o r d i n g memorandum t o S e n o r G a l o P l a z a , t h e Initially lines exchange o f about 60,000 Greeks a g a i n s t about I t argued : A class Melamid d i s c u s s e d the from T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y i n the February. Cyprus population suggestion w i l l latter figures on Drury, at a l l levels ' Partitioning ( R e f e r t o Map 200,000 G r e e k s T974. — the i s l a n d ' s territory. Yalia of e t h n i c a t i n d e p e n d e n c e was the boundary f o l l o w i n g the B r i t i s h territory a levels Communities. the proposed p a r t i t i o n a population and As i d e a of p a r t i t i o n Geography " Owing t o in high ? definitions people the of a g e o p o l i t i c a l g o a l by Applied P o l i t i c a l The had situation Distribution of Ankara, but feasible also ethnic polarisation P r i o r to Independence and - d u p l i c a t i o n of functions. " the r e a l i t y The 25 the the line the on two a 22 communities Nations s u p e r v i s i o n . from the v i l l a g e of 'Green L i n e ' o f N i c o s i a , zone n o r t h o f total area of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were p r e p a r e d the to r e d u c e this line, Republic. the area and some - 26 - 10 (D 0 0 0 CD 0 to eg CO E E s • a a a a a a 0 63 a a a 0 a a a to I CO a. < a - originally (1'3) Republic. Turkish the in claimed The about 1974, T a k s i m had for i n the Mainland Turkey the firstly had I t could much t o g a i n a by cent population from goal the the military action m a s s e , and ( see of of I n p r a c t i c e , when Turkish December 1 9 7 5 . political 20 the a l l but a Chapter Six ) Turkish Cypriots strongly opposed an be argued terrorists; Enosis, equilibrium insisting that of t e r r i t o r i a l "any settle- interests in (T4) that p o l i t i c a l l y from p a r t i t i o n , the Turkish which would e f f e c t i v e l y Cypriot give leaders them charge mini-state^. Political motives divisions of of Tables 2.1 r a t h e r than geographical two p e o p l e s ( l «ap# i a -is) distribution; 2.6 to land a b a s i s f o r the f o r m a t i o n of and Cypriots, Turkish Cypriots. population remaining highest During the dispersed Cypriot of N i c o s i a old three settlements the 1 cantons had ) , and I n d e e d an patterns the 23.1 as T u r k i s h p e r c e n t a g e s f o r any there l e t alone analysis size and not even was two de facto d i s t r i b u t i o n s of Greek l a r g e s t percentage of T977, r e v e a l s t h a t ( Ktima % of 3T.4 the Cypriot, part of % of the population these the of being island the the with the town. years of island's settlements throughout l i e b e h i n d most p h y s i c a l b a s i s of p o p u l a t i o n to D i s t r i c t Paphos D i s t r i c t rural the artificial were c l a s s i f i e d first on settlement M i c h a e l Dmiry, district the and According o f P a p h o s town u r b a n and exception of (T5) sense a common t e r r i t o r y . show t h a t ownership; zones. Turkish sharing will mono-ethnic 38 % per a decade. moved en Greek C y p r i o t must m a i n t a i n also about Cypriot take refugees the eastern Mediterranean." iii) Greek or :- Physical safety against ment the N o r t h by developed i n t o s e v e r a l reasons ii) square miles b r u t a l l y enforced Greek C y p r i o t remained - estimated p o l i c y o f p a r t i t i o n was minority of 750 t r a n s f e r of zone w o u l d , i t was August i) to 27 the Independent Republic were e i t h e r T u r k i s h countryside, form a m a j o r i t y . and i n no approximately o r mixed. district did Only i n s m a l l p a r t s of These the each were Turkish district - TABLE 2.2 28 - THE GROWTH OF GREEK ORTHODOX AND MUSLIM COMMUNITIES Census of Greek Orthodox Musiim 1891 158,585 47,926 1901 182,739 51,309 1921 244,887 61,339 1931 276,572 64,238 1946 361,199 80,548 1960 442,363 104,333 *1973 482,000 1976 1978 (approximate) 480-488,000 - (approx.) 145,000 Source: S t . J o h n - J o n e s , 1983, The Population of Cyprus, I n s t i t u t e Commonwealth S t u d i e s , 23, p.19. *Notes: of (1) The Census data from 1891-1960, gave "above-average q u a l i t y d a t a " , whereas the f i g u r e s f o r 1973 and 1976 are l e s s r e l i a b l e , few questions were asked in the enumerations. As f o r the 1978 population estimate of the Turkish Cypriot community, St.John-Johns questions i t s accuracy. He argues that "the t o t a l of 145,000 was not only p e r f e c t l y f e a s i b l e on demographic grounds but could have been much higher i f some immigration i s assumed". (2) On the foundation of the Independent Republic of Cyprus in 1960 the categories of population change from "Greek Orthodox" and Muslim to "Greek Cypriot" and "Turkish C y p r i o t " , thus the Greek Cypriot category may be i n f l a t e d due to the i n c l u s i o n of Maronites and other groups under the terms of Community d e f i n i t i o n w r i t t e n into the Constitution. - 29 - TABLE 2.3 District DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOTS BY DISTRICT IN 1973 Total Population Greeks % Turks % Nicosia 230,278 184,441 80.09 45,837 19.91 Kyrenia 33,400 28,828 86.31 4,572 13.69 127,135 106,112 83.46 21,023 16.54 Larnaca 61,821 48,568 78.56 13,253 21.44 Limassol 118,600 103,725 87.46 14,875 12.54 63,420 48,020 75.72 15,400 24.28 634,654 519,694 Famagusta Paphos TOTAL 81.9 114,960 18.1 Source : K a r o ^ i s , G. 1976, p.16. N.B. He used the r e s u l t s of the Census of Population and A g r i c u l t u r e , 1960, together with those of the Demographic Report for the year 1970, Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , N i c o s i a . 30 5 I I * 1 I s I to 2 CO •r- 0) to in at I CO UJ I A I I 9 9 I (0 0) I I • H2 u. (fl (0 UJ to (0 UJ I 1 M I 35 CM • TABLE 2.4 DISTRIBUTION OF GREEK AND TURKISH CYPRIOT LAND OWNERSHIPS Population Groups Area ( i n donums) % 4,123,711 59.6 852,455 12.3 91,406 1.4 1,847,820 26.7 Greeks Turks Armenians, Maronites and others State owned i 1 TOTAL Source: 6,915,392 i 100.0 Lands and Surveys Department, 'Whose i s What? The true f a c t s of land ownership in Cyprus, Cyprus T o - d a y , V o l . X I I , N o . 6 . 1 N.B. Excluding s t a t e land ownership, the percentages read as f o l l o w s : Greeks 81.37% Turks 16.82% Armenians, Maronites and others Total 1.81% 100.00 CO & i 3 I I & 15 3 2 1 a % i - TABLE 2.5 33 - GREEK AND TURKISH HOLDINGS, 1960 Population Group Area ( i n donums) Greeks Turks Others TOTAL % 2,502,441 78.3 652,486 20.4 42,821 1.3 3,197,748 100.0 Source: Census of Population and A g r i c u l t u r e , 1960. Taken from : K a r o u z i s , G. 1973, p. 109. TABLE 2.6 District DISTRIBUTION OF HOLDINGS BY DISTRICT, 1960 Total Greek 1 Turk Other i i j Nicosia 20,107 17,302 Kyrenia 4,988 3,966 2,727 78 657 365 2,286 5 i i Famagusta 14,533 12,242 Larnaca 6,570 5,057 1,509 4 Limassol 12,874 11,627 1,239 8 Paphos 11,054 8,712 2,338 2 TOTAL 70,124 58,906 10,756 462 Source: As Above. 1 - were t h e r e any concentrations s u c h as i n the the Turkish southern Platini, enclaves, ( of Turkish of Cypriot the and mixed Pentadaktylos formed Ayios Ermolaos spread the- b a s i s o f n o r t h e r n f o r example i n the centres, range, area south of across with Artemis, this Turkish area. Cypriot St. Hilarion Castle. r e f e r t o Map3'-1) Mixed p o p u l a t i o n falling from 1931 1960. i) to During 36 centres % to This the T8 % o f t h e iii) socio-economic 1963, settlements a combination of a reduction to i n the separate landuse of abandoned v i l l a g e s re-evacuate writes:- " The villages from factors number :- of in certain to the Turkish began a t isolated and vulnerable emerged a s (19) I t was "the dominant and I I as a r e s u l t revenge 1957-58. that of t i m e was the These 1963-'64, that period that As t o a l l but and Turkish because down, isolated lead (T8) they "felt" " f e e l i n g s " r e a c h e d new i n many c a s e s intercommunal h i g h l i g h t some o f six Cypriot community." and or Oberling u l t i m a t e l y to i n f l u e n c e i n a f f e c t i n g the Chapter Three w i l l calmed Pierre from mixed c e r t a i n settlements of of killings They w h o l l y returned crisis. Cypriots to a t t a c k . during in Greek C y p r i o t intercommunal v i o l e n c e justified. Cypriots 1963-'64 also (T7) villages physical separation evacuated a f t e r W o r l d War o n c e i n t e r c o m m u n a l r e l a t i o n s had community from the Often v i l l a g e r s problems have villages. These r e f u g e e s them i n t h e which some Turkish villages. exodus of water supply urbanisation. evacuate evacuated to 27 to of increased against partly ment." attempt resettlement c h a n g e s and p e r s u a d e d many T u r k s the by was construction, migration I V ) E.O.K.A. v i o l e n c e only there in a British abandonment o r Rural-urban the number o f i s explained c o l o n i a l period E a r t h movement's, dam caused total December (T6) areas. ii) were" d e c l i n i n g b e f o r e decline marginal v i l l a g e s in - Ayios Andronikos, Ayios Iacovos, Photta, Such c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of foothills settlements Kalivakia, 34 were tensions pattern the heights of settle- major changes in - 35 - t h e p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y o f C y p r u s r e s u l t i n g f r o m s u c h p o p u l a t i o n movements, which a c c o r d i n g t o R u s s e l l King "formed t h e g e o g r a p h i c a l stepping s t o n e t o t h e nevr s t a t e " , i . e . t h e T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d m i c r o - s t a t e i n northern Cyprus. (20) I n George K a r o u z i s ' to f i n d d e t a i l e d study of various in an a t t e m p t a rational on knowledge o f p o p u l a t i o n o w n e r s h i p , he d i s c o v e r e d TT7 purely Turkish Out of these villages over f i v e Turkish villages. village groups. He f i n a l l y I tw i l l o f most Turkish island to d i s c o v e r decided population nature of the v i l l a g e Cypriot control i n political four others living i n i n groups o f o f both Greek and of "Turkish on s e v e n s t r a n g e l y borders of shaped regions map when e x a m i n i n g t o t h e map o f C y p r u s o v e r t h e l a s t t h e maps s h o w i n g T u r k i s h o f many o f t h e T u r k i s h and l a n d one v i l l a g e , 1 7 i n to the a d m i n i s t r a t i v e this two Cypriot settlements a n d human transformed terms. the landscape enclaves. and s m a l l groupings, the formation o f "pockets" completely based i n 54 a r e a s . ( 2 1 ) the existence be u s e f u l t o c o n s i d e r and t o compare i t w i t h Given the dispersed size and j u s t He t h e n a d d e d m i x e d v i l l a g e s a c t u a l l y h a s happened decades, Cypriot patterns, i n T960 was c o n c e n t r a t e d boundaries corresponding ( s e e Map what the Turkish villages, m a j o r i t i e s i n order Regions" with settlement 54 a r e a s , 3 3 w e r e i n g r o u p i n g s o f j u s t g r o u p i n g s o f two t o f i v e criteria s o l u t i o n to the Cyprus Problem distribution, that geographical of o f the z o o UJ a o c D. >• o X in - 37 - F o o t n o t e s and R e f e r e n c e s . (1) R e f e r to b i b l i o g r a p h i c a l details and to C h a p t e r F i v e on M a k a r i o s ' a m b i g u o u s s t a n d on (2) Quoted i n A t t a l i d e s . M . (3) Although particularly a n d he was 1979, i t s h o u l d be n o t e d a m b i g u o u s and (4) references contradictory 1967 after that (5) ibid. (6) Makarios' proposed statements regarding from J u n t a was 1984, communal r a t i o s i n the c i v i l service with population ratio and community. p.8. Cyprus, municipal councils; several i n power i n Athens e x t r e m i s t s w i t h i n h i s own and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t i a l of u n i f i e d made included the veto powers; the the r e v i s i o n security of f o u r Greeks ),p.156 Enosis. amendments t o t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n removal of P r e s i d e n t i a l the a c t u a l L t d . , Edinburgh Archbishop Makarios Group R e p o r t , N o . 3 0 , Minority Rights Enosis. ( Q Press when a m i l i t a r y under p r e s s u r e establishment Cyprus. f o r more forces of to the coincide to e v e r y one Turkish Cypriot. (7) Oberling.P. 1982, The Road to B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia University Press ) p.81. a n < i (8) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , N o . 3 0 , Peter Loizos, (9) Folie,C. 1964, (11) Drury.M.P. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7 , Cyprus. 1976 p.9. edition, Cyprus, refer to 2. Part Legacy of S t r i f e . ( Penguin (10) 1984, Cyprus from rebellion to c i v i l war. Books ) . 'Western C y p r u s : Two upheaval, 1956 - '76', Institute of B r i t i s h decades of population a paper p r e s e n t e d at the Geographers Annual Conference. ibid. (12) Melamid.A. i n The (13) U.N.Mediator's R e p o r t J o u r n a l o f Geography. 1960, Vol.59, to t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l , 26 p.122. March 1964, para. 109. 110. (14) ibid.. para. (15) K a r o u z i s , G . 1976, Proposals for a solution ( (16) Some e x a m p l e s Cosmos P r e s s , a r e g i v e n from Nicosia Western to the Cyprus Problem. ) , p.94. C y p r u s by M i c h a e l D r u r y , 1977, op. c i t . (17) Patrick,R.A. 1976, Political ( (18) Oberling, op. (19) Drury, (20) King.R. August T977, cit.. OP. G e o g r a p h y and University of Waterloo the Cyprus Press, Conflict. Canada ) , p.8. p.6T. cit.. 1980, 'Cyprus s i n c e T974: E c o n o m i c and Demographic Change', a p a p e r p r e s e n t e d to t h e Geography Fifth Mediterraean Conference, B a r - I l a n Section, University, I I I I I 1 I I I I I i I (21) Karouzis.G. 1976, Tel Aviv, 5 - 7 op. cit.. pp.110 - August 139. 1980. - 39 - CHAPTER THREE THE S P A T I A L ASPECTS OF INTERCOMMUNAL C O N F L I C T AND TURKISH CYPRIOT ENCLAVES I N In a report submitted ,r dared kinds of "green l i n e " points, barriers, fortified second kind kind..." of formation other be the never under the groups. raising the the The were, refer two two of the an b r e a k down."' 1964 to '74 "saw communities." C o n s t i t u t i o n had Simultaneously, event de in 1964. process the fell of i n t o the hands Many f o r m e r E.O.K.A. members Cyprus P o l i c e , independent of Greek which central made some off Turkish Cypriot of "Visible" f a c t o changes to August initiative T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had t h e i r v i l l a g e s r i n the of and Violence. terrorists. g u i d a n c e o f T.M.T. to s e a l psycho- (3) c o l l a p s e d the t h e i r weapons t o Invested (2) a continuing Intercommunal and wall. proximity "Invisible" a result between invisible also represented meeting of two Such d i s t a n c i n g Cyprus from the C y p r u s , D e c e m b e r 1963 Outbreak of handed over to communities as decade the to they d i s s i d e n t armed g a n g s to e x i s t direction. fortify the concrete walls impossible community p a r a m i l i t a r i e s several as these geography of between Once t h e Turks, emotion as quotations S e c t i o n One: had the w a l l s were b u i l t . Unfortunately, of psychological " a psychological distance a s members o f d i f f e r e n t G r e e k s and political cleavage the strong- trenches... of separating the s a n d b a g g e d w a l l s and was people road-blocks, on above ) there few of T u r k i s h Cypriote e n c l a v e s conceptualized logical walls and Wherever a c t u a l dangers arose with The '65 to March of T965, :- Cyprus, out "green l i n e " communities maintained can March T h e r e were f i r s t l y constructed houses, 26 (T) With the each on on stated ( Dec.'63 period to c r o s s e i t h e r k i n d . physical The Secretary-General Mediator i n Cyprus, A l l through t h i s w e r e two CYPRUS. to the S e n i o r G a l o P l a z a , U.N. FORMATION OF Cypriot enabled government preparations quarters assaults. and - The last occasion 40 - when T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s could Greek s e c t o r of N i c o s i a without harassment 2T on December 1963. 2-15 At a.m. w e r e s t o p p e d i n Hermes S t r e e t , t h e quarters to see and of c e n t r a l N i c o s i a , by their identity a Turkish sparked Cypriot areas jets "warning end the mixed n o r t h e r n wounded o r after flights" and The a Turkish Cypriot charge of carried under the the fell taken their sides with the foundations Following of villages Cypriot British the the Cypriot broke After three Minister the three road. I n no only Greek week t r o u b l e s by Turkish were abandoned. operation. Turkey, was contingents Greeks e v e n t u a l l y Turkish National Geunyeli in had moved Contingent along the t o map3-2) operation to end-August C y p r i o t s , and United and of Greece, w h i c h was in Nicosia,violence Prom D e c e m b e r 1963 Cypriot time, t o t a l c e a s e - f i r e other The Keuy, and ( refer Guarantor a cease-fire peace-keeping hands, f o r t h e the who and from a l l governmental compatriots. out, Greek C y p r i o t s comprising i n Cyprus. camp, w h e r e a s wishing capital. f o r U.N.P.I.CYP., i n t e r c o m m u n a l f i g h t i n g were e v a c u a t e d villages the by on incident T u r k i s h Prime mounted t h e i r p e a c e k e e p i n g Christmas island. this national contingents into British Nicosia-Kyrenia the police firing hostage. a tripartite encamped a r o u n d K e r m i a , O r t a strategic While the Army U n i t s t h e i r permanent remained by was Cypriots command o f M a j o r - G e n e r a l P e t e r Young, who British responsibilities to out now the Greek/Turkish Makarios accepted withdrawal s e r v i c e p o s i t i o n s , a g r e e d to be the by s e v e r a l appeals G o v e r n m e n t , by of suburbs of Omorphita taken to f i g h t i n g , P r e s i d e n t Day. Britain, areas a n g r y crowd g a t h e r e d , b u z z e d o v e r N i c o s i a i n what as T h i s was.to lay of Many were k i l l e d , Christmas back old Greek C y p r i o t immediate c e a s e - f i r e were i g n o r e d Turkish P o w e r s f o r an and the p a r t s of described civil boundary of off indiscriminate f i g h t i n g i n other Trakhonas. leaders a group o f T u r k i s h News o f attacked on t h a t day c o u p l e were shot streets or f e a r of harassment a p a t r o l of An the dead. A p p e a l s f o r an Turkish cards. walk Nations 24 wholly continued. spread 1964, to 72 to other mixed Turkish figures estimated about - 41 25,000 r e f u g e e s , Turkish o f whom a b o u t Cypriot camps. (4) less t h a n 200 refugees because of the remainder found larger temporary Others have argued t h a t between became r e f u g e e s . probably homes i n 21,000 were g i v e n communities, while s h e l t e r i n refugee 30,000 T u r k s - (5) According Greek C y p r i o t e to R i c h a r d 25,000- Patrick, from s i x mixed v i l l a g e s f i g h t i n g or intercommunal tension after became '63. December (6) By mid-1964 a de political geography of "riddled but facto with in fact administration controlled about research in villages were the 1.6 villages Superficially the then purely and and Greek, Cypriot In only villages of the only and by 42 the except f o r tax to appreciate and Turkish quarters ( so with into the extent of the this to to have a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the communal c o n f l i c t control in August '64. In were e f f e c t i v e l y and territorial reality spatial the "mixed" remained town w e r e either 1T5 were u n d e r these the residents ten cent were structure, devices. political island. I n order U.N.F.I.CYP., i t . i s dynamics of the 1967). were per villages confusing the D.N.F.I.CYP. a r r i v e d as creating villages f o r only p e c u l i a r and problems f a c i n g field- formerly Turkish Even to who named i n D e c e m b e r t h e i r own tranquility central on Government's a d m i n i s t r a t i v e payment were l e f t thrown i n t o Cypriot approximately Cypriots population. r e s t o r e p e a c e and the by administration, Based 57 each d i s t r i c t Administration Cypriot integrated U.N.F.I.CYP. was geography of Cypriot Cyprus Government, a c c o u n t i n g entire Turkish partially Turkish Republic leadership, (8) that (9) Furthermore, inhabited Turkish contrast 19 some a r e a s Provisional Greek Cypriot the into a a single between the Patrick revealed evacuated. quarters Republic island's territory. T970-'71, R i c h a r d or wholly controlled divided transformed i t had "breakaway" T u r k i s h % of completely deserted, partially (7) politically and had Cyprus from a u n i t a r y holes". i t was patchwork p a r t i t i o n period the crucial Cypriot December Turkish to inter'63 to Cypriots b a s i s f o r a rudimentary, fragmented "state - within a s t a t e " . (10) Nations Force was commanders c o u l d United Nations* not allow conception included Government as The map C y p r u s was for i t was numerous either the not Cypriot of the had that spots a r e a s " of we-ll a s various local areas. producing A typical case to use or their f o r the ) Cypriot whole i s l a n d . t h a n i n d i c a t e d by definitely Cypriot were l o c a t e d a t the that be 3.3., There- w e r e allotted to administration. ethnic (1T) Map (12) i n t e r f a c e s where indicating g e o p o l i t i c a l boundaries. to be constantly and aware o f political such status, understandings or agreements regarding activity around T u r k i s h asfreedom Cypriot- T h e s e p a r o c h i a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g s / a g r e e m e n t s were r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of auspices, not or T u r k i s h movement t h r o u g h o r G r e e k C y p r i o t controlled because e x i s t i n g ( Greek ambiguous t e r r i t o r i a l local island, to e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l where. could p r e c i s e demarcations United Turkish m i l i t a r y i n the e v e n more c o m p l i c a t e d areas" and the of normality a l w a y s c l e a r who "sensitive of leaders facing to c o n f o r m a b s o l u t e l y T h u s U . N . F . I . C Y P . commanders had of primary obstacles t h e i r people C y p r u s Government w e r e no the legitimate administration Many p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e there - a recognition "contested the of that Turkish conception of One 42 both communities, o f t e n under United compromises where c o n f l i c t s w o u l d be an "agreement" concerning c e r t a i n roads passing r i g h t s to f a r m may land through T u r k i s h Nations have a r i s e n . Greek C y p r i o t (T3) rights Cypriot-controlled immediately adjacent between t o a- T u r k i s h land, Cypriot settlement. In some a r e a s were m a r k e d by "contested two Nicosia?. observed Turkish limits of concentric z o n e " p a t r o l l e d by "confrontation Turkish the lines" Cypriot by areas members o f Cypriot 1 exercised e i t h e r community posts U.N.F.I.CYP. p e r s o n n e l . most o b v i o u s separated In being the wished to Both the a and "Green L i n e " in were c l o s e l y Cyprus Government extend t h e i r by other^areas Guard p o s i t i o n s of p o t e n t i a l or a c t u a l c o n f l i c t U.N.F.I.CYP. Leadership by r i n g s of f o r t i f i e d e x i s t e d between N a t i o n a l F i g h t e r s , the A l l these control territorial and control - 43 - o r t o t e s t e a c h o t h e r s c o n t r o l o f c e r t a i n " s t r a t e g i c a r e a s " by " c r e a t i n g i n c i d e n t s " d e l i b e r a t e l y aggravating intercommunal t e n s i o n s . (14) By h e l p i n g t o r e d u c e t e n s i o n o r to p r e v e n t i n c i d e n t s f r o m o c c u r r i n g U . N . F . I . C Y P . m a i n t a i n e d a s p a t i a l s t a t u s quo. T h i s i s why i t i s so i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l map o f C y p r u s and l o c a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t a t t h e t i m e when U.N.P.I.CYP. t o o k o v e r f r o m a b e l e a g u e r e d B r i t i s h p e a c e keeping operation. The f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s w i l l t h e r e f o r e e x a m i n e t h e f o r m a t i o n and s h a p e s o f t h e e n c l a v e s u n d e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l . . Section i) Two: The " C o n f r o n t a t i o n L i n e s " and "Green During the quarters of Line" E.O.K.A. c a m p a i g n s o f the capital both communities apart line 3.T.) there but was During no real peaceful, December the fire to was remained ethnic icance. the a map be of of segregation night" of prevent fence Greek/Turkish e s t a b l i s h e d to keep intercommunal bloodshed. This relatively Hermes s t r e e t s calm years other and and the did General the gunfire Young u n d e r t h e (1'5) The " n e u t r a l " troops tactical communities, on 21 auspices " G r e e n L i n e " was the an that of never between the cease- opposing f i g h t e r groups Green Line out anyone a t t h a t years, ensure was became a s y m b o l of international geopolitical signif- points Young, t h i n k ' t h a t to p o s i t i o n s of a d i v i s i o n of towards n o r m a l i z a t i o n first of independence than a temporary cordon s a n i t a i r e Unfortunately, f o r four the of ( r e f e r to 28-29 December a g r e e n p e n c i l l i n e :- table that night, the w o u l d become a d i v i d i n g l i n e Cypriot a wire ended w i t h N i c o s i a by Michael Harbottle General 1950s the o f P a p h o s and three p a t r o l l e d by stationary. " Little by both communities. maintained As first anything antagonists, 1 course late necessity f o r ' a physical separation On representatives intended to mixed c o e x i s t e n c e '63. drawn a c r o s s the the the were d i v i d e d i n order roughly followed Map Enclaves. green ribbon of least chinagraph b e t w e e n T u r k - and unremitting between the two of a l l obstacle Greek to communities." progress (16) - 44 - MA P_ 3:1 : ROUTE OF G R E E N LINE THROUGH OLD C I T Y Kyronla ' Oats Paphos THE GREEN LINE Km s o u r c e : B e n n e t t . J.A.. 1977. M.A. D i s s e r t a t i o n - 45 - The d i v i d i n g l i n e i n N i c o s i a became a means t o p o l i t i c a l e n d s , and l i k e many o t h e r l i n e s o f d e m a r c a t i o n and f o r t i f i e d e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s , i t r e p r e s e n t e d a p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r b l o c k i n g t h e way t o a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e ment b a s e d on u n i t y and c o o p e r a t i o n r a t h e r ' t h a n e t h n i c s e g r e g a t i o n . The b i f u r c a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l , m o r e o v e r , c r e a t e d numerous i n f r a s t r u c t u r a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o b l e m s , i n c l u d i n g t h e d i v i s i o n o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , w a t e r and e l e c t r i c a l s u p p l i e s , a l l o f w h i c h w i l l be d e a l t w i t h i n C h a p t e r Five. ii) Geunyeli During of the the - Aghirda Enclave. Christmas ' 6 3 f i g h t i n g many T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f l e d developing stronghold N i c o s i a northwards v i a the Contingent, people or Probably The s i x t e e n per cent the refugees and ( 316 Eylenja Turkish Krini, refugees Cypriot and who de entered Aghirda, such twelve as A k a k i , villages Aredhiou, with refugees from s c a t t e r e d r u r a l The the Kyrenia Kyrenia Pass - The n o r t h e r n Aghirda, and villages the settlements be stressed that mixed and the suburbs. area in later and Geunyeli, population Turkish Geunyeli-Aghirda under Cypriots Enclave, S k y l l o u r a , a l l abandoned helped T h u s an the capital ( r e f e r t o Map 3.2 influx Turkish to of Leadership a points over- ) St.Hilarion Castle. s e c t i o n of w h i c h was these countryside. Dhenia, ) , Trakhonas I t should from of 8,000 environs, refugees safety National estimated northwards through c o n t r o l from the coastline. Turkish i t s immediate mixed e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n s . consolidate t e r r i t o r i a l the quarter" 1963-'64. Nicosia Enclave i n t o the Argaki, formerly looking refugees neighbouring "old the during ) . (17) came f r o m m i x e d r u r a l villages to ( 5,126 facto control extending movements when v i o l e n c e s p r e a d abandoned the by evacuated w e r e f r o m N i c o s i a and t h e r e w e r e a l s o some G r e e k C y p r i o t Many o t h e r Turkish a c c o u n t e d f o r an of a l l v i l l a g e s suburbs of Omorphita 9T2 ) , S t r o v o l o s from the K y r e n i a Road p r o t e c t e d wave o f 7,000 r e f u g e e s particularly ( first extending to part of this the important Turkish enclave Nicosia Regional centred around Administrative structure - 46 - MAP _ 3 : 2 GEUNYELI - AGHIRDA I showing initial strategic Turkish military ENCLAVE positions forces _ 22 July of 1974 I Temblos KYRENIA OS Yeorylos Trl^trt Therm I a Pilerl 400-N X Krini N ^ Photta Kanli Geunyel I Orta Keuy NICOSIA Turkish military positions - 2 2/07 / 74 Fault Height contours Roads Purely ED • ® Area Turkish where Greek Turkish Mixed Cypriot Turks Cypriot before held Invasion majority of property villages Cvprlot villages villages St. Hllarlon Castle 26 0 II I I I I 2-6 I 6km I 47 to LU ON in in (A JC LU c/j CO s (4 0> 1 C3 in r 1 ? ,1 (3 i CQ < K - But had a separate Turkish Cypriot Turkish National stationed Turkish military Contingent c o n t r o l of soldiers i n p o s i t i o n s n e a r to i n the advantages, although control. the Geunyeli the - to the point, only in the Professor Volkan "...the Kyrenia from the the T u r k s had o u t s k i r t s of Cypriot m o u n t a i n t o p had Turkish s red spot Cypriots flag was were a b l e largely purely settlements especially Kyrenia owing ( see Map Keumurju, P i l e r i , of the had a Turkish had a b s o r b e d by control. Bay, to region the there and of and Ayia stay while and Greek mountain the north the on and significant only According peak to 3.T i s an village villages t o be to village west the included :- Aghirda, i s given to under the one, Turkish the control Ayia Irini, Cypriot ) o r were F i g h t e r s and inhabitants in a village of ) The- e n c l a v e centres f a r away f r o m o t h e r and south-west de of Myrtou, n e a r i t s Turkish could Pentadaktyloa, (e.g. Trapeza Cypriot to set Fig.3:1) quarters', only purely i t s e v e r a l mixed southern Cypriot Most o t h e r too of for details their inhabitants was St.Hilarion strategically towns/villages Turkish isolated this I f consideration four omnipotence. enormous t h a t R o a d and Turkish Photta. t h a t had so pre-existence Table five peak o f c o n t r o l of c o m p l e t e l y c u t - o f f , but the to away.** ( 1 8 ) ( a l s o p r o t e c t i v e r i n g of T u r k i s h Irini Cypriot control. c e n t r a l and were o n l y been emptied o f the the symbolically Nicosia, I t was Kyrenia Cypriot, majority. so i t was Turkish Krini, C y p r u s Government villages to i n the 3.2 developed around a c l u s t e r surrounding and of several f i r m l y under the-coast hung f r o m t h e to g a i n i n l o c a t i o n s n e a r the town. still ) were concentration become a s y m b o l o f T u r k i s h f r o m many m i l e s important area Turkish Pentadaktylos :- another mountaintop nearby. seen as The of Fighters c o n t r o l of overlooking under T u r k i s h A huge T u r k i s h be i n the Cypriot Road. I t i s a strategically ten miles Pentadaktylos Turkish K y r e n i a - c o a s t l i n e was For'instance, south. and villages for details - Aghirda: Enclave- s e r v e d which S t . H i l a r i o n C a s t l e stands, Nicosia Table- 3.2 command. ( s e e administrative Cypriots Cypriot 48 facto Morphou decided predominantly "grouping" under - T A B L E 3:1 49 - POPULATION D I S T R I B U T I O N AND SETTLEMENTS I N THE KYRENIA P L A I N AND PENTADAKTYLOS. Agro-Physiographic Region 1) 2) 3) 4) Greek C y p r i o t Population Percentage Central Pentadaktylos Turkish Cypriot Population Percentage Number o f v i l l a g e s * 8 66.95' 33.05 67.97 32.03 88.71 11.29 9 1 2 88.64 11.36 8 0 5 29 14 8 Southern f o o t h i l l s of the Pentadaktylos Northern f o o t h i l l s of the Pentadaktylos Kyrenia Plain Total:- * Key to v i l l a g e s T ( Greek Source: ); 2 ( T u r k i s h ) ; 3 ( Mixed ) : Karouzis ( 1976 ) Proposals f o r a S o l u t i o n to t h e Cyprus ( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a , pp 24 a n d 49 See also C y p r u s P o p u l a t i o n D i s t r i b u t i o n Map ( 1960 )„ Problem. ) - TABLE 50 - D E T A I L S OP TURKISH C Y P R I O T AND MIXED V I L L A G E S '3:2 I N THE KYRENIA P L A I N AND PENTADAKTYLOS. Under c o n t r o l o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Common Name Turkish Name Ayios Andronikos Topcukoy Keumurju Cypriot Agirdag Krini Greek C y p r i o t Population Turkisl Populai Resident Refugees 375 . Komurcu Aghirda Leadership, 55 1,375 750 Pinarbasi 545 250 Pileri Goceri 128 Photta Dagyolu 785 300 Temblos Zeytinlik 450 219 Kambyli Hisarkoy 335 96 Kalyvakia Kalavac 271 Kornokipos Gornec 393 Ayios Khariton Ergenekon 1T6 Ayios Iakovos Altinova 400 Melounda Mallidag 300 Settlements 11 a b a n d o n e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . ( 12 ) Liveras Liveras Dhioros Yorgos Ayios Ermolaos Ayirmola Vasilia Vasilya ( 213 ) 1,300 Lapithos Lapta ( 370 ) 4,000 Trapeza Teknecik Ayios Yeoryios Ayyorgi Mixed s e t t l e m e n t s ( 156 ) 600 ( 20 ) 467 under t h e c o n t r o l o f t h e Cyprus 800 ( 696 ) Kazaphani Ozankoy 405 ( 598 ) Ayia Akdeni z N.B. ArapkSy Figures i n brackets villages. 250 ( 143 ) Girne Klepini 29 ( 79 ) Kyrenia Irini 150 465 18 ( 27 ) represent Government. 3,000 630 15 150 29 185 t h e numbers o f r e f u g e e s source: who l e f t t h e P a t r i c k 11976 Ipp 278 - 3 2 3 - 51 Turkish Cypriot control. completely evacuated Dhioros, a mixed v i l l a g e c l o s e to Myrtou, was by i t s T u r k i s h r e s i d e n t s , most of whom f l e d to the G u e n y e l i - Aghirda E n c l a v e . On A p r i l 25, - ( r e f e r to Map 6:8, for village locations ) T964, Greek C y p r i o t s attempted to knock-out T u r k i s h p o s i t i o n s n e a r to the K y r e n i a P a s s , but f a i l e d to g a i n ground. A p r i l , U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d to arrange a cease-fire. c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were drawn by U n i t e d Nations f r o n t - l i n e p o s i t i o n s of both s i d e s . On 29 Eventually p e r s o n n e l by marking the U.N.P.I.CYP. o c c u p i e d "disputed p o s i t i o n s " wherever p o s s i b l e . ( 1 9 ) These c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s posed numerous problems f o r C y p r i o t s l i v i n g on e i t h e r s i d e of them. F o r example, Temblos, s i t u a t e d a t the n o r t h e r n e x t e n s i o n of the Aghirda E n c l a v e , was l i t e r a l l y hemmed-in on t h r e e s i d e s and had around i t to prevent U.N.P.I.CYP. t r o o p s a l l N a t i o n a l Guard and uniformed T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s from e n t e r i n g the v i l l a g e as p a r t of l o c a l c e a s e - f i r e arrangements. As a r e s u l t of t h e s e a r b i t r a r y l i n e s Temblos v i l l a g e r s c o u l d o n l y get to N i c o s i a v i a the K y r e n i a Road, d e s p i t e attempts to improve the mountain t r a c k to S t . H i l a r i o n . ( r e f e r to Chapter F i v e , P a r t 0ne,p.t17) To get the K y r e n i a Road they were s u b j e c t e d to Government r e s t r i c t i o n s to and searches. U n t i l 26 October 1*964 no Greek C y p r i o t was the K y r e n i a Road, running So one of the f i r s t i n Cyprus was only a l l o w e d permitted from N i c o s i a v i a G e u n y e l i to t r a v e l along to the n o r t h s t e p s U.N.F.I.CYP. made- to " n o r m a l i z e " coast. conditions to reopen the roHd to Greek C y p r i o t ' c i v i l i a n s , who were- to move through the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a i f they were i n the d a i l y U.N.F.I.CYP. N i c o s i a - K y r e n i a convoys, o t h e r w i s e to take long detours The G e u n y e l i around the p e r i m e t e r of the E n c l a v e . - Aghirda Enclave^ was they (20) c l e a r l y demarcated from the L i n e " w i t h i n o l d N i c o s i a to i t s n o r t h e r n e x t r e m i t y a t Temblos. w i t h i n t h r e e l i n e s of s o l d i e r y , t h e i r own had "Green Confined F i g h t e r s , U.N.F.I.CYP. "blue b e r r e t s " , and Greek C y p r i o t N a t i o n a l Guardsmen, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership and m i l i t a r y commanders had t i g h t c o n t r o l over- t h i s strategic - enclave, 52 - the most important s o l i d block o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l i n the i s l a n d . ( r e f e r to Map 3.3 ) territorial This enclave played a very s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n the T u r k i s h i n v a s i o n o f T 9 7 4 . ( see Map 3.2. ) i i i ) Refugee Movements and Enclave Formation i n Other D i s t r i c t s ; According to Richard P a t r i c k , V 9 7 6 , ..the m a j o r i t y - m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i s more a c c u r a t e l y d e f i n e d by t a k i n g a broader view than one c o n f i n e d to the e t h n i c composition o f each v i l l a g e i n i s o l a t i o n . Invariably, a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y i n a g i v e n v i l l a g e gives way to a (21) m i n o r i t y s t a t u s i f the r e g i o n a l s i t u a t i o n i s considered." I n . a d e t a i l e d study o f e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t , and l a n d ownership d i s t r i b u t i o n i n Cyprus,George Karouzis, T 9 7 6 , came t o the same c o n c l u s i o n using v a r i o u s geographical also t o Chapter Two ) d e f i n i t i o n s of r e g i o n . ( 2 2 : refer The d e t a i l e d example o f the Geunyeli - Aghirda Enclave r e v e a l s the extent t o which T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l depended on the p r e - e x i s t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f Greek, Mixed, and p u r e l y T u r k i s h settlements. Areas w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l o c a l d e n s i t y o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o r h i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f Turkish/Mixed v i l l a g e s ( according T960 to the Census ) , were o f t e n the f o u n d a t i o n or "core" o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves. For example, the Xeros - Karavostassi area had s e v e r a l T u r k i s h and Mixed c e n t r e s , i n c l u d i n g E l i a , Kazivera-, L i m n i t i s and Ambelikou. Surrounding the Greek C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t o f Athienou were t e n p u r e l y T u r k i s h o r Mixed v i l l a g e s , such as A y i a , L o u r o u n j i n a , Potamia, Arsos, and Melousha. (23) The most widespread refugee movements took place i n January 1964 the l i f t i n g o f road-blocks by the Cyprus Government. after' F i f t y - o n e per cent o f a l l v i l l a g e s e v e n t u a l l y evacuated by end-August 1964 were evacuated i n t h i s month, a t o t a l o f 6 , 4 4 3 people. ( 2 4 ) 2,T85 February accounted f o r people and eighteen per cent o f the t o t a l number o f v i l l a g e B deserted by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . i n the months o f March and May, evacuated i n e a r l y August. Five v i l l a g e s ( 9T3 people ) were evacuated and f i n a l l y , s i x v i l l a g e s and 83T people 53 I I I I I I I I I I I (0 CO CO 10 ID n 0 1 E 01 10 o 0 ® 0) 0 0 m 0 0 I to 0 01 0 ® a e a (A 0 i a B a (ft e a CO 0J 4++ 54 1 I I I I \ E t O i r •4 i I l I I I I I I I I I I i > a UJ UJ in • w UJ • • *4 'UJ • a 8E ft UJ DO !. a UJ ••• >• s n • CO r - MAP-3:5 PAPHOS 55 - DISTRICT : TURKISH CYPRIOT ENCLAVES Magounda ; * ^fV-$Pelathou v Lyso •••:-.':*-':''Androllkou Loukrounou \'r i K'£'-'.y Anadhiou Arodhes oundall ® Akoursos Kourtaka^" P|targ(^- 0 V Lamb TSta/rpko ©lPrastlo LEGEND 4 Populated Turkish - j . -JCyprlot a r e a s 1964 to '74/5 - Kolonl ® ^ Main roads Towns O Purely Koukha Turkish I* • Q villages ; H and Some villages deserted Cypriote X Greek refugee by centres ; Turkish In 1 9 6 3 - ' 6 4 ; Cyprlot villages; 0 Q Inhabited mixed Greek c o n t r o l : villages under Adapted from maps by Drury 119771 Skin - 56 I t seems t h a t most refugee movements were spontaneous, corresponding to outbreaks o f intercommunal v i o l e n c e and i n t i m i d a t i o n , such as occurred i n the Paphos D i s t r i c t i n February and T y l l i r i a i n August. A d e t a i l e d study o f " p o p u l a t i o n upheaval" i n Western Cyprus r e v e a l s some i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t s about the geography o f refugee movements i n the i s l a n d as a whole. (25) Paphos D i s t r i c t had the h i g h e s t D i s t r i c t r a t i o o f Turks t o Greeks, about 1 : 3 . Michael Drury, 1 9 7 7 , found t h a t t h i r t y - t w o per cent o f a l l i n h a b i t e d v i l l a g e s i n the D i s t r i c t had a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y , and t h a t w i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f the Dhiarezos V a l l e y group and a s m a l l group near Lyso, they formed few obvious c l u s t e r s . ( r e f e r t o Map 3.5 ) Most o f these v i l l a g e s had a small p o p u l a t i o n , an average size o f 365 i n h a b i t a n t s , and had s c a t t e r e d l o c a t i o n s . Whereas many o f the Greek C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s were l a r g e r and were not surrounded by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s , a l t h o u g h t h e r e were exceptions such as Lyso caught behind the v i l l a g e s o f Meladhia and Melandra. This s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n added t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t f e e l i n g s o f g e o g r a p h i c a l i n s e c u r i t y once intercommunal h o s t i l i t i e s f l a r e d up. I n Paphos D i s t r i c t the refugee movement p a t t e r n shows t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f t e n moved to new l o c a t i o n s e i t h e r because o f t h e i r c e n t r a l p o s i t i o n w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r group o f Turkish/Mixed v i l l a g e s , o r because the v i l l a g e s were t a n g e n t i a l t o main l i n e s o f communication and so ran less r i s k o f i n t e r f e r e n c e . As Drury r e v e a l e d , the r e s u l t i n g f o r m a t i o n of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves i n Paphos D i s t r i c t avoided most main roads, a p a t t e r n not repeated i n o t h e r p a r t s o f Cyprus where enclave f o r m a t i o n c r e a t e d major problems f o r road communications. ( r e f e r t o Chapter Five S e c t i o n on Freedom o f Movement ) Another p o i n t t o make concerning the o v e r a l l p a t t e r n o f enclaves i n Cyprus i s t h a t where therewas rugged, h i l l y topography, poor communications between v i l l a g e s , and a s c a t t e r e d i n t e r - m i x t u r e o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t s , i t was o n l y p o s s i b l e t o form t i n y "pockets" o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l surrounded by Greek C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y . - The 57 - l a r g e s t movements o f refugees i n Western Cyprus occurred d u r i n g f February and March f o l l o w i n g b a t t l e s i n Paphos town i t s e l f . from neighbouring Villagers Lemba and Yeroskipos moved to the over-crowded T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos. F i g h t i n g i n o t h e r areas l e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s from Khoulou, Kourtaka and P i t a r g o u to seek refuge i n Axylou. Once T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n P o l i s were beseiged, refugee movements began i n north-western p a r t s of the D i s t r i c t and i n remote areas, where v i l l a g e s evacuated i n c l u d e d P h a s l i , K r i t o u Terra, Mamoundali, Asproyia, Loukrounou, and G a l a t a r i a . I n the c o u n t r y s i d e the major ' r e c i p i e n t ' centres were Androkikou, Mandria, Stavrokono, and Anadhiou, which r e c e i v e d the v i l l a g e r s o f L a p i t h i o u " t a k e n " by the Greek C y p r i o t s i n March T 9 6 4 . (26) Once intercommunal f i g h t i n g i n Cyprus had calmed down t h e r e were o n l y f o u r mixed v i l l a g e s remaining. Of these, Ayia Varvara and Akoursos were both under Government c o n t r o l , w h i l s t K o u k l i a and T i m i , both w i t h l a r g e Greek C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n s , maintained by armed F i g h t e r s . ( r e f e r to Map 3:5 t h e i r T u r k i s h q u a r t e r s under guard ) I n Paphos and o t h e r d i s t r i c t s there appears to have been l i t t l e o r no c e n t r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t i o n o f the refugee movements, although no doubt some were encouraged by T.M.T. P a t r i c k found i t "...more t y p i c a l f o r v i l l a g e r s to move on t h e i r own f u r n i t u r e and food behind." i n i t i a t i v e l e a v i n g most o f t h e i r c l o t h i n g , (27) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t leaders denied any contingency p l a n f o r p o p u l a t i o n r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o n s o l i d a t i o n s i n c e r t a i n s t r a t e g i c areas, although they d i d o f f e r assistance t o v i l l a g e r s i n t r a n s p o r t p r o v i s i o n and refugee housing. n But as Michael Drury stresses, The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f m i n o r i t y consciousness w i t h s p e c i f i c and c l e a r l y demarcated t e r r i t o r y was o f c r u c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l importance...the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . . . f e l t t h a t the l e g a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f the two communities was inadequate, at least f o r the l e s s numerous one, unless a s p a t i a l dimension was added." (28) T e r r i t o r i a l s e p a r a t i o n c e r t a i n l y became an important p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g to the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership, and concern f o r the p h y s i c a l s a f e t y - 58 o f t h e i r community was uBed as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s e g r e g a t i o n . i v ) The T u r k i s h Quarters o f Famagusta. Larnaca. and Paphos. The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m u n i c i p a l i t y o f Pamagusta comprised the w a l l e d c i t y ; the suburbs o f B a i k a l , K a r a o l i s , and Sakarya. maintained U.N.F.I.CYP. s e v e r a l look-out p o i n t s along the w a l l s and a t the entrances of the other quarters. There was also a d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone around the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s p r e v e n t i n g the development o f close armed confrontation. I n c o n t r a s t , Larnaca was s i m i l a r t o N i c o s i a i n t h a t i t remained a centre o f t e n s i o n throughout December *63 t o August '64, and a c e a s e - f i r e l i n e was e s t a b l i s h e d along the western boundary o f Scala, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r , marked by Artemis Avenue which T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s from N a t i o n a l Guardsmen. this ,r separated U.N.P.I.CYP. kept c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e " under c o n t i n u a l s u r v e i l l a n c e . Paphos also had i t s e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e marked by a c e a s e - f i r e l i n e . B i t t e r intercommunal f i g h t i n g began on 7 March '64 when hundreds o f Greek C y p r i o t s were taken hostage, prompting r e t a l i a t o r y and an attempt t o overrun the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f town. hostage t a k i n g About twenty p e r cent o f i t s 3,500 p o p u l a t i o n were made refugees as most o f the q u a r t e r was evacuated, l e a v i n g a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l l e d area o f only a few hundred square yards. British troops i n t e r v e n e d t o e s t a b l i s h a cease- f i r e zone around the q u a r t e r , which was l a t e r p a t r o l l e d by U.N.P.I.CYP. The q u a r t e r was entrenched on and behind a b l u f f from t h e town centre westwards, l e a v i n g a swathe o f d e r e l i c t urban no-man's-land running through the town c e n t r e . (29) Limassol's T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r was n o t demarcated by f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , and there was more contact between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s than i n o t h e r D i s t r i c t towns. Under l o c a l agreements, uniformed F i g h t e r s were not p e r m i t t e d t o parade o r t o c a r r y weapons i n p a r t s o f the q u a r t e r adjacent t o the Greek C y p r i o t s e c t o r . I t , should be stressed t h a t s m a l l e r towns and v i l l a g e s also had e t h n i c d i v i s i o n s and q u a r t e r s . For example, P o l i s , i n the north-west o f Paphos - District, 59 - had an enclaved T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o u l a t i o n l i v i n g i n an o l d T u r k i s h secondary school. I n Chapter Five more d e t a i l s are g i v e n on the f u n c t i o n i n g o f these enclaves and the numerous problems caused by such a r t i f i c i a l d i v i s i o n s of people. From T964 t o T974 these distinct e t h n i c q u a r t e r s continued t o s u r v i v e , keeping the two communities a p a r t . " They l i v e d t h e i r separate l i v e s , o f t e n side by side w i t h o u t open a n i m o s i t y , but more o f t e n i n a s t a t e o f dormant h o s t i l i t y . " (30) v ) The B a t t l e f o r T y l l i r i a and the Kokkina Enclave. Ther l a s t refugee movements took place i n e a r l y August left west Cyprus, T y l l i r i a r e g i o n . i n north- T964 T h e y / f o l l o w i n g a Greek C y p r i o t o f f e n s i v e under the auspices o f General Grivas, who was e f f e c t i v e l y commanding the N a t i o n a l Guard. ( r e f e r t o Footnote 3 t ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were i n c o n t r o l o f the only main road through t h e r e g i o n . ( r e f e r t o Map5:3 ) On 4 A p r i l armed elements o f both communities fought t o g a i n c o n t r o l o f a h i l l dominating a s e c t i o n o f the highway. U.N.F.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d t o arrange a c e a s e - f i r e f o u r days l a t e r , and U.N. o b s e r v a t i o n posts were e s t a b l i s h e d between the two r i v a l camps. reopened t o c i v i l i a n Although the c o a s t a l road was t r a f f i c the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s soon placed road-blocks along i t . (32) Apart from the concern about Greek freedom o f movement along the n o r t h west coast, the Cyprus Government was w o r r i e d about t h e p o s s i b l i t y t h a t the Turks could smuggle-in l a r g e numbers o f weapons v i a Kokkina. To combat t h i s 2,000 N a t i o n a l Guard troops were deployed i n the area f a c i n g 5D0 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s w i t h i n t h e enclave. On 6 August, Government f o r c e s a t t a c k e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s around Kokkina, f o r c i n g their i n h a b i t a n t s t o r e t r e a t i n t o a narrow beachhead. Refugees moved i n t o Kokkina from p u r e l y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres such as Mansoura, S e l l a i n T'Appi, Ayios Theodhoros, and Alevga. To prevent the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f Kokkina from being overrun T u r k i s h A i r Force j e t s invaded Cyprus air-space t o knock-out N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s o v e r - l o o k i n g - 60 - the enclave. On 9 August, the United Nations S e c u r i t y Council c a l l e d f o r - a n immediate c e a s e - f i r e . This enabled U.N.P.I.CYP. t o e s t a b l i s h " n e u t r a l p o s i t i o n s " around Kokkina and L i r a n i t i s . Thus the boundaries o f these enclaves were c l e a r l y demarcated, p a t r o l l e d by U.N„ s o l d i e r s , and made known t o the m i l i t a r y commanders o f both s i d e s . Greek C y p r i o t s were p r o h i b i t e d from e n t e r i n g Kokkina, and were only allowed t o use the c o a s t a l road through L i m n i t i s d u r i n g d a y l i g h t hours o n l y . Eence l o c a l Greek C y p r i o t s were o f t e n o b l i g e d t o take very long detours through o r around the edge o f the Troodos Mountains t o a v o i d Turkish C y p r i o t enclaves. Other t i n y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas i n t h i s r e g i o n centred around Lefka/Ambelikou and Elea, Angolemi, Ghaziveran, Both enclaves were under close U.N.P.I.CYP. s c r u t i n y . For T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , Kokkina remains an important symbol e p i t o m i z i n g t h e i r d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o r e s i s t Greek C y p r i o t domination, and as such i t held a g a r r i s o n f o r Turkish regulars out o f a l l proportion t o i t s size or population. For Greek C y p r i o t s , Kokkina emphasized the m i l i t a r y support Ankara was w i l l i n g t o g i v e t o the s t r a t e g i c a l l y v u l n e r a b l e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t h e l d pieces o f t e r r i t o r y i n Cyprus. Furthermore, the T y l l i r i a f i g h t i n g had revealed how weak peace-soldiers are when opposing communities take up arms t o achieve t h e i r g o a l s . There was very l i t t l e United Nations troops could do against the s t r o n g e r N a t i o n a l Guard, p a r t i c u l a r l y when they were o n l y mandated t o use " f o r c e " i n s e l f - d e f e n c e r a t h e r than t o prevent s h o o t i n g . U.N.F.I.CYP. proved t o be much more e f f e c t i v e as a "constabulary f o r c e " once c e a s e - f i r e s had been arranged. (33) Section Three: The Extent o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t T e r r i t o r i a l C o n t r o l , and the A r r i v a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP. By March the bulk o f refugees had moved ( about ten p e r cent o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n ) . Many never t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r homes, and the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p and m i l i t a r y commanders c o n s o l i d a t e d de f a c t o c o n t r o l over t h e i r s c a t t e r e d t e r r i t o r y . their I n f a c t some F i g h t e r - 61' - commanders r e s o r t e d to armed t h r a e t s , and even i n a few cases to murder, ( to prevent some refugees from moving i n t o Cyprus Government- c o n t r o l l e d territory. The Greek C y p r i o t s were prepared to encourage the r e t u r n o f T u r k i s h refugees to o l d homes but not i f they were i n "sensitive, s t r a t e g i c areas" adjacent to enclaves o r N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s . They wanted to prevent more land f a l l i n g i n t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t hands and "accused the B r i t i s h troops of f o s t e r i n g p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d by p u t t i n g themselves between the combatants and e s c o r t i n g f l e e i n g refugees from mixed v i l l a g e s to T u r k i s h - h e l d communities."" (34) James Stagenga, T968, p o i n t s out that 1 many Greek C y p r i o t s remembered t h e i r s t r u g g l e against the B r i t i s h Army d u r i n g the "Emergency P e r i o d " o f c o l o n i a l rule- from 1955 " Moreover, by e s t a b l i s h i n g separate to 1959. "Green L i n e " n e u t r a l zones to the two communities i n N i c o s i a , Larnaca, and elsewhere, the B r i t i s h were t a c i t l y p a r t i t i o n i n g p a r t s o f the c o u n t r y . " I t has been suggested t h a t Archbishop Makarios used B r i t i s h then (35) United Nations peacekeeping f o r c e s to p a r r y the t h r e a t o f u n i l a t e r a l T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n , enabling Greek C y p r i o t s to continue t h e i r a t t a c k s ( m i l i t a r y and economic ) on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves. (36) The p o i n t being that the presence o f "neutral"" peace s o l d i e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y under the p r o t e c t i v e umbrella o f the United Nations, would deteir Ankara from sending t r o o p s . On 4 March 1964, U.N.P.I.CYP. was authorized. " Both C y p r i o t communities were aware t h a t once t h i s f o r c e was deployed the then e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s o f c o e r c i v e throughout the i s l a n d would be 'frozen'. control Both sides t h e r e - f o r e were i n t e n t on c o n s o l i d a t i n g o r extending t h e i r c o n t r o l before U.N.P.I.CYP. c o u l d i n t e r v e n e . " As one commentator put i t , the U.N. Force was (37) i n t r o d u c e d " t o see that the s p a t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f these two environments d i d not a l t e r " . (38) At i t s peak s t r e n g t h i n June T964, U.N.P.I.CYP. comprised 6,400 men. Such l i m i t e d manpower had to be c a r e f u l l y deployed a t the i s l a n d ' s major t r o u b l e - s p o t s and e t h n i c - i n t e r f a c e s , and l i k e the hamstrung B r i t i s h i f o r c e , i t could not be everywhere at once, which meant t h a t the Greek - 62 - C y p r i o t g u e r r i l l a s and N a t i o n a l Guard "could choose t h e i r o b j e c t i v e s at w i l l . " (39) U.N.P.I.CYP.'s day-to-day o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus had t o cope w i t h the numerous problems a r i s i n g from the fragmented c o n f l i c t and t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l . p a t t e r n o f intercommunal I n T964 the United Nations estimated t h a t "areas administered by t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community...and defended by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s " covered "approximately 54 square m i l e s ; o r 1/2 per cent o f the t o t a l area o f the c o u n t r y , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n o f about 59,000, i n c l u d i n g T3,600 refugees." (40) U.N.P.I.CYP. gave de f a c t o r a t h e r than " o f f i c i a l " r e c o g n i t i o n t o these enclaves, and i t recognized the major areas under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l , such as the o l d T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f N i c o s i a ; t h e Geunyeli - Aghirda Enclave ( o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o i n U.N.Reports and o t h e r sources as the " N i c o s i a enclave" ) | t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r s o f Larnaca and Pamagusta; t h e town o f L o u r o u j i n a ; an enclave comprising Lefka, another around K a l y v a k i a , and the two beachheads a t Kokkina and L i m n i t i s . ( r e f e r t o Map 3.3 ) The areas g i v e n "enclave s t a t u s " by U.N.P.I.CYP. were those where close " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " e x i s t e d o r where intercommunal h o s t i l i t y was more l i k e l y t o occur, t h e r f o r e s e c u r i t y was t i g h t , w i t h opposing f i g h t e r s m a i n t a i n i n g p o s i t i o n s separated by United Nations o b s e r v a t i o n posts and/ or p a t r o l s . Richard P a t r i c k ' s estimates made i n T970-'71 i n c l u d e a l l areas undeir the de f a c t o c o n t r o l o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership, c a l l e d the " P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " , which contained 105,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , i n c l u d i n g 20,000 refugees. then approximately I n 1971 t h e r e were s t i l l some 8,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s l i v i n g i n t e r r i t o r y under Greek C y p r i o t control. I n t o t a l , about twenty p e r cent o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n had abandoned homes i n December *63 - August '64, w h i l s t t h e m a j o r i t y o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s already l i v e d i n l o c a t i o n s where Greeks were e i t h e r unable o r u n w i l l i n g t o p e n e t r a t e . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o compare d i f f e r e n t attempts t o d e l i n e a t e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas. Map 3.6 i s an American one based on S u r k i s h C y p r i o t - 63 - 8- 0 " M in ? -c » -J Si 10 ft ZD 32 >."5 8 0 I -J *9 bi I (0 in 8CD sources. I t i n d i c a t e s T u r k i s h v i l l a g e groupings, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e most i m p o r t a n t mixed v i l l a g e s o f Cyprus, e i t h e r w i t h a Greek o r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m a j o r i t y , p l u s areas o f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l , T976, argues Karouzis, t h a t " . . . i n f a c t t h i s i s n o t the case because apart from c e r t a i n i s o l a t e d cases^no c o n t r o l was e x e r c i s e d i n a l l t h e areas shown". ( 4 t ) Map 3.4 i s by Professor Emile Kolodny ( 4 2 ) and i s p u r p o r t e d t o show the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community i n T 9 7 0 , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves, p u r e l y T u r k i s h and mixed v i l l a g e s / t o w n s . I t i s useful there- f o r e t o compare the map w i t h t h e one produced by Richard P a t r i c k ( Map 3,3) which shows "Turkish C y p r i o t C o n t r o l l e d Areas i n T 9 7 0 " . Karouzis had the f o l l o w i n g c r i t i c i s m s t o make r e g a r d i n g Kolodny's map :(a) The enclaves shown on the map were n o t a l l areas t o which Greek C y p r i o t s could have no access. (b) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves number 4 4 , o r i f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s o f N i c o s i a , Pamagusta, Laraaca and Paphos are counted, 4 8 . ( c ) The number o f v i l l a g e s shown as abandoned i s not a c c u r a t e . ( d ) Some p u r e l y T u r k i s h o r mixed v i l l a g e s have been o m i t t e d . (e) There i s a s i g n i f i c a n t s i m i l a r i t y between the borders o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas i n t h e Kolodny map and those used i n the American map. I n c o n t r a s t , P a t r i c k ' s map shows 40 enclaves, included. As Karouzis attempted 44 i f t h e f o u r towns are t o show,these enclaves were n o t n e c e s s a r i l y areas o f p u r e l y T u r k i s h v i l l a g e s , p o p u l a t i o n o r l a n d owners h i p , and d i d not i n c l u d e a l l such areas w i t h i n t h e i r - b o r d e r s . Not o n l y d i d the patchwork p a r t i t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d pose problems f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. i n i t s e f f o r t s t o keep t h e peace, i t also posed a d m i n i s t r a t i v e problems f o r the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership, c o n t r o l over i t s dispersed enclaves. which had o n l y loose U n t i l the removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h freedom o f movement i n March 1 9 6 8 , i t was extremely difficult f o r the Leadership t o m a i n t a i n a n y t h i n g but d i s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h the v a r i o u s enclaves and quarters under i t s de f a c t o c o n t r o l . I n practice,, l o c a l F i g h t e r commanders and T u r k i s h o f f i c e r s from the mainland o r v i l l a g e mukhtars ( leaders ) remained i n c o n t r o l o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e l o c a l areas, - 65 - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n areas some distance from N i c o s i a and the Geunyeli Aghirda Enclave. Over the 1964 t o 1974 p e r i o d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s developed a complicated h i e r a r c h y o f t e r r i t o r i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l . There were seven de f a c t o l o c a l government r e g i o n s , each w i t h a D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r based i n the l a r g e s t l o c a l m u n i c i p a l i t y , who d e a l t w i t h v i l l a g e leaders and town mayors over c i v i l m a t t e r s . At the t o p o f the admin- i s t r a t i v e ladder was t h e General Committee ( P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n from December T967 onwards ) which s a t i n T u r k i s h N i c o s i a , former Vice-President Cypriot p o l i c y . headed by KUclik, and was i n charge o f i s l a n d - w i d e T u r k i s h When c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s over-lapped t h e r e was close l i a i s o n between the General Committee and s e n i o r m i l i t a r y officers. As w i l l be shown i n Chapter Five some mainland T u r k i s h o f f i c e r s had g r e a t i n f l u e n c e over l o c a l events and were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a? number of v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s . At the lower l e v e l s o f the h i e r a r c h y the i n f l u e n c e of the Leadership i n N i c o s i a broke down. Richard P a t r i c k produced a d e t a i l e d study and map o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l o c a l government o r g a n i s a t i o n as i t e x i s t e d i n T970. ( see Map3.7) 'Groupings' o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s found i n close p r o x i m i t y u s u a l l y had a m i l i t a r y and/or p o l i c e headquarters was i n the most c e n t r a l o r i m p o r t a n t v i l l a g e o f the group. I t i n the more i s o l a t e d v i l l a g e groups under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l t h a t l o c a l a f f a i r s were r u n by F i g h t e r l e a d e r s , mukhtars. and p o l i c e chiefs. (43) S e c t i o n Four: U.N.F.I.CYP. and the P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus. T964 - ' 7 4 . The United Nations Force i n Cyprus was c o n f r o n t e d w i t h numerous d i f f i c u l t tasks as soon as i t became^ o p e r a t i o n a l on 27 March 1 9 6 4 . F i r s t l y , i t had t o see thai; c e a s e - f i r e arrangements were observed by both s i d e s , a d i f f i c u l t task when there was always a l i k e l i h o o d t h a t General Grivas would a c t independently ment. o f d i r e c t i v e s from c e n t r a l govern- Secondly, U.N. personnel had t o cope w i t h Government r e s t r i c t i o n s on goods moving i n t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas. A f t e r the f a i l u r e o f t h e a t t a c k on Kokkina President Makarios decided t o pursue p o l i t i c a l goals 66 n n UJ O (0 (0 0) in UJ S LU o b ™ t o ^ O >: D iC £ O co — I LU 52 z o x LU Z 7 £ 2 co LU O 111 UJ ] CO 11 Li 0 ••• I J - 67 - by a p p l y i n g economic pressure on the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r a t h e r than by f o r c e o f arms. As p a r t o f t h i s p o l i c y the Cyprus Government p u t an economic blockade on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t administered enclaves, stopping the movement o f " s t r a t e g i c m a t e r i a l s " i n t o those areas. ( see Chapter Five ) T h i r d l y , there were r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y through T u r k i s h enclaves. F o u r t h l y , the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were badly overcrowded and had a refugee- problem, which meant t h a t there Were l a r g e numbers o f homeless people l a c k i n g basic a m e n i t i e s . At f i r s t U.N.F.I.CYP. had great d i f f i c u l t y i n g e t t i n g much needed medical and o t h e r a i d i n t o Kokkina, and i t was n o t u n t i l mid^September 1964 t h a t these s u p p l i e s were d e l i v e r e d . Throughout i t s f i r s t decade o f operations i n Cyprus,U.N.F.I.CYP. refused t o give the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership any i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n , d e a l i n g w i t h the p u r e l y Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n as the Government o f the whole Republic. did recognize At the same time, U.N.F.I.CYP, the g r a v i t y o f the e t h n i c - c u r a - p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n . As the Secretary-General r e p o r t e d on 11 March 1965 :" The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y o f s e l f - i s o l a t i o n has l e d the community i n t h e opposite d i r e c t i o n from n o r m a l i t y . The community l e a d e r s h i p discourages the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n from engaging i n p e r s o n a l , commercial,or o t h e r contact w i t h t h e i r Greek C y p r i o t c o m p a t r i o t s , from applying to Government o f f i c e s i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e matters o r from r e s e t t l i n g i n t h e i r homes i f they are refugees." (44) U.N.F.I.CYP. were faced w i t h an i s l a n d c r i s s - c r o s s e d by p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s , " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " , and the problems o f hardening b a r r i e r s " between the two communities. n As Galo Plaza "psychological recognized, The p h y s i c a l impediments t o normal r e l a t i o n s between the communities were s e r i o u s enough, h a r d l y l e s s so was the p s y c h o l o g i c a l impediment caused by the suppression o f the h e a l t h y movement o f i d e a s , f o r which were s u b s t i t u t e d slogans and counter-slogans shouted by propaganda machines across the d i v i d i n g l i n e s i n uncompromising, p r o v o c a t i v e o r h o s t i l e tones." (45) - 68 - I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o f u l l y a p p r e c i a t e the e x t e n t o f the hardships s u f f e r e d by t h e enclaved T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . T h e i r i s o l a t i o n behind " v i s i b l e w a l l s " tended t o create more " i n v i s i b l e w a l l s " between the two s i d e s . As Drury puts i t :- " The two communities' s e p a r a t i o n , as the decade advanced, became i n c r e a s i n g l y entrenched, p h y s i c a l l y , e m o t i o n a l l y , and m a t e r i a l l y . " (46) Professor Volkan, 1979, l i k e n e d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o caged b i r d s . . . " They had become p r i s o n e r s , i n s p i t e o f the f a c t t h a t t h e i r " p r i s o n s " l a y w i t h i n the neighbourhoods o f t h e i r own people i n which i t was p o s s i b l e t o conduct some semblance o f normal life." (47) Under these abnormal circumstances U.N.P.I.CYP. acted as the only communication bridge between o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s on e i t h e r side o f the de f a c t o d i v i d i n g l i n e s , t r y i n g t o breakdown the problems o f p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l detachment, the p s y c h o l o g i c a l "green l i n e s " s e p a r a t i n g them. Frequently young U.N.P.I.CYP. o f f i c e r s were engaged i n d e l i c a t e discussions between v i l l a g e mukhtars. farmers, policemen, and businessmen o f both sides i n attempts t o s e t t l e p a r o c h i a l disputes and reach l o c a l compromises. Such " c o r r e c t i v e and p r e v e n t i v e " m e d i a t i o n , as HaTbottle describes i t , "determines t h e i r success as peacekeepers, n o t the a u t h o r i t y o f the s e l f - l o a d i n g r i f l e s t h a t they may h o l d i n t h e i r hands." (48) Very o f t e n intercommunal d i s p u t e s o r i n c i d e n t s arose as a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f t h e p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l geography i n a given area. For example, Greek C y p r i o t farmers sometimes t r i e d t o e n t e r a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t area w i t h o u t the p r i o r permission o f l o c a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u t h o r i t i e s . circumstances I n such U.N.F.I.CYP. would i n t e r v e n e t o prevent any h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n s United Nations escorts would then be arranged t o p r o t e c t farmers e n t e r i n g T u r k i s h areas provided they had permission from l o c a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e o r mukhtars. Such l o c a l "agreements" o r "understandings" were n o t always easy t o arrange i n the absence o f c l e a r demarcation l i n e s between the d i s p u t a n t s . Very o f t e n the boundary between t e r r i t o r y under Greek o r - 69 - T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l was ambiguous. As Richard P a t r i c k e x p l a i n s , the boundary " more n e a r l y resembles a f r o n t i e r zone i n the unguarded f i e l d s about the v i l l a g e . Such zones are i l l - d e f i n e d , and t h e i r i r r e g u l a r shapes depend on l o c a l p a t t e r n s o f e t h n i c s e t t l e m e n t , l a n d ownership, communication, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , and intercommunal h o s t i l i t y . " (49) U.N.F.I.CYP. were preoccupied w i t h c l e a r l y d e f i n e d " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " around the enclaves o f Kokkina, Aghirda - Guenyeli, and those d i v i d i n g the e t h n i c q u a r t e r s o f towns l i k e N i c o s i a and Larnaca. The Force also deployed men a t p o i n t s near t o o r w i t h i n "contested areas" between the communities where changes i n the l o c a l s t a t u s quo peace were always a p o s s i b i l i t y . could r e l a x i t s observations o r breaches o f the The o n l y areas where U.N.P.I.CYP. and a c t i v i t i e s were those w i t h o u t any T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , such as p a r t s o f the c e n t r a l Troodos, and around remote and s t r a t e g i c a l l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t v i l l a g e s where the l o c a l people o f e i t h e r community adopted a " l i v e and l e t l i v e " Chapter Pive considers depth. attitude. the f i r s t decade o f U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s i n These operations r e v e a l many i n t e r l i n k a g e s between t h e i s l a n d ' s p h y s i c a l , human, and p o l i t i c a l geography and p r a c t i c a l peace-keeping tasks. Two main c a t e g o r i e s o f o p e r a t i o n s w i l l be examined. I n United Nations phraseology these are :( i ) A c t i v i t i e s toward p r e v e n t i n g a recurrence to o f f i g h t i n g and c o n t r i b u t i n g the r e s t o r a t i o n o f law and o r d e r , and ( i i ) A c t i v i t i e s toward a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s . The f i r s t group o f a c t i v i t i e s were p a r t o f a wider process o f " p a c i f i c a t i o n or "de-confrontation". U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r p o s i t i o n e d i t s troops i n a c t u a l o r p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e spots, arranged c e a s e - f i r e s , manned and demarcated " n e u t r a l " zones, n e g o t i a t e d f o r the removal o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , b l o c k s , and o t h e r evidences o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n . road- The second category o f U.N. Force d u t i e s i n c l u d e d many n o n - m a r t i a l socio-economic and humanitarian r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a f f e c t i n g the d a i l y l i v e s o f both C y p r i o t communities. U.N.F.I.CYP. were, according t o Stagenga, " h e l p i n g t o f o s t e r such i n t a n g i b l e s as intercommunal t r u s t and mutual confidence." (50) - 70 - The U.N. Force had a m i l i t a r y branch c a l l e d Operations Economics i n v o l v e d i n a wide v a r i e t y o f problems a f f e c t i n g the l i v e s and l i v e l i h o o d s of the T u r k i s h communtiy i n t h e i r homes and v i l l a g e s lines. and along demarcation D e t a i l s o f t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s such as a r b i t r a t i n g water r i g h t s , e s c o r t i n g farmers i n s t r a t e g i c areas, and s e t t l i n g d i s p u t e s over l o c a l resources are given i n Chapter F i v e . Five headings are concentrated on under U.N.F.I.CYP.'s " n o r m a l i z a t i o n " a c t i v i t i e s . These are :i ) Freedom o f movement; i i ) C i v i l i a n services; iii) Agriculture; i v ) I n d u s t r y and o t h e r aconomic a c t i v i t i e s ; v) Relief operations: Chapter Four examines some d e f i n i t i o n s o f "peacekeeping" r e l a t i n g t o U.N.F.I.CYP., and the l i m i t a t i o n s o f i t s mandate. Government and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s t r i c t i o n s on i t s freedom o f movement a r e also considered. Finally,, one s e c t i o n i s devoted s p e c i f i c a l l y t o the p r a c t i c a l of deploying men i n a s m a l l compact i s l a n d w i t h a complex geography and changing p a t t e r n s o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t . problems pdlitical - 71 - Footnotes and References. (1) Report by the United Nations Mediator on Cyprus t o the S e c r e t a r y General, 26 March 1965, (2) paras. 50 - Volkan.V.D. T979, Cyprus — 51. War and Adaption. ( U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a Press ) , p.80. (3) M i n o r i t y Group Report, No.30, 1976, Cyprus , Part One, (4) U.N. (5) Volkan, op. c i t . , argues t h a t t h e r e -were between 25 - 30,000 p.3. Doc. S/6102, 12' December 1964, para.45. Turkish C y p r i o t refugees. (6) Patrick,R.A. 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . 19631971. ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Waterloo Press, Canada ) , p . 7 4 . (7) Drury.M.P. 1 9 8 1 , ' T h e ^ P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus' i n Change and Development i n the Middle East ( eds. Clarke ffi BowenJones ) , p.298. (8) Stagenga,J.A. 1968, The- United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p T 5 5 . 0 (9) These s t a t i s t i c s are based on a comparison o f P a t r i c k ' s f i e l d w o r k w i t h the T960 Census o f P o p u l a t i o n . (TO M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group, T976, op. c i t . (11 U.N. Doc. S/6102, T2 December 1964, section regarding 'Activities towards a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s ' . (T2 P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . c h . 3 . (T3 ibid. (1-4 i b i d . . Appendices 1 & 2. (T5- H a r b o t t l e , 1970, The i m p a r t i a l s o l d i e r . ( Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , pp. 63 - 68. (16 i b i d . . p.67. (T7 Oberling.P. T'982, The-Road t o B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , Appendix I I . (18 Volkan, op. c i t . . ppd'OT - T02. (19 Refer t o ; U.N. (20 i b i d . , para.T4. (2T Patrick,R.A., op. c i t . . p.76. (22 Karouzis,G 0 Doc. S/6102. 1976, Proposals f o r a s o l u t i o n t o the Cyprus Problem. ( Cosmos Press, N i c o s i a ) , (23 ibid., p 37. (24 Oberling.P, (25 Drury,M.P. 0 op. c i t . . Appendices. January T977, 'Western Cyprus — Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n upheaval, 1 9 5 6 - ' 7 6 ' , a paper presented a t the I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers Annual Conference, January 1977. - 72 - (26) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.274. (27) P a t r i c k , R.A. 1972; ' C o n f l i c t i n Cyprus : Some views on the s i t u a t i o n by a p o l i t i c a l geographer', f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n Geographical C h r o n i c l e s . B u l l e t i n o f the Cyprus Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 1971,Vol.t,No.2,pp.56-67. (28) Drury.M.P. 1981, op. o i t . . p.274. (29) Drury,M„P. Jan.1977, OP. c i t . . (30) M i n o r i t y Rights Group Report, 1976, (31) F o l l o w i n g the T955 -*59 E.O.K.A. campaign, many Greek C y p r i o t op. c i t . . p.4. fighters s t i l l gave t h e i r a l l e g i a n c e to the e x i l e d commander, General G r i v a s , r a t h e r than to Archbishop Makarios. v i o l e n c e o f December 1963 During and e a r l y 1964, the intercommunal s e v e r a l armed gangs acted w i t h o u t c e n t r a l d i r e c t i o n from the Government. as though Turkey was President prepared to invade Cyprus. By June i t looked To counter this Makarios appealed to mainland Greece f o r troops to defend the i s l a n d . Grivas, who 5,000 troops were sent under the command o f General r e t u r n e d to Cyprus on T4 June, 1964. Furthermore, the imminent i n v a s i o n t h r e a t prompted the Government to i n t r o d u c e c o n s c r i p t i o n , i n c r e a s i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard by 15,000 men. Even before the r e s i g n a t i o n o f General Karayannis as N a t i o n a l Guard Commander on 15 August, Grivas was g a i n i n g c o n t r o l o f a l l Greek C y p r i o t m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus,, When " o f f i c i a l l y " i n charge o f the N a t i o n a l Guard he took s e v e r a l a c t i o n s w i t h o u t p r i o r c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h the Cyprus Government, a few a g a i n s t Makarios' wishes, and was a c o n t i n u a l p a i n i n the side o f U.N,„F,,I .CYP. a t t e m p t i n g to r e s t o r e order i n the t r o u b l e d i s l a n d . Refer to : Grivas,G. 1965, The Memoires o f General Grivas. by Charles F o l e y ) New ( Edited ( F r e d e r i c k A. Praeger, York, Washington, D.C. ) ; and Foley & Scobie, 1975', The Struggle f o r Cyprus. ( Hoover I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n s 137 ) . H a r b o t t l e , 1970, op. c i t . . also has one chapter devoted to G r i v a s ' a c t i v i t i e s i n r e l a t i o n to c e r t a i n i n c i d e n t s and U.N.F.I.CYP. (32) U.N. Doc. S/5679, 2 May 1964, para.10. Also r e f e r t o : Special News B u l l e t i n ( N i c o s i a ) , nos. 100-102. Purcell.H.D., T969, Cyprus. ( Ernest Benn L t d . ) , p.344. Gibbons,H,S. 1969, Peace Without Honour. ( Ankara: A.D.A. P u b l i s h i n g House ) , p.158. (33) The term "constabulary f o r c e " used by Moskos.C.C. 1976, ( Chicago U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , pp.36 - 74. (34) Oberling.P., op. c i t . . p.111. (35) Stagenga,J.A. T968, op. c i t . . p.40. Peace S o l d i e r s . - 73 - (36) This view i s expressed by P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982, op. c i t . He argues t h a t "the Greek C y p r i o t s q u i c k l y acquired the same contempt f o r i t ( U.N.P.I.CYP. ) t h a t they had had f o r the s i m i l a r l y hamstrung B r i t i s h f o r c e and there was no l e t - u p i n t h e i r e f f o r t s to break the back o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e . " ( page 111 ) (37) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . p.60. (38) Drury, T98T, op. c i t . . p.300. (39) O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . . p. 111. (40) U.N. Doc. S/6T02, para.143. (41) K a r o u z i s , 1976, op. c i t . . p.103. (42) Refer t o : The Revue de Geographie Lyon. Vol.XLVI, No.T, 1971. and Kolodny,E. T976, 'Recent p o p u l a t i o n a v o l u t i o n and community p a t t e r n o f s e t t l e m e n t i n e a s t e r n Mediterranean i s l a n d s — The case o f Cyprus, Crete and the Aegean i s l a n d s ' , i n I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography - Proceedings. ( Cyprus Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 27-29 Peb.'76, N i c o s i a ) pp.12T - 126. (43) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . Appendix I I and pp„80 - 88. (44) Refer also to the Secretary-General's Report to the S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l on December 1964, U.N. Doc. S/6T02, i n which he p o i n t s out t h a t the T u r k i s h Cyprio"t p o l i c y o f s e l f - s e g r e g a t i o n was a way o f p r o t e c t i n g themselves from Greek C y p r i o t aggression o r (45) Report by the U.N. (46) Mediator, March T965, op. c i t . . Drury, Jan.1977, op. (47) Volkan, op. c i t . . (48) H a r b o t t l e . M . 1980, harassment. para.51. cit . 0 ch.4. 'The s t r a t e g y o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n ' , i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l ( Canada ) , Vol.35, No.1, pp.TT8 - (49) P a t r i c k , op. c i t . . pp.87 - 88. (50) Stagenga, 1*970, op. c i t . . p. 10. T3T. - 74 CHAPTER FOUR PEACEKEEPING I N PERSPECTIVE. " U.N.F.I.CYP.'s was the t h i r d m i s s i o n attempted by a w o r l d peace f o r c e , and the most complex. Unlike Gaza o r the Congo, which o f f e r e d d i s t i n c t e t h n i c d i v i s i o n s , Cyprus was a land o f i n e x t r i c a b l y mixed communities. The f i g h t i n g had now c o n s o l i d a t e d scores o f embattled T u r k i s h enclaves among a sea o f Greeks, each o f which r e q u i r e d U.N. p r o t e c t i o n . " ( 1 ) ".„othe Turks thought U.N.F.I.CYP. was there t o save them from the Greeks; the Greeks thought i t was there t o help the Government suppress T u r k i s h r e b e l s . " ( 2 ) " I t i s p e r m i s s i b l e t o wonder whether, u l t i m a t e l y , the main p o l i t i c a l r e s u l t o f the presence o f a United Nations Force i s n o t t o make the s p l i t between communities an i n t e r n a t i o n a l affair. The n a t u r a l slope- o f e v o l u t i o n would be t h a t which , can already be glimpsed; demarcation l i n e , then f r o n t i e r s , then partition. Turkey would have t h e r e f o r e achieved an unhoped f o r success, f o r which Greece and t h e Greek C y p r i o t s would doubtless never pardon her." ( 3 ) S e c t i o n One : What i s Peacekeeping and What i s a Peacekeeping Force ? Some D e f i n i t i o n s and t h e case o f U.N.F.I.CYP. A u s e f u l working d e f i n i t i o n o f a peacekeeping f o r c e i s provided by Charles Moskos.Jnr., 1976, i n h i s s o c i o l o g i c a l study o f U.N.F.I.CYP. A peacekeeping f o r c e should comprise components from v a r i o u s n a t i o n s , o p e r a t i n g under the command o f an i m p a r t i a l w o r l d o r g a n i s a t i o n , and should seek t o reduce o r prevent armed h o s t i l i t i e s w i t h the absolute minimum use o f armed f o r c e i t s e l f . ( 4 ) I t should also be as n e u t r a l as p o s s i b l e i n a g i v e n c i v i l war s i t u a t i o n , and should n o t a l l o w i t s e l f t o become "a ' t h i r d f o r c e ' i n a c o n f l i c t . " ( 5 ) As B r i g a d i e r H a r b o t t l e , T970, p o i n t s out » U.N.F.I.CYP. was e s t a b l i s h e d a t " t h e s p e c i f i c request o f the - 75 - Government o f the t e r r i t o r y concerned, to p r o v i d e a s t a b i l i z i n g i n f l u e n c e and presence f o r the maintenance of peace. there to take sides nor to use I t i s not strong-arm t a c t i c s t o e f f e c t t h i s purpose. " (6) The d i f f e r e n c e between most m i l i t a r y o p e r a t i o n s and a peacekeeping l i e s i n "the i m p e r a t i v e s of i m p a r t i a l i t y and noncoercion."" (7) one Normally a m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s engaged i n a s s i s t i n g a recognized c i v i l a u t h o r i t y to prevent t e r r o r i s m , r e v o l u t i o n , or an attempt t o overthrow t h e government. Under such circumstances the m i l i t a r y i s put i n a p a r t i a l p o s i t i o n where the use o f f o r c e i s a recognized method of d e a l i n g w i t h the problem. I n c o n t r a s t , a peacekeeping f o r c e i s o f t e n placed i n an i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y r o l e to h a l t o r reduce a c o n f l i c t , already i n i t i a t e d . (8) the B r i t i s h Army, Michael H a r b o t t l e and i n c l i n a t i o n as s o l d i e r s had and, Referring to argues " t h a t t h e i r whole p r o j e c t i o n been towards meeting f o r c e w i t h f o r c e , where necessary, f i g h t i n g to achieve t h e i r t a c t i c a l They had never before been placed i n t h i s objectives. 'in-between' p o s i t i o n where weapons were the l a s t t h i n g s t o be useiand none o f them l i k e d i t . " (9) As Moskos argues, peacekeeping r e q u i r e s a r e f o r m u l a t i o n of c o n v e n t i o n a l m i l i t a r y s o c i o l i z a t i o n and a r e s t r u c t u r i n g of standard m i l i t a r y organization. The United Nations O r g a n i s a t i o n has become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n s as an " i m p a r t i a l " i n t e r n a t i o n a l body w i t h the f a c i l i t i e s to set up such o p e r a t i o n s . up i t was I n s p i t e of U.N.P.I.CYP.'s i n t e r n a t i o n a l make- and i s comprised mostly of " c o u n t r i e s having close t i e s - w i t h B r i t a i n , the West and Western A l l i a n c e s " , w i t h no c o n t i n g e n t s from A f r o Asian or L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s . (TO) i ) Peacekeeping. Peacemaking, or Peacebuilding ? Using Moskos' d e f i n i t i o n a peacekeeping f o r c e i s an " i n t e r - n a t i o n a l l y l e g i t i m a t e d constabulary...charged w i t h a prophylactic role — the containment and r e t a r d a t i o n of conflict." I t i s designed as an i n t e r i m measure to f o r e s t a l l the g l o b a l i z a t i o n of - 76 - a l o c a l c o n f l i c t u n t i l a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t can be devised and accepted. (11) This i s c r u c i a l t o a f u l l understanding e o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s o p e r a t i o n s , f o r i t has never been granted a "therapeutic r o l e " o f f i n d i n g a s o l u t i o n t o intercommunal c o n f l i c t i n Cyprus. task was the preserve o t the O.N. Mediator. This latter ( T 2 ) , whose j o b i t was t o use diplomacy and mediation as a way o f r e c o n c i l i n g diverse and s t r a t e g i c a t t i t u d e s i n the Cyprus Problem. (T3) political As Professor Coufoudakis puts i t :" By p r o v i d i n g f o r the appointment o f a mediator, the Council f o r t h e f i r s t time acknowledged t h a t peacekeeping i s n e i t h e r i d e n t i c a l n o r n e c e s s a r i l y conducive t o peacemaking. The Council's peacekeeping and mediation proposals the p r e v e n t i v e and the therap.utic f u n c t i o n . t h e r e f o r e t a c i t l y recognized provided both R e s o l u t i o n T86 the d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n expressed by many s t a t e s about U.N.E.F., t h a t w i t h o u t an a c t i v e mediation e f f o r t U.N.E.F. had c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e p a c i f i c p e r p e t u a t i o n o f the d i s p u t e . " (14) H a r b o t t l e has gone f u r t h e r t o s t r e s s the i n t e r l i n k a g e s between the v a r i o u s l e v e l s o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n , i . e . between the peacemaking, Mediator l e v e l , and the peacekeeping, U.N.P.I.CYP. level. I t i s up t o t h i r d p a r t y " t o f a c i l i t a t e r a t h e r than t o impose a s e t t l e m e n t " , by c a r r y i n g out i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a t a l l l e v e l s . (15) During the f i r s t phase o f i t s o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus, 1964 - 1968, U.N.P.I.CYP. was q u i t e s u c c e s s f u l i n i t s " p a c i f i c a t i o n r o l e " . But t h e p e r i o d 1968 - 1"974, when intercommunal n e g o t i a t i o n s had resumed, represented a "second phase" f o r U.N.P.I.CYP., when i t s m i l i t a r y d u t i e s "lapsed i n t o r o u t i n e o b s e r v a t i o n , p a t r o l l i n g , and l i a i s o n . " (16) During t h i s "dead p e r i o d " f o r the United Nations Force, H a r b o t t l e argues more could have been done on the ground t o b r i n g the d i s p u t a n t s c l o s e r t o g e t h e r , w h i l s t the l e a d e r s h i p s o f each side discussed a settlement. For i n s t a n c e , U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate ( see S e c t i o n Two, Chapter Four ) could have been extended t o enable wider "peacebuilding i.e. initiatives", the promotion o f p e a c e f u l s o c i a l change through socio-economic - 77 - r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and development, o r what Stagenga termed as " c i v i c a c t i o n p r o j e c t s . " (T7) A l t e r n a t i v e l y , the s t r u c t u r e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d have been a l t e r e d t o a l l o w f o r an enlargement o f i t e Operations Economics branch i n the m i l i t a r y , o r a l a r g e r c i v i l i a n p o l i c e c o n t i n g e n t . words, t o a l l o w f o r - a n enlarged humanitarian and economic r o l e I n other facilitating the promotion o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s conception o f " n o r m a l i t y " i n Cyprus. Indeed o t h e r s p e c i a l i z e d agencies o f the United Nations could work i n tandem w i t h U.N.F.I.CYP. t o promote g r e a t e r socio-economic s t a b i l i t y i n Cyprus as they have done i n s e v e r a l t r o u b l e d areas o f the T h i r d World. Michael H a r b o t t l e (18) argued f o r :a combined o p e r a t i o n i n which d i f f e r e n t types o f agencies are needed f o r t h e p e a c e f u l containment o f c o n f l i c t , t h e r e establishment o f s t a b i l i t y , and t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f community life." Others have p o i n t e d out t h a t i n the l a t e - S i x t i e s and e a r l y - S e v e n t i e s Cyprus "represented the most concentrated development a i d i n the world.**" (T9) f i e l d o f United Nations The^ United Nations Development Programme i n Cyprus ( U.N.D.P.) was d i s t i n c t from U.N.F.I.CYP., and i t s a i d was n o t designed t o support the Force's mandate. I n the- l i g h t o f United Nations r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Government o f Cyprus, U.N.D.P. was unable t o accede t o t h e T u r k i s h P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s c a l l f o r a share o f U.N.D.P. a i d , a c c r e d i t e d t o the Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n s p i t e o f t h i s l i m i t a t i o n , there was ... "...much u n o f f i c i a l l i a i s o n between the o f f i c e r s o f U.N„D.P. and U.N.F.I.CYP., and pressure by U.N.D.P. experts t o i n t e g r a t e Greek C y p r i o t and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t i n i t s v a r i o u s p r o j e c t s t o support U.N.F.I.CYP.'B e f f o r t s t o achieve a r e t u r n t o normalcy.**(20) An example o f UoN.D.P. and U.N.F.I.CYP. c o o p e r a t i o n l e a d i n g t o i n t e r communal c o o p e r a t i o n was over the completion o f t h e s p i l l w a y o f the K a n l i Keuy Dam, l o c a t e d i n the Geunyeli - Aghirda Enclave. (21) ( r e f e r t o Chapter Five ) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , such examples o f an i n t e g r a t i o n o f United Nations agencies i n c l o s i n g the gap between the c o n f l i c t i n g communities are very r a r e i n the case o f Cyprus. Furthermore, U.N.F.I.CYP.'s - 78 mandate was l e f t u n a l t e r e d , and the s i z e and scope o f the Force were reduced r a t h e r than extended ( r e f e r t o Table 4 . 1 . ) , w h i s t c i v i l i a n p e a c e b u i l d i n g i n i t i a t i v e s were n o t made by the S e c u r i t y Council t o b r i n g the two communities t o g e t h e r a t grass r o o t s l e v e l . ( r e f e r t o Chapter F i v e , which discusses many o f these p o i n t s i n more d e t a i l . ) I n sum, the d e f i n i t i o n o f peacekeeping and the r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f a peacekeeping f o r c e are i n themselves r e s t r i c t i o n s , f o r they a l l o w the Force- scope o n l y t o p r e s e r v e a s t a t u s qucr r a t h e r than t o work f o r a s o l u t i o n t o the u n d e r l y i n g f e a r s , m i s t r u s t , and " p s y c h o l o g i c a l green l i n e s " between the c o n f l i c t i n g p a r t i e s . A peacekeeper's major f u n c t i o n i s t o keep the two sides a p a r t i n o r d e r t o prevent a recurrence o f fighting. On the whole, U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d an admirable j o b , b u t as w i l l be shown i n l a t e r chapters, more could have been done t o promote h i g h e r l e v e l s o f intercommunal r i f t between community l e a d e r s . c o o p e r a t i o n i n s p i t e o f the p o l i t i c a l I n the f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s some- i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e s o f a peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n should be kept i n mind :(a) I t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l composition and command; (b) The p r i n c i p l e o f i m p a r t i a l i t y ; (c) The p r i n c i p l e o f non-coercion: S e c t i o n Two: U-N-F.I.CYP,,'s Mandate. I n i t s r e s o l u t i o n T86 o f 4 March, T964, the S e c u r i t y Council recommended " t h a t the f u n c t i o n o f the Force should be, i n t h e i n t e r e s t o f p r e s e r v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y , t o use i t s best e f f o r t s t o prevent a> recurrence o f f i g h t i n g and, as necessary, to c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e maintenance and r e s t o r a t i o n o f law and o r d e r and a r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s . ,r Such an ambiguous mandate leaves p l e n t y o f room f o r d i f f e r i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n Cyprus. the Secretary-General I n practic i s delegated s u b s t a n t i a l a u t h o r i t y by t h e S e c u r i t y Council t o c l a r i f y and i n t e r p r e t the U.N. r e s o l u t i o n f o r the p r a c t i c a l purposes o f U.N.F.I.CYP. 1 - 79 - Differing Interpretations. i ) The Greek C y p r i o t Viewpoint: Each l e a d e r s h i p saw U.N.F.I.CYP.'s tasks i n terms o f t h e i r own mutually exclusive p o l i t i c a l goals. President Makarios wanted t o extend h i s regime's e f f e c t i v e t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l over the whole Republic, i n c l u d i n g those f o r t y o r so areas c o n t r o l l e d by T u r k i s h Cypriots. As the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y recognized a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r the whole i s l a n d i t argued t h a t the U.N. Force should help i t t o e l i m i n a t e the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s * " r e b e l l i o n " i n o r d e r t h a t peace, law and o r d e r could be r e s t o r e d . As I n t e r i o r M i n i s t e r Georgadjis p u t i t , " The United Nations troops should be n e u t r a l , but t h a t does not mean they should t r e a t both sides on an equal f o o t i n g i n the c o n f l i c t . . . Y o u cannot equate a m a j o r i t y w i t h a m i n o r i t y , the l e g a l government w i t h the leaders o f a group." (22) The Greek C y p r i o t Leadership wanted U.N.F.I.CYP. t o e x t i n g u i s h what they saw as a " s e p a r a t i s t movement". References were f r e q u e n t l y made to O.N.U.C.'s p a r t i n crushing the Katanga secession i n t h e Congo t o j u s t i f y a s i m i l a r r o l e f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. I n one sense the Force conformed t o the Cyprus Government's conception o f i t s d u t i e s as f a r as they e n t a i l e d the removal o f f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and p h y s i c a l blockades between the communities, a s w e l l as measures promoting intercommunal economic i n t e g r a t i o n . (23) U Thant, Secretary General, d i d c o n t i n u a l l y i n s i s t t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t an a d j u n c t t o the Makarios A d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I t s i n i t i a l aim was t o keep the p r o t a g o n i s t s a p a r t . These " b u f f e r " d u t i e s were c r i t i c i z e d by some Greek C y p r i o t s as a d e l i b e r a t e attempt to p r o t e c t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t h e i r " s e p a r a t i s t " cause. Whatever Makarios' long-term p o l i t i c a l goals were, i . e . Enosis o r a s o v e r e i g n , independent, non-aligned and u n i t a r y s t a t e , h i s Government's c o n t r o l over n i n e t y p e r cent o f C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y was p a r t l y aided by United Nations r e c o g n i t i o n . I n the Secretary General's March 1965 Report, U Thant argues t h a t the Greek C y p r i o t s saw the Force's main - 80 - f u n c t i o n t o be a s s i s t i n g them t o r e s t o r e n o r m a l i t y " conceived by them...as an o r d e r l y submission o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community t o the a u t h o r i t y and l e g i s l a t i o n o f the Government." (24) i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Viewpoint : A p r o - T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i e w p o i n t i s expressed by P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982, who w r i t e s , " the T963-T964 c r i s i s was a most unusual phenomenon: i t was not a r e v o l u t i o n by a downtrodden m i n o r i t y against an a r r o g a n t , oppressive m a j o r i t y , but a r e v o l u t i o n by an a r r o g a n t , oppressive m a j o r i t y against a downtrodden m i n o r i t y . " ( I n a memorandum submitted t o Senior Galo Plaza, U.N. Mediator, on 22 February 1965, Vice President Kiicuk s p e l l e d o u t the v i e w p o i n t o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership, arguing t h a t the Greek C y p r i o t s wanted to subjugate and destroy the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community. He suggested p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the communities as a s o l u t i o n , a suggestion supported by Ankara. (26) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s saw U.N.F.I.CYP.'S r o l e t o p r o t e c t them from Greek C y p r i o t aggression and t o preserve t h e i r s c a t t e r e d t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l w i t h i n the Republic. Subsequent chapters w i l l examine the e x t e n t t o which U.N.F.I.CYP. p r o t e c t e d t h i s de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n . i i i ) U Thant's I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f the Mandate. Given the d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposite p o s i t i o n s o f the two l e a d e r s h i p s concerning the p o s i t i o n o f U.N.F.I.CYP., i t was g i v e n awkward tasks t o f u l f i l by a vaguely worded mandate. As Charles Moskos, 1976, argues, " the mandate o f U.N.F.I.CYP. was vague ehough t o a l l o w the d i s p u t a n t s t o read t h e i r own s e l f - s e r v i n g i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s i n t o it...Though t h i s ambiguity i n U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate could and d i d lead t o problems i n the f i e l d , i t helped U.N. Force acceptable t o make the t o the concerned p a r t i e s . " ( 2 7 ) Sometimes the Force was accused o f bias by e i t h e r side i n t h e pursuance of i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s , but t h i s was unavoidable f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d not conform t o e i t h e r community's p o l i t i c a l Nations recognized goals. Although the United "the s o v e r e i g n t y and independence o f Cyprus and t h e - 81 - a u t h o r i t y o f the Government" i t d i d not operate "as an arm o f the Government". (28) U Thant r e a l i z e d t h a t w i t h o u t a p o l i t i c a l settle^ ment the best U.N.P.I.CYP. could do was m a i n t a i n an "uneasy e q u i l i b r i u m " and t r y t o create "an atmosphere more f a v o u r a b l e t o the e f f o r t s t o achieve a long-term s e t t l e m e n t . " ( 2 9 ) He s e t t h e g u i d e l i n e s f o r the Force's operations w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s imposed by t h e fundamental " m i s t r u s t between the Government and the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p " very much i n mind. ( 3 0 ) Obviously U.N.P.I.CYP.'s main task was t o a c t " i n the i n t e r e s t o f p r e s e r v i n g i n t e r n a t i o n a l peace and s e c u r i t y " . The Force proved success- f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g an e s c a l a t i o n o f c i v i l war i n Cyprus i n t o a GrecoT u r k i s h war p r i o r t o 1974, although d i p l o m a t i c i n t e r v e n t i o n by t h e superpowers also helped f o r e s t a l l a T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n both August '64 and November '67. (3?) 4 SeconjLy, U.N.F.I.CYP. had " t o use i t s best e f f o r t s t o prevent a recurrence o f f i g h t i n g " by i n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g i t s troops between t h e b e l l i g e r e n t s wherever p o s s i b l e , and by using i t s good o f f i c e s t o reduce t e n s i o n s and c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . ( see Chapter Five ) T h i r d l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. had " t o c o n t r i b u t e t o the maintenance o f law and o r d e r " , which was n o t d e f i n e d i n l e g a l i s t i c terminology but i n terms o f s t a b i l i t y and p r o v i d i n g p r o t e c t i o n , i . e . p r o t e c t i n g t h e l i f e and p r o p e r t y of e i t h e r community from any source o f a t t a c k by the o t h e r community. t " The main,enance o f law and o r d e r i s n o r m a l l y t h e f u n c t i o n o f governments, and as the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the Cyprus government and U.N.F.I.CYP. has never been c l e a r l y d e f i n e d , and has been s u b j e c t t o considerable f l u c t u a t i o n s i n g o o d w i l l , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o judge the e x t e n t o f the U.N. c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h i s area." (32) H a r b o t t l e , 1974, i n The Thin Blue Line, comments on t h e words " c o n t r i b u t e t o " i n the mandate. He argues t h a t such wording i s i n d i c a t i v e o f two t h i n g " t h e d e s i r e on t h e p a r t o f the S e c u r i t y Council t o leave p r o v i s i o n s o f the mandate as f l e x i b l e as p o s s i b l e , d i c t a t i n g - 82 - no r i g i d g u i d e l i n e s n o r p r e s c r i b i n g any f i x e d o b j e c t i v e s , and the adherence t o the accepted p r i n c i p l e o f U.N. peace- keeping i n t e r v e n t i o n as one o f a s s i s t i n g r a t h e r than enforcement." (33) F i n a l l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. was asked t o c o n t r i b u t e t o "a r e t u r n t o normal conditions". I t has o f t e n been asked what p r e c i s e l y was meant by "normal c o n d i t i o n s " ? U Thant c a r e f u l l y avoided a p o l i t i c a l inter- p r e t a t i o n o f the phrase, a p p l y i n g h i s conception o f n o r m a l i t y t o day-today socio-economic l i f e i n Cyprus. U.N.F.I.CYP. rendered assistance... " i n the a m e l i o r a t i o n o f day-to-day a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , economic, s o c i a l o r j u d i c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s i n g from the d i v i s i o n o f the communities." (34) U.N.F.I.CYP. and Use o f Force. I n h i s A p r i l , T964, a i d memoire. t h e Secretary General s t a t e d t h a t "the use o f f o r c e i s p e r m i s s i b l e only i n s e l f - d e f e n c e " . (35) Nevertheless, "a r a t h e r generous d e f i n i t i o n o f s e l f - d e f e n c e " was i n t e n d e d ( 3 6 ) , which covered :( i ) The defence o f United N a t i o n s ' posts, premises and v e h i c l e s under armed a t t a c k , and ( i i ) The support o f o t h e r personnel i n U.N.F.I.CYP. under armed attack.(37) U.N.F.I.CYP. could n o t use f o r c e t o impose peace, and " i t s use o f the medium o f n e g o t i a t i o n " i s " i t s c h i e f weapon f o r s e t t l i n g a problem".(38) I t had t o be ready t o step i n t o p a r t the d i s p u t a n t s i n c l i n a t i o n t o renew f i g h t i n g . as soon as they showed Only when m e d i a t i o n , g e n t l e and n e g o t i a t i o n f a i l e d , were "measured amoujts o f f i r e power" "to p r o t e c t the United Nations operation...and uphold negotiated persuasion, permissible previously s e t t l e m e n t s . " (39) Section Three : U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Compostion and Deployment. ( r e f e r t o Table 4.1 ) As James A.Stagenga p o i n t s o u t :" During U.N.F.I.CYP.'s f i r s t tense year there were over - 83 - TABLE 4:1. U.N.P.I.CYP. SIZE AND COMPOSITION, 30 APRIL 1964 TO 31 MAY 1984. Date T o t a l U.N.P.I.CYP. Military Personnel Civilian Personnel U.K. Contingent ( contribution ) 6,369 6,34T 28 2,719 6,211 6,037 174 1,034 7 June 1966 4,861 4,687 174 T,053 7 June 1'967 4,622 4,449 173 1,127 7 December 1967 4,737 4,563 174 1,227 7 March '68 4,745 4,570 175 1,245 2 Dec. '68 3,708 3,533 175 1,090 1 Dec. ' 6 9 3,650 3,475 T75 1,068 1 Dec. '70 3,182 3,007 175 t,078 13 Nov. '71 3,119 2,95T 168 1,049 T3 May '72 3,096 2,922 174 1,055 4 Dec. '74 4,335 4,183 152 1,410 30 Nov. '75 3,069 3,001 68 809 30 Nov. '82 2,348 2.3T4 34 761 30 Dec. '83 2,348 2,314 34 761 31' May '84 2,347 2,311 36 760 30 A p r i l 1964 14 August T964 These f i g u r e s are taken r e s p e c t i v e l y from U.N. Document s :S/5679, S/59TO, S/7350, S/7969, S/8286, S/8914 , S/8446, S/952T, S/10005, S/T0401, S/10664, S/TT568, S/T1900, S/15502, S/16192, and S/16596. - 84 - 5 < mil N z -i ° x <-> u * _ _ tn J tt M a U o CO 5 III It. Ill if) 0 M HO W O w C a, eg 2M 5t DU. * aa 4ltf Wit - 85 - 40,000 o t h e r w e l l - f e d and f a i r l y w e l l - t r a i n e d armed men on the i s l a n d a t any given time, w i t h more men e a s i l y a v a i l a b l e f o r speedy m o b i l i s a t i o n . U.N.P.I.CYP. was outmanned by each s i d e ; simple s t a t i s t i c s m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t the Force's t a k i n g any rash p u n i t i v e a c t i o n s . " (40) The Force comprises d i s t i n c t n a t i o n a l c o n t i n g e n t s which f o r t h e most p a r t f u n c t i o n as such ( 4 1 ) , and a s m a l l c i v i l i a n element o f c i v i l servants and c i v i l i a n p o l i c e ( U.N.CIV.POL. ) Heading the m i l i t a r y element i s the Force Commander, w h i l e the p o l i t i c a l element i s headed by the Secretary General's S p e c i a l R e p r e s e n t a t i v e . The v a r i o u s b a t t e r i e s , b r i g a d e s , regiments, squadrons, and o t h e r ' u n i t s are commanded by t h e i r n a t i o n a l commanders, vihxr r e c e i v e d d i r e c t i v e s from the Force Commander. The n a t i o n a l c o n t i n g e n t s comprised some r e g u l a r s o l d i e r s ( e.g. U.K. and Canada ) and some v o l u n t e e r s (e.g. Scandinavian c o u n t r i e s U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o n t r i b u t o r s Canada ) . Most o f I r e l a n d , t h e Scandanavian s t a t e s ^ and had taken p a r t i n the two p r e v i o u s i n s t a n c e s o f U.N. peace- keeping o p e r a t i o n s i n the Congo and Suez. (42) P h y s i c a l Geography and Force Deployment. One o f the most fundamental problems posed by geography f o i r any m i l i t a r y f o r c e i s t h a t o f s p a t i a l deployment" o f l i m i t e d manpower over l a r g e areas of t e r r i t o r y , often characterized location to location. by a v a r i e t y o f p h y s i c a l f e a t u r e s U.N.F.I.CYP.'s r e l a t i v e f u n c t i o n a l from efficiency compared t o o t h e r U.N. Forces i s p a r t l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t i t has operated i n a s m a l l , compact i s l a n d roughly t h e combined size- o f N o r f o l k and S u f f o l k . U.N.F.I.CYP.'s l o g i s t i c a l problems were, t h e r e f o r e , n o t n e a r l y so complex as those e x i s t i n g f o r the much l a r g e r Congo Force, O.N.U.C. (43) Cyprus also had the advantages o f w e l l developed i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and l o g i s t i c a l support f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. from t h e Sovereign Base Areas. I n s p i t e o f such advantages, a knowledge o f t h e basic topography o f Cyprus i s c r u c i a l f o r an understanding o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s deployment i n - 86 - the T964-*74 p e r i o d . ( r e f e r t o map 4.4- ) For example, i n Lefka D i s t r i c t , the rugged, n o r t h e r n f o o t h i l l s o f the Troodos meant t h a t i s o l a t e d , s t a t i c observations posts ( O.P.s ) were p r e f e r r e d t o one mobile U.N.P.I.CYP. u n i t . The reasons f o r t h i s are obvious. I n t h i s area the " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " , represented by N a t i o n a l Guard and F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s f o l l o w e d a h e l t e r - s k e l t e r course along mountain tops and edges o f t e n o n l y a hundred o r l e s s yards a p a r t . I r i s h Contingent O.P.s were l i n k e d by a rough, narrow t r a c k , s u i t a b l e only f o r jeeps and goats, and were s u p p l i e d by U.N. R.A.F. a i r c r a f t , s t a t i o n e d a t N i c o s i a . I n the w i n t e r the jeep t r a c k s were o f t e n impassable, thus O.P.s were by f a r the best way o f maint a i n i n g United Nations s u r v e i l l a n c e i n t h i s r e g i o n . Each Observation Post detachment d i d not have the a b i l i t y t o i n t e r v e n e i n c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s themselves, but could q u i c k l y r e p o r t shooting i n c i d e n t s v i a r a d i o so t h a t the p l a t o o n o r company commander could a t once meet l o c a l Greek o r T u r k i s h commanders t o begin c e a s e - f i r e n e g o t i a t i o n s . ( 4 4 ) P o l i t i c a l Geography and Force Deployment. ( r e f e r t o Map 4.1 ) i ) Contingent Level Deployment : The b a s i s o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s deployment was t o match as f a r as p o s s i b l e the i s l a n d ' s D i s t r i c t boundaries^ t o f a c i l i t a t e the e s s e n t i a l r e l a t i o n ship t h a t would e x i s t between United Nations c o n t i n g e n t commanders and D i s t r i c t O f f i c e r s and t h e i r s e n i o r o f f i c i a l s , t o g e t h e r w i t h l o c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community. Five o p e r a t i o n a l zones were i n i t i a l l y chosen ( see Map 4.1 ) The p e c u l i a r p a t t e r n o f i n t e r communal c o n f l i c t and v a r y i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t r e n g t h s o f each c o n t i n g e n t d i d not a l l o w for-one contingent p e r D i s t r i c t , b u t U.N.P.I.CYP. was deployed i n such a way as t o ensure t h a t D i s t r i c t s were covered according t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Thus, N i c o s i a and i t s immediate environment, had two c o n t i n g e n t s ; the t r o u b l e d D i s t r i c t s o f Kyrenia and Lefka had one each; the remaining two c o n t i n g e n t s covered the r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t f o u r D i s t r i c t s o f Famagusta, Lamaca, Limassol, and Paphos. 87 I I I I I CO <C 10 0) 0) ui UJ Z ui V) UJ CO CO l _ 2 CO .2 .** ru CO - C <0 I I V) eo 01at t n 2* 2 O O P ui r* In ~ CO o J3 ™ a 8 £-1 41 i 1 a J a y . c » 5 o. ti I I i < M n w ^ ra in i i 88? 0-> 3 Ui J3 I I w "K 'c "5 S 8 111 oS IPS ill! 1 a. m TO - 88 - i i ) Cease-Fire Lines : The map o f Cyprus was complicated by c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s around T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves. regular patrols. Along these U.N.F.I.CYP. manned permanent posts and The enclaves o f Guenyeli - Aghirda; L i m n i t i s and Kokkina, a l l has boundaries d e l i m i t e d as a r e s u l t o f c e a s e - f i r e agreements accepted by community l e a d e r s on both sides and U.N.F.I.CYP. S t a t i c O.P.s were maintained by "blue b e r r e t s " between the Forward Defence Lines o f e i t h e r - s i d e . I t was up t o U.N.F.I.CYP. t o ensure t h a t n e i t h e r side encroached on the U.N.-controlled " n e u t r a l " t e r r i t o r y s e p a r a t i n g them. Such c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were i n i t i a l l y devised as a temporary measure t o keep the a n t a g o n i s t i c communities apart u n t i l a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t erased o r redrew these l i n e s . But as Richard P a t r i c k p o i n t s o u t , " As t h e c o n f l i c t dragged on, w i t h no p o l i t i c a l s o l u t i o n i n s i g h t , the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s assumed more s i g n i f i c a n c e . . . A m b i g u i t i e s which had a t f i r s t been accepted were no l o n g e r tolerated. Both sides sought p r e t e x t s t o manouvre t h e i r armed posts f o r w a r d . . . " ( 4 5 ) For much o f the time U.N.F.I.CYP. succeeded i n persuading o f f e n d i n g p a r t i e s t o withdraw t o o l d p o s i t i o n s , t o f i l l i n trenches, remove extended f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , but i n c e r t a i n circumstances new f r o n t - l i n e s emerged, o r new posts f o r w a r d o f e s t a b l i s h e d defence l i n e s . ( r e f e i r t o Chapter Five ) The best example o f permanent U.N.F.I.CYP. deployment since i t s a r r i v a l i n Cyprus was along Nicosia's "Green L i n e " . w W i t h i n the w a l l s o f Nicosia...U.N.F.I.CYP. i n h e r i t e d a cease- f i r e agreement t h a t d i d n o t a c c u r a t e l y r e c o r d the exact w i d t h o f the "Green L i n e " d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n zone..." (46) As a r e s u l t t h e r e were- f r e q u e n t v i o l a t i o n s o f the Green Line Agreement by both Greek- and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . One o f the major tasks o f U.N.F.I.- CYP. was t o prevent the armed occupation o f b u i l d i n g s o v e r - l o o k i n g the "Green L i n e " o r any " c l a n d e s t i n e i n f i l t r a t i o n i n t o vacant p r o p e r t i e s on both sides o f the s t r e e t s making the l i n e i t s e l f " . (47) This was-a - 89 - d i f f i c u l t task f o r along Hermes and Paphos s t r e e t s , T u r k s and Greeks l i v e d i n close p r o x i m i t y , t h e r e was a Greek C y p r i o t shopping area, and Greek bazaar t r a d e r s continued t o c a r r y out t h e i r businesses t h e r e . The s l i g h t e s t i n c i d e n t could moreover spark o f f a chain r e a c t i o n , e.g. a shouted abuse across the s t r e e t ; a youth throwing a stone; o r the a c c i d e n t a l discharge of a r i f l e . Along t h i s l i n e o f close armed c o n f r o n t - a t i o n U.N.P.I.CYP. needed endless patience and v i g i l a n c e . O.P.s were placed a t r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s along the whole l e n g t h o f the Green Line w i t h f r e q u e n t p a t r o l s between them. On one occasion U.N.F.I.CYP. discovered T u r k i s h C y p r i o t F i g h t e r s had set up c l a n d e s t i n e p o s i t i o n s i n houses along the Green L i n e , mostly by making "mouse-holes" through r e a r w a l l s and s h u t t e r e d shops on the n o r t h side o f the s t r e e t s . (48) U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t prepared t o l e t an Agreement: i t was not p a r t y t o o b s t r u c t the f u l f i l m e n t o f i t s o b j e c t i v e s . I d e a l l y i t would have p r e f e r r e d the complete e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e Green L i n e , which was a b a r r i e r t o " n o r m a l i t y " , a symbol o f s e g r e g a t i o n , as w e l l as a t r a f f i c hazard. I n s t e a d U.N.F.I.CYP. d i d what i t could t o f o s t e r a " r e t u r n t o normal c o n d i t i o n s " w i t h i n N i c o s i a by reopening shops and businesses on both sides o f the d i v i d i n g l i n e . Any e r o s i o n o f the d e m i l i t a r i z e d area c o n t r o l l e d by U.N.F.I.CYP. would tend t o create a l a r g e "no-man's-land" area i n and around the s t r e e t s o f c e n t r a l N i c o s i a , p r e v e n t i n g any economic a c t i v i t y from t a k i n g place t h e r e . To ease t e n s i o n U.N.F.I.CYP. arranged f o r the removal o f a l l T u r k i s h f o r t i f i e d posts and armed men, plus the b l o c k i n g o f "mouse-holes" i n p r o p e r t i e s along the Green L i n e . The United Nations Force was u n f o r t u n a t e l y saddled w i t h the Green Line, and as B r i g a d i e r H a r b o t t l e e x p l a i n s :" There was n o t h i n g we could do about i t , so long as both i n s i s t e d upon i t s continued e x i s t e n c e . sides But from t h e m i l i t a r y p o i n * o f view, i t was a waste o f manpower — m a n p o w e r which could have been used more e f f e c t i v e l y i n a l e s s s t a t i c r o l e . " ( 4 9 ) - 90 - S i m i l a r problems e x i s t e d i n o t h e r towns w i t h "green l i n e s " , such as Lamaca, Pamagusta, and Paphos. i i i ) Deployment i n areas away from close c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s : As mentioned i n Chapter Three, U.N.F.I.CYP. was n o t j u s t a " b u f f e r f o r c e " but was also a "law and order" f o r c e . Thus i t n o t o n l y had an interposi"fcionary r o l e t o p l a y , manning s t a t i c posts between the f r o n t l i n e s o f opposing f i g h t e r s , but i t also had t o m a i n t a i n a h i g h degree of m o b i l i t y , so t h a t i t could send u n i t s r a p i d l y t o t r o u b l e - s p o t s wherever and whenever they arose. I n t h i s way U.N.P.I.CYP. c o n t r a s t e d s h a r p l y w i t h U.N.E.P., s t a t i o n e d on t h e I s r a e l i - E g y p t i a n border from T956 t o 1967, and o t h e r b o r d e r - p a t r o l f o r c e s . (50) P r i o r t o J u l y 1974 W.N.F.I.CYP.'s troops could be seen almost everywhere, " p a t r o l l i n g s t r e e t s and the c o u n t r y s i d e , s t a t i o n e d i n Nicosia's s t o r e s , even standing ,r around h o t e l swimming p o o l s . (5T) Redeployment o f c o n t i n g e n t s was sometimes necessary t o secure a more e f f i c i e n t use o f a v a i l a b l e personnel i n r e l a t i o n t o t e r r a i n and m i l i t a r y requirements. Indeed broad o p e r a t i o n a l zones were a l t e r e d according t o the Force's s i z e and c a p a b i l i t i e s . ( r e f e r t o Map 4.2 ) For i n s t a n c e , when the i n i t i a l deployment o f the Force was decided upon, BRIT.CON. ( i . e . the B r i t i s h Contingent ) was a l l o c a t e d the southern zone around Limassol, adjacent t o two Sovereign Bases, Episkopi and Dhekelia, i m p o r t a n t f o r t h e i r l o g i s t i c a l support. both L a t e r i t was decided t o extend the c o n t i n g e n t ' s boundary, f i r s t westwards t o i n c l u d e 'Paphos and P o l i s , then eastwards t o i n c l u d e the v i l l a g e o f Kophinou a t the j u n c t i o n o f the Limassol - N i c o s i a and t h e Limassol - Larnaca roads. This enlarged BRIT. CON. zone was over 1,000 square m i l e s , the l a r g e s t o f a l l U.N.F.I.CYP. c o n t i n g e n t areas. at A permanent B r i t i s h I n f a n t r y B a t t a l i o n camp was l o c a t e d Polemidhia, j u s t n o r t h o f Limassol town. Supporting t h i s was a mobile squadron o f armoured v e h i c l e s s t a t i o n e d a t Z y y i , s i x t e e n miles t o t h e east o f Limassol. The squadron's task was t o p a t r o l a l l roads and t r a c k s 0 n CO 01 °> CO (O 01 ui n D n D D D D D UJ 00 Ul UJ to CO ax ft! CO C3 < Ul U. N Q to W 3 Q. Crt £ CI E 01 • c fl u oi U C 44 «i VI C o u <C oo S => oo 2si 00 re CO o 0 2 O vi Z 00 D CM 0> O £ VI S g o 92 D 0 n n n n n n n n D 00 (0 111 to Ul 01 a Ul Ul CO 3 CO as 41 co CO 00 C C3 < u» .2 > CO LU 01 at 2 - a 09 u U N l/l J CO C 14 </> » a a. ra CO ° to U3 D O in UJ -a CO « c LU .JO > CO vi •—• V) D to CO 01 Si < " U N VI HI U M 3 M ft. w * W .«> 2 co CO = 3 P O O <N 93 CM I O CD o -~ < •3 CO IA L L 3 x i c 3 £ j OS > J 03 3 (5 a W *I I •< i/i U to LU It 6 = 12 8 s Mr 8 §5 S I III 21 3 i 1 o i J 11 in Li in c V) it >.7 t/j 5 W *0 VI Z i *1 e y i 8 8 i i i SI! M 1 I i 5 "7 UJ UI £ I £ * * -£ 1/ 1 HI 2 (? 5 J 8 U) 5 94 So 6 1 3 1 U Z> GO & Z "J « a s t 5 I en VI * 2° S 5 J t — °3 & U 1 1 « C LLfc*. Ml U. UJ 3 CD o a a < </> u UJ o LU 8 s 8 S E 5 1 A. i 1 5 c 1 3 « ! I a <-> a o 3 I vt 'J 5 & i S 2 0 as ''5 tsl Ul 5<3 O o cr UJ •U. *°\ Ui 8 3 8 in 5 ^ 8 GO 8 8 8 - 95 to away f r o m p e r m a n e n t booster" was visits there could posts (52) I n order contingents not Section Four be : had 1964, Force most o f own U.N.P.I.CYP. m o b i l i t y was Commander r e a c h e d the of C y p r u s " but a r e a s were as f o l l o w s an ii) ( or 1,25 by as full National 0.4 % % ) of the total strategic Colonel, the Force f o r the and total National only right the agreed the movement o f to November, Cyprus Government, throughout (54) These only be visited 45 square country. island, and could be below the was covered which could given 15 to be inspected rank of local square miles National Guard Despite by areas. the "restricted this ( i.e. National General G r i v a s , as U . N . F . I . C Y P . w h e n e v e r he the to the original U.N. a u t h o r i t y of Force had Supreme i t his list the o b s t r u c t i o n or harassment whenever a r e a s where the the Greek thought f i t . U.N.F.I.CYP. H e a d q u a r t e r s . under the U.N. G u a r d and armed f o r c e s , c o n s i d e r e d areas areas" precaution U . N . F . I . C Y P . ' s m o b i l i t y was a p p r o a c h e d o r moved t h r o u g h a r e a s the 10 Cyprus. restricted f a c t o r on p a t r o l s w e r e open t o Questionably, the Commanders- not Greek C y p r i o t or warning Another i n h i b i t i n g U.N. the the These a r e a s restricted a d d e d s e v e r a l new prior-consultation On f r e e move- These covered Guard a r e a s , i n t e r f e r e d with G r e e k and to r e s t r i c t I n d e e d he of b e n e f i t of a l l concerned. beyond the Commander o f Grivas. i f prior notice area of movements w e r e s t i l l forces (53) the c o a s t , which could area Maps w e r e d i s t r i b u t e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e s e precisely everywhere f r e e d o m o f movement s c a t t e r e d throughout Guard commanders. ) of to stipulated areas. General U . N . F . I . C Y P . Zone o r D i s t r i c t Lieutenant of presence. restricted. for certain area :- Sixty-three areas, interpreted inhabited agreement w i t h enjoy a f t e r c o n s u l t a t i o n with miles presence Movement. Twenty-three a r e a s , mostly around the only the t r y i n g t o remove o b s t r u c t i o n s U.N.F.I.CYP. "to i) cover "morale U.N. s i m i l a r mobile u n i t s operating which allowed territory where a permanent U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Freedom of civilians,its the to a more p e r m a n e n t W h i l e U . N . F . I . C Y P . was ment o f a n d r e g u l a r p a t r o l s , and^make to f a r - f l u n g v i l l a g e s impossible. Cyprus other U.N. without (55) fact that they Turkish Fighters. full freedom of - 96 - m o b i l i t y were i n areas o f " n e u t r a l ground" between Forward Defence Lines of each s i d e . Any attempts t o move i n t o U.N.-controlled t e r r i t o r y had to be prevented i f p o s s i b l e , although the Force was n o t always s u c c e s s f u l i n t h i s respect. U.N.F.I.CYP. p a t r o l s were o c c a s i o n a l l y impeded even along recognized and l e g i t i m a t e p a t r o l t r a c k s w e l l away from armed posts or f o r t i f i c a t i o n s o f e i t h e r community. As w i l l be i l l u s t r a t e d i n Chapter F i v e , i n p r a c t i c e , l i k e the d i f f e r e n t p o l i t i c a l l y - motivated i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s mandate, "freedom o f movement" meant d i f f e r e n t things to d i f f e r e n t people. - Footnotes (1) 97 - and R e f e r e n c e s . Folie.C. & Scobie.W.I. 1975, The Institute Legacy Struggle f o r Cyprus. Publications (2) Folie.C. 1964, of S t r i f e . (3) Flory.M. 1964, ' F o r c e I n t e r n a t i o n a l e cation International. (4) M o s k o s . C . C . 1976, Peace (5) Harbottle.M. T970, The ) , p.184. des N a t i o n s U n i e s e t Pacifi- de C h y p r e ' , A n n u a l r e de Droit p.478. soldiers: military ) , p.164. ( Penguin Interieure ( Hoover the s o c i o l o g y of a United Nations force. impartial ( Chicago soldier. University ( Oxford Press ). University Press ) p.45. (6) Forsythe,D.P. 1972, U n i t e d N a t i o n s P e a c e k e e p i n g , pp.1 Quoted i n Coufoudakis.V. the Cyprus Harbottle.M. (8) M o s k o s , op. op. argues " The^ p a r a d o x i c a l (9) succinctly that of the emergent c a p t u r e d i n what h a s : a soldier's c a n do Stagenga,J.A. T968, The (TO) Stagenga, op. (11) Moskos, op. c i t . . Claudql.L. cit.. Jnr. only a s o l d i e r Press General, On this Swords i n t o (13) o f t h e U.N. T965, Harbottle.M. 1980, 'The C o u f o u d a k i s , op. cit . (15) H a r b o t t l e , 1980, op. (1€) R i k h y e , H a r b o t t l e , & Egge. (revised State edition), York & Toronto resolution' ) to the Secretary- Activities. party intervention i n i n International ) , V o l . 3 5 , no.1 ( Winter 1980 Journal )pp.118-31. p.465. cit.. p.124. T974, The peacekeeping Press 'U.N. ), cit.. and thin blue l i n e : i t s future. international ( Yale University Ch.7. Peacekeeping: Journal ( 1 8 ) H a r b o t t l e , 1'980, op. ( Ohio refer to:- Plowshares strategy of t h i r d (14) 1970, " p.139. p p . 1 - 2 on h i s F u n c t i o n s and ( Canada (17) Stagenga,J.A. also M e d i a t o r on C y p r u s conflict 0 it." 86. pp.20 - 4 0 . 26 M a r c h "Peacekeeping i s not ) , p.86. ( Random H o u s e , New R e f e r to: Report unofficial United Nations Force i n Cyprus. pp.84 - 1971, 3. constabulary role become t h e motto o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s s o l d i e r University (12) Quarterly. Vol.29, Part :- qualities j o b , but and p.46. cit.. cit.. 18. 'United Nations Peacekeeping Question' i n Western P o l i t i c a l (7) are 1976, - The Cyprus Venture.' i n of Peace R e s e a r c h . Vol.7, p.25. pp.1-15. - 98 - (19) Patrick,R.A. 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and t h e Cyprus C o n f l i c t . ( University o f Waterloo P r e s s , (20) ibid.. (21) U.N. D o c . S / 7 9 6 9 , p a r a s . 1 3 4 - T37. (22) Cyprus Mail. Canada ) , p.167. p.168. 20 M a r c h 1^64, p . 1 . Quoted i n S t a g e n g a , 1968.op. cit., p.114 (23) I n spite o f U.N.P.I.CYP. e f f o r t s barriers between t h e c o m m u n i t i e s , C y p r i o t Kyprianou, stated " I strongly to that that after during p h a s e o f t h e Congo ( U.N. D o c . S/PV. 1T9T, (24) U.N. D o c . S / 6 2 2 8 , (25) Oberling.P. Nations cannot and s u c c e s s f u l TT M a r c h Spyros C o u n c i l debate again with d i v i s i o n i t sgallant the l a s t Foreign Minister, the United h a v e i t s name a s s o c i a t e d especially f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and 1965> i n a S e c u r i t y d u r i n g March believe t o remove — afford and p a r t i t i o n , effort to avoid operation." T7 M a r c h 1965 ) 1965, p a r a . T 2 4 . T 9 8 2 , T h e Road to B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p . 1-20. (26) R e f e r t o : U.N. M e d i a t o r ' s R e p o r t to the Secretary-General, 26 M a r c h T965, p a r a . 7 8 . (27) Moskos, op. c i t . . (28) U.N. D o c . S / 5 9 5 0 , TO S e p t e m b e r T964, p a r a . 2 2 0 . (29) U.N. D o c . S / 6 2 2 8 , 11 M a r c h (30) U.N. D o c . S / 7 0 0 T , 10 D e c e m b e r (3T) Coufoudakis, (32) p.37. T965, p a r a . 2 7 4 . 1976, o p . c i t . . Duncan-Jones,A, 1972, T965, p a r a s . p.468. 'The c i v i l regulation w a r i n C y p r u s ' , i n The i n t e r n a t i o n a l of c i v i l wars ( New Y o r k U n i v e r s i t y (33) H a r b o t t l e , M . 1974, i n T h e t h i n b l u e ( edited Press line, (34) U.N. D o c . S / 6 1 0 2 , 12 D e c e m b e r (35) U.N. D o c . S / 5 6 5 3 , 1T A p r i l (36) S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p , c i t . . (37) Harbottle, (38) ibid., (39) S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p . c i t . . (40) ibid., (41) A l t h o u g h on o c c a s i o n s ^ u n i t s from d i f f e r e n t in incidents 1964, T964, ) , p.157. op. cit..p.TOO. para.24. p.125. 1970, o p . c i t . . pp.44 - 4 7 . p.45. p.125. p.83. order to prevent serious As James c o n t i n g e n t s would from o c c u r r i n g strategic R e f e r t o : S t a g e n g a , 1968, o p . c i t . . Harbottle, (43) by E„Luard ) , para.16, U.N.P.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h i n c e r t a i n (42) TOO - 1 0 4 . 1970, o p . c i t . . cooperate and to i n c r e a s e positions. pp.88 - 8 9 ; pp.31-32 & 36-38. S t a g e n g a , 1 9 6 8 , p o i n t s o u t :- " T h e 6,000 men o f U.N.P.I.CYP. w o u l d n a t u r a l l y g e t a b s o r b e d - by this small island reaches of initial troops and in ( Also 99 - a s O.N.U.C.'s T5,000 w e r e by the Congo's 905,063 s q u a r e w e r e s w a l l o w e d up u n i t s sometimes l o s t touch miles",, where by the size with the central L e o p o l d v i l l e f o r a s much a s a week a t a see Bowitz,G.C, the of the Norweigian I n s t i t u t e country, time." F o r c e s ' i n Per Prydenberg : Experience "the command p o s t ' C e n t r a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f U.N. Keeping vast and Security (ed.), Peace- Evaluation. ( Oslo, of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Affairs 1-964 ) , p p . T 0 6 - 7 . ) (44) I t should British be noted t h a t the f o r c e s i n the late Troodos Mountains posed problems f o r T950s, f o r t h e y were u s e d as a the hideout f o r EoO.K.A. g u e r r i l l a s . Refer to: Polie & Scobie, T975, op. cit..ch.8 — 'The M o u n t a i n G u e r i l l a s *. (453) P a t r i c k , ( 4 6 ) U.N. (47) op. Doc. cit.. p . 127. 3 / 6 4 2 6 , TO June 1965, para.42. ibid. (48) i b i d . . para.64. (49) H a r b o t t l e , 1970, op. cit.. p.78. ( 5 0 ) F o r c o m p a r i s o n o f U.N.P.I.CYP. and operations refer to:- Rikhye, and Luard, other types of peacekeeping H a r b o t t l e , & E g g e , op. c i t . . 1972, op. c i t . (5T) Stagenga,J.A., 1970, ( 5 2 ) The o f t h e s e m o b i l e u n i t s w e r e e v e n more i m p o r t a n t activities U.N.F.I.CYP-.'s s i z e J o u r n a l of Peace Research, was reduced ( 5 3 ) U.N. Doc. S/6228, ( 5 4 ) U.N. Doc. S/6426, p a r a s . 1 8 - and ( 5 5 ) U.N. U.N. Doc. Doc. U.N. Doc. and Harbottle, 3,000 men cit.. p.6. when i n the e a r l y 1970s para.61. 2T; S / 6 T 0 2 , p a r a s . 125 S/6228, para.19 - and to about op. - 28; S / 6 4 2 6 , p a r a s . 18 T970, op. 130. cit.. t o U . N . F . I . C Y P . ' s movements by 21'; gives several G r i v a s and his examples of o b s t r u c t i o n s men. - TOO - CHAPTER F I V E . PEACEKEEPING IN PRACTICE : U.N.F.I.CYP.'s FIRST DECADE. " . . . u l t i m a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s i n Cyprus must, o b v i o u s l y , r e s t p r i m a r i l y w i t h the a u t h o r i t i e s and people of Cyprus themselves, s i n c e n o r m a l i t y can come along o n l y as a r e s u l t of a determination arms and by the communities... to l a y down t h e i r seek to l i v e a g a i n i n peace." U.N.F.I.CYP.'s presence (1) c o n t r i b u t e d "to the relative p a c i f i c a t i o n of Cyprus, i t a l s o f r o z e the s i t u a t i o n so t h a t the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s and l i n e s of in division the c i t i e s remained i n t a c t f o r a decade." ( 2 ) " I t would be u n f o r t u n a t e , to say the l e a s t , i f the p r e s e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of U.N.F.I.CYP. should become the p r e t e x t f o r f a i l u r e to f i n d a s o l u t i o n to the fundamental problem of Cyprus." The decade August 1964 to J u l y 1974 p e r i o d s f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. The first, (3) w i l l be d i v i d e d i n t o two August 1 9 6 4 - distinct November '67", began and ended w i t h major intercommunal c l a s h e s which n e a r l y t r i g g e r e d o f f f u l l - s c a l e war between Greece and Turkey. ' 6 7 to J u l y ' 7 4 , i s one The second p e r i o d , November of l e s s intercomraunal t e n s i o n , renewed communal n e g o t i a t i o n s , and inter- s e r i o u s intra-communal s p l i t s i n the Greek C y p r i o t community. S e c t i o n One : P o l i t i c a l Background. August There i s no in to November '67. room here f o r a f u l l a n a l y s i s of intercommunal p o l i t i c s t h i s p e r i o d , and for '64 the r e a d e r i s asked to r e f e r to the Bibliography r e f e r e n c e s d e a l i n g w i t h the i s s u e s mentioned here i n g r e a t e r depth. T h i s p e r i o d was marked by the f a i l u r e of any s u g g e s t i o n s for a settle- - 101 - raent and the t o t a l l a c k of n e g o t i a t i o n s between leaderships. The Acheson P l a n ( 4 ) was r e j e c t e d by George Papandreou Greece as " p a r t i t i o n masquerading the the r e s p e c t i v e community o p p o s i t i o n of Makarios. i n the r h e t o r i c of E n o s i s " owing to Senor Glao P l a z a ' s recommendations in his r e p o r t of 26 March 1965 were i m m e d i a t e l y r e j e c t e d by Ankara. ( 5 ) ( 1982 ) argues t h a t the U.N. of Oberling Mediator's a n a l y s i s " d i s p l a y e d a c a l l o u s d i s r e g a r d f o r the w e l f a r e of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s " . Meanwhile Archbishop Makarios l o b b i e d f o r an independent s o v e r e i g n s t a t e abroad and s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a s s u r e d h i s community t h a t he was s t i l l d e d i c a t e d to the goal of E n o s i s . (6) T8 December 1 9 6 5 , On a U.N. G e n e r a l Assembly r e s o l u t i o n ( 2077(xx) ) supported the Cyprus Government's c l a i m f o r u n f e t t e r e d independence it e f f e c t i v e l y d i s c o u n t e d T u r k e y ' s c l a i m to the r i g h t of i n t e r v e n t i o n based on the Zurich-London T r e a t i e s o f T 9 5 9 . of and the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community behind him With the support of most ( 7 ) Archbishop Makarios proceed from a p o s i t i o n of s t r e n g t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z i n g the "could new c o n d i t i o n s i n Cyprus", i . e . a R e p u b l i c based on m a j o r i t y r u l e . ( 8 ) In A p r i l 1967 e v e n t s took a t u r n f o r the worse when 'the c o l o n e l s ' s e i z e d power i n Athens. Suddenly Makarios found h i m s e l f ideologically o u t - o f - s t e p w i t h the r i g h t - w i n g J u n t a , f o r as O b e r l i n g p o i n t s out, the' a u t h o r i t a r i a n , anti-communist Greek J u n t a "vehemently Makarios' " L e f t i s t sympathies and independent mindedness". ( 9 ) Cyprus Makarios was plagued by the a g g r e s s i v e n e s s and of G e n e r a l G r i v a s , who arms. disliked" still Within insubordination b e l i e v e d E n o s i s would be won by f o r c e o f Furthermore, many Greek o f f i c e r s and men had i n f i l t r a t e d the N a t i o n a l Guard. (10) clandestinely Indeed U.N.F.I.CYP. i n c r e a s i n g l y i d e n t i f i e d the N a t i o n a l Guard w i t h the Greek Army. ( 1 1 ) t r i e d to weaken G r i v a s ' p o s i t i o n by r e d u c i n g the N a t i o n a l Although Makarios Guard's budgetry a l l o c a t i o n s and by s t r e n g t h e n i n g the Cyprus P o l i c e F o r c e , did not p r e v e n t G r i v a s from l a u n c h i n g the l a r g e s t o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s i n c e Kokkina T964. this theOgf I n mid-November 1967' the NationalM/= - 102 - Guard a t t a c k e d the v i l l a g e s o f Kophinou and Ayios Theodoros, twenty-one T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , an o p e r a t i o n which l e d the two l e a d e r s h i p s to r e e v a l u a t e the p o l i t i c a l S e c t i o n Two : killing community situation. U.N.F.I.CYP.'s F i r s t Phase . 1964 - Nov.'67. Given the v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s of o u t s i d e powers, N.A.T.O. c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , the p o l a r i s a t i o n of e t h n i c p o l i t i c s i n Cyprus and N a t i o n a l Guard, t h e r e was the a c t i v i t i e s of l i t t l e U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do o t h e r the than... "remain as n e u t r a l as p o s s i b l e i n the p o l i t i c a l f r a y w h i l e promoting a calm atmosphere and buying the n e c e s s a r y to enable durable the p a r t i e s and the Mediator to work out and honourable s e t t l e m e n t U.N.F.I.CYP.'s major t a s k was together." time a (12) to p r e s e r v e a p e a c e f u l s t a t u s quo between the communities w h i l s t h i g h e r l e v e l p o l i t i c a l i n i t i a t i v e s were sought. As H a r b o t t l e explains "Cyprus p r o v i d e s degrees and being :- a patchwork of s c e n a r i o s i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r i n g types of t h i r d p a r t y a c t i o n ranging o f f i c e s of the United Nations S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l from the good to the c o n c i l i a t o r y i n i t i a t i v e s a t the g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l of a subo r d i n a t e of low p r o f i l e c h a r a c t e r . " By r e n d e r i n g a s s i s t a n c e i n the a m e l i o r a t i o n of day-to-day a d m i n i s t r a t i v e , socio-economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n nurture (13) problems U.N7F.I.CYP. was those p o s i t i v e elements of intercommunal l i f e as a bridge as w e l l as a b u f f e r between the two helping i n Cyprus, a c t i n g communities. f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s d e a l w i t h U.N.F.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s to promote ' s t a b i l i t y ' and 'normality' i n t h i s troubled i ) Pacification Efforts. Perhaps the most important i n i t i a l i n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g i t s troops was followed to The 'peace', island. task of U.N.F.I.CYP. was t h a t of inbetween the f i g h t e r s of both s i d e s . This by v a r i o u s c e a s e - f i r e arrangements, o f t e n between l o c a l N a t i o n a l Guard commanders, T u r k i s h F i g h t e r commanders, and o f f i c e r s on-the-spot. At the h i g h e s t level n e g o t i a t i o n s were c a r r i e d out by the F o r c e U.N.F.I.CYP. "de-confrontation" Commander and the - 103 - Secretary-General's Special Representative i n Cyprus. Examples of U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s to arrange b i - o r unilateral d e f o r t l f i c a t i o n agreements. U.N.P.I.CYP. made s t r o n g s t a n d s a g a i n s t attempts by e i t h e r s i d e to extend t h e i r b a r r i c a d e s , f r o n t - l i n e s , or e r e c t new was ones. General determined to extend Greek f o r t i f i c a t i o n s throughout the u s i n g money a l l o c a t e d to the budget f o r defence and Grivas island, the armed f o r c e s . Such a p o l i c y l e d to c o u n t e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t moves to improve t h e i r defences. F o r i n s t a n c e , the N a t i o n a l bunker on P a t s a l a H i l l defensive Larnaca, I n response T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s dug t r e n c h e s n e a r the road and west of S c a l a between the road and sea. U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n e d , Cypriot i n and and a f t e r t a l k s between the l o c a l l e a d e r , Dr Orkan M u d e r r i s o g l u , the T u r k i s h t r e n c h e s were F i g h t e r s withdrawn. the N a t i o n a l one Extensions b r e a k s of intercommunal f i g h t i n g . were c o n s t r u c t e d filled to T u r k i s h Cypriots Cypriot-controlled S i m i l a r c o a s t a l d e f e n c e s were a t Kokkina, Temblos, L e f k a , and Famagusta. Turkish (14) of s e v e r a l c o a s t a l s i t e s where the Greek erected a n t i - i n v a s i o n barricades adjacent territory. the U n f o r t u n a t e l y U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d to persuade Guard to unman P a t s a l a H i l l . L a r n a c a was In a new on the south shore of the S a l t Lake of f a c i n g the T u r k i s h suburb of S c a l a . slit Guard c o n s t r u c t e d own Ghaziveran- to these defences o f t e n l e d to o u t When seaward d e f e n c e s a t Famagusta the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o n s t r u c t e d parallel barricades. t u r n the N a t i o n a l Guard took up a d d i t i o n a l p o s i t i o n s around T u r k i s h Cypriot q u a r t e r s , which e v e n t u a l l y l e d to shooting followed a N a t i o n a l Guard s e i g e on the main T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Famagusta. There- quarter i n A f t e r the r e l a x i n g of the Greek C y p r i o t b l o c k a d e , on 6 December T965, both s i d e s a g r e e d to d i s m a n t l e s u r r o u n d i n g the p e r i m e t e r defences. incidents. a l l fortified of the* T u r k i s h q u a r t e r ecept positions f o r harbour- (15) Another example of N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n i n g c r e a t i n g intercommunal - 104 - t e n s i o n was i n the L e f k a - Ambelikou a r e a . Guardsmen were p l a c e d on h i l l s to each s i d e o f L e f k a , i . e . on L i m e k i l n H i l l and P e r i s t e r o n a r i H i l l . ( 1 6 ) The Government contended t h a t these p o s i t i o n s were e s s e n t i a l f o r the defence of the Morphou Bay c o a s t l i n e . N e v e r t h e l e s s these new p o s t s dominating P e r i s t e r o n a r i v i l l a g e and the Ambelikou l i m e k i l n s were o b v i o u s l y p r o v o c a t i v e and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e were w o r r i e d t h a t they would be used i n a Greek o f f e n s i v e . T h i s made i t v e r y d i f f i c u l t f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. to guarantee a g a i n s t a r e c u r r e n c e o f f i g h t i n g . ( 1 7 ) U.N.P.I.CYP. never managed to g e t both s i d e s to agree on a " d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n programme". While the Greeks p r o v o c a t i v e l y e r e c t e d new p o s i t i o n s , 1 the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r s , f o r - t h e y were outnumbered and out-gunned by the N a t i o n a l Guard. The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s argued t h a t U.N.P.I.CYP. was not s t r o n g enough to defend them i f they withdrew e x i s t i n g F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s , and t h a t such a move would l e a v e Turkish C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y v u l n e r a b l e to Greek o c c u p a t i o n . pointed out:- As U Thant " There i s no peace on the I s l a n d , but a tense and fragile truce. T h i s s i t u a t i o n moreover i s l i k e l y to c o n t i n u e as long a s . . . t h e t e r r i t o r y o f the R e p u b l i c l i n e s and f o r t i f i c a t i o n s whose presence i s c u t up by f r o n t - c o n t r i b u t e s to main- t a i n i n g tension a t a high p i t c h . " (18) V i o l a t i o n s of c e a s e - f i r e agreements and s p e c i f i c i n c i d e n t s r e q u i r i n g U.N.P.I.CYP. i n t e r v e n t i o n . I n i t i a l l y c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s were drawn as temporary measures when l o c a l t a c t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s were u n c l e a r . fire As the c o n f l i c t dragged on t h e s e l i n e s assumed g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e . delimited according cease- Both s i d e s wanted the l i n e s to c r i t e r i a which s u i t e d them, and both s i d e s sought p r e t e x t s to manouvre t h e i r armed p o s i t i o n s forward of existing I t was o f t e n d i f f i c u l t encroachments i n t o f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. to prevent lines. U.N. c o n t r o l l e d " n e u t r a l areas" o r d e m i l i t a r i z e d zones between the forward l i n e s o f both s i d e s . The m a j o r i t y o f c e a s e - f i r e v i o l a t i o n s o c c u r r e d where T u r k i s h e n c l a v e b o u n d a r i e s had been d e l i m i t e d a s a r e s u l t o f c e a s e - 105 - fire agreements a c c e p t e d - by U.N.F.I.CYP., the Cyprus Government, Turkish Cypriot l e a d e r s h i p , i . e . Guenyeli-Aghirda; L i m n i t i s ; and around the "green l i n e s " of N i c o s i a , L a r n a c a , t y p i c a l example o c c u r r e d Guenyeli-Aghirda Enclave a t P i l e r i on west of the v i l l a g e of P i l e r i and l o c a t e d i n what had Paphos ( Ktima ) . 3.1 and ). occupied a new T h i s advance had no On January 2 2 , C y p r i o t s who T966, tactical their advantage Some Turkish position. the N a t i o n a l Guard wounded t h r e e Turkish were c u t t i n g wood forward of t h e i r l i n e s i n the Karmi F o r e s t a r e a of the P e n t a d a k t y l o s . i n j u r e d n e a r to P i l e r i I n February by two a Greek C y p r i o t was Turkish Cypriots. Guard and P o l i c e detachments were e s t a b l i s h e d i n c l o s e p r o x i m i t y q u a r t e r s and necessarily clearly villages. ambushed and (20) Other " c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s " e x i s t e d where N a t i o n a l Cypriot 2 , 0 0 0 metres post p r e v i o u s l y been a n e u t r a l a r e a . N a t i o n a l Guard m o r t a r s were exploded n e a r to t h i s new (T9) 1965 I n September T , 0 0 0 metres west o r forward of e s t a b l i s h e d Forward Defence L i n e . but was Kokkina; the w e s t e r n edge of the main ( r e f e r to Map Turkish Cypriot f i g h t e r s constructed and and Cyprus to armed T u r k i s h These c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s were not demarcated and as mentioned i n C h a p t e r Three; t h e r e were s e v e r a l "grey a r e a s " of c o n t r o l . Very o f t e n m i l i t a r y o r v i o l e n t intercommunal i n c i d e n t s i n t h e s e a r e a s were sparked o f f by a v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s , such as r e s t r i c t i o n s on freedom of movement, a t t e m p t s by e i t h e r s i d e to a s s e r t c o n t r o l i n an a r e a of d i s p u t e d beat o r i r r e g u l a r Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s , and military victories. I n the n o r t h e r n t e r r i t o r i a l control, offa t t e m p t s to s c o r e d e c i s i v e (2T) p a r t of the M e s a o r i a P l a i n a group of v i l l a g e s an i l l - d e f i n e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e . ( These v i l l a g e s were: K a l y v a k i a ; Kornokipos, P e t r a tou D h i y e n i ; Kourou M o n a s t i r ; Bey Khariton ) Greek C y p r i o t s a v o i d e d t r a v e l l i n g Cyprus Government was concerned l e s t f o r t i f y t h e i r enclave and block Keuy; Epikho; A y i o s through t h i s a r e a , and the the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s attempted to a l l r o a d s r u n n i n g through i t . September 1 9 6 5 , t h e K y t h r e a - L e f k o n i c o formed road ( r e f e r to Map 5.1 During ) was -i 5 1 r 1 ui 1 i (0 If •y r> i cr> s rrr UJ • LU UJ 0 2 r- !2 u ui - 107 blocked - by F i g h t e r s a t Bey Keuy and P s i l a t o s , and V i t s a d h a road was blocked a t Knodhara. the T r y p i m e n i - I n response U.N.F.I.CYP. i n c r e a s e d i t s p a t r o l s i n the a r e a - a s c o u t - c a r group ( Canadian ) was based at Bey Keuy, i n a d d i t i o n to a F i n n i s h i n f a n t r y p l a t o o n , plus SWED.CON. ( Swedish Contingent ) o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s between the v i l l a g e of Chatos and the Greek one of T r y p i m e n i . (22) two Turkish I n A p r i l 1966 the Government began improving a t r a c k l i n k i n g Trypimeni and Vitsadha i n order to by-pass Knodhara. ment was t r y i n g to d i v i d e a T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a with the aim of running it. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s argued t h a t the Govern- Thus T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s p l a c e d armed men Greeks complained t h a t t h i s was of movement and i n c r e a s e d N a t i o n a l Guard and G e n e r a l G r i v a s was the route. a f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e i r freedom the r e g i o n u n t i l "the e n t i r e e n c l a v e was (23) along Cyprus P o l i c e presence q u i c k l y a t the scene, threatening punitive Trypimeni. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n s i s t e d t h a t i f Greek C y p r i o t s were to use roads through t h e i r a r e a of c o n t r o l they s h o u l d be s u b j e c t to s e a r c h e s U.N.F.I.CYP. wanted the F u r t h e r to the south U.N. to the Turkish the a r e a remained a p o t e n t i a l t r o u b l e - s p o t . t h e r e was Communications between t h e s e two Chatos and under U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h i s p l a n proved u n a c c e p t a b l e C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p and by Trypimeni-Knodhara- Ayios K h a r i t o n a r e a to become a d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone wholly surveillance. t r o u b l e a t Melousha and v i l l a g e s and The events (24) Mora. those v i l l a g e s K a l y v a k i a were d i f f i c u l t f o r they were s e p a r a t e d under Greek C y p r i o t c o n t r o l . in e n c i r c l e d by a government cordon a c t i o n u n l e s s the Turks withdrew from t h e i r t r e n c h e s n e a r Turkish Cypriot p o l i c e . over- surrounding by a t Trypimeni made^ the territory National Guard and CY.POL. ( Cyprus P o l i c e ) more determined than e v e r to prevent f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t freedom of movement i n the area. I n J u l y 1966, a l l e g e d l y new p o s i t i o n e d men a N a t i o n a l Guard manouvre was made a g a i n s t Mora, where F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s were e r e c t e d . U.N.F.I.CYP. q u i c k l y i n t e r between opposing f i g h t e r e l e m e n t s . up i n the v i l l a g e and intercommunal t r o u b l e was A U.N. averted. post was set - 108 The village - of Melousha l i e s on the road l i n k i n g mixed v i l l a g e s of Tremethousha and A r s o s to the e a s t . p r a c t i c e f o r a Cyprus P o l i c e sergeant v i l l a g e on r o u t i n e i t s i n h a b i t a n t s , and side. I t was accepted On drove through the v i l l a g e shouting abuse a t F i g h t e r s soon o c c u p i e d p o s i t i o n s around v i l l a g e to p r e v e n t any attempt by CY.POL. to r e - e n t e r i t . a s t r o n g Greek C y p r i o t reaction,U.N.F.I.CYP. placed U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t u a l l y men at the w e s t e r n This "threat" the p r e s e n c e of "blue b e r r e t s " , armoured v e h i c l e s m o r t a r s , and did prevent a recurrence of f i g h t i n g . August 1967 and (25) threatened a s e r i e s of murders and to p a r a l y s e U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t e d to c u l t i v a t e or e s c o r t e d and commodities to the orchards. areas a d o c t o r oh h i s rounds. The major v i l l a g e s a f f e c t e d were Mandria, Stavrokono, Kourtaka, and others Inia, i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of Paphos D i s t r i c t . Brigadier Harbottle, 1970, e x p l a i n s how he had to t o u r the v i l l a g e s i n h i s c a p a c i t y as U.N.F.I.CYP. C h i e f of S t a f f , l o c a l mukhtars and village describes Eventually with He affected spoke to e l d e r s " i n an endeavour to d i s c o v e r what e x a c t l y were t h e i r f e a r s and how Greek and Paphos even v e n t u r e o u t s i d e t h e i r f i e l d s and trucks carrying e s s e n t i a l where s u p p l i e s were g e t t i n g low, F o r a time these v i l l a g e s I n some a r e a s v i l l a g e r s would not b u i l t - u p a r e a s of t h e i r v i l l a g e s abductions i n l i f e i n the a r e a . a l l movement between n e i g h b o u r i n g v i l l a g e s and Harbottle was the Paphos V e n d e t t a s : During J u l y and town c e a s e d . the Anticipating backed up by Paphos D i s t r i c t eastern used a " t h r e a t of f o r c e " to p r e v e n t G r i v a s from mounting an a t t a c k on Melousha. U.N.F.I.CYP. and the 23 J u l y 1966 an armed then e s t a b l i s h e d a r o a d - b l o c k on Melousha's Turkish Cypriot edge of Melousha. the- from Athienou to pass through rounds of o t h e r v i l l a g e s . CY.POL. p a t r o l from L a r n a c a Athienou w i t h U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d p o s s i b l y help t h i s proceedure as "a k i n d of p a c i f i c a t i o n the p e r m i s s i o n Turkish Cypriot of both l e a d e r s h i p s i n N i c o s i a , them." hustings". local mukhtars were brought t o g e t h e r i n a s e r i e s meetings i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of the District. of - 109 - The main aims of these (a) to seek a s s u r a n c e s regarding (b) v i l l a g e meetings were : from both Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriot mukhtars freedom of movement through t h e i r v i l l a g e s ; to ensure t h a t Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriot f a r m e r s could work i n t h e i r f i e l d s w i t h o u t f r i c t i o n o r i n t e r f e r e n c e ; and (c) to p r o v i d e a forum f o r the d i s c u s s i o n of p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s to intercommunal problems. After years (26) of p r e j u d i c e , H a r b o t t l e found t h a t v i l l a g e l e a d e r s of both communities were w i l l i n g to d i s c u s s t h e i r problems f r e e l y under the a u s p i c e s o f U.N.F.I.CYP. He d e s c r i b e s the outcome of these meetings : " . . . i t was p o s s i b l y the most s u c c e s s f u l p a s s i v e achievement of the whole U.N.F.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n ; normal l i f e f o r i t not o n l y brought back to many v i l l a g e s , but i t p r i c k e d once and f o r a l l of those who perpetually p l a c e s . . . t h a t Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriots the bubble c r i e d i n the market cannot l i v e together". (27) The Paphos example i l l u s t r a t e s how t h i r d p a r t y m e d i a t i o n can l e a d to r e c o n c i l i a t i o n , and a c c o r d i n g to H a r b o t t l e range of t h i r d p a r t y making. (28) action — i t demonstrated the- f u l l peacekeeping, p e a c e b u i l d i n g , To s o l v e t h i s p o t e n t i a l l y e x p l o s i v e and peace- parochial issue U.N. F o r c e o f f i c e r s had to get to the g r a s s r o o t s o f the problem, l i s t e n i n g to mukhtars and o r d i n a r y v i l l a g e r s of both s i d e s . encouraging t h a t the S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l wrote The r e s u l t s were so :- " U.N.F.I.CYP. has been encouraged by the r e s u l t s o f the mukhtars meetings and i t i s i t s i n t e n t i o n to extend them, i f p o s s i b l e , at a s u i t a b l e time, to o t h e r Zones and D i s t r i c t s as w e l l as repeating them i n Paphos D i s t r i c t w i t h a view to b r e a k i n g down the r e m a i n i n g b a r r i e r s and p r e j u d i c e s . . . " ( 2 9 ) By f o s t e r i n g intercommunal contacts,U.N.F.I.CYP. was h e l p i n g some of the " i n v i s i b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w a l l s " separating to remove the two communities U n f o r t u n a t e l y U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s were h i n d e r e d by the i n t r a n s i g e n t a t t i t u d e s of both community l e a d e r s h i p s , as w e l l as by the a c t i v i t i e s of l o c a l m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s a g g r a v a t i n g intercommunal t e n s i o n . The was c e r t a i n l y prominent i n the Kophinou i n c i d e n t of November T967. latter - no Kophinou, November 1 9 6 7 . The events a t Kophinou and the immediate consequences have been w e l l documented by o t h e r s . ( 3 0 ) The i n t e n t i o n here i s merely to h i g h l i g h t some s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g to t h i s i n c i d e n t . was the important i s s u e o f freedom of movement i n the a r e a . v i l l a g e i s s t r a t e g i c a l l y s i t u a t e d where the L a r n a c a i n t e r s e c t s w i t h the L i m a s s o l was Firstly, - N i c o s i a road. there Kophinou - L i m a s s o l road The Cyprus Government concerned about a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e s t a t i o n l o c a t e d c l o s e to the road j u n c t i o n and the danger o f r o a d - b l o c k s . Secondly, the l o c a l s i t u a t i o n d e t e r i o r a t e d w i t h the appointment i n November 1966 o f a new F i g h t e r commander of the A y i o s Theodhoros r e g i o n , who used the nom de guerre 'Mehmet'. Under h i s l o c a l command the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f the A y i o s Theodhoros r e g i o n r e f u s e d to r e c o g n i z e Cyprus Government a u t h o r i t y t h e r e ; f r a t e r n i z a t i o n w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s was punished; Greek and E n g l i s h road s i g n s were r e p l a c e d by ones w r i t t e n e x c l u s i v e l y i n T u r k i s h ; and new F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d . ( 3 1 ) T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s s e t up r o a d - b l o c k s which f o r c e d the Government to suspend Cyprus P o l i c e movements i n t o A y i o s Theodhoros. Even a f t e r the removal o f Mehmet from the scene, CY.POL. p a t r o l s were b l o c k e d . movement d i s p u t e Soon t h i s p a r o c h i a l freedom o f developed i n t o one which, a c c o r d i n g s y m b o l i z e d " the essence to R i c h a r d P a t r i c k , o f the e n t i r e intercommunal c o n f l i c t : i . e . the government's d e t e r m i n a t i o n throughout the i s l a n d , to e n f o r c e i t s authority the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community's i n t e n t i o n to p r o t e c t i t s e l f by c o n t r o l l i n g Greek access into Turkish Cypriot centres". T h i r d l y , General G r i v a s decided Cypriot (32) to mount a major a s s a u l t i n o r d e r to s e c u r e a Greek C y p r i o t v i c t o r y a g a i n s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e . The N a t i o n a l Guard a t t a c k e d A y i o s Theodhoros i n b a t t a l i o n s t r e n g t h after T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s had been provoked i n t o f i r i n g a t a h e a v i l y armed Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l which was s e n t through the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f the village. - 1T1 - F i g h t e r s from Kophinou t r i e d to h e l p succeeded i n t u r n i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard on them, which l e d almost to the d e s t r u c t i o n of the e n t i r e v i l l a g e . t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was the f i r s t Ayios I n r e t r o s p e c t t h e r e i s no operation, deploying a f o r c e of b a t t a l i o n s t r e n g t h around the two v i l l a g e s i n advance of Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s . (33) The v i o l e n c e a t Kophinou and Theodhoros r e v e a l s a number of important U.N.F.I.CYP. o p e r a t i o n s . U.N. Force doubt taken by s u r p r i z e and i f w i s e r to the event i t c o u l d have mounted a contingency approximately t h e i r neighbours but o n l y I t i l l u s t r a t e s how i s s u e s r e l a t i n g to important i t was for-the to keep a b r e a s t o f l o c a l intercommunal r e l a t i o n s away from the obvious l i n e s of c o n f r o n t a t i o n . I t a l s o shows how seemingly trivial d i s p u t e s o v e r freedom of communications and Cyprus P o l i c e a c c e s s to T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s c o u l d e s c a l a t e i n t o major intercommunal i n c i d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y under the d i r e c t i o n of a g g r e s s i v e l o c a l commanders. F i n a l l y , i t r e v e a l e d weaknesses i n U.N.F.I.CYP. deployment, its continued o b s e r v a t i o n of and p r e s e n c e during although the f i g h t i n g p r o b a b l y " a c t e d as a d e t e r r e n t to those bent on more extreme measures". (34) i i ) Normalization Activities : UiN.F.I.GYPo has been d e s c r i b e d as "a prime communication c h a n n e l f o r the n o r m a l i z a t i o n of C y p r i o t l i f e " . (35) The Paphos example above shows t h a t U.N.F.I.CYP. was c e r t a i n l y a b l e to promote g r e a t e r intercommunal c o n t a c t and c o o p e r a t i o n through i t s m e d i a t i o n w i t h both communities a t the g r a s s r o o t s l e v e l . I t a l s o shows the s u b t l e interrelationships between p a c i f i c a t i o n and s o - c a l l e d n o r m a l i z a t i o n o p e r a t i o n s . made every e f f o r t U.N.F.I.CYP. to n e g o t i a t e f o r the removal of such o b s t a c l e s to i n t e r - communal c o n t a c t s as armed f o r t i f i c a t i o n s , economic r e s t r i c t i o n s . road-blocks, and government The F o r c e o n l y had l i m i t e d s u c c e s s i n i t s de- f o r t i f i c a t i o n p l a n s f o r i t was c o n t i n u a l l y f r u s t r a t e d by the' N a t i o n a l Guard. (36) hindered General and " d e l a y e d G r i v a s ' "determination the l o n g e d - f o r not to g i v e a m i l i t a r y i n c h " normalization". was a l s o handicapped by a b a s i c d i v e r g e n c e (37) U.N.F.I.CYP. o f opinion* between t h e two - 112 l e a d e r s h i p s as to what was - meant by 'normality'. Thus when Makarios announced a number of "measures f o r the n o r m a l i z a t i o n of the on 2 September 1967 situation" (38) the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remained s c e p t i c a l the Cyprus Government's a t t i t u d e remained the same r e g a r d i n g Cypriot constitutional rights. that:- At a l l times i t i s important to remember the degree of r e a s o n a b l e n e s s it by and good w i l l d i s p l a y e d by the l e a d e r s h i p s . " (39) I n o r d e r to understand the opposite and Turkish " U.N.P.I.CYP.'s achievements arer s h a r p l y c o n s t r a i n e d two because p o s i t i o n s of the two leaderships immense o b s t a c l e s to a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s i n C y p r i o t i s necessary Cyprus during life to u n d e r s t a n d the economic c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l i n g i n the period. Economic C o n d i t i o n s of the two communities. 1964-'68. De f a c t o p a r t i t i o n due to the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s meant:- (i) of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the Greek C y p r i o t economy Non-participation ( i i ) Government r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s and effort q u a r t e r s i n an to "deny a l l b e n e f i t s o f Government s e r v i c e s to t e r r o r i s t s " and sympathizers who "Turkish r e j e c t e d Government a u t h o r i t y . " (40) ( i i i ) As a r e s u l t of ( i ) and economic f o r t u n e s . ( i i ) t h e r e was The a growing dichotomy i n Greek C y p r i o t economy p r o s p e r e d whilst the i n t r o v e r t e d e n c l a v e economies of the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s stagnated. (4T) " . . . f o r ten y e a r s d u r i n g which the C y p r i o t economy boomed standards of l i v i n g r o s e v i s i b l y - on a l l Greek s i d e s , the T u r k i s h element was left to stew i n i t s own juice." ( i v ) A g g r a v a t i n g the economic d e f i c i e n c i e s of the T u r k i s h were the problems of overcrowding i n homeless The m a j o r i t y of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s were s i m p l y economically v i a b l e u n i t s and i t i s d i f f i c u l t difficulties t h e i r confined The populations (42) enclaves refugees. too s m a l l to to a p p r e c i a t e of December 1963-August 1964 faced. i s quite remarkable. g r o s s domestic product be the immense economic e x p a n s i o n i n the Greek s e c t o r a f t e r the t r a u m a t i c p r i o r to 1964, and I n the t h r e e ( G.D.P) i n c r e a s e d a t an changes years annual - 113 average r a t e of o v e r s e v e n p e r c e n t . I n 1964 i t d e c l i n e d twelve p e r c e n t . T h e r e a f t e r G.D.P, i n c r e a s e d to pre-T963 l e v e l s . I n T961, G.D.P. was £ 114 m i l l i o n , by T966 i t had i n c r e a s e d to £ T 5 7 m i l l i o n , w h i l e income p e r head rose from £ 199 i n 1961 to £260 i n 1966. (43) I n 1963, Panagides p o i n t s out :- " the Greeks w i t h 77.1 % o f the p o p u l a t i o n , the income, w h i l e had the Turks, w i t h had 80.2 % o f 18„2 % of the p o p u l a t i o n , a low 1 2 . 6 % o f the income." ( 4 4 ) Patchwork p a r t i t i o n r e i n f o r c e d the economic gap between them. As U Thant observed, t h e r e was a s t r i k i n g c o n t r a s t between the G o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a s and the widespread p o v e r t y ,v f a l l i n l i v i n g s t a n d a r d s , c e s s a t i o n o f economic a c t i v i t i e s except business In and v i r t u a l a g r i c u l t u r e and s m a l l retail i n Turkish Cypriot-controlled t e r r i t o r y . (45) some s e n s e s the economic h a r d s h i p s o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were self- i n f l i c t e d because o f t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p s discouragement of any a c t i v i t y which would expose T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to the a u t h o r i t y o f a c e n t r a l government i t regarded a s unconstitutional„ T h i s i s n o t to u n d e r e s t i m a t e the e f f e c t s o f the Government's economic squeeze on T u r k i s h enclaves. Economic Blockade. The Cyprus Government drew up a l i s t o f p r o h i b i t e d m a t e r i a l s , which were: i) Goods o f d i r e c t m i l i t a r y use; ii) "and those which, w h i l s t they could i n d i r e c t l y be r e g a r d e d a s h a v i n g m i l i t a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e , a f f e c t p r i m a r i l y the r e t u r n to economic normality." The list (46) i n c l u d e d e s s e n t i a l i t e m s such a s p e t r o l and d i e s e l o i l ; v e h i c l e spare p a r t s , t y r e s and b a t t e r i e s ; woollen c l o t h i n g ; cement, and o t h e r building materials. D e n i a l o f these m a t e r i a l s l e d to a r a p i d d e t e r i o r a t i o n of T u r k i s h C y p r i o t h o u s i n g , i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and means o f p r o d u c t i o n . P r o f e s s o r Volkan d e s c r i b e s t h i s v i s i b l e decay observed d u r i n g (47) a visit to N i c o s i a i n the Summer o f 1968 :" The c o n t r a s t between one s i d e o f the green l i n e and the o t h e r was impressive. The T u r k i s h s i d e looked as though i t were i n - ruins; the streets everywhere. to the lest had Turks use U.N.P.I.CYP. managed t o 1 sulphur, June allowed into The Cypriots from the During on lift b) Following kept on of Turkey c o n t r o l would f o l l o w Panagides argues 1967, for this probably influenced Greeks', t h u s Greek C y p r i o t this of on were isolated Turkish lifted i t was Turkish and introduced restrictions were:- e v e n more w o r r i e d about ; by the argument from e n c o u r a g i n g increasing Turkish that the Turkish Cypriots tried that an Turkish Cypriot extension Cypriots dependence non-optimal f a c t o r r e l a t i o n s . " interdependence would c o n t r i b u t e inequality coefficient, stability." In contrast Turkish be discriminated separation". which i n t u r n Cypriot against communities would c o n t i n u e . (51) to create separate undue d u p l i c a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n interaction "geographical materials the Government and two Kokkina, although confinement "misallocations actively August economy. e c o n o m i c u n i t s , w h i c h l e d to an the whole p e r i o d , only and coal, t y r e s were a l l intercommunal emnity, u n i t i n g G o v e r n m e n t was a v i o l e n t r e a c t i o n by to f r a t e r n i z e w i t h of nothing ; Kophinou the and so wool, imported the squeeze not Other reasons U.N.F.I.CYP. p r e s s u r e M a k a r i o s was time certain restrictions. imported " n o n - s t r a t e g i c " measures" i n l a t e a) the (49) Partly in realization Government to q u a n t i t i e s , and b l o c k a d e was aggravating c o m p l e t e l y i n 1968. material f o r a long their enclaves, f a c t i o n s t h r o u g h common e x p e r i e n c e s provoking building i s l a n d ' s e c o n o m i c g r o w t h , i n some r e g a r d s some " n o r m a l i z a t i o n on i n large Government's economic deprivation. of fortify evident (48) fuel a strict counter-productive, c) d e l i v e r y of been f o r b i d d e n i t to enclaves. 1965, r e s t r i c t i o n s raised. Cypriot p o v e r t y was woollen m a t e r i a l s , r a i n c o a t s , s t e e l T964 - M a r c h 1968, 10 the persuade Makarios ammonium n i t r a t e , gradually that s e c t o r had been r e p a i r e d . " For instance, - w e r e p i t t e d , and I learned Turkish the 114 and Greater "the l e a d e r s argued economic minimization i s ...conducive that to social they would economic i n e q u a l i t i e s between They r e m a i n e d Years to (50) facilities, of c o m m i t t e d to a p o l i c y economic i s o l a t i o n had not the of led - 115 to any change i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y . during those Moreover, Government p o l i c y y e a r s l e s s e n e d the i n c o n v e n i e n c e t e r r i t o r y outside i t s control. " Time d i d not stalemate caused by "pockets" T h i s meant, as M i c h a e l D r u r y suggests, i n t h i s case h e a l wounds; r a t h e r , as continued, so the environment of the produced symptoms of c l a u s t r o p h o b i a , of the enclave w h i l s t the environment -of economic boom c o n v i n c e d many Greek C y p r i o t s t h a t t h e r e no I t now (53) l o n g e r a problem to be s o l v e d . " remains to look a t some more s p e c i f i c problems c r e a t e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s , and economic was these U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s to r e s t o r e s o c i o - normality. Freedom of movement : From 1964 to 1974 the i s l a n d was p h y s i c a l b a r r i e r s to m o b i l i t y . c r i s s - c r o s s e d and Greek C y p r i o t s had honeycombed w i t h to p i c k t h e i r routes c a r e f u l l y to a v o i d a r e a s under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l , w h i l s t the l i k e Macbeth were and fears'. first (54) 'cabin 1 d, c r i b b ' d , c o n f i n e d , p r e r e q u i s i t e f o r a r e t u r n to normal c o n d i t i o n s " as "a convenient (a) He (55), "the vital for a l s o d e s c r i b e d freedom of movement (56) y a r d s t i c k of p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n the i s l a n d " . R e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t movement. Cyprus P o l i c e c h e c k - p o i n t s and bound i n t o s a u c y doubts U Thant d e s c r i b e d f u l l freedom of movement as r e i n t e g r a t i n g the C y p r i o t economy. Turks, and road-blocks e x i s t e d on many main roads a t the e n t r y p o i n t s to T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s and checks, quarters. body s e a r c h e s , p l u s the f e a r of a r r e s t and Identity detention, discouraged T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s from e n t e r i n g a r e a s under Government c o n t r o l . Government d i d remove Cyprus P o l i c e c h e c k - p o i n t s Larnaca, Paphos, and Limassol. (57) The i n the D i s t r i c t s Furthermore, a number of National Guard p o s i t i o n s were removed n e a r to the "green l i n e s " of Paphos Larnaca, a l t h o u g h i n Paphos, two armed and > s t i i l dominated the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r . ' " n o r m a l i z a t i o n programme" was roads c o n n e c t i n g and and Cyprus P o l i c e p o s t s I n September 1 9 6 7 . a government started. towns i n n o r t h e r n fortified of Permanent r o a d - b l o c k s e a s t e r n Cyprus were on trunk abolished, - 116 i n c l u d i n g t h o s e a l o n g t h e Pamagusta - S a l a m i s r o a d ; one a t A s t r o m e r i t i s ; and a t K y r e n i a , on t h e r e a d l e a d i n g t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e o f Temblos. C o n d i t i o n s a l s o i m p r o v e d a t t h e Famagusta Gate i n N i c o s i a , where a t one t i m e d e l a y s o f t h r e e t o f o u r h o u r s were common f o r v e h i c l e s entering the Turkish quarter, but a f t e r the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f "normalization measures" d e l a y s and s e a r c h e s were r e d u c e d t o t h r e e o r f o u r m i n u t e s . T r a f f i c t h r o u g h t h e Gate i n c r e a s e d f r o m 350-400 v e h i c l e s p e r day t o an a v e r a g e o f 600-700 p e r d a y . ('58) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s h i p d i d n o t r e c i p r o c a t e government " n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures", i n s t e a d s t r i c t c o n t r o l was m a i n t a i n e d movement o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i s h i n g control. Permits on t h e t o v i s i t a r e a s u n d e r Greek C y p r i o t h a d t o be o b t a i n e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i s h i n g t o t r a v e l f r o m t h e i r q u a r t e r beyond t h e w a l l e d c i t y sometimes " s t r o n g - a r m o f Nicosia t a c t i c s " were- used t o p r e v e n t P i n e s c o u l d be imposed on any Turk who e n t e r e d ( 5 9 ) and such movements. t h e Greek s e c t o r "far promenade, f o r f r i e n d l y a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s , o r f o r amusement" (60) Turkish Cypriot leaders justified t h i s " s e l f - s e g r e g a t i o n " i n terms of c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r t h e s e c u r i t y o f t h e i r community, b u t o t h e r s saw it as a d e l i b e r a t e " i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n and e n f o r c e m e n t o f s e p a r a t i o n " . (61) Normal c o m m u n i c a t i o n s between t h e s c a t t e r e d a r e a s o f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l were i m p o s s i b l e copters provided Cypriot i n t h e p e r i o d 1964 t o 1968. U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l i - a m o n t h l y e s c o r t f o r a number o f l o c a l T u r k i s h leaders i n order to f a c i l i t a t e leaders i n Nicosia. C y p r i o t c h i l d r e n from Cypriot r e g u l a r m e e t i n g s w i t h t h e i r community U.N.P.I.CYP. e s c o r t s were a l s o a r r a n g e d f o r Turkish the v i l l a g e s o f L i m n i t i s , Ghaziveran, Angolemi, E l e a , K a l a k h o r i o , and A m b e l i k o u t o t h e s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i n L e f k a These c h i d r e n were d e n i e d Seriously i l l enclave. t h i s f r o m December T963 t o November T964. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were g i v e n U.N.P.I.CYP. e s c o r t s t o t h e T u r k i s h h o s p i t a l i n N i c o s i a , w h i l s t o t h e r e s c o r t s were p r o v i d e d f o r j u d g e s farmers, and m e r c h a n t s , e n a b l i n g them t o c o n t i n u e their business. One s p e c i f i c example o f r e s t r i c t i o n s o n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t movement was at Temblos, a v i l l a g e on t h e n o r t h e r n e x t e n s i o n o f the Geunyeli-Aghirda (62) E n c l a v e , hemmed i n by b a r b e d w i r e f e n c e s and N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s . If t h e v i l l a g e r s w i s h e d t o go t o N i c o s i a points i n Kyrenia. they had t o t r a v e l v i a check- An a l t e r n a t i v e r o u t e was v i a a s t e e p t r a c k up t o S t . H i l a r i o n c a s t l e ( r e f e r t o Map 3.2. ) , f r o m Nicosia-Kyrenia road. there a road l e d t o the The Cyprus Government was e x t r e m e l y about i m p r o v e m e n t s t o t h e t r a c k up t h e seaward s l o p e sensitive o f the Kyrenia range, w h i c h , i t f e l t , might enable t h e T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s t o t h r e a t e n t h e r e a r o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard c o a s t a l d e f e n c e p o s i t i o n s west o f K y r e n i a . In 1965, v i l l a g e r s a t Temblos began t o i m p r o v e t h e t r a c k t o S t . April Hilarion. Given the p o s s i b l e s t r a t e g i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s U.N.P.I.CYP. i n c r e a s e d for peaceful traffic, track, i t s p o s i t i o n s a s t r i d e i t t o e n s u r e i t s use o n l y and more " b l u e b e r r e t s " were p l a c e d Temblos and n e a r b y N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s . inbetween F u r t h e r m o r e , U.N.F.I.CYP. made a r u l i n g t h a t o n l y h a n d - t o o l s , r a t h e r than mechanical equipment, c o u l d be used t o i m p r o v e t h e t r a c k . (63) ( b ) R e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t movement : Greek C y p r i o t s were d e n i e d a c c e s s t o most T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y and c o u l d o n l y t r a v e l t h r o u g h o t h e r s u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t , otherwise K o k k i n a was t o t a l l y p r o h i b i t e d . The long detours c o a s t a l road traffic through L i m n i t i s was open t o Greek C y p r i o t during daylight hours. the road civilian A t n i g h t Greeks were o n l y a l l o w e d t o use i n cases o f m e d i c a l emergency and p r o v i d i n g t h e r e was an U.N.F.- I.CYP. e s c o r t . blocks were n e c e s s a r y . (64) a t Lefka, F i g h t e r s a n d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e manned A m b e l i k o u , and K a l o k h o r i o , where Greek C y p r i o t were s u b j e c t t o i d e n t i t y c h e c k s , and t h e y were n o t a l l o w e d Turkish-held territory. was r e s t r i c t e d Travel through t o the Nicosia - Kyrenia roadcivilians t o stop within the Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave r o a d u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t s , w h i c h r a n t w i c e d a i l y c o n v o y s , o f t e n e s c o r t i n g u p t o 4,000 v e h i c l e s p e r month. - 118 Greek movements were p r e v e n t e d Famagusta, L a r n a c a , and Paphos. e x i s t e d , n o Greek e n t e r e d day. - across the "green l i n e s " o f N i c o s i a , Even i n L i m a s s o l where no "green t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r a t n i g h t , and As m e n t i o n e d i n S e c t i o n One of t h i s chapter, few d u r i n g Turkish Cypriot attempts Lysi-Athienou-Nicosia; armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n . or Lysi-Asha-Nicosia I n Paphos D i s t r i c t r o u t e s w o u l d have p r e c i p i t a t e d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t For t h e r e was ) a c l u s t e r a r o u n d A n a d h i o u ( r e f e r t o Map i s o l a t e d , away f r o m main r o a d s , t o e i t h e r t h e Government o r N a t i o n a l Guard. had area.(65) to c o n t r o l the P r a s t i o - N i c o s i a ; were s c a t t e r e d i n s m a l l " c l u s t e r s " o f T u r k i s h c o n t r o l . were r e l a t i v e l y 3.S and o f no villages instance, These v i l l a g e s strategic certain Turkish villages. F o r example, a l o c a l agreement e n a b l e d Greek C y p r i o t s f r o m Lyso t o controlled territory. T u r k i s h q u a r t e r was Lyso was trapped behind u n d e r U.N. travel Turkish Cypriot- A n o t h e r l o c a l anomaly e x i s t e d a t P o l i s , where t h e r e d u c e d t o a n a r r o w , congested s t r i p o f l a n d , o n l y a few h u n d r e d m e t r e s s q u a r e , a s t r i d e t h e P o l i s - Paphos h i g h w a y . was value I n o t h e r a r e a s U.N.F.I.CYP. t o a r r a n g e f o r Greek C y p r i o t s t o pass t h r o u g h through Pelathousa, otherwise F o r c e o b s e r v a t i o n and a l t h o u g h Greeks were p r e v e n t e d Thus Greek C y p r i o t s had was This quarter. t o be c o n s t a n t l y aware o f v a r i o u s l o c a l "under- t h e i r r i g h t s t o move f r o m p l a c e p l a c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when t h e y had to t r a v e l across e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s , check-points time passed these road-blocks„ As restrictions Greek f r e e d o m o f movement were o f d i m i n i s h i n g i m p o r t a n c e o w i n g t o f a c t t h a t t h e Government b u i l t new C i v i l i a n Services The roads around the on the enclaves. : Government a l s o d i r e c t e d e l e c t r i c i t y supply l i n e s and d i s t r i b u t i o n systems a r o u n d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - e n c l a v e s and f a c t t h e Government had road k e p t open t o a l l t r a f f i c , from stopping w i t h i n the T u r k i s h s t a n d i n g s " o r "agreements" r e g a r d i n g and the t h e r e were- s e v e r a l r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y i n t h e Chatos - K a l y v a k i a M o r e o v e r , any line" water quarters. In e f f e c t i v e l y renounced r e s p o n s i b i l i t y towards the p r o v i s i o n i n g o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p u b l i c s e r v i c e s i n areas outside to - 119 - i t s de f a c t o c o n t r o l . D r u r y made a s t u d y o f the p r o v i s i o n o f basic s e r v i c e s i n Greek and T u r k i s h a r e a s i n W e s t e r n C y p r u s . (66) He f o u n d t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s were u n d e r - p r i v i l e g e d i n the^ p r o v i s i o n o f tarmac r o a d s , e l e c t r i c i t y , t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e s , t a p p e d w a t e r s u p p l y , and p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , compared t o Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s . discrepancies a g g r a v a t e d i n t e r c o m m u n a l b a d f e e l i n g , e s p e c i a l l y i n cases where T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were n o t o n l y b e i n g had These m a t e r i a l denied c e r t a i n services but h a d p r e v i o u s l y e x i s t i n g s e r v i c e s w i t h d r a w n , such as p o s t a l s e r v i c e s , t e l e p h o n e l i n e s , and even w a t e r s u p p l y i n c e r t a i n cases. U.N.P.I.CYP. n e g o t i a t e d w i t h t h e Cyprus Government i n o r d e r t o g e t s e r v i c e s r e s t o r e d t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a r e a s , and i n some cases i t was successful. F o r i n s t a n c e , n o r m a l t e l e p h o n e and e l e c t r i c f a c i l i t i e s r e s t o r e d t o t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos i n June 1964. Summer o f '64, (67) were I n the U.N.P.I.CYP. r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s met w i t h Greek and T u r k i s h members o f t h e E.A.C. ( E l e c t r i c i t y A u t h o r i t y o f Cyprus ) t o a s s i s t i n a r r a n g i n g f o r t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f n o r m a l E.A.C. f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h e T u r k i s h quarter o f Nicosia. supply (6'8) U.N.P.I.CYP. t r i e d t o T u r k i s h a r e a s and t r i e d t o improve basic water t o f i n d ways f o r t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f I n T965 an a u x i l i a r y w a t e r b i l l s f o r f u t u r e water consumption. supply s y s t e m was i n s t a l l e d a t K o k k i n a u n d e r U.N. Force s u p e r v i s i o n . ( 6 9 ) e v e r t h e r e were c o m p l a i n t s o f d e l i b e r a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f water Where- supplies U.N. F o r c e teams i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e p r o b l e m s and e n d e a v o u r e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e causes o f any w a t e r s h o r t a g e s . sporadic They i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e a c u t e b u t shortages o f f r e s h water t o the Turkish S c a l a , where t h e i n h a b i t a n t s c l a i m e d responsible q u a r t e r o f Larnaca, t h a t Greek C y p r i o t s , who were f o r the f l o w o f water through t o S c a l a , were t o blame. O f f i c i a l s o f t h e L a r j i a c a Water B o a r d d e n i e d any i n t e r f e r e n c e w i t h t h e water supply o f S c a l a , b l a m i n g t h e o l d , i n e f f i c i e n t w a t e r system o f t h e quarter instead. U„N.F.I.CYP. t e c h n i c i a n s p r o m p t l y m e t e r s on t h e s u p p l y mains where t h e y e n t e r e d e s t a b l i s h how much w a t e r was b e i n g allowed installed water the quarter i n order t o i n t o S c a l a . (70) During d r y - 120 - summer months U.N.P.I.CYP. l i a i s e d w i t h t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t at the request Leadership o f t h e Cyprus Government t o a r r a n g e a c o o r d i n a t e d i s l a n d - wide r e d u c t i o n o f w a t e r c o n s u m p t i o n . ( 7 1 ) The was K a n l i Keuy Dam, l o c a t e d w i t h i n t h e G u w i y e l i - A g h i r d a E n c l a v e , completed w i t h t h e cooperation o f the United Programme ( U.N.D.P. ) and U.N.P.I.CYP. N a t i o n s Development The dam was v i r t u a l l y complete a t t h e o u t b r e a k o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l c o n f l i c t i n December 1963 e x c e p t f o r the s p i l l w a y . Forthe f o l l o w i n g three years, and were n o t p e r m i t t e d i n t o t h e E n c l a v e . completion m a t e r i a l s f o r i t s maintenance During a period o f heavy r a i n f a l l i n F e b r u a r y 1967 t h e dam was i n danger o f f l o o d i n g o v e r . Emergency r e p a i r s were n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t Government r e l e a s e d who organized disaster. Thus t h e Cyprus t h e r e q u i r e d m a t e r i a l s t o U.N.D.P. and U.N.P.I.CYP., the Turkish Cypriots working on t h e p r o j e c t . ( 7 2 ) As r e g a r d s p o s t a l services,U.N.P.I.CYP. f a i l e d i n a t t e m p t s t h e Government t o r e s t o r e f u l l t e r r i t o r y , although facilities t o persuade t o Turkish Cypriot-controlled l e t t e r d e l i v e r i e s were resumed f o r t h e T u r k i s h q u a r t e r s o f L a r n a c a , N i c o s i a , and l e f k a . v i e w s o f t h e two community l e a d e r s h i p s t o r e s t o r e n o r m a l i t y t o such m a t t e r s (73) The o p p o s i t e made i t i m p o s s i b l e political f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. as t h e payment o f s o c i a l insurance b e n e f i t s t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s and p u b l i c r e v e n u e t o t h e Government o u t of Turkish Cypriot c o f f e r s . The Government a r g u e d t h a t any b e n e f i t s t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d be used f o r " i n s u r r e c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s " . ( 7 4 ) S i m i l a r l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. made l i t t l e progress i n using t o r e e s t a b l i s h an i n t e g r a t e d j u d i c i a l s y s t e m f o r b o t h f u n c t i o n i n g throughout i t s good offices communities t h e i s l a n d . (75) Agriculture : One o b v i o u s s p a t i a l p r o b l e m r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e de f a c t o changes of t h e p o l i t i c a l g e o g r a p h y o f Cyprus c o n c e r n e d l a n d o w n e r s h i p . According t o T u r k i s h propaganda : " As a r e s u l t o f t h e f o r c e d d i s l o c a t i o n o f T u r k s f r o m their homes, 300,000 donums o f T u r k i s h owned l a n d have been c u l t i v a t e d - for 12T - seven y e a r s by t h e Greeks w i t h o u t r e n t o r c o m p e n s a t i o n . " ( 7 6 ) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h a d abandoned some r i c h f a r m l a n d , u n c u l t i v a t e d adjacent or left other t o N a t i o n a l Guard o r F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s . areas As U Thant p o i n t e d o u t : - " By f a r t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m i n a g r i c u l t u r e i s t h e question o f unauthorized cultivation. t u r a l l a n d i n Cyprus a r e b e i n g Large areas o f a g r i c u l - c u l t i v a t e d by p e r s o n s who a r e n e i t h e r t h e owners o f t h e l a n d n o r t e n a n t s i n t h e n o r m a l sense o f t h e word." (77) Reponding t o U.N.F.I.CYP. p r e s s u r e t h e Government made i t a offence f o r " Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s t o c u l t i v a t e T u r k i s h owned l a n d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a b s e n t e e owners. o f t e n had l i t t l e choice rents. Any c o m p l a i n t s or l e f t completely fifty p e r cent I n p r a c t i c e , however, T u r k i s h b u t t o lease regarding without Cypriots t h e i r abandoned f i e l d s a t uneconomic r e n t s could lead t o land being u n c u l t i v a t e d , t h u s g i v i n g no r e t u r n . ( 7 8 ) U.N.CIV.POL. p r e v e n t e d damaged I n T966, a b o u t o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t abandoned l a n d was b e i n g Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s . any punishable l e a s e d by as f a r as p o s s i b l e u n l a w f u l h a r v e s t i n g a r o u n d abandoned T u r k i s h v i l l a g e s . ( 7 9 ) Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s were u n a b l e t o g a i n access t o l a n d t h e y owned w i t h i n Turkish Cypriot enclaves. Government c l a i m e d I n t h e Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave t h e t h a t 2,700 donums ( i . e . a b o u t 9,000 a c r e s ) o f Greek C y p r i o t l a n d was e i t h e r u n d e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l o r t o o c l o s e t o T u r k i s h F i g h t e r p o s i t i o n s f o r i t t o be c u l t i v a t e d by G r e e k s . ( 8 0 ) Little p r o g r e s s was made o v e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t payment o f c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r c u l t i v a t i n g Greek l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a w e s t o f Dhikomo. o t h e r d i s t i c t s U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t e d areas close the i n d i s t i n c t tensions and to Turkish I n t h e M e s a o r i a b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s owned l a n d b o u n d a r y o f t h e Chatos - K a l y v a k i a r o s e a r o u n d s o w i n g and h a r v e s t i n g t i m e s . c u l t i v a t o r s were a l l o w e d a request Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s t o s e n s i t i v e t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s and t o f i e l d s a d j a c e n t Cypriot v i l l a g e s . enclave. Local t o enter the enclave provided around Intercommunal Greek C y p r i o t they had submitted t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e s t a t i o n a t Chatos. Peristerona i n Nicosia D i s t r i c t , In At M a t h i a t i i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g s were a r r a n g e d - 122 - by U.N.P.I.CYP., b u t t h e F o r c e f a i l e d i n i t s " a t t e m p t s t o a r r a n g e ad hoc meetings...on a l a r g e r scale t o deal w i t h broader aspects o f u n a u t h o r i z e d c u l t i v a t i o n . " (81) U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l p e d areas, save many c i t r u s o r c h a r d s i n abandoned and s e n s i t i v e and i t saw t h a t t h e s e o r c h a r d s were p r o p e r l y i r r i g a t e d , collecting i r r i g a t i o n f e e s f r o m t h e owners and p a y i n g even the i r r i g a t o r s . (82) The U.N. F o r c e a c t e d as a n i n t e r m e d i a r y between T u r k i s h C y p r i o t and t h e G r a i n Commission. ortion I t proved farmers successful i n s e l l i n g a high o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t wheat and b a r l e y c r o p s prop- through the Grain Commission i n T965 and i n 1967. ( 8 3 ) U.N.F.I.CYP. a l s o used i t s good o f f i c e s t o remove r e s t r i c t i o n s on gas o i l and l u b r i c a n t s f o r f u e l f o r w a t e r pumps; and on s u l p h u r and n i t r a t e f e r t i l i z e r s a l t h o u g h most a g r i c u l t u r a l m a c h i n e r y remained d i f f i c u l t most T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c e n t r e s . ( 8 5 ) I n d o i n g T u r k i s h producers tractors; (84), to obtain f o r so U.N.F.I.CYP. e n s u r e d that c o u l d g e t t h e i r s u r p l u s e s on t o e x p o r t markets, f o r w i t h o u t U.N. a s s i s t a n c e c u l t i v a t i o n w o u l d have been difficult. I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic a c t i v i t y : Owing t o t h e p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n Cyprus many i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s were c l o s e d o r s t o o d i d l e because t h e i r owners were s e p a r a t e d artificial e t h n i c boundaries or 'confrontation lines'. from them by F o r example, t h r e e v a l u a b l e Greek e n t e r p r i s e s s t o o d i d l e w i t h i n T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s a limekiln and q u a r r y ; a f l o u r m i l l ; and a t e x t i l e p l a n t . (86) Turkish C y p r i o t owned e n t e r p r i s e s were c l o s e d because t h e y were d e n i e d m a t e r i a l s by t h e economic b l o c k a d e , and b a s i c raw o t h e r s were l o c a t e d i n s t r a t e g i c a r e a s where T u r k s d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t s a f e t o e n t e r . Steelwool — Thus t h e C y p r o - Company r e m a i n e d c l o s e d o w i n g t o r e s t r i c t i o n s on s t e e l w i r e f u e l , and t h e T u r k i s h l i m e k i l n s o f A m b e l i k o u were i d l e due t o t h e p r o x i m i t y o f N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s on h i l l s o v e r l o o k i n g t h e l i m e k i l n s . (87) U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s t o r e a c t i v a t e a v a r i e t y o f i n d u s t r i a l and c o m m e r c i a l e n t e r p r i s e s met w i t h o p p o s i t i o n f r o m b o t h l e a d e r s h i p s . ( 8 8 ) - 123 - U.N.F.I.CYP. measures t o a s s i s t r e f u g e e s Attempts t o solve the refugee : p r o b l e m were hampered by t h e p o l i t i c a l s t a n c e s a d o p t e d by t h e community l e a d e r s h i p s . President (i) On 23 September M a k a r i o s s t a t e d t h a t t h e Government was p r e p a r e d Assistance 1965, to provide:- t o r e p a i r o r t o t a l l y r e c o n s t r u c t T u r k i s h homes i n abandoned v i l l a g e s ; (ii) Financial assistance f o r t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f a l l those Turkish C y p r i o t s " f o r c e d " t o abandone t h e i r v i l l a g e s by t h e T u r k i s h Cypriot Leadership; ( i i i ) F i n a n c i a l assistance t o any T u r k i s h C y p r i o t u n a b l e t o f i n d w i t h i n t h e Greek C y p r i o t (iv) employmen sector; Measures f o r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a f e t y and p r o t e c t i o n . ( 8 9 ) I n support o f t h i s p o l i c y T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s were r e f u s e d building m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f permanent s t r u c t u r e s t o house refugees. This p o l i c y f a i l e d Under these t o e n t i c e many r e f u g e e s circumstances back t o o l d homes. t h e most U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do was t o t r y t o a l l e v i a t e some o f t h e h a r d s h i p s and d e p r i v a t i o n s o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t "displaced persons". V i r t u a l l y a l l t h e T u r k i s h e n c l a v e s were o v e r c r o w d e d and l a c k i n g infrastructure. resources working Furthermore, these to provide populations. t i n y areas o f land lacked the basic employment f o r more t h a n a s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r K o k k i n a was a p r i m e e x a m p l e . Since t h e T y l l i r i a f i g h t i n g i n August 1964 t h e K o k k i n a e n c l a v e was a r e s t r i c t e d f r e e d o m o f movement o f p e o p l e and goods d i d n o t a p p l y . 800 r e f u g e e s proper were l i v i n g i n caves o r h o l e s zone where Approximately i n the h i l l s i d e . They were dependent on f o r t n i g h t l y Red C r e s c e n t s u p p l i e s f r o m c e n t r a l warehouses i n N i c o s i a , f i r e w o o d s h i p m e n t s f r o m L i m n i t i s ; p l u s an o c c a s i o n a l of fresh f r u i t and v e g e t a b l e s from neighbouring supply v i l l a g e s d e l i v e r e d under U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t . ( 9 0 ) I n s p i t e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. s u c c e s s i n p e r s u a d i n g t h e r e l e a s e o f b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s t o K o k k i n a t o b u i l d a communal b a k e r y ( 9 1 ) , t h e e n c l a v e r e m a i n e d " t h e most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o f a l l r e f u g e e " F o r a l m o s t f o u r y e a r s t h i s s m a l l a r e a o f i n f e r t i l e and uneven c o a s t a l l a n d has s h e l t e r e d a r e f u g e e p o p u l a t i o n so centres - 124 - o v e r c r o w d e d as t o l e a v e no room f o r any e x p l o i t a t i o n of the s o i l . " Even a f t e r t h e d e p a r t u r e o f 425 J a n u a r y 1966, t h e r e m a i n i n g uncomfortable, unhealthy c e n t r e s had was one The continued to l i v e "an Other refugee Hamid Mandres, n o r t h o f N i c o s i a i n t h e of the l a r g e s t refugee were 3,000 p e r s o n s l i v i n g d w e l l i n g s were b u i l t refugees to Turkey i n meaningless e x i s t e n c e " . ( 9 2 ) s i m i l a r problems. main e n c l a v e , (91) Turkish Cypriot students 1,200 and significant centres. Initially i n t e n t e d accommodation u n t i l u n d e r a s e l f - h e l p scheme. Turkish Cypriot Leadership discouraged there mud-brick (93) the r e t u r n o f Turkish C y p r i o t s t o o l d homes i n a r e a s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e Cyprus Government. The T u r k i s h Government h e l p e d to finance a Turkish Cypriot scheme w i t h i n a r e a s u n d e r t h e i r c o n t r o l . tried to a t t r a c t M a l l i a , i n Limassol D i s t r i c t , r i c h e s t v i n e y a r d v i l l a g e s i n Cyprus. was 900, Turk s and 80 Greeks. a l l o f whom l e f t Considerable Meanwhile t h e Cyprus Government T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back t o a r e a s i n o r d e r t o c e r t a i n valuable crops. i n c l u d e d 600 rehousing was harvest one of the I n December 1960 i t s p o p u l a t i o n I n 1963 t h e number o f T u r k i s h a f t e r intercommunal f i g h t i n g i n e a r l y e f f o r t s were made by D i s t r i c t a u t h o r i t i e s and residents 1964. U.N.P.I.CYP. to persuade T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to r e t u r n f o i r the grape h a r v e s t in By mid-September a b o u t 120 harvest f a m i l i e s had returned. A f t e r the the Turkish p o p u l a t i o n of M a l l i a f l u c t u a t e d according The Government c o n t i n u e d to seasonal work. i t s e f f o r t s ,to keep T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s repairing I n s p i t e o f these e f f o r t s M a l l i a ' s 1970-'71 p o p u l a t i o n c o n t a i n e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , o v e r 600 enclaves. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t homes i n t h e there, s p e n d i n g C£ 6,719 400 103 village. only Turkish C y p r i o t s stayed i n the s a f e t y o f (94) U.N.F.IcCYP.'s e f f o r t s t o n o r m a l i z e to 1964. c o n d i t i o n s by e n c o u r a g i n g b o t h sides c o o p e r a t e i n t h e s a f e r e t u r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o t h e i r abandoned homes i n G o v e r n m e n t - c o n t r o l l e d activities, territory, l i k e a l l other normalization were f r u s t r a t e d by t h e u n d e r l y i n g m i s t r u s t and unwillingness - 125 - t o compromise between t h e l e a d e r s h i p s o f each S e c t i o n Three : P o l i t i c a l Background. community. November '67 t o J u l y '7'4. The b l o o d s h e d a t K o p h i n o u p r o v o k e d a T u r k i s h t h r e a t o f war a g a i n s t Greece and l e d t o a number o f agreements President imposed M a k a r i o s was w i l l i n g agreements. between t h e two c o u n t r i e s . t o comply w i t h some o f t h e s e F o r example, 6 - externally 12,000 Greek s o l d i e r s r e t u r n e d t o A t h e n s , b u t a number o f Greek o f f i c e r s s t i l l t h e N a t i o n a l Guard. (96) remained i n charge o f Makarios a l s o r e f u s e d t o increase the scale and powers o f U.N.F.I.CYP. i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e a g r e e m e n t s . permitted t h i s , t h e Security Council President (95) c o u l d have a c t e d Had he accordingly. Makarios also r e f o r m u l a t e d basic p o l i t i c a l goals, arguing that, " A s o l u t i o n , by n e c e s s i t y , must be s o u g h t w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s o f what i s f e a s i b l e , w h i c h does n o t a l w a y s c o i n c i d e w i t h t h e l i m i t s o f what i s d e s i r a b l e . " The (97) " f e a s i b l e " s o l u t i o n was an i n d e p e n d e n t , u n i t e d R e p u b l i c , a l t h o u g h Makarios continued t o pay " l i p s e r v i c e " t o " E n o s i s as a d i s t a n t g o a l " . (98) E n o s i s w i t h a m i l i t a r y J u n t a i n Athens was no l o n g e r a d e s i r a b l e o p t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e Greek C y p r i o t s d e r i v e d c e r t a i n economic b e n e f i t s from t h e i s l a n d ' s independent s t a t u s , which would disappear i f t h e i s l a n d became " y e t a n o t h e r o f Greece's n e g l e c t e d provinces". (99) I n spite of the m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l d i r e c t i o n Makarios had a l a n d s l i d e v i c t o r y i n t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s o f 25 F e b r u a r y 1968, of the votes, crushing I n December 1967 securing t h e newly formed "Enosis F r o n t " o p p o s i t i o n . t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s renamed t h e i r l e a d e r s h i p t h e " P r o v i s i o n a l Turkish Cypriot A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " , which replaced G e n e r a l Committee. 95 p e r c e n t Moreover, the o l d w i t h t h e removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h f r e e d o m o f movement i n March 1968, t h e l e a d e r s h i p , based i n N i c o s i a , was able t o improve i t s c o n t r o l o f t h e s c a t t e r e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community. The f o r m a t i o n o f t h e " P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n " was " f l a g r a n t l y u n l a w f u l " according t o M a k a r i o s , f o r as O b e r l i n g p o i n t s o u t , i t made t h e A r c h b i s h o p ' s - 126 - "chances o f e v e r a g a i n p r e s i d i n g o v e r a u n i f i e d , bicommunal government ...much more r e m o t e . " On 13 A p r i l 1968, (100) Rauf D e n k t a s r e t u r n e d t o Cyprus and was nominated t spokesman o f t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community. President o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , Mr G l a f k o s was Clerides, spokesman f o r t h e Greek C y p r i o t s i n t h e i n t e r c o m m u n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s w h i c h began on 2-5 D e n k t a s a r g u e d f o r some k i n d o f Greek C y p r i o t s were w i l l i n g organized June 1968. ' f u n c t i o n a l f e d e r a t i o n ' , whereas t h e to g r a n t the Turks wider on a c o n v e n t i o n a l g e o g r a p h i c a l basis. l o c a l autonomy The intercommunal were n o t o n l y h a n d i c a p p e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t v i e w p o i n t s o f D e n k t a s C l e r i d e s , b u t by t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f Greek C y p r i o t e x t r e m i s t s and talks and outside powers. D r a w i n g on a q u o t a t i o n f r o m L a u r e n c e S t e r n , M i c h a e l " Sihanouk o f Cambodia i s now dead, b u t t o g e t h e r t h e s e accurately described two deposed and A t t a l i d e s argued, M a k a r i o s o f Cyprus Heads o f S t a t e have been as " s u r v i v a l a c r o b a t s s t r u g g l i n g to m a i n t a i n n a t i o n a l s o v e r e i g n t y i n t h e shadows o f t h e power t r i a n g l e . " B o t h t h e Greek J u n t a flirting and " great (101) t h e N i x o n A d m i n i s t r a t i o n accused M a k a r i o s o f w i t h the S o v i e t Union. (102) W a s h i n g t o n was primarily about Western r e g i o n a l a l l i a n c e s i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean; concerned the c h a n g i n g s t r a t e g i c b a l a n c e among t h e s u p e r p o w e r s ; t h e e f f e c t s o f the Arab - I s r a e l i and the non-aligned c r i s i s i n t h e r e g i o n and tendencies on s u p e r p o w e r r e l a t i o n s ; o f Makarios i n a country w i t h a strong communist p a r t y , A.K.E.L., W a s h i n g t o n a p p e a r e d t o f a v o u r along the l i n e s of plans Conference i n Lisbon a solution f i n a l i z e d a t t h e N.A.T.O. F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r s i n June 1971, which granted substantial regional/ communal autonomy t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . The J u n t a i n Cyprus were i n f l u e n c e d by U.S. e f f o r t s t o " t i d y up" e a s t e r n M e d i t e r r a n e a n . (T03) a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Greek the As C o u f o u d a k i s a r g u e s , " t h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h e o v e r t and covert i n i t i a t i v e s t a k e n by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Greece and under- T u r k e y s i n c e the- - 127 - c o l l a p s e o f t h e F i r s t C y p r i o t R e p u b l i c was t o b r i n g the p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d . " about (104) W i t h i n Cyprus M a k a r i o s was f a c e d w i t h g r o w i n g o p p o s i t i o n f r o m p r o E n o s i s t e r r o r i s t g r o u p s , l e d by 'E.O.K.A.-B' u n d e r G e n e r a l G r i v a s who s e c r e t l y r e e n t e r e d Cyprus i n September T971. I n 1972, relations between M a k a r i o s and t h e J u n t a d e t e r i o r a t e d f u r t h e r a f t e r a c o n s i g n m e n t o f weapons f r o m C z e c h o s l o v a k i a were d i s c o v e r e d a t t h e P r e s i d e n t i a l i n Nicosia. Palace ( 1 0 5 ) T h i s was f o l l o w e d by an a b o r t i v e " e c c l e s i a s t i c a l coup" a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s by t h e b i s h o p s o f K i t i o n , K y r e n i a , and Paphos„ I n the Summer o f '73, t h e A r c h b i s h o p s p o n s o r e d an a n t i - J u n t a newspaper — ' E l e f t h e r o s Laos' ( Free People ) , w h i c h c a l l e d upon K i n g C o n s t a n t i n e and f o r m e r P r e m i e r , K a r a m a n l i s , t o e s t a b l i s h a Greek g o v e r n m e n t - i n - e x i l e i n Nicosia. Meanwhile i n Athens a n o t h e r m i l i t a r y coup h a d b r o u g h t t h e Chief o f M i l i t a r y Police, Brigadier D i m i t r i o s Ioannides, i n t o a l t h o u g h t h e a c t u a l Head o f S t a t e was G e n e r a l Phaedon G i z i k i s . c u t t i n g a n a l y s i s o f t h i s t a k e o v e r H i t c h e n s , 1984, power, In a b l u n t l y r e m a r k s :- " I f Papadopoulos was a F a s c i s t i n t h e M u s s o l i n i mould, I o a n n i d e s was more l i k e an a u t h e n t i c N a z i . . . " ( 1 0 6 ) The d o m e s t i c p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n was v e r y u n s t a b l e i n t h e e a r l y which m i l i t a t e d a g a i n s t r e c d n c i l i a t i o n a t t h e conference t a b l e t h e second 1970s, during r o u n d o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l t a l k s , w h i c h began on 8 June 1972. M a k a r i o s h a d f a i l e d t o clamp down on " t h e p r o - E n o s i s d i e h a r d s " and t o l e a d h i s community t o w a r d s t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . Any c r i t i c i s m o f U.N.F.I.CYP. d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d must t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e political c o n s t r a i n t s w o r k i n g a g a i n s t U.N.F.I.CYP.'s e f f o r t s t o n o r m a l i z e c o n d i t i o n s w i t h i n t h e i s l a n d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e complex i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l power p o l i t i c s . S e c t i o n Four The : U.N.F.I.CYP.'s Second Phase. November '67 t o J u l y U.N. F o r c e e n t e r e d i t s second '74. phase o f o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus w i t h o u t any e x t e n s i o n o f i t s s c a l e o r p o w e r s . Before discussing i t s operations - 128 - during t h i s p e r i o d , i t i s c r u c i a l to consider Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s t i l l de f a c t o s e g r e g a t i o n . cooperation vendettas whether o r n o t o r d i n a r y had t h e good w i l l to coexist despite U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d some s u c c e s s i n f o s t e r i n g between m u k h t a r s o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s f o l l o w i n g t h e Paphos i n 1967. ( see S e c t i o n Two ) Michael Harbottle noted t h a t — even " a t t h e h e i g h t o f t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l c r i s i s i n December it was r e p o r t e d t h a t members o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s i n A y i o s Theodhoros were s i t t i n g t o g e t h e r i n t h e same c o f f e e h o u s e , not o n l y exchanging c o n v e r s a t i o n but also Christmas g i f t s a s i g n t h a t w h a t e v e r t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d was d o i n g , — they a t l e a s t were d e t e r m i n e d t o g e t r e l a t i o n s h i p s back t o n o r m a l and It l i v e i n quiet accord w i t h t h e i r neighbours." (107) seems f a i r t o a r g u e t h a t t h e o v e r w h e l m i n g m a j o r i t y o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n Cyprus w i s h e d t o l i v e i n peace and s e c u r i t y w i t h one a n o t h e r . H a r b o t t l e argued i n another a r t i c l e , As t h e r e a r e p l e n t y o f examples "where human r e l a t i o n s and s t a n d a r d s o f c i v i l i z e d b e h a v i o u r have triumphed over ethnic d i f f e r e n c e s " . ( 1 0 8 ) I t was one o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s t a s k s t o f o s t e r t h e s p o n t a n e o u s " r e i n t e g r a t i n g t r e n d " i n Greek and Turkish Cypriot r e l a t i o n s , a d i f f i c u l t task given a l l t h e p o l a r i z i n g p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s a t work i n C y p r u s . (109) U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d l e s s e n e d t h e h a r d s h i p s enclaves, I n t h e y e a r s p r i o r t o T968 of Turkish Cypriots l i v i n g i n and by so d o i n g h e l p e d t o p r e s e r v e a p a r t h e i d i n C y p r u s . The p r e s e n c e o f t h i s F o r c e may have r e d u c e d t h e u r g e n c y f o r a p o l i t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t by... " providing the a l l - i m p o r t a n t face-saving peaceful coexistence excuse f o r r a t h e r than t h e reason f o r i t . * C e r t a i n l y by T968 U.N.F.I.CYP. h a d become an i m p o r t a n t life, (110) element i n C y p r i o t i t s " p r e s e n c e became a d d i c t i v e f o r a l l t h e i s l a n d e r s who h a d grown p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y dependent ori t h i s e x t e r n a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d operation". (1T1) i n t h e s i x y e a r s up t o J u l y 1974 F o r c e s u f f e r e d a r e d u c t i o n i n i t s numbers and k e p t t h e l e s s , " U.N.F.I.CYP. was a b l e painkilling the United Nations t h e same mandate, n e v e r - t o p l a y a more d i r e c t r o l e i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f normal conditions...away from the p o l i t i c a l - 129 - b a t t l e f r o n t i n t h e s o c i a l and economic f i e l d s . " ( T 1 2 ) i ) Pacification Activities : T h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r i o d t h e r e was l e s s i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e t h a n i n the p r e v i o u s island-wide of "negative f o u r years. Even s o , U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d t o n e g o t i a t e an d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n programme. stability", superficially 1968 t o J u l y T974 was a p e r i o d quiet, but w i t h underlying tension " s t r a i n e d , a b n o r m a l and f r a u g h t w i t h t h e s e r i o u s d a n g e r i n h e r e n t i n t h e c o n t i n u i n g c l o s e c o n f r o n t a t i o n o f w e l l armed and t r a i n e d f o r c e s . " (113) Under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s v i e w e d w i t h a n x i e t y any r e d u c t i o n s i n U.N.P.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h , f o r as t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l i t , -U.N.F.I.CYP. was puts considered " as a g u a r a n t e e o f t r a n q u i l i t y and s e c u r i t y , even i n a r e a s where t h e r e have been no d i s t u r b a n c e s f o r a long time." (114) C o n f r o n t a t i o n areas: (a) Nicosia. The "Green L i n e " c o n t i n u e d t o be an a r e a o f c l o s e armed confrontation, a p o t e n t i a l f l a s h p o i n t where s e r i o u s i n c i d e n t s c o u l d o c c u r a t any t i m e . S u c c e s s i v e U.N. F o r c e a t t e m p t s programme were u n s u c c e s s f u l . t o arrange a mutual d e c o n f r o n t a t i o n ( 1 1 5 ) A n o t h e r t r o u b l e s p o t was t h e s u b u r b o f O r m o r p h i t a , w h i c h had been t h e scene o f b i t t e r i n t e r c o m m u n a l i n December 1>963. fighting S i n c e t h e n , w i t h t h e a r e a b e i n g h e l d by t h e N a t i o n a l Guard, many T u r k i s h homes w h i c h h a d been s e r i o u s l y damaged i n f i g h t i n g were l e f t Line t o decay. The s u b u r b was on and i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e Green and so much o f i t was p a t r o l l e d by U.N. troops. On 26 J a n u a r y 1968, t h e C o u p i l o f M i n i s t e r s d e c i d e d t o e x t e n d t h e municipal boundaries o f N i c o s i a t o i n c l u d e t h e suburbs o f P a l l o u r i o t i s s a , K a i m a k l i , and O m o r p h i t a . d e l i b e r a t e attempt provided T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r g u e d t h a t t h i s was a to limit t h e power o f t h e T u r k i s h M u n i c i p a l i t y as f o r i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n p r i o r t o t h e t r o u b l e s . (116) Government' r e j e c t e d T u r k i s h p r o p o s a l s t h a t Ormorphita should The be p l a c e d - T30 - u n d e r t h e e x c l u s i v e c o n t r o l o f U.N.F.I.CYP. T e n s i o n s i n c r e a s e d when Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s made f r e q u e n t v i s i t s the w a l l e d c i t y , t o Green L i n e a r e a s w i t h i n a l o n g A y i o s D e m e t r i o s S t r e e t , and i n O m o r p h i t a . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r e f u s e d t o move f r o m t h e i r f o r w a r d advance between t h e Green L i n e and N a o u s i s S t r e e t u n l e s s lines — i) The s u b u r b s were p l a c e d u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. c o n t r o l ; ii) N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s i n advance o f t h e Green L i n e n e a r t h e L e d r a P a l a c e H o t e l , and between O m o r p h i t a and Hamid Mandres, were iii) A l l Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s o f s t r e e t s on o r w i t h i n dismantled; 100 m e t r e s o f t h e Green L i n e were s t o p p e d : U n f o r t u n a t e l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. c o u l d do l i t t l e The Government c o n t i n u e d to restrict problems. the r e t u r n o f Turkish refugees t o t h e i r homes i n O m o r p h i t a and N e a p o l i s , prevented t o r e s o l v e these as l o n g as Greek C y p r i o t s were from e n t e r i n g t h e p a r t s o f these suburbs under T u r k i s h Cypriot c o n t r o l . (117) (b) Other Areas. As i n t h e c a p i t a l no d e f o r t i f i c a t i o n was a c h i e v e d l i n e " o f Lamaca. along N a t i o n a l Guard p o s t s r e m a i n e d on P a t s a l o H a l a S u l t a n Tekke, w h i l s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s m a i n t a i n e d along Artemis t h e "green Avenue. H i l l and their front-line I n r e t u r n f o r t h e " n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures" i n t r o d u c e d by t h e Government i n March 1968, t h e Cyprus Government f o r a withdrawal along Artemis o f T u r k i s h p o s i t i o n s and a r e t u r n Avenue. Scala t o a t t a c k . called o f f r e e d o m o f movement T u r k i s h l e a d e r s a r g u e d t h a t t h i s w o u l d expose Furthermore t h e continued occupation o f t h e i r Muslim s h r i n e o f H a l a S u l t a n Tekke was s a c r i l e g e , an a f f r o n t t o t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community. ( 1 1 8 ) T u r k i s h r e q u e s t s school w i t h i n the Government-controlled f o r a reopening o f the Turkish p a r t o f town on t h e m a r g i n s o f S c a l a were t u r n e d down f o r s t r a t e g i c r e a s o n s . ( 1 1 9 ) Limassol d i d n o t remain q u i e t throughout c o n s t r u c t e d a r a t t a n fence this period. Turkish across Lycourgos S t r e e t , adjacent compound, w h i c h t h e y r e f u s e d t o remove. Cypriots to a Fighter There was a l s o some a n x i e t y 131 S8 3 Q- CO ? (J e e to s i/i iu UJ I Z MI b= i, 5 -? ! £ r co i— CD U i & u. 2 Z> a o i e: < n 3 Jl U s 3 CM HI 1 io =1 I t5 13 >5 8 S 5/ 9 1 9 J S 5=? C •Si 5 " J zp lO o X K- I 1 I to ii in a 3 2 ao 7 i S UJ u " J o to IA I v. ) 6 I E 8 3 8 V) I 5 E 53 e O UJ UJ UJ I 8 •3 4 bl UJ 5* w i (7 < 8 iJ HI 8 S - T32 - regarding t h e use o f the Greek Orthodox Church o f Ayios Antonios, which was s i t u a t e d i n a s e n s i t i v e q u a r t e r o f Limassol i n h a b i t e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . (120) Reductions i n U.N.F.I.CYP. s t r e n g t h . ( see Map 5:2 f o r 1968 deployment ) At the s t a r t o f i t s second phase U.N.F.I.CYP. was over 4,700 men s t r o n g , but by May 1972 i t was l i t t l e more than 3,000 s t r o n g . These s i z e a b l e r e d u c t i o n s l e d t o redeployments and r e d u c t i o n s i n t h e number of manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts. approximately A new Larnaca Zone was created w i t h t h e same boundaries o f those o f the c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . One o f the main reasons f o r these changes was the huge cost o f f i n a n c i n g the peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n . I n 1969, the Secretary-General requested a S e c r e t a r i a t Survey Team t o look thoroughly i n t o t h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f U.N.F.I.CYP. The Team concluded t h a t — " While the basic problems o f Cyprus remain unsolved, i t would seem h i g h l y unwise t o make a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e s t r e n g t h and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f U.N.F.I.CYP. on the basis of the present degree o f q u i e t , which i s i n l a r g e measure the r e s u l t o f i t s presence on the i s l a n d . " (121) i i ) Normalization A c t i v i t i e s : U n t i l 8 March 1968 "the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were i n touch w i t h t h e o u t - side world o n l y through the personnel o f the United Nations." (T22) On 8 March the Government l i f t e d i t s economic blockade and a l l s t a t i c blocks were withdrawn. Unfortunately the so-called "normalization measures" f a i l e d t o reverse a d e f i n i t e " t r e n d towards separate development". (123) of road- economic The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Leadership h e l d onto i t s c o n t r o l s c a t t e r e d enclaves by c o n t i n u i n g a p o l i c y o f non-cooperation w i t h and n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Cyprus Government. Separate economic development. In of 1971, a U.N. economist estimated t h a t the average p e r c a p i t a income T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s was h a l f t h a t o f Greek C y p r i o t s . (124) The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n sought t o promote separate processing and manufacturing 133 - i n d u s t r i e s i n s i d e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y , u t i l i z i n g f i n a n c e from Turkey. As the Secretary-General commented i n h i s r e p o r t o f 2 December 1*970 — " Depite undoubted progress i n intercommunal r e l a t i o n s i n such areas as employment, t r a i n i n g and commerce, no rapprochment...has been made on such basic issues as investment and economic p o l i c y . " (125) The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n r e c e i v e d an annual g r a n t from Ankara o f £8 m i l l i o n , which covered the costs o f communal w e l f a r e and development programmes, as w e l l as F i g h t e r and c i v i l servant s a l a r i e s . Some c r i t i c s of t h e Leadership argued t h a t more funds should have been channelled i n t o development p r o j e c t s t o a l l e v i a t e the c h r o n i c under- and unemployment w i t h i n T u r k i s h areas. Economic c o n d i t i o n s could have been improved by a r e d u c t i o n o f F i g h t e r s t r e n g t h , by i n d u c i n g refugees to return to abandoned v i l l a g e s , and by c l o s e r cooperation w i t h t h e Cyprus Government, both t o g a i n more U.N.D.P. a i d and t o reduce unnecessary d u p l i c a t i o n of c e r t a i n c i v i l i a n s e r v i c e s . (126) One o f the c r i t i c a l problems h i n d e r i n g the progress o f the Government's Second Five Year Development Plan ( 1967-'71 ) was shortage o f l a b o u r . Despite T u r k i s h C y p r i o t unemployment t h e P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was r e l u c t a n t t o permit economy. 'cheap' T u r k i s h l a b o u r e n t e r i n t o the Greek C y p r i o t There was a slow t r i c k l e o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t labour i n t o Government c o n t r o l l e d t e r r i t o r y , as t h e f i g u r e s below i n d i c a t e . TURKISH CYPRIOT EMPLOYMENT I N T970. ( Figures out o f a t o t a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l a b o u r f o r c e o f 45,000 ) Greek C y p r i o t E n t e r p r i s e s T u r k i s h Cyp- and riot Others. Full-time labourers 5,000 28,000 Seasonal l a b o u r e r s 3,000 1,000 Self-employed 5,000 3,000 13,000 32,000 Total: Enterprises Taken from: P a t r i c k , 1976, p.167 and A t t a l i d e s , 1979, p.94. (127) - T34 The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n argued t h a t the f i g u r e o f 13,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s "cooperating" w i t h the Greek C y p r i o t community was overexaggerated. These f i g u r e s i n c l u d e d employment f o r foreign-owned mining c o r p o r a t i o n s and i n the B r i t i s h Sovereign Base Areas. Freedom o f movement : " The opening o f the enclaves' "gates" i n t o t h e Greek s e c t o r s began a second phase o f l i f e t h e r e . " (128) The^ removal o f r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t m o b i l i t y throughout t h e i s l a n d put an end t o t h e i r s o l i t a r y confinement, but there were no moves by the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o end r e s t r i c t i o n s on Greek movement. According t o the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t who entered Government-controlled t e r r i t o r y t o l i v e and work was e f f e c t i v e l y bowing down t o the Cyprus Government. Rauf Denktas^ argued :- " The freedom o f movement which t h e Archbishop appeared t o have so generously granted the Turks was, i n e f f e c t , an extension o f h i s u n c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n t r o l over them," (T29) The Cyprus Government made a l i s t o f 123 p u b l i c roads, the use o f which were w h o l l y o r p a r t l y denied t o Greeks. P r i o r t o the outbreak o f d i s t u r b a n c e s , f o r t y - s i x o f these roads were normally used by farmers t o g a i n access t o t h e i r f i e l d s . (130) Some o f the major roads concerned were:- ( i ) N i c o s i a - Kyrenia, under U.N.P.I.CYP. convoys ; (2) Famagusta Chatos - N i c o s i a ; (3) Trypimeni - Knodhara - Nicosia/Famagusta; (4) Xeros - L i m n i t i s - Pyrgos - Kokkina - P o l i s ; Stavrokonnou - Kelokedhara: (131) considerable delays o r detours. on the north-west (5) Paphos - T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s t r i c t i o n s meant For i n s t a n c e , t h e journey from Pomos, coast o f Cyprus, t o N i c o s i a , u s u a l l y took o n l y one and a h a l f hours, b u t owing t o the Kokkina enclave a detour o f over t h r e e hours was r e q u i r e d . The main road through Kato Pyrgos was barred i n the w e s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n Kokkina, w h i l e i n the e a s t e r l y d i r e c t i o n i t was closed a t n i g h t by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n L i m n i t i s E v e n t u a l l y , a U.N.P.I.CYP. post was r e e s t a b l i s h e d near Kato Pyrgos w i t h - 135 - 10 in 9 I in ra- .1 O c of w » 0 a a 9 0 111 c L _ ffl U a in 0 0 to Ul to •I UJ UJ ha I - T36 - a view t o f a c i l i t a t i n g c i v i l i a n Greek t r a f f i c through L i m n i t i s d u r i n g hours o f darkness. (132) ( r e f e r t o : Map 5:3 ) I n October 1970, a F i g h t e r prevented a Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l from passing through Ayios E v a s t a t h i o s . Up t o t h a t time t h e s t a t u s quo had been t h a t such p a t r o l s o c c a s i o n a l l y passed but d i d n o t e n t e r the v i l l a g e w h i l e t r a v e l l i n g along a t r a c k between Koni Kebir and Ayios Theodhoros. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t e r p r e t t e d t h i s change as an attempt by t h e Cyprus Government t o s s s e r t i t s a u t h o r i t y i n Ayios E v a s t a t h i o s . i n t e r v e n e d i n the d i s p u t e and arranged a compromise. U.N.F.I.CYP. Cyprus P o l i c e p a t r o l s would be p e r m i t t e d t o pass by the v i l l a g e up t o s i x times p e r year, provided t h a t the p a t r o l was accompanied by a U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t and d i d n o t stop i n the v i l l a g e . ( 1 3 3 ) Civilian Services. For the Cyprus Government t o undertake t o provide most p u b l i c s e r v i c e s to v i l l a g e s two basic c o n d i t i o n s had t o be f u l f i l l e d : a) The v i l l a g e d i d n o t owe money t o the Government. The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e Government meant w i t h h o l d i n g money owed t o i t . b) H a l f the cost o f p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s had t o be p a i d f o r by t h e v i l l a g e itself. Most v i l l a g e a u t h o r i t i e s were r e l u c t a n t t o tax f e l l o w villagers. D i s t r i c t o f f i c e r s f a i l e d t o persuade T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s to do t h i s . ( 1 3 4 ) 1 Despite such obstacles there were s i g n i f i c a n t improvements on t h e preceding p e r i o d i n such matters as l a y i n g new water p i p e l i n e s , r e p a i r i n g dams, and c l e a n i n g springs i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas. U.N.F.I.CYP. continued t o solve a v a r i e t y o f disputes over intercommunal water supply. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s could also apply f o r i n c l u s i o n i n Government water devlopment p r o j e c t s and f o r p u b l i c f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h i s purpose. was There an extension o f e l e c t r i c i t y supply t o s e v e r a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s . U.N.F.I.CYP. also took p a r t i n discussions p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e proposed c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a sewerage system f o r the whole o f N i c o s i a t o be funded - 137 by the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Bank f o r R e c o n s t r u c t i o n and Development. (T35) U n f o r t u n a t e l y , owing t o the l e a d e r s h i p s mutual n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f each o t h e r and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e s i s t a n c e t o any extension o f Government a u t h o r i t y i n t h e i r areas , the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were s t i l l not f u l l y i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the e l e c r i f i c a t i o n , water supply, road, and p u b l i c s e r v i c e systems o f the Cyprus Republic i n J u l y 1974. Agriculture : U.N.P.I.CYP. continued t o c a r r y out a v a r i e t y o f d u t i e s o u t l i n e d e a r l i e r , such as e s c o r t i n g farmers t o and through s e n s i t i v e areas. encouraged c u l t i v a t i o n i n c e r t a i n " m i l i t a r i l y r e s t r i c t e d The Force areas", i n c l u d i n g those o f Mansoura, Ayios Theodhoros, and Selemani ( near Kokkina), and i t even supervised the growing o f w i n t e r crops w i t h i n twenty metres of N a t i o n a l Guard p o s i t i o n s a t Gaziveran ( Lefka D i s t r i c t ) . Greek C y p r i o t farmers o f Lefkoniko ( Famagusta D i s t r i c t ) were allowed t o t i l l t h e i r f i e l d s i n t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d area o f P s i l a t o s . (136) U.N.CIV.POL. continued t o i n v e s t i g a t e l o c a l disputes a r i s i n g from t h e confusing and o f t e n poor Greek C y p r i o t c o n t r o l . r demarcations between areas o f T u r k i s h - and Many o f these d i s p u t e s concerned i l l e g a l encroach- ments onto p r i v a t e l a n d , unauthorized g r a z i n g and c u l t i v a t i o n . During t h i s p e r i o d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas f e l t the b e n e f i t o f s e v e r a l United Nations schemes. For i n s t a n c e , from i r r i g a t i o n development p r o j e c t s sponsored by the Government and United Nations Development Programme, as w e l l as t h e s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o j e c t o f U.N.D.P. and World Food Programme ( W.F.P. ) . At the end o f A p r i l 1971, U.N.F.I.CYP. estimated t h a t o u t o f T,476 p a r t i c i p a n t s i n an i m p o r t a n t mixed f a r m i n g scheme, sponsored by the Government and W.F.P., 245 were T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . (137) I n the s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n p r o j e c t t h e r e were 1,069 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s out o f an estimated 10,000 f o r the p e r i o d October 1970 - J u l y 1971. Other encouraging signs o f increased c o o p e r a t i o n between the communities were the Government's e x t e n s i o n o f i t s drought r e l i e f scheme t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t areas. U.N.F.I.CYP.'s good o f f i c e s were also used t o e s t a b l i s h - T38 - cooperation i n a m a l a r i a c o n t r o l programme i n the v i c i n i t y o f N i c o s i a . I n s p i t e o f a l l these improvements i t should be s t r e s s e d t h a t o n l y a small percentage o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were a c t u a l l y i n v o l v e d i n Government, United Nations, and W.F.P. sponsored a g r i c u l t u r a l schemes. (138) I n d u s t r y and o t h e r economic a c t i v i t y ; The r e v i v a l o f small i n d u s t r i e s w i t h i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas was a s s i s t e d by U.N.F.I.CYP., but there was l i t t l e r e a c t i v a t i o n o f Greek e n t e r p r i s e s i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves; The r e t u r n o f these e n t e r p r i s e s to f u l l p r o d u c t i o n would have provided many jobs t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , but the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n considered them t o be an extension o f Greek c o n t r o l i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y . One T u r k i s h l i m e k i l n was r e a c t i v a t e d a t Ambelikou and two Greek C y p r i o t f a c t o r i e s ( l i m e k i l n s ) were r e a c t i v a t e d i n n o r t h N i c o s i a , one i n t h e main T u r k i s h enclave and the o t h e r i n 'no-man's-land' between the f r o n t - l i n e s o f the N a t i o n a l Guard and T u r k i s h F i g h t e r s . (139) Another anomalous s i t u a t i o n a r i s i n g from t h e i s l a n d ' s p e c u l i a r p o l i t i c a l geography was a t the v i l l a g e o f Z y y i . This v i l l a g e was under the de f a c t o c o n t r o l o f the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , but had no T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Fighter unit. Greek C y p r i o t s had f r e e access t o Z y y i , and both T u r k i s h and Cyprus p o l i c e p a t r o l l e d t h e r e , w h i l s t an U.N.F.I.CYP. camp was e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e v i l l a g e ' s o u t s k i r t s . Zyyi had f o u r carob-processing f a c t o r i e s , three o f which were owned by Greek C y p r i o t s , so foremen and managers commuted t o the v i l l a g e from Government-controlled territory. There was l i t t l e attempt by e i t h e r side t o a l t e r the the s t a t u s quo f o r Zyyi was n o t l o c a t e d i n a s t r a t e g i c a l l y s e n s i t i v e area. The refugee problem. 1968-'74; U.N.F.I.CYP. continued i t s e f f o r t s t o a s s i s t refugees w i t h i n T u r k i s h enclaves by s u p e r v i s i n g t h e d e l i v e r y o f Red Crescent r e l i e f shipments a r r i v i n g a t Famagusta t o T u r k i s h d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t r e s . U.N.F.I.CYP. - 139 - estimated t h a t about 1.6 % o f the t e r r i t o r y o f Cyprus was included w i t h i n areas under the de f a c t o c o n t r o l o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n 1964. As p o i n t e d out i n Chapter Three t h i s f i g u r e does not i n c l u d e a l l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t q u a r t e r s and v i l l a g e s , some o f which were o n l y n o m i n a l l y under the c o n t r o l o f the Cyprus Government. P a t r i c k estimated t h a t o f the 135' T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres t h a t were p a r t i a l l y o r f u l l y occupied i n August 1964, approximately 20 were under government c o n t r o l and accounted f o r 8,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . (T40) Other' T u r k i s h o r mixed centres w i t h i n Government t e r r i t o r y had been completely t h e i r Turkish Cypriot populations. During August 1964 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s completely abandoned by the p e r i o d December 1963 to evacuated t h e i r quarters i n 72 mixed v i l l a g e s and abandoned 24 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s . Volkan, 1979, Professor s t a t e s t h a t "by the end o f T964 the Greeks occupied 97 per cent o f the l a n d " . (T41) This f i g u r e f a i l s to take account o f the three per cent o f l a n d i n c l u d e d w i t h i n the B r i t i s h Sovereign Base Areas, although i t does assume about three per cent o f C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r y under T u r k i s h C y p r i o t c o n t r o l which seems a reasonable assumption g i v e n the f a c t t h a t even some T u r k i s h C y p r i o t centres o u t s i d e recognized refused to demonstrate a l l e g i a n c e to the T e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l was sides. enclaves Republic. important to the p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n s o f both A f l o o d o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back i n t o areas under the a u t h o r i t y o f the Cyprus Government would have weakened the p o s i t i o n o f the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , which e x p l a i n s why "return migration", the l a t t e r d i d not encourage such The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n provided to d i s p l a c e d persons by means of hardship assistance allowances and long-term a t low r a t e s o f i n t e r e s t , and i t also had i t s own loans r e h a b i l i t a t i o n scheme, i r o n i c a l l y helped by the Government's " n o r m a l i z a t i o n measures" which allowed b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s back i n t o T u r k i s h areas. Thus there was only a small t r i c k l e o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s back i n t o Greek C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d territory. By 1971 about 2,000 refugees had r e t u r n e d to twenty-two - HO settlements under government c o n t r o l . (142) These i n c l u d e d those o f P e r i s t e r o n a , Ayios Sozemos, M a l l i a , Yerovasa, Potamia, and o t h e r mixed villages. According t o U.N.P.I.CYP., since June 1968, some f i f t y Turkish C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s r e t u r n e d t o the suburb o f Omorphita. (143) Two Cyprus P o l i c e s t a t i o n s were immediately e s t a b l i s h e d i n the v i c i n i t y " TO PROTECT thousands o f Greeks from 100 Turks ( mostly women and c h i l d r e n ) who had r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r homes on the Greek side- o f the Green L i n e " . (144) The P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n accused t h e Government o f not doing enough to encourage a r e t u r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , w h i l s t the Government countered w i t h the arguement t h a t the P r o v i s i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a c t i v e l y discouraged 1 any r e t u r n t o ' n o r m a l i t y . There was an element o f t r u t h i n both views, which l a r g e l y e x p l a i n s why so few T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s had r e t u r n e d t o o l d homes and v i l l a g e s by 197T. U.N.P.I.CYP. d i d what i t could under the c i r c u n s t a n c e s , but i t s a c t i v i t i e s were y e t again r e s t r i c t e d by the a t t i t u d e s o f t h e two l e a d e r s h i p s . Some Conclusions : In 1968-'74 and the r o l e o f the United Nations. Section One, Chapter Pour i t was argued t h a t perhaps U.N.P.I.CYP. could have done more t o promote contacts and cooperation between the two communities i n the m i l i t a r i l y "dead p e r i o d " from T968 t o J u l y 1974. I t was also suggested t h a t coordinated a c t i o n i n v o l v i n g a v a r i e t y o f U.N. agencies could have helped bridge the gap between the communities. Regarding the f i r s t p o i n t , U.N.P.I.CYP. d i d achieve some successes i n socio-economic l i f e , but owing t o the p o l i t i c a l stalemate i t was o f t e n d i f f i c u l t f o r the Force, w i t h i t s l i m i t e d mandate, t o do a n y t h i n g more than m a i n t a i n an uneasy s t a t u s quo between the two s i d e s . Between 1968 and 1974 there were s e v e r a l United Nations programmes i n Cyprus, d i s t i n c t from the peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n . was The major c o n s t r a i n t t h a t these schemes were not able t o d i r e c t l y i n v o l v e the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community', f o r the Cyprus Government was the i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y recognized a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f o r the whole i s l a n d . Nevertheless, Turkish - 141 - C y p r i o t s d i d p a r t i c i p a t e i n a number o f U.N. sponsored schemes. Such as the Higher Technical I n s t i t u t e , a s s i s t e d by U.N.D.P. and the United Nations E d u c a t i o n a l , S c i e n t i f i c and C u l t u r a l O r g a n i s a t i o n ( U.N.E.S.C.O. ) ; mixed farming p r o j e c t s , s o i l c o n s e r v a t i o n schemes, and the h o s p i t a l and school f e e d i n g p r o j e c t , a l l sponsored by U.N.D.P. and World Pood Programme. These p r o j e c t s were a l l under the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , and so u n f o r t u n a t e l y , they o n l y a t t r a c t e d a small proportion o f Turkish Cypriots. Michael H a r b o t t l e advocated a b r o a d l y based " m u l t i - l e v e l t h i r d p a r t y process" t o t a c k l e the Cyprus Problem on a l l f r o n t s , l i n k i n g the d i p l o m a t i c endeavours o f the Secretary-General t o the ground l e v e l a c t i v i t i e s o f the peacekeeping f o r c e . He argues — " . . . i n 1968 U.N.F.I.CYP. had f u l f i l l e d the r o l e f o r which i t had been created...a new approach was needed, one aimed a t e s t a b l i s h i n g a new confidence and t r u s t between the two communities and a t a s s i s t i n g i n the development o f a new s o c i a l and economic r e l a t i o n s h i p which would encourage improved intercommunal c o o p e r a t i o n and p e a c e f u l coexistence ...Had a c i v i l i a n peacebuilding 'operation* been mounted i n T968 the events o f 1974 might never have taken p l a c e . " (145) The S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l d i d not adapt t o the a l t e r e d circumstances i n Cyprus, so i t kept a "redundant" m i l i t a r y peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n g o i n g . Once the m i l i t a r y s i t u a t i o n i n the i s l a n d was r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e , most o f the U.N. Force's resources were d i r e c t e d towards a l l e v i a t i n g the problems created by a l a r g e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t refugee p o p u l a t i o n , by unequal c o n t r o l o f the i s l a n d s resources, by a breakdown i n intercommunal c o n t a c t s , and a whole range o f associated i s s u e s . These were p r i m a r i l y n o n - m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t i e s aimed a t breaking down p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l "green l i n e s " , which suggests t h a t what was a c t u a l l y needed was an expansion o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c i v i l i a n component and Operations Economics s t a f f . The scope o f U.N.F.I.CYP. was l i m i t e d . I t could not implement such i n i t i a t i v e s as the Cyprus Resettlement P r o j e c t , e s t a b l i s h e d by a small group o f - T42 - Quakers and members o f the Shanti Sena ( the Gandhi Peace Movement ) f a c i l i t a t i n g the r e t u r n o f refugees to a few s p e c i a l l y s e l e c t e d v i l l a g e s . (146) This would have r e q u i r e d m o d i f i c a t i o n t o U.N.F.I.CYP.'s mandate, for- the Force already had the o r g a n i s a t i o n a l a b i l i t y and personnel to attempt more ambitious " c i v i c a c t i o n p r o j e c t s " . was U n f o r t u n a t e l y , Makarios against any e x t e n s i o n i n the s i z e and scope o f U.N.F.I.CYP. I n many respects the o r d i n a r y people o f Cyprus have been p o l a r i z e d by the i n t e r r e l a t e d i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s too powerful f o r a small peacekeeping f o r c e t o put r i g h t . The bicommunal c h a r a c t e r o f the i s l a n d has become an excuse f o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n , but i n f a c t the r e a l i t y i s not so simple. As one commentator describes, "...animosity between Greeks and Turks" i s a myth "perpetuated by those who seek to convince their f e l l o w s and w o r l d o p i n i o n t h a t the two communities cannot l i v e t o g e t h e r . . . " (147) I n 1974, U.N.F.I.CYP. was powerless t o prevent the p h y s i c a l p a r t i t i o n o f Cyprus between U.N. the two main e t h n i c groups. From 1964 t o 1974 the Force had preserved an "unstable peace" o r "negative s t a b i l i t y " i n Cyprus. (148) Had the S e c u r i t y Council extended i t s o r i g i n a l mandate U.N.F.I.CYP. could probably have done more to enhance a t r e n d towards r e i n t e g r a t i o n amongst o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s , p l a y i n g an a c t i v e r o l e r a t h e r than a passive r o l e i n intercommunal r e l a t i o n s . were t r a g i c f o r the m a j o r i t y o f C y p r i o t s who, The events o f Summer *74 regardless of ethnic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , wanted o r p r e f e r r e d a r e t u r n to p e a c e f u l coexistence. - T43 - I I I I I I Footnotes and r e f e r e n c e s . (1) U.N. Doc. S/5671, 29 A p r i l 1964, para.2. (2) Coufoudakis.V. Sept.1976, 'United Nations peacekeeping and peacemaking and the Cyprus Question', i n Western P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y (U.S.A.), v o l . 2 9 , no.3, pp.457-73. (3) U.N.Doc. S/6102, 12 December 1964, (4) Dean Acheson, a former U.S. para.239. Secretary o f S t a t e , attempted t o r e s o l v e the problem by a p o l i t i c a l deal between Greece and Turkey. Cyprus would have the choice o f independence o r union w i t h Greece, i n exchange f o r a sovereign T u r k i s h base i n the Karpass p e n i n s u l a and the cession t o Turkey o f the Greek i s l a n d o f K a s t e l l o r i z o n . Furthermore, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would have two o r t h r e e areas o f "local self-administration". I (5) United Nations Mediator's r e p o r t t o the Secretary-General, 26 March 1 1965 . ( S/6253 ) This r e p o r t r u l e d out both Enosis and Taksim, and argued f o r a u n i t e d independent and d e m i l i t a r i z e d Cyprus w i t h generous p r o v i s i o n f o r m i n o r i t y rights,, Galo Plaza also argued a g a i n s t the v a l i d i t y o f t r e a t i e s imposed on the C y p r i o t people, p a r t i c u l a r l y the Treaty o f Guarantee, g i v i n g e x t e r n a l powers t o r e s t o r e the 1960 C o n s t i t u t i o n . 1 I (6) I n a p u b l i c address on 26 May 1965 a t Rizokarpasso Archbishop Makarios s t a t e d — " E i t h e r the whole o f Cyprus i s t o be u n i t e d w i t h Greece o r ( i t will ) become a holocaust...The road t o the f u l f i l m e n t o f n a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s may be f u l l o f d i f f i c u l t i e s , but we s h a l l reach the goal — (7) 1 which i s Enosis — a l i v e o r dead." By l a t e 1965 the Soviet Union i n d i c a t e d i t would not support a government dedicated to Enosis, which would expand N.A.T.O.'s i n f l u e n c e i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean. By June 1966, seven o f the s t a t e s which had i n i t i a l l y voted f o r R e s o l u t i o n 2077 ( XX ) s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e i r votes should i n no way be construed as an I 1 I endorsement o f Enosis. ( r e f e r to Oberling.P. 1982, The Road to B e l l a p a i s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p.125.) (8) Coufoudakis,V. T976, Western P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y , op. c i t . . p.466. (9) Oberling.P. op . c i t . . (10) According t o the New York Times. November 19, T967, as many as 20,000 Greek troops had i l l e g a l l y entered Cyprus. the Greek o f f i c e r e d N a t i o n a l Guard numbered In addition 10,000 a c t i v e s o l d i e r s and 20,000 r e s e r v i s t s . (11) U.N. Doc. S/7969, T3 June 1967, (12) Stagenga,J.A. 1968, para.29. The United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio - 144 - State U n i v e r s i t y Press ),pp.150-T51. (13) Harbottle,M. 1'980, 'The s t r a t e g y o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n ' , i n the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal. ( Canada ) , v o l . 3 5 , no.1 ( w i n t e r 1980 ) , pp.T23-4. (14) U.N. Doc. S/T350, 10 June 1966, paras.31-38. (15) U.N. Doc. S/7001, 10 December 1965, paras.55-56. Patrick,R.A. 1976, P o l i t i c a l Geography and the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . 1963 - 197T. ( Waterloo U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , pp.132-3. (T6) U.N. Doc. S/6228, 11 March 1965, Add.T. (17) U.N. Doc. S/6426, TO June 1965, para.78. (18) U.N. Doc. S/6228, para.67. (T9) U.N. Doc. S/7001, 10 December 1965, paras 79-85. (20) U.N. Doc. S/7191, TO March 1966, paras,61-64. (2T) For an i n depth study o f causes o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t 0 and v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s i n the p e r i o d 1963-'67, r e f e r ' t o P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . , ch.4. (22) U.N. Doc. S/6426, para.83. (23) P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.129. (24) H a r b o t t l e , M . T970, The i m p a r t i a l s o l d i e r . ( Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p.8t. (25) H a r b o t t l e , op. c i t . . pp.85-89. (26) U.N. Doc. S/8286, 8 December 1967,para.64. Also H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . . p.119. (27) H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . . p.120. Also P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . pp.T23 - 124. (28) H a r b o t t l e , 1980, I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l . d p . c i t . . p.120. (29) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.66. (30) Refer t o : H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . who devotes a whole chapter to the Kophinou i n c i d e n t and i t s a f t e r m a t h . P a t r i c k , 1976, o p . c i t . . pp.133-136. Special Report by the Secretary-General t o the S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , U.N. Doc. S/8248, T6 November 1967, p l u s Adds. 1-9.. (3T) P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.133. (32) i b i d . , p.134. (33) H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . p.T57. (34) ibid.. (35) Moskos.CC. 1976, Peace S o l d i e r s : the s o c i o l o g y o f a United Nations military (36) force. ( Chicago U n i v e r s i t y Press ),p.42. Refer t o : U.N. Documents:- S/8286, 8 December 1967, paras.49 - 53; U.N. Doc. S/7191, 10 March T966, paras.53 - 54 ; 8 December 1965, paras.48 - 56. (37) H a r b o t t l e , o p . c i t . , p.168. U.N. Doc. S/700T, - T45 - (38) U.N. Doc. S/8286, Appendix 1, para.9T. (39) Stagenga,J.A„ (40) U.N. Doc. S/5950, TO September 1964, para.193. (4T) U.N. Documents :- S/7001, paras.100 - 105; S/6426, paras.102 - 107; 1968, o p . c i t . . p.T38. S/8286, paras.90 - 100. (42) Drury.M.P. 1981, 'The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus', i n Change and Development i n t h e Middle East ( Clarke & BowenJones, e d i t o r s ) , ( Methuen ) , p.300. (43) S t a t i s t i c s from: U.N. Doc. S/700T,para.1T9, and The Times. Special Report on Cyprus, Wednesday, 19 June 1968. (44) Panagides,S.S. 1968, 'Communal C o n f l i c t and Economic C o n s i d e r a t i o n s : The Case o f Cyprus•, i n t h e J o u r n a l o f Peace Research, v o l . 5, p.T35. ( 1968 ) (45) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.113. (46) U.N. Doc. S/6102, 12 December 1964, Annex I I . Restrictions — Note on Economic s e c t i o n o f an A i d Memoire dated 27 October 1964, submitted by U.N.P.I.CYP. t o P r e s i d e n t Makarios. (47) P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.108. (48) Volkan,V. 1980, Cyprus - War and Adaption. ( The U n i v e r s i t y o f V i r g i n i a Press ) , p.82. (49) Refer t o : U.N. Documents :- S/6228, para.135-137 ; S/6426, paras. 118 - 120; S/7001, paras.121 - 125. (50) Panagides, J o u r n a l o f Peace Research, o p . c i t . . pp.140 - 142. (51) i b i d . . p.137. (52) U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras.105 - 106. (53) Drury,M.P. January 1977, 'Western Cyprus — Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n upheaval, 1956 - '76', a paper presented at the I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers Annual Conference, on 7 January, 1977. (54) Prom MACBETH, Actffi, Scene 32. (55) U.N. Doc. S/6426, 10 June 1965, and U.N. Doc. S/7001, para.106. (56) U.N. Doc. S/7191, 10 March T966, para.88. (57) U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras. 43 - 57. (58) U.N. Doc. S/8286, 8 December 1967, paras. 23 - 54. (59) U.N. Doc. S/6426, para. 1T5. (60) From 'The A t t i l a Peacemakers', p u b l i s h e d by t h e Republic o f Cyprus, P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , N i c o s i a , 1974. (61) A t t a l i d e s . M . 1979, Cyprus. ( Q Press L t d . o f Edinburgh ) , p.91. (62) U.N. Doc. S/7350, 10 June 1966, para. 39-41. (63) U.N. Doc. S/6102, para.39. - 146 - (64) U.N. Doc„ S/6t02, para.39. (65) Refer t o U.N. Documents S/7969,para.100 ; S/7350, paras. 49-54. (66) Drury.M.P. (67) U.N. Doc. S/5764, 15 June 1964, para.33. (68) I b i d . , para.74. (69) U.N. Doc. S/7001, para.155. (70) U.N. Doc. S/8286, paras. 123-124. (7T) U.N. Doc. S/700T, para.173. (72) Refer t o : U.N. Documents S/7969, paras.134-137, and S/8286,para.125. (73) U.N. Doc. S/7611, 8 Dec. 1966, paras.145-T48. (74) U.N. Doc. S/6426, para.168. (75) Stagenga,J.A. 1968, o p . c i t . . p.142. Also r e f e r t o : U.N. Documents:- January 1977, o p . c i t . . S/6228, para. 203 ; S/700T, para.186 ; S/8286, paras.140-142 ; S/6426, para. 171. (76) Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre, August 1970, 'Seven Years Without A Home'. ( N i c o s i a ) , p.1"9. (77) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.1T8. (78) U.N. Doc. S/7611, para.132. (79) U.N. Doc. S/5950, 10 September 1964, para„l63, Also U.N. Doc. S/6102, para.82. (80) P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.287. (8T) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.118. (82) Refer t o : U.N. Documents S/5950, paras. 160 - 162; S/6102, para.82; S/5950, 10 Sept. 1964, para.164. (83) U.N. Doc. S/6228, para.146, and U.N. Doc. S/7969, T 3 -June 1967, para. "1287 ~ ~~ " (84) U.N. Doc. S/6426, 10 June 1965, para.129. (85) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para. 121. (86) i b i d . . para.1T5. (87) U.N. Doc. S/6426, paras.76-79. (88) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.116 ; and U.N. Doc. S/7350, paras. 115 - 117. (89) Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre, August 1970, op. c i t . . p.23. (90) Refer t o : U.N. Documents :- S/6102, paras.31-55 ; S/6426, paras. 144151 ; and S/7001, paras.152 - 153. (91) U.N. Doc. S/8286, para.128. (92) ibid.. (93) U.N. Doc. S/7191, para.114. (94) P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . pp. 306 - 308. (95) These agreements were :i) Withdrawal o f a l l Greek troops from Cyprus i n excess o f those p e r m i t t e d by the Treaty o f A l l i a n c e ; i i ) An end t o Turkey's p r e p a r a t i o n s f o r war ; - 147 - i i i ) The d i s s o l u t i o n o f the N a t i o n a l Guard ; i v ) Compensation f o r the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o f Ayios Theodhoros and Kophinou ; V) (96) Expansion i n the s i z e and powers o f U.N.F.I.CYP. H a r b o t t l e , 1970, o p . c i t . . pp.l65>- 166; Also see Denktas,R.R. 198?-, The Cyprus T r i a n g l e . ( George A l l e n & Unwin ) , p.51. (97) Cyprus M a i l . 13/01/68, p . 1 . (98) Stagenga, J.A. (99) i b i d . . an argument also advanced by H i t c h e n s , 1984, op . c i t . . p.65-. (100) O b e r l i n g , 1982, o p . c i t . . p.145. (101) A t t a l i d e s . M . 1979, o p . c i t . . p.191. (T02) Chriatopher Hitchens, 1984, op . c i t . . argues t h a t American - Greek 1968, o p . c i t . . p.1'54. r e l a t i o n s under Nixon became "warm, r o t t e n and c o r r u p t " , pp.74-75. A t t a l i d e s , 1979, o p . c i t . , p . 1 2 9 . argues t h a t the Greek c o l o n e l s , t r a i n e d i n Cold War p o l i t i c s by U.S. agencies, viewed " C y p r i o t independence...as a mere p r e l i m i n a r y t o a Soviet Cyprus". (103) P o l i e and Scobie, 1975, show t h a t the Junta placed mercenaries i n Cyprus to ensure " t h a t the i n f l u e n c e o f Athens was f e l t i n the proper p l a c e s . " ( The S t r u g g l e f o r Cyprus, p.169 ) (104) Coufoudakis.V. 1976, Essays on the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . ( P e l l a Pubs. New York ) , p.44. (105) P o l i e & Scobie, 1975, o p . c i t . . p.171. (106) Hitchens, o p . c i t . . pp.77-78. (T08) H a r b o t t l e , M . 'Why Cyprus i s doomed t o become a p o l i t i c a l v o l c a n o ' , i n The Times. Also U.N. Doc. S/8446, para.43. 17/10/74. (109) A t t a l i d e s , M . 1979, o p . c i t . . p.92. (1T0) Drury.M.P. 198T, o p . c i t . . p.30T. (111) K i t r o m i l i d e s . M & Couloumbis.T.A., 1976, 'Ethnic C o n f l i c t i n a S t r a t e g i c Area : The Case o f Cyprus.' i n E t h n i c i t y i n an I n t e r n a t i o n a l Context. ( Said & Simmons, e d i t o r s )p.177. (112) Duncan-Jones,A. 1972, 'The c i v i l war i n Cyprus', i n The I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e g u l a t i o n o f C i v i l Wars. ( Luard.E., e d i t o r ) , ( New York U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p . l 6 t . (113) U.N. Doc. S/10005, 2 December 1970, para.1T5. (114) U.ET, Doc. S/9814, 1 June 1970, para.85'. (T15) U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, para.26. (116) U.N. Doc. S/8446, 9 March 1968, para.1T5. (117) U.N. Doc. S/9521, para.53. (116) U.N. Doc. S/8446, para.57. (119) U.N. Doc. S/10664, 26 May 1972, para.53. - 148 - (120) U.N. Doc. S/10005, 2 December 1970, paras. 5 6 - 5 7 . (121) U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, Appendix. (122) Volkan, o p . c i t . . p.90. (123) U.N. Doc. S/10005, p a r a s . 7 2 - 7 5 . (124) Notel.R. November 1973, 'Economic I n t e g r a t i o n on Cyprus', paper presented t o an I n q u i r y i n t o the R e s o l u t i o n o f the Cyprus Problem, a seminar a t the Centre f o r Mediterranean S t u d i e s , Universities American F i e l d S t a f f , Rome, 1 9 - 2 4 November 1 9 7 3 . U.N. Doc. S/10005, para.75o :i26: P a t r i c k . o p . c i t . . pp.161 - 162. Source o f s t a t i s t i c s : Republic o f Cyprus, P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , ' F a c i l i t i e s granted t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s ' , ( N i c o s i a ) mimeograph, T9 February 1971, p.2. :i28] 129] Volkan, o p . c i t . . p.102. Denktas, 1982, o p . c i t . . p p . 5 3 - 5 4 . :i3o: U.N. Doc. S/9814, 1 June 1970, p a r a . 5 9 . 131: U.N. Doc. S/9233, 1 June 1969, para.55. 132] U.N. Doc. S/10005, paras.53 - 54. 133! i b i d . . paras.59 - 6 2 . :T34! A t t a l i d e s . M . o p . c i t . . pp.96 - 97. ;i35: U.N. Doc. S/9814, p a r a . 5 2 . :i37: U.N. Doc. S/952T, para.45 ; U.N. Doc. S/9814, para.47 ; and U.No D o c S/10199, 20 May 1971, p a r a . 4 3 . :i36: U.N. Doc. S/9521, 3 December 1969, para.44. U.N. Doc. S/10401, para.48. :t39: U.N. Doc. S/952T, "para.42. ;ho; P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . , p.80. :i4i Volkan, o p . c i t . , p.20. :r42; P a t r i c k , o p . c i t . . p.80. :i43] U.N. Doc. S/9233, para.49. ;i44: The Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , o p . c i t . . p.27. :i4s: H a r b o t t l e , w i n t e r 1980, I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l , o p . c i t . . pp.128 - 129. ;i 46: ibid., :i47i U.No Doc. S/10005, para.115. - 149 - CHAPTER SIX. Daubed on the w a l l s on the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t side o f the Green Line are mainland T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y propaganda designs and slogans l i k e the one shown i n P i g . 6:1. I t was through T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n t h a t a de f a c t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e was c r e a t e d . F i g . 6:1 1 LET MY BLOOD LET IT COLOUR LET MY SCARLET FLOW, MY SHROUD, SHROUD BECOME MY FLAG. - 150 - CHAPTER SIX THE THIN BLUE LINE AND THE "ATTILA LINE" " I t i s i n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h C y p r i o t s themselves, however, t h a t the even more serious wounds i n f l i c t e d on Cyprus become apparent. The most casual i n q u i r y — s u c h as, do you come from ?* o r ' Do you have a f a m i l y enough to induce a t o r r e n t o f grievance " You ' Where can or of g r i e f . " t r y to f o r g e t , but the dreams o f a refugee are be (1) merciless. They take you to places t h a t you knew and g i v e the d e l u s i o n t h a t e v e r y t h i n g t h e r e continues to be as i t was Then comes the p a i n f u l awakening." before. (2) n " Our r e l a t i o . s h i p w i t h the Greeks was glass. I t was s h a t t e r e d i n T974 and i t cannot be glued back t o g e t h e r again." Section One : always l i k e a cracked (3) The Demographic and Economic Consequences o f P a r t i t i o n . J u l y - August T974 w i l l long l i v e i n the memories o f many C y p r i o t s . How can they f o r g e t ? There i s a permanent reminder o f the l o s s e s , the bloodshed and a t r o c i t i e s , o f years o f intercommunal s t r i f e , a permanent scar etched across the landscape o f the i s l a n d , s e p a r a t i n g Greek from Turkish Cypriot. The events o f the Summer o f '74 can not be e a s i l y f o r g o t t e n o r d i s - missed. Approximately one became refugees, uprooted hope of a r e t u r n . t h i r d of the C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n o f 650,000 from t h e i r land and p r o p e r t y w i t h no immediate V i l l a g e s were bombarded, destroyed, looted, families s l a u g h t e r e d , f o r e s t s were b u r n t , the whole l i f e o f the i s l a n d was rupted. To catalogue dis- such losses i s not the p o i n t o f t h i s s e c t i o n , but before d i s c u s s i n g some important demographic and economic consequences o f the p a r t i t i o n i t i s necessary to b r i e f l y describe how be d i v i d e d i n t o two de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e s . Cyprus came to - 151 - The T u r k i s h 'Peacekeeping Operation o r ' I n v a s i o n ' . R e l a t i o n s between Makarios and the Athens Junta went from bad t o worse i n the f i r s t h a l f o f 1974. I n J u l y the Archbishop publicly condemned the Junta's support and d i r e c t i o n o f E.O.K.A.-B. He asked for a w i t h d r a w a l o f the 650 Greek o f f i c e r s s t a f f i n g the N a t i o n a l Guard. I n r e p l y , Athens ordered the go-ahead o f a coup d ' e t a t against Makarios on T5 J u l y 1 3 7 4 . The Greek o f f i c e r l e d N a t i o n a l Guard overthrew the Government, announced Makarios dead, and i n s t a l l e d Nicos Sampson, a former E.O.K.A. a n t i - T u r k t e r r o r i s t as t h e l e a d e r o f the 'new regime o f national salvation'. I n an emotional d i a r y o f events i n K y r e n i a , R i t a C a t s e l l i wrote afew days a f t e r the coup — " The m i n o r i t y which c a r r i e d out the coup has been seized w i t h n a t i o n a l masochism...Only the o t h e r day I read an h i s t o r i c a l a r t i c l e about the "Attempts t o de-Hellenize Cyprus through the centuries". I t h i n k the most s e r i o u s one took place j u s t three days ago." ( 4 ) 1 On 18 J u l y , Ankara sent Athens an u l t i m a t u m c a l l i n g f o r the r e s i g n a t i o n of Sampson, a w i t h d r a w a l o f Greek o f f i c e r s i n Cyprus, and f i r m of Cyprus' independence. pledges The Junta f o o l i s h l y b e l i e v e d America would, as before i n 1 9 6 4 and 1 9 6 T , prevent the Turks from i n v a d i n g and sent an e q u i v o c a l answer. But both Washington and London lacked the p o l i t i c a l w i l l t o r e s t o r e Makarios, l e a v i n g the way c l e a r f o r a T u r k i s h i n t e r v e n t i o n . (5) T u r k i s h troops landed i n Cyprus on 20 J u l y and t h e i r f i r s t "push" l a s t e d u n t i l 22 J u l y , s e c u r i n g a bridgehead around Kyrenia and t h e Guenyeli - Aghirda Enclave. ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 1 ) The Turks opened a s t r a t e g i c passage west o f Kyrenia running t o Temblos - S t . H i l a r i o n Nicosia. On 23 J u l y 1 9 7 4 , R i t a C a t s e l l i wrote:" Now I and my f a m i l y are refugees, v i c t i m s , and we have come t o Limassol w i t h almost n o t h i n g . I n Kyrenia t h e T u r k i s h f l a g f l i e s and most o f the Greek C y p r i o t s who have not l e f t the town are penned up i n the b i g ( Dome) Hotel. " (6) - 152 - CD CO to • a 0) 0 0 ID 0 01 a in is o> 0) E [\1 01 • CI 00 CD m Qj IrD *< < ' a N 3 a a a ffl 0 0 0 Z / N \ E \ cu a a E a - 153 - Outside the main Guenyeli - Aghirda s t r o n g h o l d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were v u l n e r a b l e t o Greek C y p r i o t r e p r i s a l s and occupation. U.NoP.I.CYP. had t o redeploy men r a p i d l y i n o r d e r t o form p r o t e c t i v e b u f f e r s around enclaves and q u a r t e r s t o p r o t e c t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s wherever p o s s i b l e from " . . . h i g h l y e x c i t a b l e young men o f the N a t i o n a l Guard and 'E.O.K.A.-B' who regarded the enclaves as T r o j a n horses."(7) U.N.P.I.CYP. concentrated on a r r a n g i n g l o c a l c e a s e - f i r e s i n areas o u t s i d e the narrow c o r r i d o r occupied by T u r k i s h t r o o p s . Prom 2T J u l y onwards the "blue b e r r e t s " were h e l p i n g t o evacuate f o r e i g n n a t i o n a l s t o t h e Dhekelia S.B.A., w h i l s t p a t r o l s and manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts were increased i n s e n s i t i v e areas. ( 8 ) At the Secretary General's request the t o t a l s t r e n g t h o f the Force was increased by 2,078 t o a t o t a l o f 4,444 between 24 J u l y and t 4 August. (9) I n a major redeployment U.N.P.I.CYP. c r e a t e d two new o p e r a t i o n a l d i s t r i c t s on e i t h e r side o f the T u r k i s h bridgehead i n a f u t i l e attempt t o c o n t a i n t h e T u r k i s h advance. Meanwhile i n Athens B r i g a d i e r Ioannides wanted t o a t t a c k Turkey on a l l f r o n t s , but he was dissuaded by h i s f e l l o w o f f i c e r s i n t h e Junta. "The c o l o n e l s " handed over power t o Constantine the T968 C o n s t i t u t i o n n u l l and v o i d . Karamanlis, who proclaimed A wave o f r e l i e f swept over Greece w i t h the end o f the d i c t a t o r s h i p , but "...the nightmare was not over, o n l y s h i f t e d t o Cyprus." ( 1 0 ) T u r k i s h r e i n f o r c e m e n t s continued t o a r r i v e i n Cyprus, more Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s were occupied w i t h t h e i r i n h a b i t a n t s e i t h e r taken hostage o r forced out. The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s were now i n a p o s i t i o n t o r e i t e r a t e demands f o r "a geographical f e d e r a t i o n o f two autonomous zones". ( 1 1 ) Greek C y p r i o t s were suddenly conscious o f t h e i r "small and defenceless m i n o r i t y " s t a t u s i n t h e eastern Mediterranean, w h i l e Turkey was l e a n i n g p r o t e c t i v e l y over t h e i r C y p r i o t b r e t h r e n . At the second Geneva Conference i n August, the T u r k i s h Foreign M i n i s t e r , Professor Turan Gunes, p u t f o r w a r d a p l a n proposing t h a t the T u r k i s h f e d e r a l zone be d i v i d e d - 154 - 3 (A C7i at C3 <0 I I 155 I I I 1 I I I I 1 1 in O) CO u LLI UJ 1 1 1 1 CO-" LU CO CD 1 I li. UJ - T56 - between s i x cantons i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the i s l a n d , adding up t o 34 % o f the l a n d area. ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 2 ) The a l t e r n a t i v e p r o p o s a l was f o r two autonomous zones, o f which the Turks would g a i n 34 % o f n o r t h e r n Cyprus. A c t i n g P r e s i d e n t Glafkos C l e r i d e s asked f o r 36 t o 48 hours to c o n s u l t w i t h Athens and Makarios i n London, but t h e Turks were not prepared to w a i t . the"second push" began. Immediately a f t e r the Conference broke down Between T4 and 16 August the T u r k i s h troops secured 36 t o 37 % o f the i s l a n d , b r u t a l l y t r a n s f o r m i n g the s i t u a t i o n — " from an argument over how the i n t e r m i n g l i n g o f two d i f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i o n s was t o be r e g u l a t e d — r i g h t s , by power-sharing, o r by d e v o l u t i o n — by m i n o r i t y into a d i f f e r e n t k i n d o f argument, one about what s o r t o f f e d e r a l l i n k could be b u i l t between t e r r i t o r i a l l y separate communities." (12) C h r i s t o p h e r Hitchens argues t h a t between the " f i r s t " major advance and the "second" i n August, "the Greek i r r e d e n t i s t f o r c e s had f a l l e n from power i n both Athens and N i c o s i a " , Karamanlis r e p l a c e d Ioannides, C l e r i d e s r e p l a c e d Sampson, and so "the p r e t e x t f o r the o r i g i n a l i n v a s i o n had ceased t o e x i s t " . ( T 3 ) Demographic Consequences and U,N.F.I.CYP.'s P o s i t i o n a f t e r t h e 16 August Cease-Fire. When an i s l a n d - w i d e c e a s e - f i r e was d e c l a r e d a t 1600 hours on 16 August 1974 the p o l i t i c a l and human geography o f Cyprus had been a r b i t r a r i l y and v i o l e n t l y rearranged. An a r t i f i c i a l l i n e c u t through t h e i s l a n d l i k e a cheese-wire, e x t e n d i n g t o a leng.th o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 180 k i l o m e t r e s from t h e Kokkina enclave and Kato Pyrgos i n t h e north-west t o the east coast south o f Famagusta i n the area o f D h e r i n i a . The s i n g l e long c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e , w i t h the anomalous e x c e p t i o n o f Kokkina, e f f e c t i v e l y forms a p o l i t i c a l - c u m - e t h n i c boundary between the two C y p r i o t communities. Turkey and Greece had d i r e c t l y i n f l u e n c e d events l e a d i n g t o the b i f u r c a t i o n o f Cyprus. (14) According t o Beeley,1978, the s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n o f Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n 1974 was merely an e x t e n s i o n - 157 - o f the p o l i t i c a l i n t e r f a c e between t h e i r "motherlands", extending from Western Thrace through the Aegean near t h e T u r k i s h coast t o Cyprus. He argues t h a t the o n l y reason t h a t Cyprus d i d n o t experience the s o r t o f p o p u l a t i o n exchange between Greece and Turkey i n 1923 was "because the i s l a n d was then under B r i t i s h r u l e . " ( 1 5 ) I f reference i s made t o Chapter Two i t was argued t h a t t h e r e was no geographical basis f o r p a r t i t i o n o r even the f o r m a t i o n o f " a r t i f i c i a l cantons". ( T 6 ) P r i o r t o the d i v i s i o n o f Cyprus T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s owned j u s t 12.3 % o f the t o t a l land area, 16.8 % o f p r i v a t e l a n d , and they formed only 18 % o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n . (T7) F o l l o w i n g the T u r k i s h advance and p a r t i t i o n there was a massive exchange o f p o p u l a t i o n s . Between J u l y '74 and December '75 about T82,000 Greek C y p r i o t s moved southwards and 45,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s moved northwards. (18) The " t r a n s f e r " o f p o p u l a t i o n s was piecemeal and l a r g e l y e s p e c i a l l y f o r the Greek C y p r i o t s . uncoordinated, Humanitarian r e l i e f operations f were h i g h on U.N.F.I.CYP. s p r i o r i t i e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h the United Nations High Commissioner f o r Refugees ( U.N.H.C.R.) and the I n t e r n a t i o n a l Committee o f the Red Cross ( I.C.R.C. ) , a l l p r o v i d i n g r e l i e f f o r the "displaced persons" o f Cyprus. When the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e was drawn on T8 August, and a f t e r a general exchange o f p r i s o n e r s had been agreed on the 20 September, there were s t i l l many thousands o f Greeks and Turks on e i t h e r side o f the d i v i s i o n . The number o f Greek refugees d e c l i n e d from about 203,000 on t September to 179,000 on 21 November, as some 24,000 r e t u r n e d t o t h e i r homes i n N i c o s i a o r close t o the southern side o f t h e s o - c a l l e d " A t t i l a L i n e " . There remained about 15,000 Greek C y p r i o t s i n the n o r t h , many o f whom were concentrated i n the Karpass p e n i n s u l a , the 'pan handle' o f Cyprus by-passed i n the T u r k i s h Army's dash t o s p l i t the country across the middle. Numerous Greek C y p r i o t refugees from Famagusta found i n Dhekelia Base, which remained safe from T u r k i s h a t t a c k . sactuary W i t h i n the - 158 - I I 0 I 1 I I I c £ > O o z 5 E LU Q_ O OC c o > in nj 3 D. O Q. C 4J 3 cr I to X> a iyi -a ca I i I c o ere ai cx rr r- CD O ON ») cm a. ; U w o o I - 159 - 40 C TD I/) CU CD +-> Cn 0 ( 0 CU i — • 4 - r— o 4_ -r(O > S- a> j= +-> oo CNJ 1 i CM r— 1 i 1 i 1 i CM un CNJ CM LO o LO I — • ^Ji— o CO o o O o o o to r — o o 00 00 CM i—• o CO cu •*-> CO C — 3 S- to -a cu cu cn +J Q. u -a re >> cu cu i — O 4— X r— •r— 4> +-> 4- eC E C O <0 UJ CM i— O r — 3 f—1 u Q_-r- O r — Q- X I ZJ +-> Q . 1 2: o to CU J = CU to c n re U •iCU JxZ i— T3 +-> o cu cc s_ 4- !_ i — a. cu 4- Z3 •/- t—i i— • i - <c < >>J: <_> + J | a. to < I— i— i— co i— ro to > -C 4tO i— •z. O C •r- +-> UJ GO o o +-> UJ i— ac o_ a. o ro i — o a. o ro ro o UJ nz i— o o o CTl r — Q. z: o T3 (/) 4O Q CO CU CU +-> c n o re CU r— • 4- r— O <4- - f - «c •=3to o •3- ro in CM to 1 1 1 1 to ,— ro > CO o (D CO i— <: +-> s. _i ZD Q_ C O Q_ D_ "O >> cu cn u -a re cu CU r— 4- •x>—<— • /— 4- •<- C_) C o U_ O 4o •r- +-> +-> UJ CD - re <— «3 S^r to cu +-> CM C\J CM r— • i— to CM • < Q. =3 O . =t •c o a. o -o o_ •cu r- _J +-> Q . O 13 rO s- u a. o X UJ «=c C_> i—* \— UJ m t— o a. >- rc >> O -C i -V to cu •*-> QJ r — cn o re cu cu i— 4— cu >— 4- i . - r < O > o ro ro CO CM 1 1 r-^ o t-~ • cu • o u re z s_ •L0J— to — 4J S- 0) cu si- 3 r> O " CO to o •f— +J re i— a. o O O O ro en o o o o CO o o o o O O O 1 CD 1 o o o ft CTl Q_ O O tO ( J o cu cu a: cu i— •r— 5- to • CD CD S- - i — Q. >1 » re •'— O cc s: •r— o 44- O • • 4- 4-> CJ ,— UJ S+J to •.— _l a • CO CQ <C 1— E O re j +-> re to cn o c cu •r— >> re •r— to CJ •r - i. Z3 re E re u_ re o re c o re •r— i- _i to to to re E -C _J o Q. ro o_ i I— o I— O +-> C s- c CU 4- O E c c -a icu cu to > re re O 1— CQ CD - 160 - Sovereign Base Area boundary the Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s o f Xylotymbou and Ormidhia took i n many refugees. ( T 9 ) U.N.F.I.CYP. was able t o provide some p r o t e c t i o n f o r ' t h e i s o l a t e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the south but was unable t o do t h i s f o r Greeks i n the Turkish-occupied n o r t h . U.N. convoys s u p p l i e d food and emergency accommodation wherever they could f o r refugees,, (20) U.N.CIV.POL.'s Missing Persons Bureau had an extremely d i f f i c u l t j o b o f t r y i n g t o l o c a t e over 3,000 r e p o r t e d "missing persons", many o f whom were not found and are presumed dead. n o r t h e r n Cyprus Although U.N.F.I.CYPs access t o l a r g e p a r t s o f was r e s t i c t e d i t d i d make some U.N.H.C.R. d e l i v e r i e s to stranded Greeks i n the Krenia Dome H o t e l and t o t h e v i l l a g e r s o f B e l l a p a i s . (21) For months a f t e r the c e a s e - f i r e , r e f u g e e movements continued f o l l o w i n g "agreements" concerning the evacuation o f c e r t a i n Greek and T u r k i s h Cypriot v i l l a g e s . Line". U.N. troops escorted refugees across the " A t t i l a I n southern Cyprus U.N.F.I.CYP. proved unable t o prevent some E.O.K.A.-B t e r r o r i s t a t t a c k s on remote T u r k i s h enclaves, such as Ayios Ioannis and the T u r k i s h q u a r t e r o f Paphos. As Hitchens remarks — "This was, perhaps, the l a s t f a v o u r t h a t E.O.K.A.-B and i t s j u n t a a l l i e s were t o do f o r t h e cause o f p a r t i t i o n " . (22) A p o i n t r e i n f o r c e d by P i e r r e Oberling's comments :" The massacres had the e f f e c t o f s t r e n g t h e n i n g the r e s o l v e o f the 42,000 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , s c a t t e r e d i n southern Cyprus, to move t o the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d n o r t h . But the Greek ( C y p r i o t ) government s t r e n u o u s l y opposed the" exodus, f e a r i n g t h a t i f the e n t i r e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n would move t o the n o r t h i t might tempt Turkey t o e s t a b l i s h a permanent p r o t e c t o r a t e t h e r e . . . " (23) Paphos D i s t r i c t contained many T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , many had crowded i n t o A k r o t i r i S.B.A., w h i l s t the r e s t entrenched themselves i n t o t h e i r most d e f e n s i b l e enclaves. I n January 1375 refugees a t A k r o t i r i were s a f e l y - 161 - t r a n s f e r r e d . (24) On the 13 February T975', the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s announced n o r t h e r n Cyprus as the "Turkish Federated State o f Cyprus" ( K i b r i s Tilrk Federe D e v l e t i ) . W i t h i n t h i s de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e remained some f i f t y - t h r e e v i l l a g e s s t i l l w i t h Greek C y p r i o t inhabitants. U.N.F.I.CYP. convoys were allowed t o v i s i t them w i t h a Turkish m i l i t a r y escort. By June 1975 t h e r e were approximately 10,700 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the south, o f whom 7,250 were provided w i t h food and allowances by Government a u t h o r i t i e s . Greek C y p r i o t s and T,000 Maronites I n the T.F.S.C. the TO,500 remaining were s u p p l i e d w i t h food and allowances from the south d e l i v e r e d by U.N.F.I.CYP. (25) Following an agreement on p o p u l a t i o n exchange i n Vienna on 2 August 1975, 8,033 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t r a n s f e r r e d t o the n o r t h between 2 August and 7 September. (26) This l e f t only 130 T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , s c a t t e r e d i n twenty-two l o c a l i t i e s i n southern Cyprus. were s t i l l 9,000 Greeks and 1,000 Maronites in By December T9T5 there i n the n o r t h , w h i l s t another 25,000 Greek C y p r i o t s were l i v i n g / t e n t s o r temporary shacks, and over 200,000 C y p r i o t s i n a l l p a r t s o f the i s l a n d were dependent on p u b l i c assistance and r e l i e f s u p p l i e s . (27) Over the next few years there wasT a steady t r i c k l e o f Greeks t o southern Cyprus. For i n s t a n c e , i n 1976 5,828 Greeks l e f t the T.F.S.C. As Oberling puts i t :- " As they came t o r e a l i z e t h a t the stalemate i n Cyprus might be l o n g - l a s t i n g , t h a t the T u r k i s h Federated State o f Cyprus was probably here t o stay and t h a t they c o n s t i t u t e d a very small C h r i s t i a n m i n o r i t y i n a Muslim n a t i o n , most o f them decided t o leave." (28) I n s p i t e o f t h i s there i s evidence t o suggest t h a t T u r k i s h c o e r c i o n was behind the s o - c a l l e d " v o l u n t a r y " t r a n s f e r s o f Greeks t o the south. (4.9) C e r t a i n l y l i f e i n the T.F.S.C. was uncomfortable f o r the enclaved C y p r i o t s , f o r they were denied f u l l freedom o f movement, lacked Greek proper e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s , medical care, and f u l l r e l i g i o u s freedom. • By T980, o n l y 1,500 Greeks remained, concentrated i n the s p r a w l i n g , tobaccogrowing v i l l a g e o f Dipkarpaz ( f o r m e r l y Rizokarpaso ) a t the t i p o f the - 162 - Karpass p e n i n s u l a . (30) The t a b l e g i v e n below i l l u s t r a t e s the number o f refugees who l e f t each of the s i x a d m i n i s t r a t i v e D i s t r i c t s o f Cyprus as a r e s u l t o f the t r a g i c events o f J u l y - August 1974 and the p e r i o d immediately a f t e r w a r d s . DISTRICT GREEKS 1) Famagusta 92,000 2) Kyrenia 29,000 3) Larnaca 700 4) Limassol 5) Nicosia 6) Paphos | TURKS ARMENIANS & MARONITES 2,000 1T.600 14,900 60,300 3,500 1,000 15,400 182,000 Totals 45,400 3,000 Source: Drury,M.P. 1981', i n Change and Development i n the Middle East. ( Clarke & Bowen-Jones, e d i t o r s ) , Methuen, 1981, p.293. Comparison should be made w i t h Table 6.T. Both t a b l e s g i v e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t s t a t i s t i c s f o r numbers o f refugees from d i f f e r e n t D i s t r i c t s , but they d o _ i l l u s t r a t e the braad spread o f refugee movements i n Cyprus, which a f f e c t e d about 290 v i l l a g e s , t h a t i s h a l f the t o t a l number o f v i l l a g e s i n Cyprus 0 - 163 - .i TABLE 6.2 AREA OCCUPIED BY THE TURKS BEFORE AND AFTER THE TURKISH MILITARY INTERVENTION Categories of land r urk i s h Before (in donums) % P r i v a t e land 852,455 12.30 1,929,584 27.9 4,215,117 61.00 3,137,988 Forests,lakes and S t a t e lands 286,794 4.14 573,985 8.3 1,424,273 20.56 1 ,137,082 16.4 Communal, village commission, roads & r i v e r s and public corporation lands 23,248 0.34 59,133 0.9 113,505 1.66 77,620 1.1 1,162,497 16.78 2,562,702 37.1 5,752,895 83,22 4,352,690 62.9 TOTAL TABLE 6.3 After (in donums) G r ee k Before (in donums) % After (in donums) % DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE LAND BY DISTRICT AFTER THE TURKISH MILITARY INTERVENTION Di s t r i c t T u r k i sh occupied lands ( i n donums) Free areas ( i n donums) Total area ( i n donums) 1. Nicosia 546,412 927,725 2. Kyrenia 368,957 - 3. Famagusta 965,168 142,778 1,107,946 4. Larnaca 49,047 548,367 597,414 5. Limassol - 810,780 810,780 6. Paphos - 708,338 708,338 3,137,988 5,067,572 TOTAL 1,929,584 Taken from : K a r o u z i s , G. 1977, Land Ownersh-p i n C y p r u s , (Cosmos P r e s s - N i c o s i a ) pp.115-116. 1,474,137 368,957 % 45.4 - 163 .ii o O) t/) 01 o lo L O (0 to CO CO CO O) Ol 1— 0 0 Su Su 1 C Ol + i— o CM r-~ o o o 1 — «d0 0 0 0 L O , 1 CM CO LO o CM CVJ L O CM + + + + + + CO to CM o CM CO CTl o CO CM ,—• CO CO CM o r-. i—• CM CO CO 1 L O 0 0 0 0 cn 0 0 1 co O CM r— + 1 i 1 + + o CM tn 0 0 CO L O CM I — o — LO 10 E fO 3 > C C O fO o " O •r- o 01 O -c o 4J O L O o L O r— CO o 1 r— h - s_ CD C 4-> T - >> en CO CO r-. CO i— i . Q co t L O 1 1 o 1 o CO •a c (O c o L O en L0 -a (O o> > 4-> to CD * r— CXJ 0 0 CO o o L O i I r— 1 CO LO oi o s_ 0 0 1 1 1 f— CO f— St . o LO tO +-> o CM F L O 1— lo o CM CO 0 0 L O CO CM CM 0 0 L O o CM o o 0 0 CO L O L O 1 v O CO 0 0 o o CM 1 0 0 L O L O CO L O L O CO ' >> 4 - s- cu 0 ft o 3 O o LO to to Ol O « e c O lo >> i . o X ) QJ «=J- o +-> o o JZ OI • So c 4 - -7- 01 lo en • > LD i— o CVJ in o • L O t CO CO LT) CO 0 0 CO o f— co' L O r— L O CO • • o L O • » o o o L O 1 CO i L O CM CO 'r- X J c o o 4-> +-> i_ 3 4-> 0 r— L0 3 ai o Q . UJ • r— OC - r to E o tO so S - • r— •— c n • r to to <C •rto •o L O • oi • i— s_ S- CO • 1 L O CM • o uo o L O • 1 — CM CM • « 1 — 1 r-. • CO t r - "SI- L O • L O • 1 o 1 L O L O Ol +j 3 1—I CO h CM • L O cn rD < IS) o o L _.U O _l l/l •rN CJ3 Z i—i O 00 <H 3 -a c ITS F— l/l Ol LO c o So •o c to F • c o Ol 1— r— Ol E LO C -Q to to •r— > +-> r— 3 o L0 1— to a> s_ +j Ol S- rf— o l/l s- o» x> Ol o QJ 4-> E L0 +-> 3 3 Oi O) —l Ol O l •o c ai 1 — 1 > I ai ra #\ LO +-> 01 o rO 1 _Q to o +J jQ 4— to i> 1 1 O) r— • o 1 T 3 10 o i . i - 01 -a o u_ TD C fO 1— -a LO s_ 3 S_ L0 +J c Ol 4-> •r— •r- o <_> > 10 x : j_ o QJ > o ^ 3 l/l Ol «i L0 T 3 C o E 5 •o c • 1— p C c 3 L0 (0 f—' ^— L0 o ( — fO > u s_ oi "a J C c •»-> fO o 4-> p— 3 U L|_ s- o cn <4_ S o o a. ai >>Q£ r— L0 (O •t- 3 C •i- C C s: < E o s_ M- to 0) C (_) Ol s3 = 3 Ol S I 4-> t . —i X I 5fO 3 U •r- (0 r— S- 3 4-» i— 4-» 01 o tO -r- s: o z s- < O . 01 4-> 1— C c <— <z to l+_ O tO •o +J 01 T s: L O en -a 3 •t-J 10 - »<— zs 01 c u O to ito a> 3 QJ u +-> to c •» r 0 to l/l o U 4-> lO (0 c 10 LO +-> o z : Ol + J 3 CT 4 Ol Ol CO Ol 4-> Ec ure Et c •r- 3 • r— O to • E i Ol o LO 3 c r»~ 1— o en u O l UJ ' tO to >o i -M L O o • 3 1 — 1 tO h— o L/) - 164 - Economic Consequences of the T6 August c e a s e - f i r e l i n e . The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s emerged from the p a r t i t i o n w i t h a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e ' share of the i s l a n d ' s resources. They h e l d roughly 37 % o f Cyprus, although estimates range from 36.5 % t o 40 % depending on whether o r not the U.N. B u f f e r Zone o r "dead zone", as Karouzis, T976, termed i t , i s taken i n t o account. A cursory glance a t Tables 6.2,6.3, and 6.4 r e v e a l t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s increased the area o f v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l and p r i v a t e land under t h e i r c o n t r o l . The T u r k i s h North i n c l u d e d a l l the tobacco p l a n t a t i o n s of the Karpass; 79 % o f the t o t a l c i t r u s fruit p r o d u c t i o n ; 68 % o f the c e r e a l producing area o f the Mesaoria P l a i n ; 86 % o f c a r r o t p r o d u c t i o n ; 32 % o f o t h e r vegetables ; 65; % of green fodders; and 30 % of carob p r o d u c t i o n . ( 3 t ) According sources, was of to Greek C y p r i o t "the i n v a s i o n " meant t h a t 80 % o f the i s l a n d ' s c i t r u s p r o d u c t i o n l o s t due t o lack o f i r r i g a t i o n d u r i n g the t r o u b l e s , and f u l l these orchards would take t e n o r twelve years. (32) Table 6.4 a 173 % increase i n recovery shows c u l t i v a b l e land h e l d by the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s compared to l a n d h e l d p r i o r to the T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n . Their g r e a t e s t gains were i n i r r i g a t e d c i t r u s f r u i t orchards and i n i n d u s t r i a l crops, p a r t i c u l a r l y tobacco. Water Resources : The August '74 c e a s e - f i r e l i n e e f f e c t i v e l y d i v i d e d m o r p h o l o g i c a l , physiographic and h y d r o l o g i c a l r e g i o n s . l i e i n the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d n o r t h — Three very i m p o r t a n t (a) Kythrea, agro- headsprings (b) L a p i t h o s , and (c) Karavas, each w i t h an average d a i l y output o f 15,000, 5,000 and 4,000 cubic metres r e s p e c t i v e l y . The " A t t i l a L i n e " alBo cut across the courses of a l l the major northward f l o w i n g r i v e r s from the Troodos Massif, which begin i n the Government-controlled controlled t e r r i t o r y . Xeros, Setrakhos, t e r r i t o r y and end i n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - This i s the case w i t h the Pyrgos, L i r a n i t i s , Kambos, K a r y o t i s , Atsas, a s w e l l as the north-west f l o w i n g streams from the eastern Troodos — Elea, P e r i s t e r o n a , Akaki, and Merika. ( refer - t o Map 6.9 ) 165 - Two i m p o r t a n t r i v e r systems are mostly c o n t a i n e d i n T u r k i s h Cyprus — these are o f t h e Pedhieos and Y i a l i a s . George K a r o u z i s , 1 9 7 7 , argues " t h a t o f t h e t o t a l i r r i g a t e d area 4 6 . 5 % l i e s i n the occupied areas and i n c l u d e s t h e r i c h e s t i n water and o t h e r n a t u r a l resources areas o f Morphou, Kyrenia c o a s t l i n e , Pamagusta and Kythrea." ( 3 3 ) I f y i e l d s p e r donura o f i r r i g a t e d l a n d are TO - 12 times g r e a t e r i n i r r i g a t e d areas than n o n - i r r i g a t e d areas, then the l o s s t o Greek C y p r i o t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n was enormous. Since 1 9 7 4 the Greeks have been t r y i n g t o make up f o r some o f t h e l o s s by v a r i o u s i r r i g a t i o n and l a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n schemes. ( see below ) They l o s t s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t dam and water development p r o j e c t s i n t h e Morphou T y l l i r i a and Pentadaktylos - K y r e n i a coast areas. Indeed u n t i l the p a r t i t i o n the water development p o l i c y f o l l o w e d an i n t e g r a t e d i n t e r r e g i o n a l p a t t e r n aimed a t conveying water from s u r p l u s t o d e f i c i t areas, w h i l e t a k i n g i n t o account l a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y , domestic, i n d u s t r i a l and t o u r i s t needs. ( 3 4 ) Since the p a r t i t i o n , i t has n o t been p o s s i b l e t o i n t e g r a t e water development schemes on an i s l a n d - w i d e b a s i s , although c o o p e r a t i o n over water supply has taken place under U.N.P.I.CYP. auspices. As i n the pre.c.eeding decade, water supply c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e s u b j e c t t o the problems o f p o l i t i c a l d i v i s i o n between the two l e a d e r s h i p s . During the 1964 - ' 7 4 p e r i o d the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t enclaves were v u l n e r a b l e t o water supply shortages, owing t o e i t h e r Government r e s t r i c t i o n s , o r t o overuse o f / d i v e r s i o n o f streams and underground communities' t e r r i t o r y . water resources shared by o r r u n n i n g i n t o both As Michael D r u r y , T 9 7 7 , p o i n t s o u t :- T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s "resented the way i n which new w e l l s were d e l i b e r a t e l y sunk adjacent t o t h e i r own t e r r i t o r y , thereby l o w e r i n g t h e i r own water t a b l e t o untappable depths..." ( 3 5 ) The de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n Has solved some o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community's water supply w o r r i e s , but the n o r t h could s t i l l be d e p r i v e d o f water from the south d u r i n g d r y summer months should the Greeks decide t h i s i s - 166 - necessary e i t h e r f o r t h e i r own needs o r as a p o l i t i c a l weapon,, Communications. With the exception o f U.N.F.I.CYP. convoys and " p o p u l a t i o n exchanges", on 16 August 1974 a l l n o r t h - south movement stopped. Main roads l i n k i n g Kyrenia and Pamagusta to N i c o s i a remained open t o T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s but closed t o Greek C y p r i o t s . ends at the U.N. A l l freedom o f m o b i l i t y f o r o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s B u f f e r Zone o r the two c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s c r o s s i n g Cyprus. The c r e a t i o n of a narrow neck o f T u r k i s h Cypriote l a n d t o take i n the town o f L o u r o u j i n a n e c e s s i t a t e d a d i v e r s i o n o f Greek C y p r i o t t r a f f i c on the Larnaca - N i c o s i a r o u t e , a detour v i a Kalokhorio o r Lymbia and Perakhorio. The o l d main road l i n k i n g the two towns i s no longer f u l l y i n use due t o the f a c t t h a t about t h r e e miles o f i t pass through T u r k i s h Cyprus. ( r e f e r to Map 6.5) Before d i s c u s s i n g U.N.P.I.CYP.'s a c t i v i t i e s since August T974,it i s u s e f u l to understand some of the fundamental changes i n the human geography o f both sides o f the p a r t i t i o n over the p e r i o d under review. i ) The Greek C y p r i o t South. I n a r e p o r t on Cyprus by The Guardian i n A p r i l T984 i t was economic recovery has been r a p i d and " the T80.000 Greeks who ... came from the n o r t h are almost absorbed i n the economic bloodstream. 3.5 % ..." argued t h a t fully Unemployment i s down t o (36) Given the r e l a t i v e p r o s p e r i t y o f the south today i t i s easy t o overlook the huge o b s t a c l e s Greek C y p r i o t s faced a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n . I t is almost impossible to make accurate estimates o f t o t a l Greek C y p r i o t l a n d and p r o p e r t y l o s s e s , but undoubtedly ther g r e a t e s t problem f o r the Govern- ment has been the d i s l o c a t i o n created by l a r g e numbers of refugees, many from c l o s e - k n i t v i l l a g e s w i t h s t r o n g k i n s h i p t i e s and attachments land. to the These refugees moved i n t o plywood and chipboard shacks or- s p e c i a l l y b u i l t low-cost housing e s t a t e s . Others b u i l t t h e i r own homes, - T67 - MAP The - 6:5 LourouJ Ins Pan) n o u l a Margo Melousha 0 r Potemla i ' / /' h 1 * 0 ' I \ Petrophanl, Dhall I / I I 0*.' Lymbla Pe rakhorio * * 1 i * O Athienou V Troulll " O ~* v Pyla v • L = LourouJ ina LEGEND Old Nicosia-National \ Turkish \ Dhakella B.SB.A. Larnaea road ^ u a r d F.D L. \Forcas FDL*S^ Boundary \ - T68 - u t i l i z i n g a s e l f - h e l p programme g i v i n g g r a n t s and loans, w h i l e some 40,000 refugees moved " p r o v i s i o n a l l y " i n t o vacated T u r k i s h C y p r i o t homes, which they are not allowed t o own. The Government holds the abandoned T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p r o p e r t y i n t r u s t f o r them. according A l l "Cypriots", t o law, have the r i g h t , t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r former-homes. One m u l t i p l i e r e f f e c t the massive i n f l u x o f refugees d i d have was t o t r i g g e r o f f a c o n s t r u c t i o n boom i n the south absorbing much refugee labour, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f refugee housing and i n new urban developments a t Limassol and t o a l e s s e r extent o t h e r towns. I n T974 G.D.P. f e l l 44 % over the previous year. unemployment i n the Greek s e c t o r was n e a r l y 30 %. By December '74 Economic was helped by the F i r s t Emergency A c t i o n Plan 1975 - '77. recovery At the end o f T978 Greek C y p r i o t unemployment was a t a r a t e o f two per cent and G.D.P. f o r the years T976" - '78 was growing a t eleven per cent per year. Since T974 the Greek C y p r i o t s have turned t h e i r geographical p o s i t i o n i n the eastern Mediterranean near t o the w a r - t o r n Middle East t o t h e i r economic advantage?. J o i n t ventures mushroomed. between C y p r i o t s and f o r e i g n e r s have Over 2,000 o f f - s h o r e companies have r e g i s t e r e d t h e i r o f f i c e s i n Cyprus, i n c l u d i n g many Arab v e n t u r e s . During the recent t r o u b l e s i n the Lebanon,many Lebanese have sought temporary r e f u g e - i n Cyprus. I n 1976 78,000 Lebanese t e m p o r a r i l y moved t o the i s l a n d . (37) With the c o n t i n u i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f B e i r u t many i n t e r n a t i o n a l business headquarters > have t r a n s f e r r e d t o Cyprus, and Lebanese are i n v e s t i n g i n p r o p e r t y t h e r e . " I f the B e i r u t i s cannot continue money making at home, then Cyprus has been an answer; and s e v e r a l o f them have been p e r m i t t e d to operate t h e i r banks on the i s l a n d . " (38) Above a l l , the south has had the advantages o f i t s i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n enabling the Government t o f o s t e r trade l i n k s w i t h the E.E.C. and Middle Eastern s t a t e s . south. I n t e r n a t i o n a l a i d has also flowed i n t o the I n June 1983 European f o r e i g n m i n i s t e r s agreed t o g r a n t Cyprus - 169 - 44 m i l l i o n European currency u n i t s ( # 40 m i l l i o n s ) i n loans and g r a n t s A second Cyprus - E.E.C. p r o t o c o l o f December 1983, a l l o c a t e d c r e d i t s to the Cyprus Government f o r p r o j e c t s o f p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t t o the whole island.(39) Dam and i r r i g a t i o n p r o j e c t s , such as t h e Yermasoyia Dam near Limassol, and increased i r r i g a t i o n along the c o a s t a l s t r i p o f Paphos, have made up f o r some losses o f a g r i c u l t u r a l land t o the Turks. (40) Raw farm products s t i l l represent 22 - 25 % o f the t o t a l exports o f Greek Cyprus, w h i l e manufactured goods, i n c l u d i n g processed farm products,account f o r about 70 %, w i t h minerals making up t h e r e s t . Although agriculture's share o f G.D.P. i s f a l l i n g i t w i l l continue t o be an i m p o r t a n t f o r e i g n exchange earner and by 1986 a g r i c u l t u r a l exports are expected i n C£ 108 m i l l i o n s a g a i n s t C£ 64.5 m i l l i o n s i n 1981. to b r i n g (41) Land c o n s o l i d a t i o n schemes have helped t o r a i s e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i v i t y since the p a r t i t i o n . (42) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t exodus created problems o f r u r a l depopulation i n c e r t a i n p a r t s o f the south, which has never been completely replaced. For i n s t a n c e , Paphos D i s t r i c t l o s t a r u r a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n , and since 1974 attempts have been made t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s d i s r u p t e d a g r i c u l t u r a l system by l a n d c o n s o l i d a t i o n measures. t h a t owing t o the f o r m a t i o n o f a r t i f i c i a l enclaves I t should be noted there was " s t r a t e g i c o v e r - p o p u l a t i o n " i n some r u r a l areas p r i o r t o 1974. Large areas o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t land are e i t h e r farmed by Greek C y p r i o t refugees o r by adjacent Greek C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s through a system o f c o o p e r a t i v e s . (43) Another r e s u l t o f de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n was t h a t the Turks increased the area o f c o a s t l i n e they h e l d from 10.5 % t o 51.5 % ( see Figure 6:2). This n o t only had s t r a t e g i c i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r the Greek C y p r i o t s l o s t most o f t h e i r t o u r i s t accommodation ( about 65 % ) i n c l u d i n g the two main r e s o r t s o f Famagusta* and Kyrenia. To compensate the Greek C y p r i o t s f have developed r e s o r t s a t Paphos, Larnaca, and Ayia Napa, and i n I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I - 170 - x Ul UJ £C O P 2 i BEFOREl in < m 10 ce AFTER cc CO =5 o l 0 L FIG-G:S I a 257. _l 507. _j 757. 100°/. _J The coastlines of Cyprus before and after the invasion. - 171 - December 1983 a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t was opened at Paphos t o complement the e x i s t i n g one at Larnaca. I n 1982, the south had 550,000 t o u r i s t s , whereas the n o r t h had o n l y 87,000 v i s i t o r s , o f whom 65,000 were from Turkey. (44) Tourism i s a b i g f o r e i g n currency earner f o r the Greek C y p r i o t s , but the n o r t h earns very l i t t l e because most o f i t s t o u r i s t s are spending T u r k i s h l i r a , the dominant currency o f T u r k i s h Cyprus. Indeed many o f the n o r t h ' s v i s i t o r s are there e i t h e r to v i s i t r e l a t i v e s amongst the troops s t a t i o n e d t h e r e or t o buy western consumer goods u n a v a i l a b l e back home i n mainland Turkey. Southern Cyprus has enhanced i t s p o s i t i o n i n i n t e r n a t i o n a l trade since 1374, and new p o r t f a c i l i t i e s have been developed at Limassol and Larnaca i n o r d e r t o r e p l a c e those l o s t a t Pamagusta, as w e l l as t o a t t r a c t a Middle Eastern and Mediterranean t r a n s i t t r a d e . As a r e s u l t o f Greek C y p r i o t e n t e r p r i s e and i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f the Greek A d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n the south the economic dichotomy between the two communities i s as pronounced as i t was before Summer '74. I n T981 the average per c a p i t a income o f a Greek C y p r i o t was f o u r times t h a t of a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t , i . e . # 4,400 per annum compared t o # T,TOO p.a. (45) U n f o r t u n a t e l y the economic gap between the two communities w i l l probably remain a f a c t o r i n t h e i r continued s p a t i a l s e g r e g a t i o n . Turkish Cypriots w i l l be m i n d f u l o f the dangers i n a l l o w i n g Greek C y p r i o t s back i n t o the t e r r i t o r y they now h o l d f o r they do not want t o be swamped by Greek C y p r i o t prosperity. The south has b e n e f i t t e d moreover from i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i d , much o f which " i s r e l a t e d t o the d i v i s i o n o f the i s l a n d " and so "vested i n t e r e s t s might develop to preserve t h a t d i v i s i o n " . (46) i i ) The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t North. While the south has prospered the n o r t h has s u f f e r e d from i t s de f a c t o r a t h e r than de .jure s t a t u s . N o n - r e c o g n i t i o n o f the l e g i t i m a c y o f the Denktas a d m i n i s t r a t i o n by the i n t e r n a t i o n a l community has hindered economic development i n n o r t h e r n Cyprus. On T5- November 1983 Rauf Denktas - 172 - declared independence f o r h i s de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e , renaming i t the 'Turkish Republic o f Northern Cyprus' ( T.R.N.C. ) . "U.D.I." was f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l "a d e c l a r a t i o n o f dependence on Turkey and a d e c l a r a t i o n o f secession from the Republic". (47) I n s p i t e o f the camouflage o f s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d independence, the economic and p h y s i c a l v i a b i l i t y o f the n o r t h i s b u i l t on economic, m i l i t a r y and p o l i t i c a l assistance- from Ankara. Northern Cyprus has undergone a " T u r k i f i c a t i o n p o l i c y " designed to create new " f a c t s on the ground", making the prospects f o r a f u l l r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f the i s l a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y remote w i t h the passage o f time. (48) There are numerous p h y s i c a l reminders o f Turkey's p r o t e c t i o n and close p r o x i m i t y to the T.R.N.C. As R u s s e l l King describes :- " The T u r k i s h f l a g f l i e s on a l l p u b l i c b u i l d i n g s and s t a t u e s o f A t a t u r k are prominent. estimated The m i l i t a r y presence, w i t h an 20 - 30,000 s o l d i e r s . . . i s also marked. Many v i l l a g e s , which are bases f o r the m i l i t a r y , and t r a c t s o f c o u n t r y s i d e , which are used as t r a i n i n g grounds, are out o f bounds to both l o c a l i n h a b i t a n t s and v i s i t o r s . are carved i n t o h i l l s i d e s . T u r k i s h symbols and slogans At the 1974 l a n d i n g point,west o f Kyrenia,an e x t r a o r d i n a r y concrete monument shows a T u r k i s h c l i f f l e a n i n g p r o t e c t i v e l y over l i t t l e Cyprus." (49) Mainland T u r k i s h s e t t l e r s and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t refugees have now been s e t t l e d i n places which could have been made n e g o t i a b l e i n t e r r i t o r i a l bargaining w i t h Greek C y p r i o t s . As Denktas puts i t :- " You can't deal w i t h people on a percentage b a s i s , as i f the farms and v i l l a g e s were vacant. As people get more s e t t l e d i n the North the f l e x i b i l i t y to a d j u s t the zones i s decreasing."(50) One s i g n i f i c a n t obstacle t o an eventual s o l u t i o n i s the f a c t t h a t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s are e n t i t l e d by t h e i r de f a c t o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n to own Greek Cypriot-owned but vacated p r o p e r t y . Thus i f the i s l a n d i s ever r e u n i t e d there w i l l be numerous disputes as to who owns what piece o f land o r house i n l a r g e p a r t s o f Northern Cyprus. - 173 - Since 1374 some 30 - 40,000 s e t t l e r s from the m a i n l a n d — ' T u r k i y e l i 'have entered the n o r t h . O f f i c i a l l y they were described as seasonal workers but many continue t o stay i n Cyprus on a more permanent b a s i s , s e t t l i n g i n e i t h e r N i c o s i a o r Pamagusta, o r i n three r u r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s the Karpass p e n i n s u l a , the Mesaoria, and n o r t h Morphou. Hitchens, 1 9 8 4 , argues t h a t t h i s i s a d e l i b e r a t e c o l o n i z a t i o n p o l i c y " t o a l t e r the demographic basis o f the i s l a n d . " ( 5 1 ) Many o f these T u r k i y e l i come from backward p a r t s o f A n a t o l i a and the Black Sea coast, have d i f f e r e n t modes o f dress, are l e s s 'European' i n t h e i r behaviour, and adhere more f e r v e n t l y t o t r a d i t i o n a l Muslim r i g h t s than do T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . Such d i f f e r e n c e s have tended t o be a cause o f f r i c t i o n between the " i s l a n d e r s " and mainland s e t t l e r s . ( 5 2 ) Even Dr Kuciik, the v e t e r a n T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r , showed concern over the unplanned " p i l i n g o f people on the i s l a n d e s t a b l i s h i n g " O r i e n t a l S u l t i n a t e s " i n n o r t h e r n C y p r i o t v i l l a g e s . (53) Furthermore, any member o f the T u r k i s h armed f o r c e s whohave served i n Cyprus o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s , i s e l i g i b l e f o r c i t i z e n s h i p r i g h t s i n Northern Cypruso The d i v i s i o n o f s p o i l s i n T u r k i s h Cyprus has also been uneven. " C l e a r l y , since the economy o f the ' s t a t e ' i s a f u p t i o n o f T u r k e y . . . i t i s businessmen connected w i t h the motherland who stand the best chance." ( 5 4 ) This i s understandable g i v e n t h a t the T.R.N.C. has l i m i t e d commercial l i n k s w i t h o t h e r s t a t e s except v i a Turkey. The 'Northern Republic' lacks access t o many i n t e r n a t i o n a l f i n a n c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s such as the World Bank. I t lacks c o n t a c t s w i t h the E.E.C. and i s w i t h o u t b i l a t e r a l credit f a c i l i t i e s . Turkey continues moreover t o pay t w o - t h i r d s o f the budget o f Northern Cyprus. As M.E.E.D. p u t i t :- " P o l i t i c s a p a r t , the T u r k i s h Cypriot. community i s aware o f one major handicap which may continue as long as i t i s d i v i d e d from the South: i t s i n a b i l i t y t o g a i n access t o the sources o f a i d granted t o the Cyprus Government. While the World Bank provides funds f o r the Paphos i r r i g a t i o n scheme i n the South, the c i t r u s - T74 orchards o f Morphou i n the N o r i h are threatened by drought." (55) Despite the handicap o f i t s n o n - r e c o g n i t i o n and ambiguous i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t a t u s Northern Cyprus coninues t o t r a d e w i t h some European c o u n t r i e s , particularly Britain. The Government o f Cyprus has been unsuccessful i n i t s attempts t o persuade the E.E.C. t o bar produce from the T„R.N.C. from b e n e f i t s under an e x i s t i n g agreement, which would render exports from T u r k i s h Cyprus so uncompetitive as t o be u n s e l l a b l e on European markets. Exports from T u r k i s h Cyprus Increased from about # 16 m i l l i o n i n 1979 t o t 41 m i l l i o n i n 1980. (56) C i t r u s f r u i t exports are c r u c i a l t o the f r a g i l e economy o f the n o r t h , and every e f f o r t i s being made t o r e h a b i l i t a t e farming based on f r u i t , e a r l y vegetables and l i v e s t o c k . Tt,000 hectares o f r i c h orange and lemon groves i n Morphou, v i r t u a l l y a l l Greek C y p r i o t owned, are now worked by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t grape-farmers from Paphos. U n f o r t u n a t e l y much l a n d adjacent t o the T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e has lacked proper i r r i g a t i o n , which has l e d t o the d e s s i c a t i o n o f some c i t r u s groves. (57) A r e v i t a l i s a t i o n o f the t o u r i s t i n d u s t r y i n Northern Cyprus i s made more d i f f i c u l t by the Greek-ownership o f numerous l a r g e h o t e l s and the f a c t t h a t o n l y T u r k i s h A i r l i n e s can use Ercan ( f o r m e r l y Tyrabou ) A i r p o r t , thus r u l i n g out cheap f l i g h t s from Western Europe. (58) The p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities i n t o d i s t i n c t geographi c a l areas, one i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r a t i f i e d , t h e o t h e r w i t h a de f a c t o existence o n l y , has served t o widen the g u l f between them. Both sides f u n c t i o n as separate s t a t e s , d u p l i c a t e economic f u n c t i o n s , w h i l s t o r d i n ary Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remain remote from each otheir. The p o l i t i c a l p a r t i t i o n has fundamentally a l t e r e d the human geography o f Cyprus, an i s l a n d w i t h two mono-ethnic zones. As King describes :- " Northern Cyprus has been purged o f i t s Greekness. Gone are the t a l l - h a t t e d , bushy-beared Orthodox p r i e s t s ; t h e monastries and churches are f o r l o r n l y empty...Apart from a few faded slogans p r o c l a i m i n g Makarios and Enosis, - 175 - North Cyprus has been l i n g u i s t i c a l l y whitewashed." ( 5 8 ) T u r k i s h i s t h e language o f t h e T.R.N.C. and a c c o r d i n g l y N i c o s i a has become Lefkosa; Famagusta i s Gazi Magosa; Kyrenia i s Girne; Morphou i s Guzelyurt: These may only be names on T u r k i s h maps o r on signposts i n Northern Cyprus, but they represent p h y s i c a l impediments t o the r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f the i s l a n d . Section Two; U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n i n August 1974. The p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d by one l i n e o f close armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n l e d t o sudden, dramatic change i n U.N.F.I.CYP, deployment. T30 o b s e r v a t i o n posts were e s t a b l i s h e d i n southern Cyprus and 36 i n the n o r t h , where T u r k i s h troops r e s t r i c t e d the Force's m o b i l i t y . ( 5 9 ) Even a f t e r t h e c e a s e - f i r e on 16 August,there were some T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y manouvres, and U.N.F.I.CYP. f a i l e d t o o b t a i n a w i t h d r a w a l o f troops a f t e r minor T u r k i s h advances i n the P y r o i - L o u r o u j i n a area, near G a l l i n i , near Dhennia, and i n Yeralakkas area west o f N i c o s i a . C r o s s - f i r i n g continued f o r some considerable time i n a l l these areas. ( 6 0 ) Permanent U.N.CIV.POL. s t a t i o n s were e s t a b l i s h e d i n v i l l a g e s such as D h a l i i n August ' 7 4 and i n Athienou i n October ' 7 4 , t o a f f o r d g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n f o r v i l l a g e r s i n ah area o f p a r t i c u l a r l y close armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n . Meanwhile both sides c o n s o l i d a t e d t h e i r defensive p o s i t i o n s , l a i d unmarked mines, and erected f o r t i f i c a t i o n s . U.F.F.I.CYP. recorded the Forward Defence Lines ( F.D.L.s ) o f both sides and acted as a n e u t r a l border p a t r o l f o r c e . As time elapsed U.N.F.I.CYP.'s b u f f e r d u t i e s became l e s s complicated, and f o l l o w i n g the t r a n s f e r o f v i r t u a l l y a l l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t o Northern Cyprus the Force was able t o reduce i t s c o n t i n g e n t s t r e n g t h . Instead o f deployment on an i s l a n d - w i d e basis i n o p e r a t i o n a l zones and d i s t r i c t s , it 1 deployed men i n c o n t i n g e n t s e c t o r s along "the general l i n e o f confrontation". ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 5 ) S i x o p e r a t i o n a l s e c t o r s were formed along the southern e x t e n s i o n o f the? " A t t i l a L i n e " . U.N.F.I.CYP. manned o b s e r v a t i o n posts and p a t r o l l e d along t r a c k s observing the F.D.L.s 176 8 in § u. Z J» X I 5 I or pr! 9 U • W1 X I I £ J J J 3 5 § I 1 I • e U o i I to ID UJ I UJ t in UJ V) UJ o c V) X O u. Is 3 1 1 1 oe- it UJ VI I o tc VI V) X 4 UJ ! 3 NJ JC to 1 1 S t - S O X S t A O u . Ul -J I to ul s 1 3 ui E UJ 5r O M U. s tr i/i ci 1 O X « uj ' UJ i/t s m m o 8 . . . . . . ^ - 177 - of both s i d e s . H e l i c o p t e r s were used whenever ground p a t r o l s were hampered by the danger o f m i n e f i e l d s o r d i f f i c u l t t e r r a i n . (61) I n i t i a l l y ground p a t r o l s were n o t allowed f u l l freedom o f movement i n the B u f f e r Zone owing t o i n t e r f e r e n c e by T u r k i s h s o l d i e r s on the p r e t e x t t h a t p a t r o l s approached t o close t o the T u r k i s h P.D.L. Operations i n Northern Cyprus were c u r t a i l e d t o humanitarian tasks f o r Greek and Maronite communities t h e r e . assistance U.N.P„I.CYP. s e t up f o u r l i a i s o n posts i n the Karpass and t h r e e around Kyrenia, but i t was p e r m i t t e d access t o only a few main roads. U.N.P.I.CYP. continued i t s r e l i e f e s c o r t s between L i m n i t i s and Kokkina enclave, where there were= 1,500 inhabitants. ( 6 2 ) During the eighteen months " t r a n s i t i o n a l p e r i o d " f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. immediately a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n i t s main tasks can be summarized as :- (a) Maintenance o f t h e c e a s e - f i r e and P.D.L.s; (b) I n t e r p o s i t i o n i n g troops between the two sides t o c r e a t e an e f f e c t i v e d e m i l i t a r i z e d zone under U.N. c o n t r o l . (c) To discharge f u n c t i o n s w i t h regard t o the s e c u r i t y and w e l f a r e o f Greeks l i v i n g i n the n o r t h and Turks s t i l l i n the south. (d) To support the r e l i e f o p e r a t i o n s coordinated by U.N.H.C.R. and o t h e r U n i t e d Nations o r g a n i s a t i o n s / programmes and I.C.R.C. (63) i ) P a c i f i c a t i o n A c t i v i t i e s : T974 t o T984. In order t o understand U.N.P.I.CYP.'s o p e r a t i o n s i n t h i s p e r i o d i t i s necessary t o describe the B u f f e r Zone s e p a r a t i n g Greek from Cypriots. Turkish This U . N o - c o n t r o l l e d c o r r i d o r o f land extends f o r the full l e n g t h o f the T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e , T80 k i l o m e t r e s , and i t v a r i e s i n w i d t h from seven k i l o m e t r e s t o j u s t twenty metres i n s i d e the c i t y w a l l s of Nicosia, The zone takes up a t o t a l o f about t h r e e p e r cent o f the land area o f Cyprus, approximately t e n p e r cent o f the a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , a l t h o u g h only a small p r o p o r t i o n o f the i r r i g a t e d area ( i . e . near Morphou ) U.N.F.I.CYP.'s main m i l i t a r y duty i s t o supervise the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s . B u f f e r Zone s u r v e i l l a n c e has improved c o n s i d e r a b l y over the l a s t decade. - 178 - I n December 1982 U.N.P.I.CYP. had T37 o b s e r v a t i o n posts, 66 permanently manned. By June 1984 there were 144 O.P.s, 7T permanently manned. Between these O.P.s,regular U.N. Force p a t r o l s cover the- l e n g t h o f each contingent s e c t o r . strengthened W i t h i n the c a p i t a l "the t h i n blue l i n e " has i t s presence by deploying more j u n i o r commanders and t r o o p s . U.N.F.I.CYP. continues i n attempts t o persuade both sides t o e f f e c t a "mutual unmanning" o f key p o s i t i o n s along the Green Line, p a r t i c u l a r l y where i n c i d e n t s have f r e q u e n t l y occurred. (64) I n recent years the Force has moved more U.N.F.I.CYP. accommodation i n t o the B u f f e r Zone. Observation c a p a b i l i t i e s have improved w i t h the a i d o f n i g h t v i s i o n devices, w h i l s t m o b i l i t y has been enhanced by improving the p a t r o l t r a c k s between the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s . A l l these f a c t o r s have enabled U.N.F.I.CYP. t o reduce the number o f serious i n c i d e n t s ; and attempts by e i t h e r side t o move forward o f e s t a b l i s h e d F.D.L.s., i n order t o r e s t o r e the s t a t u s quo ante. By d e l i n e a t i n g and keeping the opposing c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s i n p o s i t i o n U.N.F.I.CYP. has helped t o harden the e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e . There are some examples o f s u b t l e changes i n the s t a t u s quo i n areas w i t h i n o r adjacent t o the B u f f e r Zone. For i n s t a n c e , d u r i n g August 1983- 1, June 1984, i t was o,served t h a t there had been adjustments t o the p e r i m e t e r fence o f Varosha, the southern suburb o f Famagusta. Moreover, some houses had be en i n h a b i t e d i n Varosha, and i n s p i t e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. e f f o r t s t o r e s t o r e the o l d s i t u a t i o n i n Varosha, the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have done n o t h i n g t o reverse these changes. old walls o f Nicosia. (65) Another example i s w i t h i n the I n A p r i l 1984 the Greek r e s i d e n t s o f Ayios Kassianos,in the eastern p a r t o f the w a l l e d c i t y , p r o t e s t e d against a 1 U.N.F.I.CYP. d e c i s i o n t o place a number of b a r r e l s b l o c k i n g Athina Avenue, where Greek C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s l i v e . A f t e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s made by N a t i o n a l Guard o f f i c e r s the b a r r e l s were removed t e m p o r a r i l y . According t o the r e s i d e n t s , the U.N. d e c i s i o n f o l l o w e d the recent advance o f T u r k i s h troops i n t o the B u f f e r Zone t o occupy the deserted o l d elementary school o f Ayios co CD CD 03 LU CO co CD O 03 co CO CD CO co 03 CO N CO 0) CO CD CO 00 CO u co 03 03 CO in CO CO 1 CD I [ M ID * 5( CO CD CO co CO CO TO r- 5 O CO CO CO O LL LU co t. O CO 03 +-> CO 03 CO CO C CD CD O EE 88 CO CO •• • • CD 10 CD CO i m - 180 - Kassianos. present Such s m a l l e n c r o a c h m e n t s i n t o t h e B u f f e r ^ Z o n e a r e an e v e r d a n g e r , e s p e c i a l l y s e n s i t i v e i n a r e a s where t h e two s i d e s a r e separated o n l y by a m a t t e r o f t w e n t y ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 7 ) o r so m e t r e s as i n c e n t r a l Nicosia. The i n c i d e n t i n A y i o s K a s s i a n o s h i g h l i g h t s t h e p r o b l e m s U.N.F.I.CYP. has i n t r y i n g t o keep F.D.L.s s t a t i c . (66) A n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t y u n d e r t a k e n by U.N.P.I.CYP. i s t h e m o n i t o r i n g o f f l i g h t s a c r o s s t h e B u f f e r Zone, p a r t i c u l a r l y o f m i l i t a r y aircraft c r o s s i n g t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e f r o m t h e n o r t h and l i g h t , c i v i l air- c r a f t c r o s s i n g t h e N a t i o n a l Guard c e a s e - f i r e l i n e f r o m t h e s o u t h . In response t o t h e problem o f f r e q u e n t o v e r f l i g h t s o f t h e L o u r o u j i n a salient by c i v i l i a n a i r c r a f t , decided and t h e Cyprus C i v i l A v i a t i o n A u t h o r i t y have r e c e n t l y t o r e p o s i t i o n the l i g h t a i r c r a f t f l i g h t Lakatomia f u r t h e r t o t h e south. To c o r r i d o r between L a r n a c a (67) t h e n o r t h o f t h e B u f f e r Zone U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s c o n t i n u e t o b e - h i n d e r e d b y t i g h t , r e s t r i c t i o n s o n i t s f r e e d o m o f movement. 1979, t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t a u t h o r i t i e s i s s u e d t h e U.N. F o r c e w i t h a number o f g u i d e l i n e s posts ( 6 8 ) , w h i c h l i m i t e d t h e h o u r s p e r day U.N,P.I.CYP. c o u l d be used i n t h e n o r t h to t h e Force. as w e l l as t h e number o f r o a d s open I n t h e p e r i o d T982 - '84 U.N.F.I.CYP. succeeded i n r e m o v i n g T u r k i s h r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e f o l l o w i n g r o u t e s — Pamagusta - R i z o k a r p a s s o ; X e r o s - S k o u r i o t i s s a ; L i m n i t i s - X e r o s ; N i c o s i a - Famagusta. had I n December The l a t t e r s t r i c t g u i d e l i n e s as t o t h e number o f U.N.P.I.CYP. v e h i c l e s allowed t o use i t . ( 6 9 ) i i ) Humanitarian and Economic A c t i v i t i e s : T974 t o T984. These a c t i v i t i e s c o v e r t h e f o l l o w i n g :( a ) To c o n t r b u t e t o t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s . ( U.N. R e s o l u t i o n T86 / T964 ) ( b ) To c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e h u m a n i t a r i a n r e l i e f programme i n c l o s e cooperation w i t h U.N.H.C.R. and W o r l d Pood Programme ( W.P.P.) ( U.N. R e s o l u t i o n 359 / 1974 ) - 181 ( c ) To c a r r y o u t such Red Cross f u n c t i o n s as may be r e q u i r e d f r o m to time t i m e by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Committee o f t h e Red C r o s s . ( Secretary General Report, U.N. S/T2463 ) W i t h r e g a r d t o ( b ) and ( c ) U.N.P.I.CYP. has c o n t i n u e d t o c a r r y o u t humanitarian discharges relief o p e r a t i o n s since t h e events o f Summer '74. I t f u n c t i o n s handed o v e r t o i t by t h e I.C.R.C. a t t h e t i m e o f t h e l a t t e r ' s w i t h d r a w a l i n June 1977. ( 7 0 ) W i t h t h o s e Greeks and M a r o n i t e s still l o c a t e d i n t h e n o r t h , these f u n c t i o n s have i n c r e a s e d , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e g a r d t o m e d i c a l ( 7 1 ) An emergency m e d i c a l evacuation t h e a d v a n c i n g age o f and w e l f a r e s e r v i c e s . s u p p l y s e r v i c e i s p r o v i d e d , as w e l l as m e d i c a l by U.N.P.I.CYP. h e l i c o p t e r s h o u l d a member o f a " m i n o r i t y * on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e p a r t i t i o n r e q u i r e u r g e n t t r e a t m e n t o n t h e o t h e r side. (72) U.N. t r o o p s have h e l p e d medical i n delivering agricultural, e d u c a t i o n a l and equipment under t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s H u m a n i t a r i a n w h i c h p r o v i d e d J$ U.S. 5 m i l l i o n R e l i e f Programme, t o f i n a n c e seventeen p r o j e c t s . This programme, c o o r d i n a t e d by t h e Cyprus Red Cross S o c i e t y , i n v o l v e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a general h o s p i t a l , t h e overseas p r o c u r e m e n t o f e q u i p m e n t and s u p p l i e s f o r t h e h e a l t h , e d u c a t i o n and agricultural s e c t o r s , and p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g . ( 7 3 ) U.NoP.I.CYP. c o n t i n u e s t o e n s u r e t h a t a l l t r a n s f e r s o f Greek C y p r i o t s from n o r t h t o south are v o l u n t a r y . r e s i d i n g i n t h e T.R.N.C. year p e r i o d from I n 1984 t h e r e were 844 Greek C y p r i o t s The number o f permanent t r a n s f e r s i n t h e two 1 June 1982 t o 1 June 1984 was 158. ( 7 4 ) F o r Greeks r e s i d i n g i n t h e n o r t h l i f e has been s u b j e c t t o many r e s t r i c t i o n s . a r e dependent on t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s f o r m e d i c a l Greek C y p r i o t e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s and h o s p i t a l They facilities. i n t h e n o r t h amount t o two p r i m a r y s c h o o l s , one a t R i z o k a r p a s s o has 51 p u p i l s and one a t A y i a T r i a s has 2T. (75) C h i l d r e n o f s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l age have t o move s o u t h i f t h e y want a Greek C y p r i o t e d u c a t i o n . Since A p r i l f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. t o a r r a n g e visits T979, i t has n o t been p o s s i b l e by c h i l d r e n a t t e n d i n g s c h o o l s i n the - 182 - south t o t h e i r parents o r grandparents i n the north. (76) Between June '82 - June '84, t w e n t y - o n e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e chose t o move from south decided t o n o r t h Cyprus on a permanent b a s i s , and f o r t y - s e v e n M a r o n i t e s t o t r a n s f e r from n o r t h t o south. v i l l a g e s i n the north — maintained Asomatos, K a r p a s h a , and K o r m a k i t i — contacts w i t h Maronites u n d e r U.N.F.I.CYP. a u s p i c e s . of separated There a r e t h r e e M a r o n i t e l i v i n g i n southern w h i c h have Cyprus v i a v i s i t s The Foirce has a l s o a r r a n g e d frequent reunions T u r k i s h C y p r i o t f a m i l i e s a t t h e L e d r a P a l a c e H o t e l on an ad hoc b a s i s . ( 7 7 ) The P r o m o t i o n o f Economic A c t i v i t y i n t h e B u f f e r Zone : The B u f f e r Zone c u t s a c r o s s v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d i n t h e Morphou B a s i n and M e s a o r i a , d i v i d e s t h e c a p i t a l , t r u n c a t e s p r e - A u g u s t '74 r o u t e - ways, and r u n s o v e r i m p o r t a n t r i v e r b a s i n s , s t r e a m s , and u n d e r g r o u n d water resources. W i t h o u t U.N.P.I.CYP.'s p r e s e n c e t h e t h r e e - p e r c e n t o f C y p r i o t ' t e r r i t o r y w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone w o u l d be a m i l i t a r y o r an u n p r o d u c t i v e economic a c t i v i t y valuable farmland, opposing For no-man's-land. waste-ground U.N.P.I.CYP. has h e l p e d r e a c t i v a t e "between t h e l i n e s " . I t has t u r n e d m i n e f i e l d s i n t o and s a f e g u a r d e d c i v i l i a n s w o r k i n g u n d e r t h e noses o f soldiers. t h e two y e a r s a f t e r t h e t r o u b l e s o f 1974 t h e r e was l i t t l e economic a c t i v i t y o r movement n e a r t h e f r o n t - l i n e s o f e i t h e r t h e T u r k i s h Army o r N a t i o n a l Guard. ( 7 8 ) U.N.P.I.CYP. has i n c r e a s e d escorts f o r farmers i n g i n s e n s i t i v e n e w l y opened f i e l d s i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. S e c u r i t y Line work- A Farming ( F.S.L. ) has been c a r e f u l l y drawn and d e m a r c a t e d by U.N.F.I.CYP. f o r t h e m u t u a l s a f e t y o f c i v i l i a n s w o r k i n g on e i t h e r ( r e f e r t o Map 6.8 ) the middle o f T h i s F.S.L. r o u g h l y c u t s t h r o u g h t h e B u f f e r Zone, a l o n g s i d e cultivate l a n d w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone i s g r a n t e d c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h both The U.N. F o r c e p a t r o l t r a c k s . side. Permission t o by U.N.F.I.CYP. a f t e r sides. U.N. F o r c e a l l o w s c u l t i v a t i o n t o t a k e p l a c e "without prejudice to - any 183 - eventual p o l i t i c a l settlement" using two p r i n c i p a l g u i d e l i n e s ( i ) S e c u r i t y and ( i i ) O w n e r s h i p . ( 7 9 ) On t h e one hand, — cultivation s h o u l d n o t be a t h r e a t t o t h e l e g i t i m a t e s e c u r i t y i n t e r e s t s o f e i t h e r side. On t h e o t h e r , U.N.F.I.CYP. has t r i e d t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e l a n d i s c u l t i v a t e d by a c t u a l owners o r t h e i r employees. be handed t o U.N.F.I.CYP. b e f o r e a f a r m e r Proof i s allowed o f o w n e r s h i p must to cultivate- his l a n d i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. M i n e f i e l d clearance has been n e c e s s a r y i n c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone b e f o r e any c u l t i v a t i o n was p o s s i b l e , and U.N.F.I.CYP. has c l e a r l y marked o t h e r known o r s u s p e c t e d m i n e f i e l d s . E v e r y e f f o r t has a l s o made t o demarcate t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y L i n e w i t h w h i t e m e t a l painted boulders been drums and so t h a t i t s p o s i t i o n i s o b v i o u s t o b o t h s i d e s , lessening the l i k e l i h o o d o f shooting i n c i d e n t s . F r e q u e n t U.N.CIV.POL. and U.N. Force t r o o p p a t r o l s c a r e f u l l y m o n i t o r a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n the whole o f t h e B u f f e r Zone. WITHIN THE BUFFER ZONE. >w» '— Turkish Cvjpriot »J, C u l t i v a t i o n <Knd q n a j i n ^ T I \ I I T coltivab'oo a/»d gr«3 , r t ^ ^ „•-''"<» \ " " __ s V • T u r k i s h F o r c e O.P. 9 Greek C y p r i o t O.P. Greek C y p r i o t c e a s e - f i r e ( N a t i o n a l Guard ) o r F.D.L. O United Nations Force — — . — " — T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e o r F.D.L. Farming S e c u r i t y Line line ( F.S.L. ) O.P. N.B. O.P. s a r e o b s e r v a t i o n p o s t s , and F.D.L. s t a n d s f o r F o r w a r d Defence It Line. i s interesting t o note t h a t t h e B u f f e r Zone i s t h e one a r e a i n t h e i s l a n d where Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s c o u l d l i v e and work together. - 184 At p r e s e n t - t h e F.S.L. w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone f o r m s an e f f e c t i v e interface ( see above d i a g r a m from sides t o push Greek C y p r i o t c u l t i v a t i o n n o r t h w a r d s and both ) , but should U.N.F.I.CYP. g a i n ethnic c u l t i v a t i o n s o u t h w a r d s t h e B u f f e r Zone c o u l d become an f r o n t i e r zone. The Greeks own Turkish Cypriot land to the south. community i s l e s s i n t e r e s t e d i n f a r m i n g to Turkish intercommunal much l a n d n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. w i t h i n B u f f e r Zone b u t a r e as y e t u n a b l e t o c u l t i v a t e i t , and 1974 permission the t h e r e i s some p r e - Unfortunately the Turkish on Cypriot t h e i r s i d e o f t h e P.S.L. o w i n g a r e l a t i v e abundance o f l a n d p e r head i n N o r t h e r n Cyprus compared t o t h a t o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t s . Cyprus i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o l o n g d r y M e d i t e r r a n e a n summers and shortages. in The B u f f e r Zone has a peculiar hydropolitics with charge o f i t s w a t e r supply. B e f o r e a f a r m e r can drill must have p r o o f o f l a n d o w n e r s h i p t o o b t a i n a d r i l l i n g U.N.P.I.CYPo permission. before a water bore-hole spent c o n s i d e r a b l e and N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h both can be u s e d . time ensuring a t an e f f i c i e n t f o r water tanks and J o i n t m e e t i n g s between t h e a l s o made f r e q u e n t v i s i t s reservoirs. I t tries t h e Greek and t o and Such e f f i c i e n t l y operated Turkish C y p r i o t communities. O t h e r U.N.P.I.CYP. a c t i v i t i e s h e l p i n g b o t h annual anti-mosquito U.N. spraying F o r c e d e l i v e r s m a i l and l i n e s as w e l l as inspections of t o ensure t h a t the w a t e r and in (80) supply distribution f o r the b e n e f i t (81) communities i n c l u d e i t s programme i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. ( 8 2 ) Red have water a p p r o p r i a t e r e g u l a t o r y measures d u r i n g d r y summer months. system o f both sides i s f a i r l y of place d i s t r i b u t i o n of water meetings are necessary to r e s o l v e mutual problems o f w a t e r supply U . N . P . I . C Y P . has get damaged pumps, p i p e l i n e s a u t h o r i t i e s o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s a r e a r r a n g e d by U . N . P . I . C Y P . N i c o s i a and he l i c e n c e , then communities takes t h a t b r o k e n and level. U.N.P.I.CYP. U . N . P . I . C Y P . ' s economic s t a f f e l e c t r o n i c a p p a r a t u s f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n and are m a i n t a i n e d acute water Cross messages a c r o s s t h e t r a n s f e r r i n g g o v e r n m e n t p e n s i o n s and b e n e f i t s to e l i g i b l e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n the n o r t h . The cease-fire social security I t has also - 185 - facilitated t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o l d e r homes t h a t became u n i n h a b i t a b l e i n v i l l a g e s w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone, a n d h e l p e d p r i v a t e owners t a k e movable p r o p e r t y f r o m the their area. U.N.CIV,POL. : M a i n t e n a n c e o f Law and O r d e r . There i s e s t i m a t e d t o be o v e r 9,000 r e s i d e n t s i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. ( r e f e r t o Map 6 . 5 ) l a r g e s t v i l l a g e i s Athienou. t a s k i s t o see t h a t t h e are p r o t e c t e d . The UoN.CIV.POL.'s m a j o r c i v i l i a n s and p r o p e r t y w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone I t maintains c l o s e c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e Cyprus P o l i c e and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c e , a n d f r e q u e n t l y v i s i t s v i l l a g e m u k h t a r s and o r d i n a r y c i v i l i a n s on both The sides o f the United N a t i o n s - c o n t r o l l e d zone a c i v i l i a n p o l i c e a s s i s t t h e m i l i t a r y e l e m e n t o f U.N.F.I„CYP. i n c o n t r o l l i n g movements w i t h i n o r e n c r o a c h m e n t s i n t o t h e B u f f e r Zone, and i n e s c o r t i n g " a u t h o r i z e d " movements a c r o s s t h e n e u t r a l a r e a . A u s t r a l i a n c i v i l i a n policemen working h e a d q u a r t e r s i n S e c t o r Two, westwards o f N i c o s i a f o r U.N.F.I.CYP. have and t h e y " l o o k a f t e r " t h e a r e a t o w a r d s Kato Pyrgos and K o k k i n a . their extending The Swedish c i v i l i a n p o l i c e h e a d q u a r t e r s i s l o c a t e d i n t h e mixed B u f f e r Zone v i l l a g e of Pyla, near t o Dhekelia 1 S.B.A., and t h e i r o p e r a t i o n a l a r e a e x t e n d s eastwards from N i c o s i a t o southern Famagusta. I t should t h a t a l l the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t i n h a b i t a n t s o f Pyla be s t r e s s e d evacuated a f t e r the p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d . U.N.CIV.POL. p e r s o n n e l a c t i n many ways as an i n t e r m e d i a r y f o r c e , i n v e s t i g a t i n g i n t o complaints o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t i e s having intercommunal i m p l i c a t i o n s and i n v a r i o u s r o u t i n e a c t i v i t i e s i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e m i l i t a r y element o f U.N.F.I.CYP. R e g u l a r p a t r o l s a r e made up and down t h e B u f f e r Zone t o e n s u r e t h a t no c i v i l i a n s c r o s s "wrong" s i d e o f t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y L i n e . by s h e p h e r d s g r a z i n g It and i s important contact i n t o a r e a s on t h e A c o n t i n u a l p r o b l e m i s posed t h e i r f l o c k s dangerously close t o t h e F S,L. t o s t r e s s t h a t i n t h e absence o f d i r e c t between o r d i n a r y p e o p l e on o p p o s i t e 0 cooperation s i d e s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone - 186 - b o t h t h e m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n components o f U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t as t h e o n l y communication S e c t i o n Three: S e c t o r Two c h a n n e l between them. Case Study — U.N.F.I.CYP. S e c t o r Two ; BRIT.CON. o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s B u f f e r Zone l i e s on t h e western boundary o f S e c t o r P o u r , N i c o s i a Zone, and e x t e n d s w e s t w a r d s o f t h e Peristerona, Astromeritis — Morphou Road. I t i n c l u d e s U.N.F„I.CYP. Headquarters l o c a t e d a t t h e f o r m e r i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t o f N i c o s i a , as w e l l as H.Q. CAN.CON. ( Canadian C o n t i n g e n t Contingent all is ) ; and H.Q. at Kokkina T r i m i t h i a , 1975 BRIT.CON. ( B r i t i s h AUST.CIV.POL. ( A u s t r a l i a n c i v i l i a n p o l i c e ) , s i t u a t e d near to the o l d a i r p o r t . In ) ; H.Q. The-headquarters o f Sector j u s t s o u t h o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard P.D.L. most o f t h e B u f f e r Zone was parched w a s t e l a n d , a dangerous a r e a o f c l o s e armed c o n f r o n t a t i o n , l a r g e t r a c t s o f i t mined w i t h marked a n t i - p e r s o n n e l and a n t i - t a n k m i n e s . d i v i s i o n f o r t h o s e C y p r i o t s who but can s t i l l un- I t r e p r e s e n t e d a more f o r * - b i d d i n g b a r r i e r t h a n t h e h i g h peaks o f t h e P e n t a d a c t y l o s , a across i t . Two see frustrating t h e i r o l d homes and W i t h i n c e n t r a l N i c o s i a the c e a s e - f i r e l i n e s almost fields coalesce, even i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e where t h e B u f f e r Zone i s up t o seven m i l e s wide the " o t h e r s i d e " i s always t a n t a l i z i n g l y close. The refugees l i v i n g i n P e r i s t e r o n a "...have been e v i c t e d f r o m t h e i r homes and but a t midday t h e y can s t i l l see orchards the o u t l i n e s of t h e i r o l d d w e l l i n g s a g a i n s t t h e s k y , and t h e r e i s some c o m f o r t , as as some p a i n , i n t h e p r o x i m i t y . now The i n v i s i b l e but palpable l i n e o f d i v i s i o n runs here, t o o . well still There i s no v i l l a g e o r t o w n , however f a r f r o m t h a t l i n e , w h i c h does n o t pay an i n d e m n i t y t o i t w i t h i m p o v e r i s h e d r e f u g e e h o u s i n g , w i t h memories." (83) Many Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s now Peristerona or Astromeritis l o s t l i v i n g i n the v i l l a g e s of Akaki, land to the Turks,north of Sector W i t h i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e B u f f e r Zone t h e r e a r e j u s t two i n h a b i t e d Mammari and D h e n i a , now mixed, and Two. villages b o t h Greek C y p r i o t , a l t h o u g h D h e n i a used t o be 187 1 I I I I • s m UJ I V) I I UJ (0 UJ (9 in 0 09 1 in / 1 i v i r y \ 1 \ 1 \\. CO 10 8 x U. o z ±U» O \ n - 188 - The f o l l o w i n g d e t a i l s are l a r g e l y taken from f i e l d observations i n April 1984 and t h e y s h o u l d be used w i t h Map 6.8. Most o f t h e l a n d e x t e n d i n g f r o m t h e o l d N i c o s i a a i r p o r t and U.N.P.I.CYP. H.Q. t o t h e v i l l a g e o f D h e n i a i s v e r y p o o r , w i t h l i t t l e few cultivated fields. has helped extend Line northwards little i r r i g a t i o n and S o u t h o f t h e F a r m i n g S e c u r i t y Line,U.N.P.I.CYP. c u l t i v a t i o n f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l Guard F o r w a r d Defence c l o s e t o t h e F.S.L.; b u t n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. t h e r e was e v i d e n c e o f any f a r m i n g o t h e r t h a n r o u g h g r a z i n g l a n d f o r g o a t s . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s own l e s s l a n d i n t h i s p a r t o f t h e B u f f e r Zone and a l s o have l e s s need t o c u l t i v a t e w i t h i n t h i s a r e a . Moving w e s t w a r d s u p t o D h e n i a t h e F.S.L. f o l l o w s a c o u r s e s o u t h o f t h e U.N. F o r c e p a t r o l which i n t u r n runs a d i s t a n c e o f twenty River Ovgos. track, t o f i f t y metres south o f t h e U.N.F.I.CYP. was p l a n n i n g t o move t h e F.S.L. u p t o t h e Ovgos i n o r d e r t o e x t e n d s o u t h o f t h e F.S.L. t h e a r e a o f p o s s i b l e Greek C y p r i o t cultivation Thus making a t i n y s e c t i o n o f t h e Ovgos a n a t u r a l b o u n d a r y between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. Opening f i e l d s o n t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e F.S.L. has been a p i e c e m e a l process. I n some a r e a s mines have been c l e a r e d , b u t t h e r e were p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone f e n c e d of old o f f owing t o suspected still m i n e f i e l d s . Much t h e l a n d u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h e " n e u t r a l zone" i s e i t h e r f a r m e d by owners o f l e a s e d t o new t e n a n t f a r m e r s . Refugees f r o m t h e n o r t h have been g i v e n Government g r a n t s t o buy l a n d . were t e m p t e d i n t o l e a s i n g l a n d a d j a c e n t Some o f t h e s e refugees t o o r w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone. P l o t s o f l a n d w i t h i n S e c t o r Two v a r y i n s i z e f r o m 5 t o 20 a c r e s . a v e r a g e d s i z e d p l o t o f TO t o 13 a c r e s An c o s t s a b o u t C£ 2,000 p e r annum t o farm. West o f D h e n i a t h e r e were i m p r o v e m e n t s i n t h e a r e a o f l a n d visibly u n d e r c u l t i v a t i o n , a l t h o u g h n o r t h o f t h e F.S.L. s c r u b l a n d and dead t r e e s were v i s i b l e . citrus The F.S.L. g e t s v e r y c l o s e t o t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e n e a r A v l o n a and w e s t w a r d s t o t h e end o f S e c t o r Two. t h e r e were many w e l l - t e n d e d c i t r u s o r c h a r d s I n this area and l e s s d r y c u l t i v a t i o n . - 189 - A r b i t r a t i o n o f w a t e r usage and s u p e r v i s i o n o f w a t e r b o r e - h o l e s a r e c r u c i a l r o l e s f o r U.N.P.I.CYP. i n S e c t o r s u p p l i e s a r e needed by b o t h s i d e s . r e s i d e n t s o f Avlona, behind U.N.P.I.CYP. has a l l o w e d t h e the cease-fire l i n e w i t h i n the Turkish s e c t o r , t o use a w a t e r b o r e - h o l e w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone so t h a t t h e v i l l a g e has a r e a d y w a t e r s u p p l y . in S e c t o r Two was t r y i n g Two where u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r U.N.P.I.CYP.'s Economics B r a n c h t o work a compromise b e t w e e n t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s and Greek C y p r i o t s o v e r t h e use o f two more water- b o r e - h o l e s and t h e r i g h t s o f Greeks t o c u l t i v a t e l a n d j u s t Akaki and Riverbed, c l o s e t o t h e P.S.L., T u r k i s h Army o b s e r v a t i o n Avlona v i l l a g e . s t r a t e g i c a r e a s can be opened it o v e r a l l impression neglected life with c a n be used and b e f o r e f i e l d s i n for-cultivation. o f Sector Two was o f an a r e a o f l a n d , much o f s i n c e t h e p a r t i t i o n i n August u n d e r U.N.P.I.CYP. a u s p i c e s . '74, s l o w l y coming back t o North o f t h e Farming S e c u r i t y U.N.P.I.CYP. has t r i e d t o e n c o u r a g e g r e a t e r T u r k i s h although posts, I n o t h e r words U.N.P.I.CYP. has t o n e g o t i a t e both sides before water bore-holes The t o t h e west o f t h e l a r g e t r a c t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone a d j a c e n t Line participation, t o t h e T u r k i s h F.D.L. b e l o n g s t o Greek C y p r i o t s and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t be f a r m e d by t h e T u r k s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s once owned l a n d s o u t h o f t h e F.S.L. i n some p a r t s o f t h e B u f f e r Zone. represents Thus t h e U.N. F o r c e - c o n t r o l l e d a r e a an a r t i f i c i a l g e o g r a p h i c a l s t r i p o f l a n d where i n t e r c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t y c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y t a k e p l a c e w i t h U.N.F.I.CYF. a s s i s t a n c e and mediation, although compromises f r o m each s i d e w i l l one guarantees / t h e o t h e r i f i t i s t o a l l o w t h e B u f f e r Zone t o become an a r e a o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l e x i s t e n c e . continues require considerable I n t h e meantime U.N.F.I.CYP. t o e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y o f Greek C y p r i o t f a r m e r s hundred yards o f T u r k i s h r i f l e s t h e P.S.L. passes c l o s e within i n a r e a s such as A v l o n a , where t h e t o t h e v i l l a g e . Some semblance o f n o r m a l i t y i s t h u s r e t u r n i n g t o an i m p o r t a n t w a s t e d "no-man's-land". working s t r i p o f land t h a t would otherwise be < u §5 0 ui a • > a 13 ai 0 2 5 - 191 - Section Four : Some C o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g U„N.F.I.CYP.'s Second Decade. I n June 1984 t h e d e f i c i t o f t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s was estimated t o be g 117.7 m i l l i o n . F o r c e i n Cyprus Account I n s p i t e o f t h i s huge the Secretary General concluded t h a t deficit :- " . . . t h e c o n t i n u i n g p r e s e n c e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. r e m a i n s indispensable and i n helping to maintain calm i n t h e i s l a n d i n c r e a t i n g the c o n d i t i o n s i n which the d i f f i c u l t s e a r c h f o r a p e a c e f u l s e t t l e m e n t can be p u r s u e d . " ( 8 4 ) Although t h e B r i t i s h and Canadians and t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t s e v e r a l s t a t e s have been w i l l i n g t o pay t h e c o s t s o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r other contingent t h e m a j o r s h a r e o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s f i n a n c i n g h a s been t h e v o l u n t a r y c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l was a b l e the United S t a t e s . deficit since Nevertheless to e l i c i t , particularly from t h e U.N. F o r c e has b u i l t up a c h r o n i c T964 when U Thant c o m p l a i n e d t h a t " t h e method o f f i n a n c i n g t h e Force i n Cyprus as d e f i n e d by t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l r e s o l u t i o n o f 4 March 19&4, i s most u n s a t i s f a c t o r y " 0 t h i s study t o discuss ( 8 5 ) I t i s beyond t h e scope o f a l t e r n a t i v e methods o f f i n a n c i n g , o r i n d e e d to give an e l a b o r a t e a p p r a i s a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o s t s , b u t as Adams and C o t t r e l l 1968, a r g u e d "U.N.F.I.CYP. c a n n o t go on i n d e f i n i t e l y . " ( 8 6 ) They added _ t h a t _ " i t _ c a n end s u c c e s s f u l l y - o n l y - w h e n - a p e r m a n e n t p o l i t ~ i c a l " s e t t l e m e n t f o r Cyprus i s somehow Apart from achieved." t h e s t a t u s quo t h e o p t i o n s a p p e a r t o be :- ( i ) W i t h d r a w a l o f U.N.F.I.CYP. b e f o r e a s e t t l e m e n t ; ( i i ) Reduction i n s t r e n g t h o f t h e Force. Given t h e c u r r e n t p o l i t i c a l stalemate probably i n Cyprus t h e f o r m e r choice would a g g r a v a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n by r e a c t i v a t i n g i n t e r c o m m u n a l v i o l e n c e . As f o r t h e l a t t e r p o i n t , U.N.F.I.CYP.'s s t r e n g t h i n June T984 was 2,348 considerably l e s s t h a n i t s e a r l i e r days i n C y p r u s . A token presence o f a f e w h u n d r e d " b l u e b e r r e t s " w o u l d r e d u c e i t s e f f e c t i v e n e s s and c r e d i b i l i t y as a p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e . E i t h e r o p t i o n , complete withdrawal o r a f u r t h e r s c a l i n g down o f o p e r a t i o n s , c o u l d be i n t e r p r e t e d as an a d m i s s i o n by t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l o f t h e i n t r a c t a b i l i t y o f t h e Cyprus - 192 - Problem. almost The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d see a U.N.F.I.CYP. w i t h d r a w a l as i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n and t h e m i c r o - s t a t e t h e y have c r e a t e d w i t h t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f T u r k e y . one The l e a s t can say a b o u t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f U.N.F.I.CYP.'s c o n t i n u e d s t a y i n Cyprus i s t h a t i t i s a v i s i b l e r e m i n d e r of international intermediary e f f o r t s by t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l t o b r i n g t h e two s i d e s t o g e t h e r a r o u n d the n e g o t i a t i n g t a b l e . More s i g n i f i c a n t l y , U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t s as a c o m m u n i c a t i o n c h a n n e l between t h e c o m m u n i t i e s , p r o v i d i n g n o t o n l y a sense o f s e c u r i t y b u t a r a y o f hope t h a t one day t h e de f a c t o b o u n d a r y s e p a r a t i n g them w i l l bridged. T h i s c h a p t e r has d e a l t w i t h t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s and s o c i o - e c o n o m i c u p h e a v a l s c r e a t e d by t h e p a r t i t i o n o f C y p r u s , s u b s e q u e n t changes i n human g e o g r a p h y on b o t h s i d e s o f t h e d i v i d i n g l i n e , and the a c t i v i t i e s o f U.N.F.I.CYP. i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e new f a c t s on t h e g r o u n d . Seven examines i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l t h e K y p r i a n o u proposals and Chapter- - Denktas impasse; r e c e n t f o r a s e t t l e m e n t a n d / o r c o n c e s s i o n s o f f e r e d by e i t h e r s i d e ; t h e p o s s i b l e f u t u r e r o l e o f U.N.F.I.CYP. g i v e n t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o r e m a i n i n Cyprus f o r some c o n s i d e r a b l e a passive time. plays r o l e i n t h e p o l i t i c s o f t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m , u n a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e t h e main a c t o r s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d i v i s i o n . t h e B u f f e r Zone have h e l p e d into U.N.F.I.CYP. i t s e l f cultivation. But i t s a c t i v i t i e s i n t o b r i n g v a l u a b l e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d back One p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a " r e t u r n t o n o r m a l i t y " i n f u t u r e c o u l d be r e s t o r a t i o n o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t y w i t h i n n e u t r a l zone. U.N.F.I.CYP. e s c o r t s a r e s t i l l t h e r e i s any movement o f C y p r i o t s a c r o s s that t h e o n l y means by w h i c h the p a r t i t i o n l i n e s . Finally, U.N.F.I.CYP. has i n j e c t e d s u b s t a n t i a l amounts o f money i n t o t h e l o c a l economy i n t h e f o r m o f demand f o r l o c a l l y p r o d u c e d goods. As Greek C y p r i o t s o c c a s i o n a l l y remark t h e " b l u e b e r r e t s " a r e " t h e b e s t in Cyprus". tourists - F o o t n o t e s and T93 - References. (T) H i t c h e n s . C . 1984, Cyprus. ( Q u a r t e t Books ) , p . 2 1 . (2) C a t s e l l i , R . T979, Refugee i n My Homeland. ( K y r e n i a F l o w e r Show edition, (3) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t shopkeeper York Times. " A v g h i " P r i n t i n g Co. i n a r e p o r t by N i c h o l a s Gage, The 29/04/78, p.2. The Road t o B e l l a p a i s . C a t s e l l i , op. c i t . . (5) F o r a more comprehensive J u l y - August Also q u o t e d i n O b e r l i n g . P . ( Columbia (4) ) , p.47. U n i v e r s i t y Press New 1982, ) , p.224. p.18 and k n o w l e d g a b l e a c c o u n t o f t h e e v e n t s o f 1974 r e f e r t o t h e r e l e v a n t works c i t e d i n t h e B i b l i o - graphy . (6) C a t s e l l i , op. c i t . . p.38 (7) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , No.30, 1984, C y p r u s . p.14. (8) U.N. Doc. S/11568, 6 December 1974, p a r a . (9) U.N. Doc. S/11433, p a r a . ( 1 0 ) Woodhouse.C.M. T984, T2. 2T. A S h o r t H i s t o r y o f Modern Greece. ( P e n g u i n ) p.305. ( 1 T ) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op. c i t . . p.15. (T2) i b i d . ( 1 3 ) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.102. ( 1 4 ) S e v e r a l commentators a r g u e t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was the major e x t e r n a l power b e h i n d e v e n t s , by i t s s u p p o r t o f t h e Greek J u n t a , t h e coup a g a i n s t M a k a r i o s , i t s " t i l t " t o w a r d s T u r k e y and p a s s i v e a c q u i e s c e n c e and d i p l o m a t i c b l u n d e r i n g o v e r t h e m i l i t a r y intervention. Refer to Bibliography. ( 1 5 ) Beeley,B.W. 1978, 'The Greek - T u r k i s h b o u n d a r y : C o n f l i c t a t t h e Interface' i n Institute of British T r a n s a c t i o n s . New Geographers S e r i e s , Vol.3,No.3., p . 3 5 1 . ( 1 6 ) K a r o u z i s . G . 1976, P r o p o s a l s f o r a s o l u t i o n t o t h e Cyprus Problem. ( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a ) , p.94. (17) S t a t i s t i c a l sources :- ( i ) Census o f P o p u l a t i o n and A g r i c u t u r e , Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , N i c o s i a , T962. ( i i ) Demographic R e p o r t f o r " t h e Y e a r T970, D e p a r t m e n t and R e s e a r c h , of Statistics Nicosia. ( T 8 ) S t a t i s t i c s f r o m Drury.M.P. T98T, 'The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f i n Change and Development i n t h e M i d d l e E a s t by J . I . C l a r k e & H.Bowen-Jones ) , and U.N. Doc. 1960, Cyprus' ( edited ( Methuen ) , p.293. S/TT717, 9 June T975', p a r a . 3 4 . ( T 9 ) D r u r y , op. c i t . . pp. 296 - 297. ( 2 0 ) U.N. Doc. S/11568, 6 Dec.'74, p a r a , 3 3 & 43. (21) U.N. Doc. S/11433, I n t e r i m R e p o r t b y t h e S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l t o t h e - 194 - S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , 10 August 1974, (22) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.106. (23) O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . , p.T86. (24) U.N. (25) ibid.. (26) U.N. (27) ibid.. (28) O b e r l i n g , op. c i t . . p.193. (29) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.T08. (30) King.R. p a r a . 17. Doc. S/11717, p a r a . 28. p a r a s . 23 & 35. Doc. S/1T900, 8 December T975, p a r a . TO. p a r a s . 34 - 35- Nov.1979, 'North o f the A t t i l a Line' i n Geographical Magazine, p.124. (31) S t a t i s t i c s f r o m t h e P l a n n i n g B u r e a u , T975, The Economic of t h e T u r k i s h I n v a s i o n and t h e F u t u r e P r o s p e c t s o f t h e Cyprus Economy. (32) Consequences ( Government Printing Office, Nicosia ) . The P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , N i c o s i a , 1974, The A t t i l a "Peacemakers". p.67. (33) K a r o u z i s . G . T977, Land Ownership i n C y p r u s . ( Cosmos P r e s s , N i c o s i a ) , p.120. (34) Symeanides.N.S. 1977, 'The u n i t y o f t h e economy and t h e economics of s e p a r a t i o n ' i n Cyprus Reviewed Attalides (35) Drury.M. Jan.T977, ( e d i t e d by M. ) ( The Jus C y p r i Ass., N i c o s i a ) , p . 260. ' W e s t e r n Cyprus - Two Decades o f P o p u l a t i o n U p h e a v a l , 1956 Institute - '76.' of British (36) The G u a r d i a n . 09/04/84, (37) D r u r y . M . 198T, op. c i t . . p.196. (38) The G u a r d i a n , op. c i t . . p.22. (39) ibid.. (40) King,R. 1980, A paper presented t o the Geographers A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e . S p e c i a l R e p o r t on C y p r u s , p.22. p.T9. 'Cyprus s i n c e T974: Economic and Demographic Paper p r e s e n t e d t o t h e Geography S e c t i o n , F i f t h Conference, B a r - I l a n U n i v e r s i t y , T e l A v i v , 5 - 7 (4T) The G u a r d i a n , o p . c i t . . p.20. (42) Burton,S.P. Change', Mediterranean August 1980, p.7. 1983, 'Land C o n s o l i d a t i o n and Changes i n t h e A g r a r i a n Landscape o f C y p r u s ' , ( Leicester University O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r , 10 ) . (43) D r u r y , Jan.1977, op. c i t . (44) The G u a r d i a n , op. c i t . . p.20. (45) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t , op. c i t . . p.16. (46) King.R. August 1980, o p . c i t . . p.8. (47) H i t c h e n s , op. c i t . . p.112. (48) The G u a r d i a n . T6/12/79, R e p o r t by John T o r o d e , ' T u r k i s h begin t o take r o o t i n Cyprus'. Istitutions - 195 - K i n g , 1980, o p . c i t . . M.E.E.D., T4/03/80, p.4. Rauf Denktas^ i n an i n t e r v i e w w i t h D a v i d Shirreff. H i t c h e n s , o p . c i t . . p.T04. K i n g , 1980, o p . c i t . . p.5. H i t c h e n s , o p . c i t . . pp.110-T11. ibid.. p.118. M.E.E.D.. 22/04/77, p.116, an a r t i c l e by D a v i d S h i r r e f f , 'Northern C y p r u s : Ambiguous s t a t u s h i n d e r s d e v e l o p m e n t ' . O b e r l l n g , o p . c i t . . p.238. K i n g , Nov.1979, G e o g r a p h i c a l Magazine, pp.117-124. ibid. U.N. Doc. S/11568, p a r a . 17. i b i d . , p a r a . 26. U„N„ D o c S/11900, p a r a s . 10 & 15. i b i d . . p a r a . 29. i b i d . . p a r a . 45. U.N. Doc. S/15502, 1 December T982, p a r a . 17. U.N. Doc. S/1'6596, 1 June 1984, p a r a . 2 6 . Cyprus M a i l . 18/04/84, p.3. U.N. Doc. S/16596', p a r a . 2 2 . U.N. Doc. S/15T49, 1 June 1982, p a r a . 13. U.N. Doc. S/158T2, 1 June T983, p a r a . 14 - 15. UoN„ Doc. S/13369, p a r a . 12. U.N. Doc. 8/16596, p a r a . T3. U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 4 6 . i-bidr. para. 44i U.N. Docs. :- S / T 5 5 j 0 2 , p a r a . 2 6 ; S/15812, para.. 27 ; S/16192, p a r a . 30; and S/16596, p a r a . 30: U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 3 1 . U.N. Doc. S / 1 5 5 0 2 , p a r a . 25. U.N. Doc. S / 1 5 8 1 2 , p a r a . 3 2 . U.N. Doc. S/11900, p a r a . 2 1 . D e t a i l s f r o m an i n t e r v i e w w i t h L t . C o l . Ferdinand Pelzer, Chief H u m a n i t a r i a n O f f i c e r , U.N.P.I.CYP., i n A p r i l 1984. U.N„ Doc. S / 1 5 8 1 2 , p a r a . 3 4 . U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 3 7 . U.N, Doc. S/T5812, p a r a s . 35' - 3 6 . Hitchens, op. c i t . , p.21. U.N. Doc. S/16596, p a r a . 6 2 . U.N. Doc. S / 5 7 6 4 , 15 J u n e , 1964, p a r a . 127. - 196 - ( 8 6 ) Adams,T.W., and C o t t r e l l , A . J . , the D D 0 D D D D D Q Q D Q Q 1968, 'American f o r e i g n p o l i c y and U.N. p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i n C y p r u s ' i n O r b i s . v o l . 1 2 , no.2 (summer T968),pp.5O0 - - 197 - CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION. POLITICAL IMPASSE AND U.N.F.I.CYP. TWENTY YEARS ON. " P h o b i a s w i l l have t o be overcome o n b o t h s i d e s . . . t i m e i s running o u t , . . . a s y e a r s pass and new g e n e r a t i o n s f e w e r p e o p l e w i l l have any p e r s o n a l grow- up experience o f l i v i n g w i t h members o f t h e o t h e r C y p r i o t community..." ( 1 ) " The w e i g h t o f t h e p a s t i s i n d i c a t e d by s y m b o l s , such as f l a g s and b e l i e f s a b o u t h i s t o r y , and t h e p r e s e n t i s circumscribed by d i v i d i n g l i n e s , l e a d e r s and t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e y impose on f o l l o w e r s , b a r b e d w i r e and m i l i t a r y organisation . . . . r e l a t i o n s between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i s t h e d u a l one, o f h i s t o r y and power p o l i t i c s . " ( 2 ) " G e n e r a t i o n s o f c h i l d r e n w i l l grow up i n m u t u a l i g n o r a n c e o f , and a n t i p a t h y towards, the other side. At present, amongst l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f t h e o r d i n a r y p o p u l a t i o n and e d u c a t e d there i s s t i l l some g o o d w i l l . T h i s g o o d w i l l may be p l a y e d down by t h e T u r k s who see t h i n g s f r o m a p a r t i t i o n i s t and classes, e x a g g e r a t e d by t h e Greeks, who h a n k e r a f t e r an viewpoint, unrepeatable Utopian view o f a p e r f e c t l y i n t e g r a t e d s o c i e t y , but i t e x i s t s . " ( 3 ) Many g e o p o l i t i c a l l e s s o n s have been l e a r n t by t h e Greek C y p r i o t E n o s i s i s dead. community. The T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h o l d t h e u p p e r hand i n t h e p o l i t i c a l arena owing t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f the so-called " A t t i l a factor".(4) have t h e i r own de f a c t o m i c r o - s t a t e , e c o n o m i c a l l y They weak and dependent on T u r k e y f o r i t ' s s u r v i v a l , b u t a s t a t e p r o t e c t e d by a b r u t a l l y effective b o u n d a r y , w h i c h has s t o o d for o v e r a decade as an u n r a t i f i e d political i n t e r f a c e between Greeks and T u r k s . p h y s i c a l and p o l i t i c a l r e a l i t y . to Greek C y p r i o t s c a n n o t escape Whilst President Kyprianou this continues keep t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m a l i v e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l s p h e r e , backed up by r e i t e r a t e d U n i t e d N a t i o n s r e s o l u t i o n s , t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r e s l o w l y - 198 - p u t t i n g t h e i r "pseudo s t a t e " on t h e map. ( 5 ) As t h e y e a r s pass by t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h i s T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e w i l l seem l e s s e q u i v o c a l and t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a c o m p r e h e n s i v e s o l u t i o n t o t h e Cyprus P r o b l e m diminishes. I n some r e s p e c t s U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p r e s e n c e i s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o a p a c i f i c p e r p e t u a t i o n o f p a r t i t i o n , b u t e q u a l l y i t s p o s i t i o n as a " b u f f e r f o r c e " seems a s s u r e d f o r as l o n g as t h e S e c r e t a r y - G e n e r a l c o n t i n u e s t o keep b o t h l e a d e r s h i p s o f community l e a d e r s negotiating. Before discussing t o w a r d s U.N.P.I.CYP. s i n c e his efforts the attitude t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f an i n d e p e n d e n t R e p u b l i c by t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s o n 15 November T983, some d i s c u s s i o n o f proposed concessions and/or s e t t l e m e n t s i s required. S i n c e August T974, most i n t e r c o m m u n a l p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e has been o v e r three fundamental issues :- (a) Turkish Cypriot t e r r i t o r i a l concessions; (b) The t y p e o f bicommunal f e d e r a l s t a t e t o emerge f r o m (c) The p r o b l e m o f r e f u g e e s , a settlement; p a r t i c u l a r l y those from n o r t h e r n Cyprus: I n F e b r u a r y 1977 M a k a r i o s - D e n k t a s t a l k s l e d t o a number o f Greek b C y p r i o t compromises. non-aligned Makarios agreed w i t h t h e i d e a o f an i n d e p e n d e n t , and bicommunal F e d e r a l Republic. He a l s o a g r e e d t o - p r o p o r t i o n s - o f t e r r i t o r y ~ t o — b e - u n d e r t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ~ e a c h community, t h e p r o p o r t i o n s t o be a g r e e d i n t e r m s o f economic v i a b i l i t y o r p r o d u c t i v i t y and l a n d - o w n e r s h i p . As t h e 1984 M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group R e p o r t on Cyprus p o i n t e d o u t , f e d e r a t i o n i s n o t an easy f o r m o f government anywhere, l e a s t o f a l l o n a s m a l l i s l a n d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 700,000 p e o p l e , " o n l y two u n i t s , d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r i e s and d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e numbers". ( 6 ) It i s beyond t h e scope o f t h i s s t u d y d e t a i l and t o a p p l y out-standing t o examine f e d e r a l s o l u t i o n s i n them t o C y p r u s , b u t i t i s w e l l t o be aware o f some questions w h i c h w o u l d need t o be a n s w e r e d . how i n t e g r a t e d w o u l d t h e s t a t e be ? Would t h e r e be f u l l ment f o j r C y p r i o t s a l l o v e r t h e i s l a n d ? r e t u r n t o o l d homes and p r o p e r t y 0 F o r example, f r e e d o m o f move- Would r e f u g e e s be a l l o w e d t o There a r e numerous o t h e r s . - An alternative 199 - s o l u t i o n t o bicommunal f e d e r a t i o n i n two g e o g r a p h i c a l zones has been s u g g e s t e d by George K a r o u z i s ( 1976 ) , who c a l c u l a t e d a m u l t i - r e g i o n a l f e d e r a l s y s t e m based on seven T u r k i s h C y p r i o t (7) ( r e f e r t o Map.2.4 ) These " r e g i o n s " were w o r k e d o u t f r o m "regions". a detailed s t u d y o f p r e - 1 9 7 4 v i l l a g e , v i l l a g e b o u n d a r y , l a n d o w n e r s h i p and p o p u l a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s f o r both communities. existence Although Karouzis notes the o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t e n c l a v e s f r o m December T963 t o J u l y - A u g u s t T 9 7 4 , h i s " T u r k i s h r e g i o n s " a r e based l a r g e l y on t h e T960 Census o f Population and A g r i c u l t u r e . He a r g u e s : - "...as i t h a s been p r o v e d , t h e r e e x i s t s no g e o g r a p h i c a l basis i n Cyprus f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t r e g i o n s " , whatever c r i t e r i o n i s used- " p h y s i o a g r i c u l t u r a l , m o r p h o l o g i c a l , logical, e c o n o m i c , town p l a n n i n g " . He compares h i s " T u r k i s h r e g i o n " t o t h e Swiss c a n t o n s , " w h i c h a l s o e x t e n d geographical hydro- areas o f o t h e r r e g i o n s into and o f t e n i n c l u d e enclaves s i t u a t e d i n other cantons." ( 8 ) Karouzis favours a loose form o f f e d e r a t i o n w i t h f u l l f r e e d o m o f movement and s t r o n g c e n t r a l g o v e r n m e n t , b u t he a d m i t s t h e need f o r " p r o t e c t i o n and s e c u r i t y " o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s "under a system o f broad l o c a l Such a m u l t i - r e g i o n a l s o l u t i o n o r c a n t o n a l autonomy" s y s t e m w o u l d r e q u i r e an end t o f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e r c o m m u n a l p h o b i a s and t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f some sense of "national u n i t y " . As P r o f e s s o r Pechoux a r g u e s , t h e Swiss d e v e l o p e d "a Swiss n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g " o v e r and above l i n g u i s t i c , cultural r e l i g i o u s , and factionalism. " There c e r t a i n l y l i e s t h e m a i n d i f f e r e n c e w i t h Cyprus where t h e C y p r i o t n a t i o n a l f e e l i n g , i f i t has even e x i s t e d , was a l w a y s subordinate The (9) t o d i s t i n c t Greek o r T u r k i s h n a t i o n a l i s m . " e v e n t s o f t h e Summer o f '74 has l e d many Greek C y p r i o t s t o change minds a b o u t t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f E n o s i s . as one r e p o r t p o i n t s o u t :- " I t i s a p a r a d o x t h a t a g e n u i n e sense o f C y p r i o t n e s s seemed t o emerge o n t h e Greek C y p r i o t s i d e a f t e r t h e d i s a s t r o u s e n g i n e e r e d by t h e F a s c i s t j u n t a i n A t h e n s . Not u n t i l f a c e d w i t h de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n and e x c l u s i o n f r o m t h e i r Cypriotness above t h e i r - G r e e k n e s s . . . " coup they were their t r a d i t i o n a l v i l l a g e s i n t h e N o r t h o f t h e i s l a n d d i d Greek value thei (TO) Cypriot - 200 - I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 1 I I - 201 - T h i s g e o p o l i t i c a l change o f h e a r t on t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e p a r t i t i o n has n o t made t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s m o r e - w i l l i n g t o compromise. Even t h o u g h EnosiB i s no l o n g e r h e a r d . . . " . . . t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s a r e so i s o l a t e d f r o m c o n t a c t w i t h Greeks t h a t t h e y f i n d t h i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t Nevertheless, probably t o accept." (TT) under a b i z o n a l f e d e r a l system t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would have t o make g e n e r o u s t e r r i t o r i a l c o n c e s s i o n s t o t h e Greek Cypriots. In 1978 - '79, K y p r i a n o u and D e n k t a | d i s c u s s e d concessions. possible territorial A Greek map o f a b i z o n a l Cyprus was p r o d u c e d ( see Map 7.1 ) . T h i s e n v i s a g e d a T u r k i s h C y p r i o t zone c o v e r i n g a b o u t t w e n t y p e r c e n t o f t h e i s l a n d i n s t e a d o f t h e t h i r t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t now h e l d . Such a s e t t l e - ment w o u l d e n a b l e a s u b s t a n t i a l number o f Greek C y p r i o t r e f u g e e s t o r e t u r n t o f o r m e r homes and p r o p e r t y . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s w o u l d be l e f t w i t h a s m a l l p a r t o f t h e M e s a o r i a , t h e P e n t a d a k t y l o s , and K y r e n i a line. According t o Rauf D e n k t a s , t h i s was a Greek C y p r i o t a t t e m p t t o c o n f i n e " T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s on a d r y r o c k y goats can't s t r e t c h o f m o u n t a i n where- even l i v e . " (12) A T u r k i s h map o f p r o p o s e d t e r r i t o r i a l r e a d j u s t m e n t s was p r e s e n t e d n e g o t i a t i o n i n August 1 9 8 1 . S i x s p e c i f i c t e r r i t o r i a l offered for c o n c e s s i o n s were> ( r e f e r t o Map 7.2 ) , an a r e a c o v e r i n g a b o u t t h r e e p e r c e n t o f the t o t a l land s u r f a c e o f Cyprus. i ) Varosha, t h e southern ii) coast- These s i x a r e a s were :- s u b u r b o f Pamagusta, p l u s D e r i n i a . A l a r g e a r e a o f l a n d n o r t h o f t h e B r i t i s h S o v e r e i g n Base a t D h e k e l i a . This area i n c l u d e s t h e v i l l a g e s o f K o u k l i a , Kalopsidha, Kandea, L y s i , Makrasyka and A t h n a , w h i c h were p r i m a r i l y Greek C y p r i o t w i t h t h e exception o f Kouklia before iii) T974. The L o u r o u j i n a s a l i e n t , i n c l u d i n g t h e v i l l a g e s o f L o u r o u j i n a and P y r o i , as w e l l as t h e segment o f t h e N i c o s i a - L a r n a c a r o a d which passes t h r o u g h i t . i v ) The v i l l a g e o f A v l o n a and v i c i n i t y . v ) The L i m n i t i s r e g i o n , west o f L e f k a , i n c l u d i n g v a r i o u s s m a l l villages upto/and i n c l u d i n g Ambelikou - K a r o v o s t a s i . v i ) Kokkina enclave, w i t h i t s aging T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o p u l a t i o n , ironically - I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 202 - - a p i e c e o f l a n d t h a t has t h a n two S i n c e 198T 20b - been p u r e l y T u r k i s h t e r r i t o r y f o r l o n g e r decades. t h e r e have been no b r e a k t h r o u g h s i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l n e g o t i a t i o n s . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t l e a d e r s have pushed f o r - t h e r e o p e n i n g which since 1974 Greeks i n t e r p r e t separate has been used as a U n i t e d N a t i o n s of Nicosia Airport, parade ground. The t h e D e n k t a ^ demands as 50:50 use- o f t h e a i r p o r t w i t h a p p r o a c h e s f r o m each s i d e and t h e r e f o r e the proposal separate customs a r r a n g e m e n t s , i s u n a c c e p t a b l e t o them. (T3) On several o c c a s i o n s t h e T u r k s have o f f e r e d t o r e o p e n V a r o s h a t o Greek C y p r i o t s under the aegis o f the United Nations. was T h i s once w e a l t h y s e a l e d o f f by t h e T u r k i s h Army i n T974. occupants evacuated, l e a v i n g behind Greek s u b u r b I t s 35,000 Greek C y p r i o t an u n i n h a b i t e d g h o s t r e s o r t , w i t h a b a r r e n s t r e t c h o f beach f r o n t e d by empty h o t e l s , a l l g u a r d e d by f e n c e s and Turkish soldiers. I n T978 p l a n s high t o r e o p e n V a r o s h a were- r e j e c t e d by t h e Cyprus Government on t h e g r o u n d s t h a t t h e Greek C y p r i o t r e t u r n e e s w o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y be c o n f i n e d t o a n a r r o w enclave- a l o n g coast. I n e f f e c t t h e Greek C y p r i o t owners and f o r t h e economic and the s t a f f would run the h o t e l s p o l i t i c a l advantage o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t S i n c e T 9 7 8 , p a r t s o f V a r o s h a have been opened f o r T u r k i s h zone. Cypriot o c c u p a t i o r i , jmd^n_ej»?ly_T98_4_a number o f — a d j u s t m e n t s were-made t o t h e suburb's p e r i m e t e r fence and t e n t o t w e n t y houses were r e p o r t e d t o i n h a b i t e d by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s . As be (T4) i s t h e case w i t h V a r o s h a , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s e t t l e m e n t p o l i c y i s tending to m i l i t a t e against a settlement. s c e p t i c a l about a c c e p t i n g so t h e y w o u l d be s o l u t i o n between two refugee problem. remain T u r k i s h c o n c e s s i o n s i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t by somehow r e c o g n i z i n g t h e l e g i t i m a c y o f t h e r e s t o f Cypriot-held t e r r i t o r y , Another worry Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s t h u s moving a s t e p c l o s e r t o a de j u r e distinct doing Turkish bizonal s t a t e s . ^. f o r t h e Greek C y p r i o t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s t h e m a s s i v e As K a r o u z i s correctly points out:- " I t w o u l d n o t be r e a l i s t i c . . . t o t h i n k t h a t the refugees of the - 204 - North w i l l , i n due c o u r s e , stifle their grief, their t h e i r b i t t e r n e s s and t h e i r d i s a p p o i n t m e n t to c a p i t u l a t e by a c c e p t i n g and w i l l anger, be f o r c e d t o l i v e i n s m a l l v i l l a g e s o r towns away f r o m t h e p l a c e where t h e y were b o r n , where t h e y grew u p , where t h e y b u i l t toil At p r e s e n t t h e i r houses and p r o p e r t i e s , o f t e n w i t h much and m o i l . " (15) i t seems h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that the Turkish Cypriots will accept a n y t h i n g o t h e r than a bicommunal, b i z o n a l f e d e r a l s o l u t i o n w i t h power i n v e s t e d i n t h e two f e d e r a l powers r a t h e r t h a n a s t r o n g f e d e r a l government. central They a r e n o t k e e n t o open up t h e de f a c t o border between t h e two C y p r i o t c o m m u n i t i e s and have c a r r i e d o u t p o l i c i e s militating of a g a i n s t a r e u n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d even u n d e r some federation. type F o r i n s t a n c e , some Greek C y p r i o t p r o p e r t y has been b o u g h t by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n t h e n o r t h , even t h o u g h t h i s i s i l l e g a l according t o t h e Cyprus Government i n t h e s o u t h . Furthermore, the p r e s e n c e o f m a i n l a n d T u r k i s h s e t t l e r s i n t h e n o r t h has c r e a t e d obstacle in t o an e v e n t u a l s o l u t i o n . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s have a l s o some a r e a s o f f e r e d as t e r r i t o r i a l another settled concessions t o t h e Greeks. As mentioned i n Chapter S i x , T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s are a l s o w o r r i e d t h a t i f the ' b o r d e r ' i s opened up t h e y w i l l be swamped n u m e r i c a l l y and commercially by Greek C y p r i o t s . In August 1983, Senor J a v i e r P e r e z de C u e l l a r , attempted suggesting t o i n i t i a t e new f o r w a r d moves i n i n t e r c o m m u n a l d i s c u s s i o n s by a s e t o f ' i n d i c a t o r s ' o r o p t i o n s t o be c o n s i d e r e d work f o r n e g o t i a t i o n s by b o t h s i d e s . (i) as a f r a m e - These i n d i c a t o r s were :- Would b o t h s i d e s a c c e p t t h a t t h e T u r k s s h o u l d keep a minimum of (ii) Secretary-General, 23 % o f t h e i s l a n d and a maximum o f 30 % ; There s h o u l d be a c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h l i n k s between t h e f e d e r a l government and two p r o v i n c i a l g o v e r n m e n t s . Perez de C u e l l a r advocated a f u l l p r e s i d e n t i a l system, t h e P r e s i d e n t charge o f the southern Vice-President ( Greek C y p r i o t ) province being i n leaving the t o be t h e n o r t h e r n p r o v i n c i a l p r e s i d e n t ( i.e. T u r k i s h C y p r i o t ) , i n w h i c h case t h e members o f t h e C o u n c i l o f M i n i s t e r s w o u l d be i n a 6:4 ratio. - 205 - (iii) A l t e r n a t i v e l y t h e r e c o u l d be a P r e s i d e n t i a l - c u m - P r i m e Minister s y s t e m , t h e s e two t o p e x e c u t i v e p o s t s s h o u l d be r o t a t e d between t h e p r e s i d e n t s o f t h e two p r o v i n c e s , w i t h a 7:3 r a t i o on t h e f e d e r a l e x e c u t i v e i n f a v o u r o f t h e Greek C y p r i o t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y Mr Spyros K y p r i a n o u (16) o n l y gave t h e s e p r o p o s a l s a luke-warm r e c e p t i o n , w h i e Rauf D e n k t a s p r e p a r e d f o r U.D.I., t h u s k i l l i n g "another 6 U n i t e d N a t i o n s p l a n f o r Cyprus a t b i r t h . " ( 1 7 ) On 15 November 1983 Rauf D e n k t a s and t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Assembly p r o c l a i m e d the independence o f the " T u r k i s h R e p u b l i c o f N o r t h e r n Cyprus". I n a summary o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e T.R.N.C. i t was s t a t e d :" A l l t h a t i s b e i n g done t o d a y i s t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n a n d d e c l a r a t i o n o f an e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y and t h e r e n a m i n g o f our state." Rauf D e n k t a s made h i m s e l f n o n - p a r t y P r e s i d e n t o f t h e new R e p u b l i c . The Times r e p o r t e d t h e f o l l o w i n g day :" . . . t h e r e i s no doubt is t h a t the p r o c l a m a t i o n o f independence an e v e n t o f g r e a t s y m b o l i c and e m o t i o n a l and u n d o u b t e d l y does r e f l e c t significance... the desire o f the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community as a whole t o have i t s s e p a r a t e identity r e c o g n i z e d and be t r e a t e d on an e q u a l f o o t i n g w i t h t h e Greeks." ( 1 6 ) T h i s a c t i o n h a s c o n s o l i d a t e d a decade o f de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n a n d two decades o f s e p a r a t i o n f r o m t h e R e p u b l i c o f C y p r u s . Or as D e n k t a s p r e f e r s b t o p u t i t :- " We have n o t seceded f r o m t h e R e p u b l i c o f C y p r u s , we have been t h r o w n o u t o f i t and we have h a d t o p u t t h e r o o f o f s t a t e hood o v e r o u r Heads." ( T 9 ) Some Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s a r g u e t h a t D e n k t a s h a s n e v e r w a n t e d a f e d e r a l s o l u t i o n b u t j u s t p r e s i d e n c y o v e r h i s ' L i l l i p u t i a n S t a t e ' , and t h e y that 'U.D.I.' i s a permanent a p p r o p r i a t i o n by t h e T u r k s . Denktaa a r g u e s t h a t "U.D.I, does n o t p r e c l u d e f e d e r a t i o n fear I n contrast, 'on a f a i r b a s i s ' b (20) F o l l o w i n g t h e announcement o f an i n d e p e n d e n t Northern Republic t h e Greek C y p r i o t s went t o t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h e T.R.N.C. as - 206 - J K Y BOD 1 P PIG .7:1 Greek C y p r i o t c a r t o o n d e p i c t i n g Rauf D e n k t a s , t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d President o f the Turkish Republic Northern of Northern Cyprus f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e i s l a n d . Cyprus, c u t t i n g o f f - 207 - "illegal". I n s p i t e ^ o f t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l condemnation o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t independence P r e s i d e n t K y p r i a n o u was u n a b l e t o p e r s u a d e t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community t o impose economic s a n c t i o n s Cyprus. ( 2 1 ) Only Turkey r e c o g n i z e d side o f the Turkish on Northern t h e T.R.N.C., b u t t i m e i s on t h e Cypriots. " We have de f a c t o s u p p o r t , de f a c t o sympathy f r o m many c o u n t r i e s we e x p e c t e d t o g i v e us r e c o g n i t i o n . . . R e c o g n i t i o n may have t o w a i t a l i t t l e In April leaders built longer." (22) 1984, U n i t e d N a t i o n s s p e c i a l Cyprus envoy Hugo Gobbi met t h e o f b o t h c o m m u n i t i e s i n an a t t e m p t t o defuse t h e t e n s i o n t h a t had up o v e r T u r k i s h C y p r i o t moves t o ' s o l i d i f y ' t h e i r breakaway s t a t e . E a r l i e r , T u r k e y and t h e s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s t a t e f o r m a l l y cemented d i p l o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s by e x c h a n g i n g Ambassadors i n A n k a r a and Nicosia. U n f o r t u n a t e l y Hugo Gobbi was u n a b l e t o move e i t h e r s i d e together o r t o prevent Denktas from h i s plans closer to establish a Constitution i n t h e n o r t h and t o h o l d e l e c t i o n s . ( 2 3 ) U.N.F.I.CYP.'s F u t u r e . The Cyprus P r o b l e m s h o u l d intercommunal p o l i t i c s . n o t o n l y be v i e w e d a t t h e p a r o c h i a l l e v e l o f ( r e f e r t o C h a p t e r One ) The i n t e r a c t i o n o r d i n a r y Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s h a s n e v e r been f r e e f r o m interference or influence. between outside S i n c e U.D.I, r e l a t i o n s between Greece and T u r k e y o v e r Cyprus have h a r d e n e d . Ozal's f i r s t speech as P r i m e M i n i s t e r o f T u r k e y i n November T983 m e n t i o n e d Cyprus as "a d a g g e r p o i n t e d a t t h e b e l l y o f Turkey". Greece h a s a l s o t h r e a t e n e d troops t o southern Cyprus t o s t r e n g t h e n position. t o send more m a i n l a n d t h e Greek C y p r i o t s ' bargaining ( 2 4 ) Thus U.N.F.I.CYP.'s p o s i t i o n on Cyprus as a n i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e a c e k e e p i n g f o r c e i s as i m p o r t a n t as e v e r . The d e c l a r a t i o n o f i n d e p e n d e n c e by D e n k t a s has r e i n f o r c e d " p s y c h o l o g i c a l green l i n e s " t o progress. Many Greek C y p r i o t s b e l i e v e t h a t T u r k e y i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y an e x p a n s i o n i s t o f Ankara's support country o f t h e Denkta^ regime. and t h e y a r e c o n s c i o u s On t h e o t h e r h a n d , many - 208 - T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s now f e e l a sense o f s e c u r i t y t h e y d i d n o t f e e l to the Turkish m i l i t a r y i n t e r v e n t i o n , although i l l u s i o n e d by t h e i r Hitchens 'pseudo-state's' continued prior some o f them may be d i s dependence on T u r k e y . As a d m i t s t h e T u r k i s h C y p r i o t community " w i l l not.„.voluntarily r e v e r t t o t h e p o s i t i o n they occupied before 1974." ( 2 5 ) C o n t i n u e d s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e two C y p r i o t c o m m u n i t i e s m i l i t a t e s a g a i n s t any m e e t i n g of minds and a p e r p e t u a t i o n o f i n t e r c o m m u n a l " p h o b i a s " a b o u t each o t h e r . Greek C y p r i o t s a r e w o r r i e d t h a t one day a l l o r p a r t o f t h e i s l a n d be annexed by T u r k e y , w h i l s t T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s s t i l l C y p r i o t s want E n o s i s . will b e l i e v e t h a t Greek P i e r r e O b e r l i n g , 1982, a r g u e s t h a t t h e two s i d e s can n e v e r c o e x i s t i n a u n i f i e d o r l o o s e l y f e d e r a t e d s t a t e , so t h e o n l y way f o r w a r d i s f o r Greek C y p r i o t l e a d e r s t o r e c o g n i z e exchange f r e e d o m o f t r a d e f o r t e r r i t o r i a l the north, to concessions. (26) G i v e n t h e p o l i t i c a l d e a d l o c k U.N.F.I.CYP. c a n do l i t t l e more than m a i n t a i n t h e s t a t u s quo, expand i t s economic and h u m a n i t a r i a n w i t h i n t h e B u f f e r Zone, and c o n t i n u e in the "Turkified" north. i t s visits activities to "ethnic minorities" U n f o r t u n a t e l y i t s m o b i l i t y i n Cyprus may be c u r t a i l e d even f u r t h e r by T u r k i s h C y p r i o t p o l i c y . "...we s h a l l have t o r e v i e w As Rauf D e n k t a s stresses t h e p r e s e n c e o f U.N. t r o o p s . We d o n ' t want a d i r e c t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e U n i t e d Nations o r any o f i t s o r g a n s , b u t we d o n ' t want t h e U.N. t o continue t o misinform itself on Cyprus..." (27) U.N.P.I.CYP. c a r r i e s o u t i t s e s s e n t i a l m o n i t o r i n g i n N o r t h e r n "guests" o f t h e Denktas regime. I f the Security Council non-recognition o f the 'Turkish Republic o f Northern could f i n d i t s operations i n future r e s t r i c t e d partition. With Cyprus as continues i t s C y p r u s ' U.N.P.I.CYP. t o t h e Greek s i d e o f t h e 20 - 30,000 T u r k i s h t r o o p s i n t h e T.R.N.C., Greek f e e l t h a t U.N.P.I,CYP.'s p r e s e n c e a c t s as a d e t e r e n t t o a n o t h e r m i l i t a r y push s o u t h w a r d s . Cypriots Turkish Even i n a u n i f i e d Cyprus t h e r e w o u l d need t o be i n t e r n a t i o n a l g u a r a n t e e s o f d e m i l i t a r i z a t i o n . The c o m p l e t e de- m i l i t a r i z a t i o n o f t h e i s l a n d , s t a r t i n g w i t h a complete w i t h d r a w a l o f T u r k i s h t r o o p s f o l l o w e d by t h e d i s b a n d m e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l Guard, w o u l d 209 1 I CO J § ft 13 I I -Bo ill!! if ! i •a i in co 8 II «0 «0 i i 3 I\ S s 1 II ft 3 8 in in CO (9 cn 2* V) Ui oo O) u * • a • * I CO n oa CM CO 210 ID V) V) 1 S 13 a *? * I f !§ III i 3 I i« i» 55 1 6 m a. < 3E . E I 5 1 1 J a s mil h | i SI H P is Jl i : , f < 5 5| i s I iI 1 1 ! I i! ?51 I i P J« Ji i i KiB E 8 mi ui Ui • 14 \ I ! npSO 15S 5 *?5 if ! ! \ t 5 a 'i i ? "9 SiHElijillfg imijjjiij ESS 8 • fc a ssll I lis* i 8 I 1 1 ui 1 I I * IMif! 11 6> l rl 8 51 i! 8 s ! I ii I 1 i I 2 31 - 211 - r e q u i r e the s u p e r v i s i o n o f a ' n e u t r a l * peacekeeping f o r c e . Cyprus holds a coveted s t r a t e g i c p o s t i o n i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l s t r u g g l e f o r i n f l u e n c e i n the e a s t e r n Mediterranean between two N.A.T.O. powers, and a t a h i g h e r l e v e l , the i s l a n d i s viewed as an i m p o r t a n t base f o r the defence o f western i n t e r e s t s i n the Mediterranean and Middle East. As such, o r d i n a r y C y p r i o t s remain pawns i n a s i t u a t i o n e n t i r e l y beyond t h e i r c o n t r o l , w h i l s t U.N.F.I.CYP. a c t s as an i n t e r i m f o r c e h e l p i n g t o preserve a s p a t i a l s t a t u s quo not o n l y w i t h i n Cyprus, but g i v e n t h e vested i n t e r e s t s o f o u t s i d e powers, i n t h e e a s t e r n Mediterranean r e g i o n . It i s still difficult t o disagree w i t h one o f Stagenga's (1968) conclusions i n s p i t e o f U.N.P.I.CYP.•s i n t e r i m s t a t u s :"U.N.F.I.CYP. has consequently become i n d i s p e n s a b l e t o continued calm and has perhaps earned a place as a permanent p a r t o f the Cyprus landscape." (28) Conclusion; The Geography o f Peacekeeping. U.N.P.I.CYP. has n o t o n l y become a f e a t u r e o f the Cyprus landscape f o r i t has also t r i e d t o a l t e r a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n t h a t landscape r e s u l t i n g from the a r t i f i c i a l p h y s i c a l s e p a r a t i o n o f the two communities. I t s presences has helped t o m a i n t a i n the s t a t u s quo, i . e . t h e geographical s e p a r a t i o n of Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s , but i t s h u m a n i t a r i a n and economic d u t i e s h e l p i n g t o break down p s y c h o l o g i c a l b a r r i e r s between them should n o t be overlooked. As mentioned i n Chapter One, the main aim o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n i s t o s t r e s s the "geographical aspects" o f U.N.F.I.CYP.»s o p e r a t i o n s i n Cyprus. Many o f the U n i t e d Nations Force's r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s were/are r e l a t e d t o p h y s i c a l e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s s e p a r a t i n g the two communities. As such i t was necessary t o examine t h e numerous changes i n the p o l i t i c a l geography of t h e i s l a n d since i t s independence i n August 1960 t o the p r e s e n t . - 212 - Wherever l i n e s o f close c o n f r o n t a t i o n were formed U.N. troops were placed in-between the Forward Defence Lines o f the opposing armed elements. Before the de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n o f Cyprus i n t o two mono-ethnic (29) u n i t s U.N.F.I.CYP.'s i n t e r p o s i t i o n a r y r o l e was complicated by t h e confusing p a t t e r n o f T u r k i s h C y p r i o t t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l s c a t t e r e d over d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f the i s l a n d . U.N. troops p r o t e c t e d these enclaves from the more numerous N a t i o n a l Guard and Greek f o r c e s i n t h e i s l a n d , but they also attempted t o remove f o r t i f i c a t i o n s and o t h e r p h y s i c a l evidences o f intercommunal c o n f l i c t , and t o prevent new c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s from emerging. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , an i s l a n d - w i d e defortification programme was never i n i t i a t e d owing t o t h e p o l i c i e s and mutual m i s t r u s t d i s p l a y e d by t h e leaders o f both communities. Prom 1968 t o J u l y T974, the removal o f Government economic r e s t r i c t i o n s on T u r k i s h C y p r i o t - c o n t r o l l e d areas made U.N.P.I.CYP.'s " n o r m a l i z a t i o n " d u t i e s e a s i e r and some progress was made towards g r e a t e r intercommunal cooperation over the use o f t h e i s l a n d ' s resources and i n v a r i o u s economic activities. At the v i l l a g e l e v e l t h e r e were numerous i n t e r l i n k a g e s between peacekeeping o p e r a t i o n s and geography, both p o l i t i c a l and human. For example, wherever an a r t i f i c i a l t e r r i t o r i a l "boundary" o r defence l i n e crossed over a main road o r d i v i d e d a stream, U.N.F.I.CYP. o f t e n had t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s o f each side i n order t o prevent i n c i d e n t s from o c c u r r i n g . concerning serious I n t h i s way U.N.P.I.CYP. s e t t l e d many d i s p u t e s t h e use o f resources and movement o f people/supplies i n areas b i s e c t e d by c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s o r w i t h i n "grey areas" o f d i s p u t e d t e r r i t o r i a l c o n t r o l . U.N.F.I.CYP.'s presence helped t o break down some " i n v i s i b l e w a l l s " separating the Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t people. Nevertheless, the P r o v i s i o n a l T u r k i s h C y p r i o t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n was determined to m a i n t a i n i t s de f a c t o a u t h o r i t y over p a r t s o f Cyprus and the Greek C y p r i o t s were n o t p e r m i t t e d t o e n t e r the T u r k i s h enclaves. Furthermore, T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s remained cautious o f moving f r e e l y o u t s i d e t h e i r own - 213 - strongholds. Given the problems o f p o l i t i c a l deadlock and posed by the p e r s i s t e n c e o f pro-Enosis t e r r o r i s t groups i n Cyprus, U.N.P.I.CYP. could do l i t t l e more than m a i n t a i n an unusual p a t t e r n o f e t h n i c s e p a r a t i o n on the i s l a n d . The " v i s i b l e " and " i n v i s i b l e " w a l l s between the two communities remained, which made i t necessary t o keep a t h i r d f o r c e i n Cyprus t o c o n t a i n the armed f o r c e s o f t h e two communities. F o l l o w i n g t h e T u r k i s h m i l i t a r y manouvres o f J u l y - August T974, the geography o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s o p e r a t i o n s was completely a l t e r e d . Instead o f deploying men near t o e t h n i c i n t e r f a c e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e i s l a n d U.N.P.I.CYP. placed v i r t u a l l y a l l i t s o b s e r v a t i o n p o i n t s and p a t r o l s along the southern side o f t h e T u r k i s h c e a s e - f i r e l i n e o f 16 August 1974. Its 3 a c t i v i t i e s i n the T u r k i s h - c o n t r o l l e d p a r t o f the i s l a n d are r e s t r i c t e d to humanitarian v i s i t s t o a t i n y m i n o r i t y o f Greeks s t i l l i n Northern Cyprus and t o a small community o f Maronites. U.N. Force o p e r a t i o n s are concentrated w i t h i n the B u f f e r Zone ( r e f e r t o Chapter Six ) between t h e Forward Defence Lines o f both s i d e s . W i t h i n t h i s United Nations- c o n t r o l l e d s t r i p o f land U.N.P.I.CYP. a r b i t r a t e s between t h e two communities over the use o f land and water resources b r i n g t h i s zone back i n t o therer, i n a d d i t i o n i t has helped cultivation. Without U.N.P.I.CYP,, bloody c i v i l war between Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s would probably have l e d t o a s i m i l a r de f a c t o p a r t i t i o n o f the i s l a n d . U.N.P.I.CYP. has helped t o r e s t i c t the a c t i v i t i e s o f e x t r e m i s t s and t h e armed elements o f both communities. I t s endeavours t o ' n o r m a l i z e ' c o n d i t i o n s i n areas l o c a t e d near t o c o n f r o n t a t i o n l i n e s has r e t u r n e d l i f e t o areas which would otherwise have remained b a r r e n , and many resource disputes o r p o t e n t i a l d i s p u t e s have been s e t t l e d by U.N.P.I.CYP. m e d i a t i o n . - 214 - Footnotes and References. (1) K e i t h Kyle i n M i n o r i t i e s Rights Group Report, No.30, 1 9 8 4 , (2) A t t a l i d e s , M, p.2T. 1 9 7 6 , 'Relations between the Greek and T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s i n P e r s p e c t i v e ' , from Proceedings - The I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography ( Cyprus Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n , 27 - 29 Feb. 1976, N i c o s i a ) , p.53. (3) King, R. 1980, 'Cyprus since T97#: Demographic and Economic Change', Paper presented t o the Geography S e c t i o n , F i f t h Mediterranean Conference, B a r - I l a n U n i v e r s i t y , T e l A v i v , 5 - 7 August 1980, p.7. (4) Term used by R u s s e l l King, 1"980, o p . c i t . (5) The Guardian. T4/06/84, p.19 - Report by John Torode - 'The Island 1 t h a t l i v e s by d i v i d e and r u l e . (6) M i n o r i t y R i g h t s Group Report, 1984, o p . c i t . . p.19. (7) Karouzis.G. 1976, Proposals f o r a s o l u t i o n to the Cyprus Problem. Cosmos Press, N i c o s i a . (8) K a r o u z i s , o p . c i t . . pp.123 - T44. (9) Pechoux, P i e r r e - Yves, 1976, 'The Swiss Case and Comparisons w i t h Cyprus', i n the Proceedings - The International Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography, p.74. (10 The Guardian. 16/11/83, p.10. <1T M.R.G. Report, 1984, o p . c i t . . (12 Rauf Denktas i n t e r v i e w e d by The Middle East magazine, November 198T, " p. 26. (T3 The Guardian. 09/Q4/84, p.18. (T4 U.N. (15 Karouzis, 1976, o p . c i t . . p . 1 5 3 . (16 M.R.G. Report, 1984, o p . c i t . . p.20. (17 F i n a n c i a l Times. T4/10/83, p.2. (18 The Times. T6/11/83, a r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'Cyprus put Asunder'. (T9 South. T h i r d World Magazine, January T984, p.21. I n t e r v i e w w i t h Rauf p.T5. Doc. S/T6596, 1 June 1984, para.26. Denktas. (20 The Observer. Sunday 20 November 1983. (21 F i n a n c i a l Times. 23/11/83, p . 3 . A r t i c l e e n t i t l e d 'E.E.C. wary o f harming s e t t l e m e n t p r o s p e c t s . T u r k i s h C y p r i o t sanctions r u l e d o u t ' . (22 South. January 1984, p.21. (23 Cyprus M a i l . TO/04/84, v o l . 129, no.12948, 'Time has run-out says I n t e r v i e w w i t h Rauf Denkta^. President', p.1. 7 12/04/84, v o l . 129, no. 12950, 'U.N. to Cyprus', p . 1 . Go Between t o r e t u r n - 215 - Cyprus M a i l . 19/04/84, v o l . 129, no. 12956, Denktas: We want more concessions•,p.1. The Cyprus Weekly. A p r i l 13 - 19, 1984, 'Gobbi: Mission Impossible ?• p.1. (24) A Papandreou - Kyprianou meeting i n A p r i l 1984 discussed sending a; d i v i s i o n o f 15,000 Greek troops t o Cyprus, The Sunday Times. 29 A p r i l 1984, p.4. (25) Hitchens, C, 1984, Cyprus. (26) O b e r l i n g , P, 1982, ( Quartet Books ) , p . l 6 3 . The Road t o B e l l a p a l s . ( Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p.229. (27) South. T h i r d World Magazine, January 1984, p . 2 1 . (28) Stagenga, J.A. 1968, The United Nations Force i n Cyprus. ( Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y Press ) , p . 1 5 6 . (29) Not e n t i r e l y "mono-ethnic" zones f o r ^ some Greek C y p r i o t s and Maronites s t i l l l i v e i n N o r t h e r n Cyprus and there are s t i l l some T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s r e s i d e n t i n the south. ( r e f e r t o Chapter S i x ) - 216 - Some notes on primary (a) sources. Space does n o t a l l o w me t o mention a l l r e p o r t s by the United Nations Secretary-General t o t h e S e c u r i t y Council f o r over two decades o f U.N.P.I.CYP.'s e x i s t e n c e . A complete l i s t o f a l l U.N. documents p e r t a i n i n g t o Cyprus i s compiled i n the United Nations S e c u r i t y Council Index, p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y , and i n Supplements o f t h e O f f i c i a l Records o f t h e S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l . (b) Other primary sources used i n p r e p a r i n g t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n are those p u b l i s h e d by t h e Cyprus P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e and Republic o f Cyprus, which are i n c l u d e d i n the B i b l i o g r a p h y . (c) T u r k i s h C y p r i o t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n pamphlets and r e p o r t s , p u b l i s h e d by t h e Cyprus T u r k i s h I n f o r m a t i o n Centre are also mentioned i n the B i b l i o g r a p h y . (d) Personal Interviews; Refer t o Acknowledgements. I t should be s t r e s s e d t h a t I have been unable t o use a l l t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d and t h a t I am completely r e s p o n s i b l e f o r any e r r o r s i n the t e x t . (e) Maps; _ _ _ _ _. Survey o f Cyprus A d m i n i s t r a t i o n fc Road Map, scale 1;250,000. Series K.717. Sheet D.L.S.H. Lands and Surveys, Cyprus. Published by the Department o f F i r s t e d i t i o n 1975, r e v i s e d T981. Cyprus, scale 1;250,000. Series K.502. Sheet N1-36-6/7, e d i t i o n 7GSGS. Published by D. Survey, M i n i s t r y o f Defence, U.K. 1970. Kyrenia (sheet 3 ) ; N i c o s i a (sheet 12); Paleometokho (sheet 1T); a l l same s e r i e s - K.717, e d i t i o n 1-GSGS. Scale 1:50,000. Published by D. M i l . Survey, M i n i s t r y o f Defence, U.K. 1973. - 217 - BIBLIOGRAPHY. Adams, Cyprus: A Possible Prototype f o r Terminating T.W. the C o l o n i a l Status o f a S t r a t e g i c a l l y Located Territory. ( unpublished Ph.D. thesis, U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma, 1962 ) U.S. Army Area Handbook f o r Cyprus. ( Department o f the Army Pamphlet No. 550-22 ) . U.S. Adams,T.W. and Cottrell,A.J. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington: 1964. 1 'The Cyprus C o n f l i c t , Orbis. v o l . 3 , 1964,pp.6683. Cyprus Between East and West. B a l t i m o r e : The John Hopkins Press, 1968. Argyropoulos, P.A. ' L ' A f f a i r e de Chypre: L 1 Aspect I n t e r n a t i o n a l ' , Politi-que Etrangere. v o l . 29, no. 2, 1964,pp. 105116. A r n o l d , P. Cyprus Challenge. London: A t t a l i d e s , M. Hogarth, 1956. Cyprus. N a t i o n a l i s m and I n t e r n a t i o n a l Politics. Edinburgh: Q Press, 1979. • f Bhutto, ( Editor ) Z.A. Cyprus Reviewed. N i c o s i a : Z a v a l l i s Press, 1977. Peace-keeping by the United N a t i o n s . Karachi: P a k i s t a n P u b l i s h i n g House, 1 9 6 7 . ^Cyprus: Episode i n Peace-keeping', v o l . 2 0 , 1 9 6 6 , I n t e r n a t i o n a l O r g a n i s a t i o n :pp.1-17. Boyd, J. Bowett, D.W. United Nations Forces. London: Stevens & Sons,1964. Carras, C. Three Thousand Years o f Greek I d e n t i t y - Myth o r Reality ? C a t s e l l i , Rina. Athens: Domus. Refugee i n My Homeland. N i c o s i a : "Avghi" ( Kyrenia Flower Show E d i t i o n ) , 1 9 7 9 . Chandler, G. The D i v i d e d Land: An Anglo-Greek Tragedy. York: Cox, A.M. New St.Martins, 1 9 5 9 . Prospects f o r Peace-Keeping. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1967. Coufoudakis, Van. 'United Nations peacekeeping and peacemaking and the Cyprus Question.' Western P o l i t i c a l Q u a r t e r l y . (U.S.A.), v o l . 2 9 , no.3, Sept. 1 9 7 6 . ( E d i t o r ) Essays on the Cyprus C o n f l i c t . New York: P e l l a , 1976. - 218 - Crouzet, F r a n c o i s . Le c o n f l i t de Chypre. 1946 - 1 9 5 9 . B r u s s e l s : Etablissements Emile B r u y l a n t , 1 9 7 3 . Cyprus-TUrkish C u l t u r a l Association. Cyprus: Why? Why? Ankara: A;Jans-Turk Press, 1964. Denktas, Rauf R. The Cyprus T r i a n g l e . K.Rustem & Bro., and George A l l e n & Unwin, 1982. •The Problem o f Cyprus', Affairs. Drury, M.P. Review o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l ( Y u g o s l a v i a ) , v o l . 2 2 , no.544, 5 Dec. 1 9 7 2 , pp.9-11. 'Western Cyprus: Two decades o f p o p u l a t i o n upheaval, 1 9 5 6 - 1 9 7 6 ' . Paper presented t o t h e I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h Geographers' Annual Conference on trJanuary 1 9 7 7 . •The P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus', i n Change and Development i n the Middle East. ( E d i t o r s : Clarke, J . I . and Bowen-Jones,H. ) Methuen. 1981. Duncan-Jones, A, •The C i v i l War i n Cyprus', i n The I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e g u l a t i o n o f C i v i l Wars. ( E d i t o r : Luard, E ) Thames & Hudson, 1 9 7 2 . D u r r e l l , L. Dutton, 1 9 5 7 . ( Also B i t t e r Lemons. New York: Faber & Faber ) Houghton M i f f l i n , 1 9 6 0 . Edon, A. Full Circle. E h r l i c h , T. 'Cyprus, the Warlike I s l e : New York: O r i g i n s and Elements of the Current C r i s i s • , S t a n f o r d Law Review, vol. Emiliandes, A. 18, no. 5, 1966, pp. 1021 - 1098. The Z u r i c h and London Agreements and the Cyprus Republic. Erzen, A. Athens: 1962. A Glance Over the H i s t o r y o f Cyprus. Ankara: A y y i l d i z Matbaasi A.S., 1969. F l o r e y , M. 'Force I n t e r n a t i o n a l e de Nations Unies e t P a c i f i c a t i o n I n f t e r i e u r e de Chypre', Annualre de D r o i t I n t e r n a t i o n a l . 1964, pp.458 - 478. Foley, C. Island i n Revolt. Longmans, 1962. Legacy o f S t r i f e . Harmondsworth: The Memoirs o f General Grivas. Penguin, 1964. Longmans, 1964. - Foley, C. & Scobie, W.I. 219 - The Struggle f o r Cyprus. S t a n f o r d , C a l i f o r n i a : Hoover I n s t i t u t i o n Press, T975. Foot, H. A S t a r t i n Freedom. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. Geographical A s s o c i a t i o n o f Cyprus. Proceedings - I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium on P o l i t i c a l Geography. N i c o s i a : Theopress, 1976. F i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n Geographical C h r o n i c l e s . v o l . 5, no.9-10 ( Jan-Dec. 1976 ) , N i c o s i a . Gibbons, H.S. Peace Without Honour. Ankara: A.D.A. P u b l i s h i n g House, 1969. Greek M i n i s t r y o f External A f f a i r s . Greek M i n o r i t y i n Turkey and T u r k i s h ( M i n o r i t y G r i v a s , G. G u e r r i l l a Warfare and E.O.K.A.'s S t r u g g l e . i n Greece. Athens: 1965. A.A. P a l l i s t r a n s l a t o r . Gursoy, C. Longmans, T964. 'The Geographical P o s i t i o n o f Cyprus', C u l t u r a T u r c i c a . No.2, 1965, pp.192 - 198. H a r b o t t l e , M. The I m p a r t i a l S o l d i e r . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1970 'The s t r a t e g y o f t h i r d p a r t y i n t e r v e n t i o n i n conflict resolution'. I n t e r n a t i o n a l Journal ( Canada ) , v o l . 3 5 , nQ.1 ( w i n t e r 1980 ),pp.118131. Hitchens,C. Cyprus. I n s t i t u t e f o r Mediterranean A f f a i r S * Jacovides, A.J. Q u a r t e t , T984. The Cyprus Dilemma: Options f o r Peace. York: New M a r s t i n Press, 1967. A view from w i t h i n : the r o l e o f s m a l l s t a t e s and t h e Cyprus experiences. N i c o s i a : P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n O f f i c e , 1969. Jame s, A • „ The P o l i t i c s o f Peace-Keeping. London: Chatto and Windus, 1969. King, R. 'North o f the A t t i l a L i n e ' , Geographical Magazine. November 1979, pp.117 - 125. Karouzis, G. Proposals f o r a s o l u t i o n t o t h e Cyprus Problem. N i c o s i a : Cosmos Press, 1976. Land Ownership i n Cyprus - Past and Present. N i c o s i a : Cosmos Press, 1 9 7 7 . The Geography o f Cyprus. N i c o s i a : Cosmos Press, (in Greek) 1981. - 220 - Cyprus; 1946-'68. Kosut, H. Koullis, L.K. New York: Facts on F i l e , Greek Education i n Cyprus. Nicosia: 1970. Greek Communal Chamber, 1964. K y r i a k i d e s , S, Cyprus: C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m and C r i s i s Government. Philadelphia: U n i v e r s i t y o f Pennsylvania, 1 9 6 8 . Peace-Keeping Operations B i b l i o g r a p h y . L e g a u l t , A. Paris: I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Centre on Peace-Keeping Operations, 1967. The Greek G i f t . Oxford: B a s i l B l a c k w e l l . Loizos, F. ( P r i n t e d i n B r i s t o l : Western P r i n t i n g Services Limited ), T975. The Heart Grown B i t t e r . Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1981. Luke, S i r H. Cyprus Under the Turks. 1571 - 1878. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 192T. Cyprus: A P o r t r a i t and an A p p r e c i a t i o n . London: George C. Harrap, 1 9 5 7 . Mackenzie, K. Cyprus: the i d e o l o g i c a l c r u c i b l e . London: I n s t i t u t e f o r the Study o f C o n f l i c t , 1972. 'Cyprus 1968', Geographical Magazine. 1969, pp. 895- - 908. MacLeish, K. 'Cyprus under f o u r f l a g s : a s t r u g g l e f o r u n i t y . ' N a t i o n a l Geographic, v o l . 143, no.3. ( March 1973 ) , pp. 356-82. Markrides, K.C. The r i s e and f a l l o f the Cyprus R e p u b l i c . NewHaven, C o n n e c t i c u t : Yale U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1 9 7 7 . Mayes, S. Makarios; A Biography. New York: S t . M a r t i n ' s Press; London: Macmillan, 1981. Cyprus and Makarios. Putnam , 1960. Melamid, A. •The Geographical D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Communities i n Cyprus'. The Geographical Review, v o l . 46, no. 3, 1956, pp.355 - 374. • P a r t i t i o n i n g Cyprus: A Class Exercise i n A p p l i e d P o l i t i c a l Geography', J o u r n a l o f Geography, v o l . 59, no.3, 1960. •New P o l i t i c a l Geography o f Cyprus', Geographical - 221 - Review. A p r i l 1961. M i n o r i t y Rights Group, MoRoG. Report No. 30, Cyprus. T976 e d i t i o n w i t h Peter Loizos. op.cit.. Miller, L.B. 1984 e d i t i o n by K e i t h K y l e . World Order and Local D i s o r d e r ! The United Nations and I n t e r n a l C o n f l i c t s . Princeton: Princeton U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1967. Moskos, C.C. Peace S o l d i e r s : the s o c i o l o g y o f a United Nations m i l i t a r y f o r c e . Chicago: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicago Press, 1976. O b e r l i n g , P. The Road t o B e l l a p a i s . Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Press, ( New York ) , 1982. Ozoran, B.R. Background o f the Cyprus Question. Ankara: A y y i l d i s Matbaasi A.S., Pamir, 1969. Turkey and Cyprus: A Survey o f the Cyprus Question w i t h O f f i c i a l Statements o f the T u r k i s h Viewpoint. London: n.p. Panagides, S.S. 1956. 'Communal C o n f l i c t and Economic Considerations o f the Case o f Cyprus'. J o u r n a l o f Peace Research, v o l . 5 , 1968, pp.133-145. P a r i s , P. Patrick, The I m p a r t i a l K n i f e . Hutchinson, 1961. R.A. -Pollti-cal^Geography and~the"Cvprus C o n f l i c t . T963 - 1971. O n t a r i o , Canada: U n i v e r s i t y o f Waterloo Press, 1976. Pe'choux, Pierre-Yves. 'Guerre c i v i l e e t m u t a t i o n s du paysage u r b a i n . ' ( C i v i l War and changes i n the urban landscape.) Revue Francaise d'Etudes P o l i t i q u e s M e d i t e r r a n eennes. no. 18-19 ( June-July 1976 ) , pp.44-62. Polyviou, Polyvios. Cyprus: C o n f l i c t and N e g o t i a t i o n . 1960 - 1'980. Duckworth, 1980. Cyprus: The Tragedy and the Challenge. John Swain, 1975. Public Information O f f i c e ( Republic o f Cyprus, N i c o s i a ) Facts About Cyprus: Background Notes on the Present S i t u a t i o n . N i c o s i a : Government P r i n t e r s , 1965. The Cyprus Problem Before the United N a t i o n s . N i c o s i a : Government P r i n t e r s , 19653. - 222 - P u b l i c Information O f f i c e ( Republic of Cyprus ) , N i c o s i a . The Cyprus Q u e s t i o n : The Government P r i n t e r s , The True F a c t s . 1965. Economics of F e d e r a t i o n Function Cyprus. i n Cyprus. Nicosia: 1965. Government P r i n t e r s , The Nicosia: of the U n i t e d Nations F o r c e in N i c o s i a : Government P r i n t e r s , A p r i l Cyprus: The Problem i n P e r s p e c t i v e . Government P r i n t e r s , r e v i s e d June 1967. Nicosia: 1969. F a c i l i t i e s Granted to T u r k i s h C y p r i o t s : An A n a l y s i s o f Government P o l i c y . Nicosia?: Government P r i n t e r s , J u l y U.N. A i d to C y p r u s . 1970. Nicosia: Government P r i n t e r s , August T970. The Attila Printers, Purcell, H.D. Cyprus. "Peacemakers". N i c o s i a : Government 1974. E r n e s t Benn L t d . , 1969. R i k h y e . I . J . , Harbottle.M. , The T h i n Blue Line": i n t e r n a t i o n a l peacekeeping and Egge.B. ( E d i t o r s ) and i t s f u t u r e . New Haven, C o n n e c t i c u t : London: Rossides, Z.G. R o y a l I n s t i t u t e of International Affairs, Yale University Press, 1974. The Athens: n.p. Problem of Cyprus. 1957. Cyprus, the Background. Chatham House, Cyprus, the D i s p u t e and the S e t t l e m e n t . 1959. London: 1959. Chatham House, B r i t i s h I n t e r e s t s i n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n and Middle E a s t . Salibr, H.I. Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s . An A n a l y s i s of C y p r i o t P o l i t i c a l B r o o k l y n , U.S.A. : Cyprus: The State. S e t a l v a d , M.C. The Alabama: The P. S i r E. Nationalism 1968. on a U n i v e r s i t y of Alabama P r e s s , 1978. Role of the U n i t e d N a t i o n s i n the Maintenance U.N. Forces Sijthoff, Spears, Discord. Theo. Gaus Sons I n c . , Impact of D i v e r s e o f World P e a c e . Sayersted, the London: A s i a P u b l i s h i n g i n the Law of Peace and Leyden: 1966. The-Orthodox Church of Cyprus. ,B War. House, 1967. London: T u r k i s h - 223 - Embassy Press Attache's O f f i c e , n.d. S p y r i a d a k i s , C. The Educational P o l i c y o f the B r i t i s h Government i n Cyprus. 1878 - 1954. N i c o s i a : Cyprus Bthnarchy O f f i c e , T954, A B r i e f H i s t o r y o f Cyprus. 3rd e d i t i o n . N i c o s i a : Z a v a l l i s Press, 1964. Stegenga, J.A, The United Nations Force i n Cyprus. Columbis, Ohio: 5 Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1968. •U.N. peacekeeping: the Cyprus v e n t u r e . ' J o u r n a l o f Peace Research, vol.7.(T970),pp. 1-T5. Stephens, R.H. Cyprus: A Place o f Arms. New York: Praeger: P a l l M a l l Press, 1966. S t e r n , L. The Wrong Horse. New York: Times Books, 1977. • B i t t e r Lessons: How We F a i l e d i n Cyprus'. Foreign P o l i c y . Summer 1 9 7 5 . Suade,J. & P i l l s b u r y , B.L.K. ( E d i t o r s ) . Muslim - C h r i s t i a n C o n f l i c t s : Economic. and S o c i a l O r i g i n s . Westview Press; Tenzel, J.H. Political. P i l l s b u r y , Boulder, Colarado: F o l k e s t o n e : W.M. Dawson & Sons, 1978. 'Problems i n C r o s s - C u l t u r a l Communication: Cyprus a Case Study', a paper presented a t the F i f t h I n t e r n a t i o n a l Congress o f P s y c h i a t r y , Dec ember-197-1* Toynbee, A.J. -- — — — — ~~ — •Cyprus, the B r i t i s h Empire and Greece', i n Survey o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l A f f a i r s . 1931. ( Ed. Toynbee, A.J. ) . Oxford U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1932. Turkish Information Centre ( Cyprus ) . T u r k i s h Cy.priot Community S t r u g g l i n g f o r Existence. N i c o s i a : 1964. New Greek A t r o c i t i e s i n Cyprus. N i c o s i a : H a l k i n Sesi Press, 1967. Human RightB and Cyprus. N i c o s i a : 1969. Seven Years Without a Home. N i c o s i a : 1970. The Question o f Cyprus. N i c o s i a : 1971. The Cyprus Problem: A B r i e f Review. N i c o s i a : Revised 1971. - 224 - Planning Bureau o f the Provisional Turkish Cypriot Administration U n i t e d Nations A i d to Cyprus. N i c o s i a : March 1970. The Economy o f Cyprus and the T u r k i s h C y p r i o t Community, by 0. S a r i c a . Turkish Ministry o f Foreign A f f a i r s . N i c o s i a : mimeograph, n.d. ( T970 ) . T u r k i s h Views on Cyprus. Ankara: n.p. 1965. U n i t e d Nations Development Survey o f groundwater and m i n e r a l . r e s o u r c e s : Programme Cyprus. New York: U.N., 1970. ( D„P./ S.F./ U.N. 50-) 0 U.N. Mediator on Cyprus. Report to the United Nations Secretary-General„ U.S.A. Senate Committee on F o r e i g n R e l a t i o n s . Turkey. Greece and FT.A.T.O. : The S t r a i n e d U.S.A. Senate Committee on the J u d i c i a r y . by Galo Plaza, N i c o s i a : March T965. A l l i a n c e . Washington: 1980. C r i s i s on Cyprus; T974. Washington, T974. 5 C r i s i s on Cyprus: T975. One Year A f t e r the Invasion. S t a f f Report, Washington: U.S. Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 1975. Vanezis, P.N. Makarios: Pragmatism Versus I d e a l i s m . London? Abelard - Schuman, T974. Cyprus: The U n f i n i s h e d Agony. Abelard - Schuman, 1977. Volkan, V. Cyprus - War and A d a p t i o n . Charlottesville: The U n i v e r s i t y Press o f V i r g i n i a , 1980. Weinstein, Adalbert, •Zypern i s t n i c h t Kuba', F r a n k f u r t e r Allgemeine Z e i t u n g . 1£ J u l y 1974. Windsor, P. N.A.T.O. and the Cyprus C r i s i s . A d e l p h i Paper, no.14. Woodhouse, CM. I n s t i t u t e f o r S t r a t e g i c S t u d i e s , 1964. Karamanlis. The R e s t o r e r o f Greek Democracy. O.U.P., 1982. Worsley, P. and K i t r o m i l i d e s , M. Small s t a t e B i n the modern w o r l d : the c o n d i t i o n s of s u r v i v a l . N i c o s i a : Cyprus S o c i o l o g i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n and New Cyprus A s s o c i a t i o n , 1979. X y d i s , S.G. Cyprus: C o n f l i c t and C o n c i l i a t i o n 1954 - T958. Columbus: Ohio State U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1967. Cyprus: R e l u c t a n t R e p u b l i c . The Hague, P a r i s ! - 225 - Mouton, N.B. The above b i b l i o g r a p h y 1973. i s not a comprehensive l i s t o f a l l the l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t i n g to the Cyprus Problem, but i t i s intended as a source o f reference on many issues which c o u l d only be dealt with b r i e f l y i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . bibliography For a more d e t a i l e d the reader should r e f e r t o : - K i t r o m i l i d e s , P.M. & Evriviades,.M.L„ Cyprus. B i l i o g r a p h i c a l S e r i e s , volume 28, World C l i o Press, T982.